ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL FEMALE SHOT PUT ATHLETES IN HONG

KONG

BY

MO WAI MAN TERESA

11007273

AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ARTS

IN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

APIRL 2013

 

1  

Hong Kong Baptist University

30th April, 2013

We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Miss MO Wai Man Teresa

entitled “Anthropometric Characteristics of Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put

Athletes In Hong Kong” be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education And Recreation

Management.

_________________________ _________________________

Prof. Chow Bik Chu Dr. Tong Kwok Keung Tom

Chief Adviser Second Reader

2  

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this honours project “Anthropometric Characteristics of

Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put Athletes In Hong Kong” represents my

own work and had not been previously submitted to this or other authors were listed

in the references.

__________________

Mo Wai Man Teresa

30th April, 2013

3  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my chief advisor, Prof. Chow Bik

Chu, for her valuable advices, professional suggestions and guidance on the study.

Also, I would also like to express my gratitude to my second reader, Dr. Tong Kwok

Keung Tom, to his effort on this study.

On the other hand, I would also like to give thanks to Mr. Binh Quach the

technician of the laboratory of Dr. Stephen Hui Research Centre for Physical

Recreation and Wellness of Hong Kong Baptist University for arrange the date and

room for the measurement. Also, thanks must be given to the Physical Education

teachers of involved Secondary Schools for arranging the measurements of the

athletes. Last but not least, I would also like to express my appreciation to the athletes

for their participation in this study.

_______________________

Mo Wai Man Teresa

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

Date: 30th April, 2013

4  

ABSTRACT

Many studies and researches have conducted in the western countries

concerning the anthropometric characteristic of shot put. Yet, there is no existing

information or reference about anthropometric characteristic in Hong Kong. This

study was to investigate the general anthropometric characteristics of senior

secondary school female shot put athletes in Hong Kong. Seventeen female shot

putters took part in this study. They were the participants in the Inter-school

Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and Division Two (N=7) that

organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee who

aged from 16 to 18± 0.81. Subjects would be measured on (1) Basic physical

characteristics (i.e. body height and weight, BMI and fat mass), (2) 8 skinfolds

sites, (3) 5 girths sites and (4) Arm Lengths (upper arm and lower arm).

According to the findings, the mean height (166.7cm ±3.97), weight (76.06kg ±

15.16) and BMI (27.33 ± 4.69) of the female shot putter were significantly higher

than the mean height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI (20.4±0.06) of

average girls. Second, measurements in fat mass, skinfold and girths were found

significantly large standard deviation indicating that the subjects had very

5  

different anthropometric characteristics. There was a very weak and

non-significant relationship between the result of shot put and the anthropometric

variables of the female shot putters.

6  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 8

Statement of the Problem............................................................................ 9

Purpose of the Study.................................................................................. 10

Significance of the Study........................................................................... 10

Definition of the Terms.............................................................................. 11

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................... 13

Factors affecting the performance of shot put........................................... 13

Anthropometric characteristic of shot putters........................................... 16

Relationship between anthropometric characteristics and shot put

performance .............................................................................................. 17

Summary.................................................................................................... 18

3. METHOD .......................................................................................................... 20

Subjects ......................................................................................................20

Data Collection........................................................................................... 20

Measurement Procedure……………………………………………..……21

Delimitations.............................................................................................. 29

Limitations................................................................................................. 30

Data Analysis............................................................................................. 30

4. ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................................................................... 32

Results……………………………………………………………....…….32

Discussions................................................................................................. 35

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................ 41

Summary.....................................................................................................41

Conclusions............................................................................................... 42

Recommendations of Future Studies......................................................... 43

CHAPTER Page

REFERENCES..................................................................................................... .44

APPENDIX............................................................................................................47

A. Consent Form to Athletes................................................................................ .47

B. Data Collection Sheet...................................................................................... .48

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1. Values of physical characteristics of the subjects................................ 33

2. Values of skinfold measurements of the subjects................................ 33

7  

3. Values of girths of the subjects........................................................... 34

4. Values of arm length and result of the subjects...................................34

5. Relationship between the result and anthropometric variables..............35

8  

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Shot put is one of the throwing events in track and field that involve the

putting of a heavy metal ball (i.e. the shot). In order to achieve good

performance in shot put, demonstrating an accurate shot put technique is one of

the keys. Among the shot putters, glide and spin are the two most common

techniques used (Silvester 2003). In order to achieve better performance, they

had been refining their skills on the release velocity of the shot and the height

of releasing angle since the result of this event is highly determined by these

factors (Zatsiorsky, Lanka & Shalmanov 1981).

On the other hand, the shot is the heaviest apparatus, therefore, muscles

strengthen and power were also factors that contributed to the performance.

Kyriazis, Terzis, Boudolos and Georgiadis (2009) suggested that leg muscles

power is a good parameter to rotational shot put result; Terzis, Kyriazis,

Karampatsos and Georgiadis (2012) stated that the performance of rotational

shot put is closely related to the muscle strengthen. And Judge et al. (2013)

suggested that strength exercise should be included in the training since this

helped to achieve better result.

9  

Owing to the nature of the sport, shot putters had unique anthropometric

measurements compared to other track and field athletes (Thorland, Johnson,

Fagot, Tharp and Hammer 1981) which they were found to be taller, heavier

and fatter. In later studies, for instance, Tešanović, Mihajlović, Bošnjak,and

Dragosavljević (2010) found that these special characteristics favor the

performance of shot put.

