mirza˜hasanuzzaman editor agronomic crops · 2019. 11. 28. · vii preface the history of...
TRANSCRIPT
Mirza Hasanuzzaman Editor
Agronomic CropsVolume 1: Production Technologies
Agronomic Crops
Mirza HasanuzzamanEditor
Agronomic CropsVolume 1: Production Technologies
EditorMirza HasanuzzamanDepartment of Agronomy, Faculty of AgricultureSher-e-Bangla Agricultural UniversityDhaka, Bangladesh
ISBN 978-981-32-9150-8 ISBN 978-981-32-9151-5 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
This book is dedicated to
All of my teachers at
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University
who taught and inspired me in the journey of teaching and research
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Preface
The history of agriculture has played a major role in human development, as agri-cultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socioeconomic change. Since the ancient civilizations, human being has been trying to explore new food crops. In the course of time, the demands for foods are increasing, and people are trying to rely on formal cropping practices. Agronomic crops fulfill most of the basic demands of human life such as food, fuel, fiber, and medicine. Based on the uses of crops, agronomic crops have been classified into different types such as cereals, pulses, oil crops, fodder crops, green manuring crops, sugar crops, narcotic crops, and beverage crops. Plant breeders have been developing many improved varieties of such crops every year to boost up the global production. However, in most of the cases, yield gaps exit in the farmers’ fields due to the lack of proper agronomic management.
Crop management, therefore, becomes an integral part of food production. “Agronomy” is such a solution to make the crop field capable of securing the poten-tial yield. Literally, it means the art of managing fields, and technically, it means the science and economics of crop production by management of farmland. On the other hand, it is the art and science in production and improvement of field crops with the proper use of soil fertility, water, labor, and other factors related to crop production. Agronomy is the management of land for the cultivation of crop plants. The central theme of agronomy is the soil-plant-environment interrelationship. Both soil resources and climate have been changing globally, challenging crop pro-duction. The basic agronomic principles can ensure the maximum yield from a crop variety. Proper land preparation, selection of quality seeds and suitable varieties, proper water management, nutrient management, accurate pest management, proper harvesting, and postharvest operations are among them. However, these activities should be chosen based on several factors like crop varieties, land types, agrocli-mate, etc. Choosing suitable cropping patterns and practicing crop rotation and mul-tiple cropping also play an important role in enhancing land use efficiency and crop stands.
Although agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago, these have made great strides in the past cen-tury. Due to the global climate changes, agronomic crops have been suffering from various abiotic and biotic stresses like salinity, drought, floods, toxic metals/metal-loids, extreme temperatures, atmospheric pollutants, UV radiations, pests, etc. A
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substantial portion of crop yield is being declined every year due to the adverse effect of stresses. Therefore, researchers are trying to address these problems and working to explore the stress tolerance mechanisms and manipulating adaptive features.
The knowledge of agronomic crops is essential for all agricultural graduates and scientists, not only with a view to understand their cultivation practices but also with the objectives to know many academic and scientific details of each crop. This book covers comprehensive information on the advanced production of agronomic crops. Attempts have been made to cover all important field crops. Latest aspects about the cultivation practices, varieties, resource management, plant protection along with quality aspects, and postharvest practices are discussed in a crisp manner. The book must be immensely useful to all graduate students, faculty, and researchers in the field of agronomy and crop science.
This is the first volume (Production Technologies) of the three-volume book Agronomic Crops. In this volume, the advanced production technologies of major agronomic crops and research advancements are presented.
I would like to give special thanks to the authors for their outstanding and timely work in producing such fine chapters. We are highly thankful to Dr. Mamta Kapila (Senior Editor, Life Science) and Ms. Raman Shukla (Senior Editorial Assistant) Springer, India, for their prompt responses during the acquisition. We are also thankful to Daniel Ignatius Jagadisan, Project Coordinator of this book, and all other editorial staff for their precious help in formatting and incorporating editorial changes in the manuscripts. Special thanks to Prof. Dr. Md. Fazlul Karim, Taufika Islam Anee, Dr. Md. Mahabub Alam, Mr. Abdul Awal Chowdhury Masud, Naznin Ahmed, and Tonusree Saha, Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh, for their generous help in formatting the manuscripts. The editors and contributing authors hope that this book will include a practical update on our knowledge for the role of plant nutrients in abiotic stress tolerance.
