miniproject_wireless power transmission
DESCRIPTION
the report for wireless transmissionTRANSCRIPT
1. INTRODUCTION
We wish to present a small scale demonstration of wireless power transfer between two
coupled series LC tuned circuits, each consisting of a copper conductor loop acting as an
inductor and a capacitor. Both LC circuits are tuned to equal individual resonant
frequencies. One of them is a part of a 12 kHz frequency RC Phase shift oscillator
powered by 15 volts DC, while another is loaded. Brought in proximity, copper loops
share a small mutual inductance, essentially forming a transformer. In order to transmit
significant amount of power through this transformer, a very large amount of reactive
power needs to circulate in its primary. Receiver coil's leakage inductance is in turn
canceled out by another capacitor, allowing for the maximum power transfer to the load.
Experimenting with copper loop orientations, one can find positions of the receiver close
to transmitter where no power is received, as total magnetic flux crossing through the
receiver loop is zero. Hence this is a directional method of power transmission.
Figure.1 WPT model
Due to small size of the apparatus, very little power is actually radiated in far field, with
losses being mainly ohmic heating. Hence this method is also sometimes known as non-
radiative or near-field power transmission. This technology would be helpful for
recharging batteries of pacemakers. Further power cords can be avoided.
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2. HISTORY
Nicola Tesla proposed theories of wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early
1900s. One of his more spectacular displays involved remotely powering lights in the
ground at his Colorado Springs experiment station.
Figure.2 Nicola Tesla’s inductive coupling experiment
The idea behind the project was to create a small tabletop demonstrator of magnetically
coupled wireless power transfer, resembling a miniature version of the MIT witricity
device. The goal was to keep the circuit simple with easily obtainable parts, and to keep
voltage and power levels low so the device is safe for handling and doesn't require special
methods of cooling.
In the early 2000s, Professor Marin Soljacic and a team of physicists from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) used magnetic resonance coupling to enable
energy transfer over midrange distances. They transmitted power over a two-meter
distance, from the coil on the left to the coil on the right, where it powers a 60W light
bulb. They wrote a paper in 2006 and an article for the Journal of Science in 2007
describing their research. A lot of interest was created, and in October, 2007, they formed
the WiTricity Corporation to further develop the technology and commercialize it.
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3. PRINCIPLE
R
V
C
0
L
Figure.3 RLC series circuit
Resonance is identified with engineering situations which involve energy storing
elements subjected to a forcing function of varying frequency. Specifically resonance
is the term used to describe the steady state operation of the circuit or system at that
frequency for which the resultant response is in time phase with the source function
despite of presence of energy storing elements.
In series resonance, there is a series arrangement of L and C along with resistance R.
The effective current flow caused by sinusoidal function is given by
I= VR+ j(ωL−1/ωC )
=VZ
A change in frequency means a change in the magnitude and phase angle of the
complex impedance. As ω increases, the reactance part of Z decreases, thus causing an
increase in current. As ω continues to increase, a point is reached when reactance is
zero. At this ω0,
ω0 L− 1ω0C
=0
ω02= 1
LC
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ω0=1
√LC
The frequency ω0 is called resonant frequency of the circuit. At resonance the
impedance of the circuit is minimum and specifically it is equal to R. consequently,
when a series RLC circuit is at resonance, the current is maximum and is also in time
phase with the voltage.
Two circuits give two resonant frequencies whose separation depends on the value of
the mutual inductance M (the ratio of the voltage in the secondary to the rate of change
of primary current with time, and the unit is the henry). This has a reactance at the
operating frequency Xm = ωM). The mutual inductance coupling between primary and
secondary can be related to their self-inductance by means of the coupling constant k.
k= M
√L1 L2
Since k is defining the relationship between magnetic flux linkages in the circuit, it can
never be greater than 1. A value of k=1 means that all the flux produced by the primary
is linked with the secondary and vice versa. A value of k greater than 1 would mean
that more than all of the flux produced by the primary is linked with the secondary.
The coupling constant is independent of the number of turns in a coil. The number of
turns in a coil determines the magnetic field, which will be produced for a given
current. The coupling constant is concerned with how the lines of magnetic force
produced by one coil interact with another coil, and hence the coupling constant
between two air spaced coils depends only on their physical size and disposition in
space. Hence to obtain the best coupling between primary and secondary in an air-
cored transformer we can only change the size and spatial relationships of the coils.