Dhaka, Bangladesh Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Preface
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Contents
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses ........................................................ 1Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Pakeeza Iqbal, Amna Khan, Iqra Zakir, Sibgha Noreen, Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, and Shakeel Ahmad
2 Climate-Resilient Minor Crops for Food Security ............................... 19M. R. Umesh, Sangu Angadi, Prasanna Gowda, Rajan Ghimire, and Sultan Begna
3 Climatic Variability and Agronomic Cropping Pattern ...................... 33Imran, Amanullah, Abdul Bari, Hamayoon Khan, and Roshan Ali
4 Soil Health in Cropping Systems: An Overview .................................. 45Subhadip Paul, Neha Chatterjee, J. S. Bohra, S. P. Singh, D. Dutta, Rajesh Kumar Singh, and Amitava Rakshit
5 Agronomic Cropping Systems in Relation to Climatic Variability ................................................................................................ 67Muhammad Sami Ul Din, Iftikhar Ahmad, Nazim Hussain, Ashfaq Ahmad, Aftab Wajid, Tasneem Khaliq, Muhammad Mubeen, Muhammad Imran, Amjed Ali, Rida Akram, Khizer Amanet, Mazhar Saleem, and Wajid Nasim
6 Growth and Development Dynamics in Agronomic Crops Under Environmental Stress ....................................................... 83Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari, Arslan Masood Peerzada, Muhammad Haseeb Javed, Muhammad Dawood, Nazim Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
7 Tillage and Crop Production.................................................................. 115Ahmad Khan
8 Effect of Planting Dates on Agronomic Crop Production ................... 131Ghulam Abbas, Haseeb Younis, Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Atique-ur-Rehman, Sajjad Hussain, Mukhtar Ahmed, and Shakeel Ahmad
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9 Crop Production Under Changing Climate: Past, Present, and Future ................................................................................. 149Muhammad Ijaz, Abdul Rehman, Komal Mazhar, Ammara Fatima, Sami Ul-Allah, Qasim Ali, and Shakeel Ahmad
10 Cultivation of Aromatic Rice: A Review ............................................... 175S. P. Singh, M. K. Singh, Sandeep Kumar, and U. Sai Sravan
11 Direct Seeding in Rice: Problems and Prospects ................................. 199Hafeez-ur-Rehman, Ahmad Nawaz, Masood Iqbal Awan, Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain, Shakeel Ahmad, and Muhammad Farooq
12 Advanced Production Technologies of Wheat ...................................... 223Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Muhammad Arif Ali, Mukhtar Ahmed, Muhammad Azam Khan, and Shakeel Ahmad
13 Advanced Production Technologies of Maize ....................................... 237Sajid Hussain, Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain, Sami Ul-Allah, Tahira Abbas, Ahmad Nawaz, Muhammad Nawaz, and Shakeel Ahmad
14 Agro-Techniques for Baby Corn Production ........................................ 261M. K. Singh, S. P. Singh, and B. Singh
15 Advanced Production Technologies of Millets ...................................... 273Ahmad Sher, Ahmad Nawaz, Muhammad Sarfraz, Muhammad Ijaz, Sami Ul-Allah, Abdul Sattar, Sajid Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
16 Advanced Production Technologies of Legume Crops ........................ 297Imran
17 Advanced Production Technologies of Oilseed Crops ......................... 313Muhammad Ijaz, Muhammad Nawaz, Hakoomat Ali, Mubshar Hussain, Muhammad Umer Chattha, Ahmad Nawaz, Sajid Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
18 Advanced Production Technology of Sugar Crops .............................. 335Omer Farooq, Naeem Sarwar, Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir, Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal, Tayyaba Naz, Muqarrab Ali, Sohaib Afzal, and Shakeel Ahmad
19 Advanced Production Technologies of Potato ...................................... 363Tanveer Ahmad, Rana Muhammad Sabir Tariq, Qumer Iqbal, Sajjad Hussain, Aamir Nawaz, and Shakeel Ahmad
20 Advanced Production Technology and Processing of Jute .................. 387Md Mahbubul Islam
Contents
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21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug ............................ 441Mohammad Shameem Al Mamun
22 Tea: A Worthwhile, Popular Beverage Crop Since Time Immemorial ................................................................................... 507Anjan Hazra, Nirjhar Dasgupta, Chandan Sengupta, Biswajit Bera, and Sauren Das
23 Agronomy of Betelvine Crop ................................................................. 533Kajal Sengupta
24 Fundamentals of Crop Rotation in Agronomic Management ............ 545Muhammad Tariq, Hakoomat Ali, Nazim Hussain, Wajid Nasim, Muhammad Mubeen, Shakeel Ahmad, and Mirza Hasanuzzaman
25 Cool Season Food Legumes in Rice Fallows: An Indian Perspective ............................................................................. 561Srijani Maji, Arpita Das, Rajib Nath, P. Bandopadhyay, Raju Das, and Sanjeev Gupta
26 Crop Diversification and Food Security ................................................ 607Muhammad Ijaz, Ahmad Nawaz, Sami Ul-Allah, Muhammad Shahid Rizwan, Aman Ullah, Mubshar Hussain, Ahmad Sher, and Shakeel Ahmad
27 Fundamentals of Seed Production and Processing of Agronomic Crops ................................................................................ 623Atique-ur-Rehman, Hakoomat Ali, Zartash Fatima, and Shakeel Ahmad
28 Seed Production Technologies of Some Major Field Crops ................ 655Irfan Afzal, Rubab Shabir, and Saeed Rauf
29 Postharvest Technologies for Major Agronomic Crops ....................... 679Muhammad Yasin, Waqas Wakil, Kazam Ali, Muhammad Ijaz, Shahid Hanif, Liaqat Ali, Hafiz Muhammad Atif, and Shakeel Ahmad
Contents
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Editor and Contributors
About the Editor
Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka. He received his Ph.D. on “Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism” from Ehime University, Japan. Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government’s Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. His current work is focused on the physio-logical and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. He has published over 80 articles in peer-reviewed journals, edited 6 books, and written 30 book chapters. According to Scopus®, his publications have received roughly 4000 citations with an h-index of 33. He is an editor and reviewer for more than 50 peer- reviewed international journals and was a recipi-ent of the “Publons Peer Review Award 2017, 2018 and 2019.” He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in different fields like research and education and has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014).
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Contributors
Ghulam Abbas Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Tahira Abbas College of Agriculture, Bahadur Sub Campus, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Irfan Afzal Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sohaib Afzal Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Ashfaq Ahmad Program Chair, Climate Change, US.-Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Iftikhar Ahmad Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Shakeel Ahmad Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Tanveer Ahmad Department of Horticulture, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan
Mukhtar Ahmed Department of Agronomy, PMAS, Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Rida Akram Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Amjed Ali University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
Hakoomat Ali Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Kazam Ali College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Liaqat Ali Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan
Muhammad Arif Ali Department of Soil Science, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muqarrab Ali Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan
Qasim Ali College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
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Roshan Ali Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan
Khizer Amanet Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Amanullah Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Sangu Angadi Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis, NM, USA
Hafiz Muhammad Atif College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Atique-ur-Rehman Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Masood Iqbal Awan Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
P. Bandopadhyay Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Abdul Bari Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan
Sultan Begna Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis, NM, USA
Biswajit Bera Tea Board of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
J. S. Bohra Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Neha Chatterjee Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad Umer Chattha Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Arpita Das Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Raju Das Department of Plant Pathology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Sauren Das Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Nirjhar Dasgupta Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Editor and Contributors
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Muhammad Dawood Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Sami Ul Din Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
D. Dutta ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad Farooq Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, PakistanDepartment of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, OmanThe UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
Omer Farooq Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Ammara Fatima Department of Environmental Science, Lahore College for women University, Lahore, Pakistan
Zartash Fatima Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Rajan Ghimire Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis, NM, USA
Prasanna Gowda Forage and Livestock Production Research Unit, USDA-ARS Grazinglands Research Laboratory, El Reno, OK, USA
Sanjeev Gupta ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Hafeez-ur-Rehman Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Shahid Hanif College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Anjan Hazra Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Mubshar Hussain Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Nazim Hussain Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Sajid Hussain College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Sajjad Hussain College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
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Muhammad Ijaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Imran Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Muhammad Imran Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, GOP, Chiniot, Pakistan
Pakeeza Iqbal Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Qumer Iqbal Fiblast, LLC, Tuskegee, AL, USAInstitute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Md Mahbubul Islam Agronomy Division, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Muhammad Haseeb Javed Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Tasneem Khaliq Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ahmad Khan Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture Peshawar Pakistan, Peshawar, Pakistan
Amna Khan Department of Agronomy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
Hamayoon Khan Director Climate Change Centre (CCC), The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Muhammad Azam Khan In-Service Agricultural Institute, Sargodha, Pakistan
Sandeep Kumar Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Srijani Maji Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Mohammad Shameem Al Mamun Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, Srimangal, Bangladesh
Komal Mazhar Department of Forestry and Range Management, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Mubeen COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
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Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Wajid Nasim COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Punjab, PakistanDepartment of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Rajib Nath Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Aamir Nawaz Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Ahmad Nawaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Nawaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Sahrish Naz Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Tayyaba Naz Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sibgha Noreen Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Subhadip Paul Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Arslan Masood Peerzada School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
Amitava Rakshit Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abdul Rehman College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Saeed Rauf Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
Muhammad Shahid Rizwan Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Mazhar Saleem Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Sarfraz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
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Naeem Sarwar Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Abdul Sattar College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Chandan Sengupta Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Kajal Sengupta Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Rubab Shabir Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ahmad Sher College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
B. Singh Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
M. K. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rajesh Kumar Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
S. P. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
U. Sai Sravan Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad Tariq Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan, Pakistan
Rana Muhammad Sabir Tariq Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sami Ul-Allah College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Aman Ullah Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
M. R. Umesh Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India
Aftab Wajid Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Waqas Wakil Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
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Muhammad Yasin College of agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir College of Agriculture, BZU, Bahadur Campus, Layyah, Pakistan
Haseeb Younis Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Iqra Zakir Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors
1© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019M. Hasanuzzaman (ed.), Agronomic Crops, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_1
S. Naz (*) · Z. Fatima · I. Zakir · H. Younis · G. Abbas · S. Ahmad (*) Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistane-mail: [email protected]
P. Iqbal Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Khan Department of Agronomy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
S. Noreen Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
1Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Pakeeza Iqbal, Amna Khan, Iqra Zakir, Sibgha Noreen, Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, and Shakeel Ahmad
AbstractAgronomy includes the crops which are used for food purpose and are known as staple crops. Well-known staple food crops are wheat, rice, corn, beans, etc. Major cultivated crops can be classified on the basis of their purpose. On the basis of this classification, major types of agronomic crops can be cereal, oil seed crop, pulses, fibre crops, sugar crops, forage crops, medicinal crops, roots and tuber crops, vegetable or garden crops, etc. All these crops are indispensable part of our life due to their various usage.