Household devices produce relatively small magnetic fields. For this reason, chargers
hold devices at the distance necessary to induce a current, which can only happen if the
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coils are close together. A larger, stronger field could induce current from farther
away, but the process would be extremely inefficient. Since a magnetic field spreads in
all directions, making a larger one would waste a lot of energy.
Induction can take place a little differently if the electromagnetic fields around the
coils resonate at the same frequency. The theory uses a curved coil of wire as an
inductor. A capacitance plate, which can hold a charge, attaches to each end of the coil.
As electricity travels through this coil, the coil begins to resonate. Its resonant
frequency is a product of the inductance of the coil and the capacitance of the plates.
As long as both coils are out of range of one another, nothing will happen, since the
fields around the coils aren't strong enough to affect much around them. Similarly, if
the two coils resonate at different frequencies, nothing will happen. But if two
resonating coils with the same frequency get within a few meters of each other,
streams of energy move from the transmitting coil to the receiving coil. According to
the theory, one coil can even send electricity to several receiving coils, as long as they
all resonate at the same frequency. The researchers have named this non-radiative
energy transfer since it involves stationary fields around the coils rather than fields that
spread in all directions.
3.1 RESONANT INDUCTIVE COUPLING
Resonant inductive coupling or electro-dynamic induction is the near field wireless
transmission of electrical energy between two coils that are tuned to resonate at the
same frequency. The equipment is sometimes called resonant or resonance
transformer. While many transformers employ resonance, this type has a high Q and is
often air cored to avoid 'iron' losses. The two coils may exist as a single piece of
equipment or comprise two separate pieces of equipment.
Resonant transfer works by making a coil ring with an oscillating current. This
generates an oscillating magnetic field. Because the coil is highly resonant any energy
placed in the coil dies away relatively slowly over many cycles; but if a second coil is
brought near it, the coil can pick up most of the energy before it is lost, even if it is
some distance away. The fields used are predominately non-radiative, near field
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(sometimes called evanescent waves), as all hardware is kept well within the 1/4
wavelength distance they radiate little energy from the transmitter to infinity.
One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL inverter. Another
application of the resonant transformer is to couple between stages of a super
heterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned
transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers. Resonant transformers such as
the Tesla coil can generate very high voltages with or without arcing, and are able to
provide much higher current than electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such
as the Van de Graff generator. Resonant energy transfer is the operating principle
behind proposed short range wireless electricity systems such as Witricity and systems
that have already been deployed, such as passive RFID tags and contactless smart
cards.
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4. TWO LEVEL WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION
Two level wireless power transmissions incorporate ideas of witricity and smart home. At
first level, power was transmitted wirelessly from source point to destination point. At
second level, appliance was powered by the output and the control and selection of
appliance was performed by RF transmitter-receiver circuitry.
Figure.4 Block diagram of transmission side
At the first level, AC input was given to a step down transformer of suitable rating. The
voltage stepped down to a suitable value, and was converted to DC via suitable ADC
converters like bridge rectifiers. The DC thus obtained was used to power the oscillator
circuit, which generates an alternating waveform of desired higher frequency. It was
connected to the transmitter coil which is coupled inductively with the receiver coil.
Figure.5 Block diagram of receiver side
The RF module (Tx/Rx) was used for acting as a wireless remote, which could be used to
drive an output from a distant place. RF module, as the name suggests, uses radio
frequency to send signals. These signals are transmitted at a particular frequency and a
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baud rate. A receiver can receive these signals only if it is configured for that frequency. A
four channel encoder/decoder pair has also been used in this system. The input signals, at
the transmitter side, are taken through four switches while the outputs are monitored on a
set of four LEDs corresponding to each input switch. The circuit can be used for designing
Remote Appliance Control system. The outputs from the receiver can drive
corresponding relays connected to any household appliance. From the receiving coil,
appliance was connected to decoder via relay. The decoder was responsible to select the
appliance according to the signal from the switch.
Figure.6 Block diagram of RF Transmitter side
The switch board has several switches corresponding to each appliance. Pressing of a
switch selects a distinct pin of the encoder. This encoder gave respective output to the RF
transmitter. It was coupled with an RF receiver which selected respective decoder line,
turning the respective relay ON. A particular appliance was enabled and it was supported
by the wirelessly transmitted power.