KeywordsCereals · Oilseed · Pulses · Fiber · Sugar · Forage · Medicinal · Vegetable · Root crops
1.1 Cereal Crops
These crops are also known as grain crops. Grains of these crops are used for edible purposes (Table 1.1). These crops are the grasses which belong to the family Poaceae. Their leaves are long and narrow without any main stem. Cereals are of
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3
great importance because cereals are grown on large scale and they are used as a major source of food in the whole world. Some cereal grains are also known as staple food crop because some cereals are used for the food purpose on a large scale in many countries than any other crop, for example, wheat, rice, etc. They are used as a feed for livestock mainly for those which are used as a source of dairy and meat purpose for human consumption.
1.1.1 Wheat
Wheat is used to manufacture many things to use as a food. Wheat grains are con-verted into wheat flour which is used to manufacture different food products like breads, biscuits, muffins, crumpets, noodles, cake, sauces, pasta and cereal bars and confectionery. Wheat has great nutritional value.
1.1.2 Barley
Barley is of great importance because in many temperate areas of the world it is used for survival of farmers. Barley is ranked second (after wheat) due to its nutri-tional value. In many areas of the world, this crop replaces wheat as staple food crop due to environmental conditions. Grains of this crop are used to manufacture bread and vinegar produced by fermentation of malted barley grains by crushing and dry-ing. It can also be used for manufacturing of beverages (alcoholic and non- alcoholic). Its grains are also used to manufacture products which are used to cure diseases like hepatitis, diabetes, etc., and its use can reduce cholesterol level as well. Chances of rectal cancer are also reduced by its use.
1.1.3 Maize
Maize crop is of great importance all over the world due to its use as food and for-age. It has high-nutritional value and is ranked on number third. Maize is used for many purposes. It is used to manufacture cornflakes and porridges. It is also used for animal feed, that is poultry, etc. It is used as a raw material for many products, such as starch, high-fructose syrup, glucose, maltodextrin, fibre and gluten products which are used in industries as textile, paper, organic chemicals, paper, textile, phar-maceuticals, etc.
1.1.4 Rice
Rice is a staple food crop. Rice is considered as a complete food due to the absence of nitrogenous substances and fat and lipid (in negligible amount). Oil is processed from rice bran which is used for food and in industries. Rice straw is used to make pottery and glass in combination with other materials. Broken rice is used for
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
4
making flour which is used for different food items; it is also used for distilling and brewing (used to make malt).
1.2 Oil Seed Crops
These crops are cultivated for oil purpose, and oil is extracted from the seeds of these crops. Brassica, castor bean, soybean, linseed, peanut and sunflower are well- known oil seed crops (Table 1.2).
1.2.1 Sunflower
Sunflower is an important oil seed crop and ranks fifth in the world. Seeds of this crop are used for food purpose, while desiccated stalk of sunflower is used for fuel purpose. Earlier, in ancient times, it has been used as an ornamental plant for ceremo-nies (Harter et al. 2004; Muller et al. 2011). This crop is also used for medicinal purposes. It is used for pulmonary afflictions. In addition to all above uses, the part of this crop is also used in textile industry, for making dyes, for face paintings and for other decorative purposes as well. Sunflower is used for manufacturing cosmetics and paints. Oil of sunflower is used for different purposes; it is used for cooking, for salad dressing and for manufacturing of margarine (Kunduraci et al. 2010). Roasted seeds of sunflower are used for making one type of coffee as well. Seed cake which is left after oil extracting is used to feed livestock in some countries of the world. The hulls or shells of sunflower crop are used in lining or coating of plywood, manufac-turing of ethyl alcohol and for growing the yeast. Its stem is also been used as a fuel and as a fertilizer to the soil. Its stem contains phosphorous and potassium which are composts that can be added to the soil as a fertilizer. Sunflower crop is also an impor-tant source of protein for human consumption due to its high nutritious value and deficiency of anti-nutritional factors (Fozia et al. 2008).
1.2.2 Linseed
Linseed is an oil seed crop and a major crop among industrial oil seed crops which are grown in temperate areas of the world. Linseed is important and used in many industrial products due to enrichment of α-linolenic acid (ALA) (18:3cisΔ9,12,15) which cause flax oil to polymerize readily on oxygen. Industrial products in which flax oil is used include varnish and linoleum. Meal which is obtained from pressed seed is used for animal feed. Along with its importance in industrial sector, it is also gaining importance in livestock feed and aqua-feed applications. Industrial require-ment declined after the 1960s due to a shift to acrylic paints and vinyl floor cover-ings, but now there is an improved interest in using biomass derivative feedstock. For human diet, flax seed oil is an important source of α-linolenic acid (ALA). More human health benefits may be provided by additional flax constituents, including fibre and lignans (Czemplik and Szopa 2009; Vaisey-Genser and Morris 2003).
S. Naz et al.
Tabl
e 1.
2 C
lass
ifica
tion
of c
omm
only
gro
wn
oils
eed
crop
s in
Asi
a
Cro
p/bo
tani
cal n
ame
Fam
ilyG
row
ing
seas
onPh
otop
erio
dG
row
th
habi
tL
ife
cycl
ePo
llina
tion
Prop
agat
ion
Phot
osyn
thes
isN
utri
ent
upta
ke
Soyb
ean
(Gly
cine
max
L.)
Faba
ceae
/Leg
umin
osae
Aut
umn
and
spri
ngSD
D +
ID
ASP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Sesa
me
(Ses
amum
indi
cum
L.)
Peda
liace
aeW
inte
r an
d su
mm
erSD
IDA
SP
Gro
undn
ut (
Ara
chis
hyp
ogae
a L
.)Fa
bace
ae/L
egum
inos
aeSp
ring
SDID
ASP
Tori
a (B
rass
ica
rapa
L.)
Bra
ssic
acea
e/C
ruci
fera
eW
inte
rL
DD
ASP
Exh
aust
ive
Ray
a (B
rass
ica
junc
ea)
Win
ter
SD +
LD
DA
SPSu
nflow
er (
Hel
iant
hus
annu
us L
.)A
ster
acea
e/C
ompo
sita
eSp
ring
and
au
tum
nD
ND
AC
P
Sars
on (
Bra
ssic
a ca
mpe
stri
s)W
inte
rL
DD
ASP
Can
ola
(Bra
ssic
a na
pus
L.)
Bra
ssic
acea
e/C
ruci
fera
eW
inte
rL
DD
ASP
Tara
mir
a (E
ruca
sat
iva
Mill
.)B
rass
icac
eae/
Cru
cife
rae
Win
ter
LD
DA
CP
Saffl
ower
(C
arth
amus
tinc
tori
us L
.)A
ster
acea
e/C
ompo
sita
eW
inte
rD
ND
AC
PL
inse
ed (
Lin
um u
sita
tiss
imum
L.)
Lin
acea
eW
inte
rL
DD
ASP
Cas
tor
bean
(R
icin
us c
omm
unis
L.)
Eup
horb
iace
aeSu
mm
er a
nd
win
ter
LD
IDP
Bot
h
Cot
ton
(Gos
sypi
um h
irsu
tum
L.)
Mal
vace
aeSu
mm
erSD
IDP∗
SPC
ram
be (
Cra
mbe
aby
ssin
ica)
Cru
cife
rae/
Bra
ssic
acea
eW
inte
r??
?ID
ASP
Jojo
ba/g
oat n
ut (
Sim
mon
dsia
ch
inen
sis
L.)
Eup
horb
iace
ae/
Sim
mon
dsia
ceae
???
???
IDP
SP
Nig
er (
Gui
zoti
a ab
yssi
nica
)C
ompo
sita
e/A
ster
acea
e??
?SD
IDA
CP
???