The principle of witricity along with inductive coupling was responsible for power
transmission in the first phase. In the second phase, RF receiver-transmitter circuitry
performed the task of controlling and selection of devices. Thus, there was a two level
wireless control of a device.
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5. CONSTRUCTION
5.1 TRANSMITTER SIDE
Single phase AC input-230V/50Hz- was sent to a 230V/15V step down transformer, from
where it was sent to a bridge rectifier with filter. The DC thus obtained was used to power
an oscillator. The output was given to the transmitter coil, which is coupled with the
receiving coil.
Figure.7 Elaborate block diagram of transmitter side
In our prototype, we have used an RC phase shift oscillator designed to operate at desired
frequency of 12 kHz. Further, we have used an inverting amplifier operating at gain of 4.5.
The output of the inverting amplifier is fed to the transmitter coil.
5.2 RECEIVER SIDE
The inductively transferred power was then connected to four appliances. Here 4 LEDs are
connected to denote 4 appliances. They are connected to an HT12D decoder via relay. The
output of the decoder is fed to an RF receiver. The RF module, as the name suggests,
operates at Radio Frequency. The corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz
& 300 GHz. In this RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude
of carrier wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).
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Figure.8 Elaborate block diagram of receiver side
The RF transmitter was connected to switches via HT12E encoder. When one of the
switches were ON, the respective line in the HT12E encoder is activated, which is passed
to the RF transmitter.
Figure.9 Elaborate block diagram of RF transmitter side
The 434 MHz RF transmitter sent a signal to the RF receiver, from where it went to the
HT12D decoder. The decoder selected the appropriate relay and activates that line. The
respective appliance was activated and it was supported by the wirelessly transmitted
power.
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6. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION
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7. WORKING
7.1 TRANSMITTER SIDE
7.1.1 RC Phase Shift Oscillator
The RC phase shift oscillator consists of an opamp as the amplifying stage with three RC
cascading networks as the feedback network. The feedback network provides a fraction of
the output voltage back to the input of the amplifier. The opamp is in the inverting mode.
Therefore, any signal which appears in the inverting terminal is shifted 180o at the output.
An additional 180o required for the oscillations as per the Barkhausen criterion is provided
by the cascaded RC network. Thus the total phase around loop becomes 360o.
7.1.2 Design:
Frequency of the oscillation,
f 0=1
2 π √6 RC
Let C= 0.01µF; R = 510Ω;
fo ≈ 12 kHz
Gain,
A=R f
R1
=29
Let R1 = 1.2kΩ;
Rf ≈ 33 kΩ
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Figure.10 Circuit diagram of transmitter side
7.1.3 Inverting Amplifier
This is one of the most popular opamp circuits. The polarity of the input voltage gets
inverted at the output. If a sine wave is fed to the input of this amplifier, the output will be
an amplified sine wave with 180o phase shift. Rf is the feedback resistance and R1 is the
input resistance. Inverting amplifier can be used as a scale changer because by varying
either Rf or R1, the amplitude of the output can be varied.
7.1.4 Design:
Gain,
A=−R f
R1
R1 = 2.2 kΩ; Rf = 10 kΩ;
A= 4.54
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7.2 RECEIVER SIDE
7.2.1 RF Receiver-Transmitter
Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many reasons. Firstly,
signals through RF can travel through larger distances making it suitable for long range
applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in line-of-sight mode, RF signals can travel
even when there is an obstruction between transmitter & receiver. Next, RF transmission is
more strong and reliable than IR transmission.
Figure.11 Circuit diagram of receiver side depicting RF Tx/Rx
RF communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR signals which are affected by other
IR emitting sources. This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver.
The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An RF
transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its antenna
connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted
data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same frequency as that of the
transmitter. The RF module is often used along with a pair of encoder/decoder. The
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encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while reception is decoded
by a decoder.
7.2.2 HT12D Decoder
HT12D is a decoder integrated circuit that belongs to 212 series of decoders. This series of
decoders are mainly used for remote control system applications, like burglar alarm, car
door controller, security system etc. It is mainly provided to interface RF and infrared
circuits. They are paired with 212series of encoders. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder
should have same number of addresses and data format. In simple terms, HT12D converts
the serial input into parallel outputs. It decodes the serial addresses and data received by,
say, an RF receiver, into parallel data and sends them to output data pins. The serial input
data is compared with the local addresses three times continuously. The input data code is
decoded when no error or unmatched codes are found. A valid transmission in indicated by
a high signal at VT pin. HT12D is capable of decoding 12 bits, of which 8 are address bits
and 4 are data bits. The data on 4 bit latch type output pins remain unchanged until new is
received.
Figure.12 HT12D decoder
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7.2.3 HT12E Encoder
HT12E is an encoder integrated circuit of 212 series of encoders. They are paired with
212 series of decoders for use in remote control system applications. It is mainly used in
interfacing RF and infrared circuits. The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same
number of addresses and data format. Simply put, HT12E converts the parallel inputs into
serial output. It encodes the 12 bit parallel data into serial for transmission through an RF
transmitter. These 12 bits are divided into 8 address bits and 4 data bits.
Figure.13 HT12E Encoder
HT12E has a transmission enable pin which is active low. When a trigger signal is
received on TE pin, the programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the
header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium. HT12E begins a 4-word
transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable. This cycle is repeated as long as
TE is kept low. As soon as TE returns to high, the encoder output completes its final cycle
and then stops.
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7.2.4 Microswitch
Figure.14 Micro switch
Micro switch is used for getting 5 volt (VDD) while in normal condition and ground
condition while in pressed position. Resistors are connected for limiting current.
7.2.5 RF module (433 MHz)
This radio frequency (RF) transmission system employs Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
with transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operating at 434 MHz. The transmitter module takes
serial input and transmits these signals through RF. The transmitted signals are received by
the receiver module placed away from the source of transmission.
The system allows one way communication between two nodes, namely, transmission and
reception. The RF module has been used in conjunction with a set of four channel
encoder/decoder ICs. Here HT12E & HT12D have been used as encoder and decoder
respectively. The encoder converts the parallel inputs (from the remote switches) into
serial set of signals. These signals are serially transferred through RF to the reception
point. The decoder is used after the RF receiver to decode the serial format and retrieve the
original signals as outputs. These outputs can be observed on corresponding LEDs.
Encoder IC (HT12E) receives parallel data in the form of address bits and control bits. The
control signals from remote switches along with 8 address bits constitute a set of 12
parallel signals. The encoder HT12E encodes these parallel signals into serial bits.
Transmission is enabled by providing ground to pin14 which is active low. The control
signals are given at pins 10-13 of HT12E. The serial data is fed to the RF transmitter
through pin17 of HT12E.
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Figure.15 RF Tx/Rx
Transmitter, upon receiving serial data from encoder IC (HT12E), transmits it wirelessly
to the RF receiver. The receiver, upon receiving these signals, sends them to the decoder
IC (HT12D) through pin2. The serial data is received at the data pin (DIN, pin14) of
HT12D. The decoder then retrieves the original parallel format from the received serial
data.
When no signal is received at data pin of HT12D, it remains in standby mode and
consumes very less current (less than 1µA) for a voltage of 5V. When signal is received by
receiver, it is given to DIN pin (pin14) of HT12D. On reception of signal, oscillator of
HT12D gets activated. IC HT12D then decodes the serial data and checks the address bits
three times. If these bits match with the local address pins (pins 1-8) of HT12D, then it
puts the data bits on its data pins (pins 10-13) and makes the VT pin high. An LED is
connected to VT pin (pin17) of the decoder. This LED works as an indicator to indicate a
valid transmission. The corresponding output is thus generated at the data pins of decoder
IC.
A signal is sent by lowering any or all the pins 10-13 of HT12E and corresponding signal
is received at receiver’s end (at HT12D). Address bits are configured by using the by using
the first 8 pins of both encoder and decoder ICs. To send a particular signal, address bits
must be same at encoder and decoder ICs. By configuring the address bits properly, a
single RF transmitter can also be used to control different RF receivers of same frequency.
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To summarize, on each transmission, 12 bits of data is transmitted consisting of 8 address
bits and 4 data bits. The signal is received at receiver’s end which is then fed into decoder
IC. If address bits get matched, decoder converts it into parallel data and the corresponding
data bits get lowered which could be then used to drive the LEDs. The outputs from this
system can either be used in negative logic or NOT gates can be incorporated at data pins.
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8. CHALLENGES
Some of the biggest challenges for WiTricity in developing the technology were the
miniaturizing of the components, which would increase their manufacturability and
make them small enough to integrate into electric devices, and having enough
communications and control so that the system could operate in the real world.