Sour
ce: N
azir
et a
l. (1
994)
LD
long
day
, SD
sho
rt d
ay, D
N d
ay n
eutr
al, D
det
erm
inat
e, I
D in
dete
rmin
ate,
A a
nnua
l, P
per
enni
al
6
1.2.3 Castor Bean
Castor is an oil seed crop which is important due to its wide range of uses. Traditionally, it is used in medicine and electricity. It is been used since the intro-duction of electricity. Its oil and other plant parts are used for medicinal purposes, mainly used for internal purpose but for some external lesions as well. Oil is used as a basic material for industrial use. It is mostly used for lubrication. Its press cake is not used to feed animal due to its harmful effects. The castor oil also has marketable value for manufacturing lubricants, soap, paints, margarine, plastics, linoleum and inks. It is also used for fertilizer and fuel (miscellaneous fuels) purposes. Castor is also regarded as a valuable feedstock for biodiesel production (Okechukwu et al. 2015; Razzazi et al. 2015). Generally, it is used for ornamental purpose as well.
1.3 Pulses
Pulses are cultivated for their edible seeds or grain, and hence they are also known as grain legumes. They belong to the family Leguminosae. Crops included in this group are mung bean, mash bean, cowpea, pigeon pea, lentil, chickpea, etc. (Table 1.3).
1.3.1 Mung Bean
Mung bean or green gram is grown for its seed. It is also used as green manure and forage and as a sole crop on the fallow land between two growing seasons. Straw and husks from this crop are used to feed cattle.
1.3.2 Cowpea
Cowpea is used for grain, and green pods are used as vegetable. It is also used for fodder, so it is a dual-purpose crop.
1.3.3 Black Gram
Black gram is highly nutritious due to its protein and nutrient content. It is used for a variety of food preparations.
1.3.4 Chickpea
Chickpea is consumed by humans both as a dry crop and as a green vegetable. They can also be used as appetizer or added to salad and desserts to improve its taste.
S. Naz et al.
7
Tabl
e 1.
3 C
lass
ifica
tion
of c
omm
only
gro
wn
puls
e cr
ops
in A
sia
Cro
p/bo
tani
cal n
ame
Fam
ilyG
row
ing
seas
onPh
otop
erio
dG
row
th h
abit
Lif
e cy
cle
Polli
natio
nPr
opag
atio
nPh
otos
ynth
esis
Nut
rien
t up
take
Chi
ckpe
a/gr
am (
Cic
er
arie
tinu
m L
.)L
egum
inos
ae/
Faba
ceae
Win
ter
LD
Inde
term
inat
eA
nnua
lSP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Len
til (
Len
s cu
lina
ris
Med
ic.)
Pean
ut (
Ara
chis
hyp
ogae
a L
.)Sp
ring
+
sum
mer
SD
Mun
g be
an/g
reen
gra
m
(Vig
na r
adia
ta L
.)B
lack
gra
m/m
ash
bean
(V
igna
mun
go L
.)Su
mm
erSD
to D
N
Cow
pea
(Vig
na u
ngui
cula
ta
L.)
Sum
mer
SDD
eter
min
ate
+
Inde
term
inat
eFi
eld/
com
mon
pea
(P
isum
sa
tivu
m L
.)W
inte
rL
D
Soyb
ean
(Gly
cine
max
L.)
Spri
ng +
su
mm
erSD
Fiel
d/ki
dney
bea
n (P
hase
olus
vul
gari
s L
.)Su
mm
erD
N
Mot
h/m
at b
ean
(Vig
na
acon
itif
olia
M.)
SD
Gra
ss p
ea/m
atri
(L
athy
rus
sati
vus
L.)
Win
ter
Bro
ad/fi
eld
bean
(Vi
cia
faba
L
.)L
DC
P
Pige
on p
ea/a
rhar
(C
ajan
us
caja
n L
.)Sp
ring
+
sum
mer
SDO
CP
Sour
ce: N
azir
et a
l. (1
994)
; Leg
umin
osae
= F
abac
eae
LD
long
day
, SD
sho
rt d
ay, D
N d
ay n
eutr
al
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
8
They are also consumed as salted or sugared seeds after boiling or plain seeds. Husks and dried stem of this crop are used to feed animals. Seeds are used to feed animals on domestic level, while straws are only used when they are chopped and mixed with other cereals straws. Chickpea also used to improve fertility level of the soil (agronomic purpose) by nitrogen fixation is done by this crop through the pro-cess of symbiosis.
1.4 Fibre Crops
These crops are mainly grown for their fibre which is used as a raw material in the fibre industry (Table 1.4). Crops included in this group are cotton, jute, sunn hemp and flax. This fibre is used for clothing, rope making and rugs.
1.4.1 Cotton
The distinctiveness and diversity of cotton make sure that the crop’s resilient impor-tance and stability in world markets are well into the twenty-first century. Cotton is mainly used for its fibre which is used in the textile industry for clothing; cotton is not only used for this propose, but it also produced high-grade vegetable oil and cellulose by-products, and the remaining seeds are used as animal rations which are highly protein rich. Cotton which is grown for fibre purpose is mainly of two types: upland cotton. This type of cotton is more adaptable to environmental and growing conditions. The second type or group is known as extra-long staple (ELS), also known as pima or Egyptian cotton. This type depends on the areas where this crop is cultivated with longer growing season. In the United States, this type of cotton is mostly grown in the Western irrigated area (California, New Mexico, Texas and Arizona).
1.4.2 Jute
Jute is one of the best fibres which is used for diversified purposes. It is used for various textile and non-textile applications. Jute is used for covering and packing (packaging textile), whereas cotton is used in fibre texting (for clothing). But both jute and cotton are used for home textile as well (for decorating and furnishing pur-pose). Jute fibre is agro-renewable and biodegradable and is a low-price commodity. It is technically benefited but has some drawbacks as well. Less extensibility of jute is occasionally beneficial and at times harmful too. Jute is used in home textile as furnishing fabrics, shopping bags, decorative fabrics, handicraft items, utility items, etc. It is also used in manufacturing aprons used in kitchen and gardening, carpets and mats. Uses of jute in geotextiles are for canal bank protection, for vegetation control in arid zone, for road construction and soil-saver fabrics for erosion control. Other uses of jute include paper pulp formation from jute for good quality paper
S. Naz et al.
9
Tabl
e 1.
4 C
lass
ifica
tion
of c
omm
only
gro
wn
fibre
, sug
ar a
nd m
isce
llane
ous
crop
s cu
ltiva
ted
in A
sia
Cro
p/bo
tani
cal n
ame
Fam
ilyG
row
ing
seas
onPh
otop
erio
dG
row
th
habi
tL
ife
cycl
ePo
llina
tion
Prop
agat
ion
Phot
osyn
thes
isN
utri
ent
upta
keF
ibre
cro
psC
otto
n (G
ossy
pium
hi
rsut
um)
Mal
vace
aeSu
mm
erSD
IDP/
AO
CP
Seed
C3
Exh
aust
ive
Jute
(C
orch
orus
ca
psul
aris
/oli
tori
us)
Mal
vace
aeSu
mm
erSD
IDP/
ASP
Seed
C3
Ken
af (
Hib
iscu
s ca
nnab
inus
)M
alva
ceae
Sum
mer
SDID
P/A
CP
Seed
+
cutti
ngC
3
Sisa
l (A
gave
si
sala
na)
Asp
arag
acea
e/A
gava
ceae
--
IDP
SP +
CP
Bul
bs/s
ucke
rsC
AM
(C
4)
Sunn
hem
p (C
rota
lari
a ju
ncea
)Fa
bace
ae/L
egum
inos
aeSu
mm
erSD
D +
ID
ASP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Suga
r cr
ops
Suga
rcan
e (S
acch
arum
of
ficin
arum
L.)
Gra
min
eae
Spri
ng +
fa
llSD
D +
ID
PC
PA
sexu
alC
4E
xhau
stiv
e
Suga
r be
et (
Bet
a vu
lgar
is L
.)C
heno
podi
acea
eW
inte
rL
DD
+ I
DA
CP
Sexu
alC
3
Oth
ers
crop
sTo
bacc
o (N
icot
iana
ta
bacu
m L
.)So
lana
ceae
Spri
ngSD
DA
OC
PSe
edC
3E
xhau
stiv
e
Tea
(Cam
elli
a si
nens
is L
.)T
heac
eae
Sum
mer
SDD
+ I
DP
CP
Sexu
al +
as
exua
lC
3
Cof
fee
(Cof
fee
arab
ica
L.)
Rub
iace
ae-
SDD
+ I
DP
SPSe
edC
3
Sour
ce: N
azir
et a
l. (1
994)
LD
long
day
, SD
sho
rt d
ay, D
N d
ay n
eutr
al
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
10
production and inflexible fibre-resistant composite among thermostat and thermo-plastic polymer/resin matrix.
1.4.2.1 Advantages of JuteJute has high tensile potency, primary modulus, moisture reclaim, good quality sound and heat wadding property, dimensional stability and good dye acceptability.
1.4.2.2 Drawbacks of JuteJute bears comparative roughness, brittleness, ruggedness in feel, broad distinction in fibre length and fineness with branching character, deprived washability and proneness to yellowing when exposed to sunlight.
1.4.3 Flax
Flax is a high-quality fibre due to its good colour and attractive appearance and its handling in fabrics. It is used to make linen and ramie. It is used for oil and fibre. Hemp fibre is more inflexible and resilient as compared to flax. It is used for manu-facturing nets, ropes, carpets, etc.