The original experiments that showed that 60 watts could be created over a two meter
distance featured coils that were two feet in diameter, and a lot of signal generators and
amplifiers. There was an obvious need to miniaturize the components. Moreover,
electric devices have metal content and other electrical components.
The witricity devices produced so far could only operate at short distances. They do
not give enough energy to power large vehicles and equipment. Also the cost of
supplying it to the public is very high. The concept is still under production and
improvement.
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9. ADVANTAGES
Power cords can be avoided. This enables a shift from traditional wiring systems to
modern wireless systems.
Fine tuning is possible using ferrite rods by impedance matching.
Even when non-metallic objects come in between, no distortion is caused.
The device can easily be designed to operate at any frequency from few Hertz to
MHz range. Scalable Design Enables Solutions from mill watts to Kilowatts.
Transmission through RF is better than IR. Signals through RF can travel through
larger distances making it suitable for long range applications. IR mostly operates
in line-of-sight mode; RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction
between transmitter & receiver. RF transmission is more strong and reliable than
IR transmission.
It is portable. It can be set up at any location at suitable clearances.
The circuit is simple with easily obtainable parts.
Voltage and power levels are low. The device is safe for handling. It is safe for
people and animals.
It does not require special methods of cooling.
In some applications, they can even replace batteries.
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10.APPLICATIONS
Industrial, military, household robots
Portable personal electronics
Electric vehicles
Less dependence on batteries
Implanted medical devices- pacemakers
Power supply for MEMS or nano robots
Sensors with difficult access, as in golf courts
Electrically heated clothes
Room warming
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11. FUTURE SCOPE
Modern science has now made it possible to use electricity without having to plug
in any wires. This concept is called witricity which seems to have a bright future in
providing wireless electricity.
In future, with witricity, where there will be no need of power cables and batteries.
The city just has to be covered with witricity hot spots wherein you can use your
electric gadget battery and wire free making it more convenient to carry around and
much lighter. With witricity, there will be no need of charging batteries, or buying
new batteries for your electrical gadgets.
Just as beneficial witricity may be, there are some contraindications to the concept,
with debates if it is risky living next to power lines and having a low power
witricity network running in the home.
However despite these contraindications, witricity has a bright future with the
many advantages it provides in terms of weight, convenience and portability of
electrical appliances.
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12. CONCLUSION
As wireless power transmission is in the developmental stage, lots of work is still to be
done in improving it as the device used for their research disclosed that witricity power
applications operate at only 40% efficiency. The potential applications of witricity are
expected to materialize in the new future, of say a few years’ time, after the necessary
modifications are made to them.
The future witricity power applications permit us to use wireless energy, without having to
replace or recharge batteries. There will be no need of getting rid of these batteries either
or of remembering to recharge batteries periodically. In addition to this, with witricity,
there is no need of plugging in any wires and plugs and thus face a mess of wires.
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13. INFERENCE
At the end of this mini project, we came to know about many applications and limitations
of several electronic equipments namely opamps, relays, RF module etc.
We realized that amplification at high frequencies were less efficient unless for special
purpose opamps, as their gain-bandwidth product is restricted to around 4MHz in ordinary
opamps. We familiarized with RF module (Tx/Rx at 434 MHz) and preferred it to IR,
keeping in mind, the wide clearance possible in case of radio frequency operation.
We tried several coils-solenoidal (air and iron core), circular and cylindrical- and chose a
convenient model for the sake of convenience of accurate experimental result, as our
operating voltage was low. We found that maximum power transfer takes place at resonant
frequency of the RLC series circuit. Therefore we designed our oscillator in such a way
that the frequency of oscillation matched with the resonant frequency.
Several experiments were conducted with laboratory equipments for accurate results and
measurement.
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REFERENCES
[1] ‘Electrical Engineering Fundamentals’, Vincent Del Toro
[2] ‘RF based wireless remote’, STrobotix, Chandigarh labs & Chawla Radios.
[3] ‘Understanding Relays’, Kevin R. Sullivan
[4] Datasheets, Fairchild semiconductors; www.fairchildsemi.com
[5] www.mit.edu/~soljacic
[6] www.engineersgarage.com
[7] www.witricity.com
[8] www.kidela.com
[9] www.witricitypower.com
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