1.5 Sugar Crops
These crops are mainly grown to extract sugarcane juice for manufacturing sugar. Sugarcane, sugar beet and sweet sorghum are some major sugar crops included in this group (Table 1.4).
1.5.1 Sugarcane
Sugarcane is used for preparation of various industrial products, so it is known as industrial crop. Cane is supplied to the industries where its sugar is used to prepare different products by using different procedures. Its small proportion is used to make things like khandsari and gur on small scale. Fermented and sugar products of sugarcane are very important for manufacturing and preserving products like white sugar, gur, bagasse and molasses. Bagasse and molasses are by-products which are used on industrial scale. Molasses are used in distilleries in the manufacture of ethyl alcohol, citric acid, etc. Bagasse is used as fuel and to manufacture fibreboard papers, plastics, etc. It is also preserved and used to feed livestock. The green part of cane is used to feed cattle. Its residues are the best manures when added to the soil (acidic and alkaline).
S. Naz et al.
11
1.5.2 Sweet Sorghum
Sweet sorghum has high sugar content in its stalk. It was first introduced in 1852. It is more susceptible to drought as compared to corn. It is the same species as grain sorghum is. It is mainly grown to produce sorghum syrup, but it can also be used for biofuel purpose. It is a big source of sugar, and its stems are used to prepare various products on industrial scale (Inam-Bamber 1980; Ferraris and Stewart 1979; Cowley and Smith 1972). Its stem is chewed as a snack due to its sweetness and is used to quench thirst while working in a field. Plant material is converted into biofuel by the process of fermentation or gasification. Synthetic gases, charcoal and bio-oil are produced by the pyrolysis of sorghum. Charcoal is used to improve fertility of the soil, while synthetic gases and bio-oil are used as fuel for transportation. It is mainly used to produce sugar from its juice by fermenting. Bagasse is used to feed cattle and to produce heat or electricity. Vinasse (mixture of dead yeast and plant material after fermentation) can be used as a fertilizer.
1.5.3 Sugar Beet
Sugar beet is used to make alcoholic beverages. Seeds of sugar beets are boiled and shredded, and the juice squeezed from these seeds is thick (like honey) and is used to sweeten foods and to make sandwich spread. The by-products that result from the conversion of beets into sugar can be used to feed livestock. These by-products are fibre-rich supplementation. Various ranchers permit grazing in the beet fields throughout the autumn to consume the beet tops as fodder. Betaine and uridine are also secluded from the by-products of sugar beet processing. Other than all the above-mentioned uses, these by-products are also used to manufacture alcohol. They are also used in commercial banking and pharmaceuticals. It also has a great medicinal value and used to treat tumours. The seed boiled in water is used to cure genital tumour. Its juice and many other parts of the plants are used to cure many tumours, leukaemia and forms of cancers such as those affecting breast, gland, intestine, lip, leg, oesophagus, etc. Its juice has also been used for treatment of ulcer.
1.6 Forage Crops
These crops have almost 25% dry matter fibre content and are grown for pasteuriza-tion or making silage, hay, etc. Cereal crops are also known as forage or fodder crops when they are harvested as a whole and used as a feed for animals. These crops are also used for green manuring purpose. These crops belong to the family Poaceae or Fabaceae. Crops included in this group are clovers, berseem and shaftal (Table 1.5).
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
12
Tabl
e 1.
5 C
lass
ifica
tion
of c
omm
only
gro
wn
clov
ers
and
othe
r fo
dder
cro
ps in
Asi
a
Cro
p/bo
tani
cal n
ame
Fam
ilyG
row
ing
seas
onG
row
th
habi
tL
ife
cycl
ePo
llina
tion
Prop
agat
ion
Phot
osyn
thes
isN
utri
ent u
ptak
eE
gypt
ian
clov
er/
bers
eem
(Tr
ifol
ium
al
exan
drin
um L
.)
Leg
umin
osae
Win
ter
IDA
CP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Indi
an/s
wee
t cl
over
/sen
gi
(Mel
ilot
us
parv
iflor
a)
Win
ter
IDA
CP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Alf
alfa
/luce
rne
(Med
icag
o sa
tiva
L
.)
Yea
rly
IDP
CP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
Pers
ian
clov
er/
shaf
tal (
Trif
oliu
m
resu
pina
tum
L.)
Win
ter
D +
ID
AC
PSe
edC
3R
esto
rativ
e
Clu
ster
bea
n/gu
ar
(Cya
mop
sis
tetr
agon
olob
a Ta
ub)
Sum
mer
D +
ID
AC
PSe
edC
3R
esto
rativ
e
Sesb
ania
(Se
sban
ia
mac
roca
rpa
L.)
Sum
mer
IDA
+ P
SP +
CP
Seed
C3
Res
tora
tive
S. Naz et al.