However, there were no studies or researches made on the shot putters in

Hong Kong. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the

anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot

putters in Hong Kong in a hope that provide some guidelines to coaches for

talent selection . The results of the study could serve as a reference for selecting

potential shot put athletes.

Statement of the Problem

There are many studies and researches have conducted in the western

countries concerning the anthropometric characteristic and biomechanics of shot

put. However, there are no existed and available researches concerning neither

the anthropometric characteristics nor the biomechanics of Hong Kong female

shot put athletes for reference. Also, studies have found that shot put result is

10  

related to some anthropometric characteristics like upper arm, chest and thigh

circumferences (K. Singh, P. Singh & C. Singh, 2012). It was wondered what

anthropometric characteristics of Hong Kong secondary school female shot put

athletes are like and if there are relationships between the shot put performances

and the various anthropometric characteristics.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the anthropometric

characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot putters in Hong

Kong.

Significance of the Study

Thorland et al. (1981), Tešanović et al. (2010) stated that anthropometric

characteristics play a part in the shot put performance. In other words,

anthropometric characteristics could indicate the ones’ ability on the

performance of shot put. This study is purposed to investigate the

anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school level female shot

putters in Hong Kong in a hope to provide guidelines and information to

coaches for talent selection. The results of the study could serve as a reference

for selecting potential shot put athletes. And to understand the general

11  

anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school female shot put

athletes in Hong Kong.

Definitions of Terms

The following terms were operationally defined especially for this study:

Anthropometry

Anthropometry referred to a study of the measurement of human body in

terms of bone, muscle, and adipose tissue. In this study, according to the

Restricted Profile provided by the International Standards for Anthropometric

Assessment (2001), the measurement of the subjects included body height,

body weight, body mass index, fat mass (in percentage), 8 skinfolds sites, 5

girths sites and 2 arm lengths.

Senior Secondary School Students

Senior secondary school students referred to the Form 4 to 6 students who

studied in the 3-3-4 scheme which operated in Hong Kong educational system

started form the school year of 2009 to 2010 according to the Education Bureau.

In this study, the senior secondary school female shot put athletes were defined

as those of Form 4 to 6 (aged 16 to 18) students from secondary schools in

Hong Kong who were participants in Division 1 and Division 2 Inter-school

12  

Athletics Competition organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools

Regional Committee (HKSSF).

13  

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This review of literature is divided into four sections: (1) factors affecting

the performance of shot put; (2) anthropometric characteristic of shot putters; (3)

relationship between anthropometric characteristics and shot put performance,

and (4) summary.

Factors Affecting The Performance Of Shot Put

Probst and Lawler (2007) stated that the height of release above the ground,

the release angle and the speed of release played an important role in the flight

dynamics and distance for the shot put. At the same time, Linthorne (2001)

conducted a study on assessing the accuracy of a method of calculating the

optimum release angle. He also found that each shot putter had him or her own

optimum angle of release that aided him or her to perform better result.

Nevertheless, Young and Li (2005) conducted a study on 7 top female shot

putters and thirty parameters were examined. The results showed that the

distance of shot put was positively correlated with release speed and shoulder­

hip separation (r = 0.97, p < 0.0003; r = 0.72, p < 0.06) but negatively

correlated with release angle, rear knee angle at rear foot touchdown and rear

14  

knee angle at release (r = ­0.74, p < 0.056 ; r = ­0.93, p < 0.003; r = ­0.76, p <

0.047). Yet, Lipovšek, Škof, Štuhec and Čoh, (2011) suggested that release

velocity could not sufficiently explain the effective shot acceleration where the

study was took place during the 2008 European Cup Winter Throwing in Split.

On the other hand, many researchers suggested that muscle power and

strength were significantly correlated to shot put performance. Terzis et al.

(2012) has conducted a longitudinal study on a male elite shot putter. The

subject was asked to perform his best on squat, bench press and snatch and

found out that his shot put performance was closely related to 1RM squat

strength (r = .93, p<0.01), bench press (r = .87, p<0.01), and snatch (r = .92,

p<0.01). The researcher concluded that muscle strength instead of lean body

mass.

Also, Terzis, Georgiadis, Vassiliadou, and Manta (2003) found out that

triceps brachii fiber type II play a significant part in shot put performance. The

research was conducted on 13 male students from physical education and

collected the data after five weeks of shot put training. The result showed that

the result of shot put was positively related with triceps brachii fiber type II (r

15  

=0.70, p<0.01). However, Kyriazis et al. (2009) indicated that that the leg

power was a good indicator for shot putters who use spinning technique. The

test was conducted on 9 shot putters before and after competition and was asked

to perform 1RM squat and coutermovement jump and found that shot put result

was significantly correlated to the muscular power and takeoff velocity during

coutermovement jump at competition period (r = 0.66, p <0.05 and r =0.70, p <

0.05).

What is more, Terzis, Karampatsos, and Georgiadis (2007) suggested that

the level of activation of the vastus lateralis , pectoralis major and triceps

brachii contributed to the shot put performance. The study was conducted on 8

experienced shot putters and required the shot putters to perform a maximum

(1RM) squat and a 1RM incline bench-press strength test. Then the quadriceps

vastus lateralis (VL), gastrocnemius internus, pectoralis major (PEC) and

triceps brachii (TRI) of the right side were recorded by electromyographic

(EMG). The results found that performance was positively correlated with 1RM

squat (r = 0.76, P < 0.05) and 1RM bench-press (r = 0.75, P < 0.05) also with

the average EMG from VL and PEC after taking the power position (r = 0.91, P

< 0.01 and r = 0.75, P < 0.05, respectively). However, there was a negative

16  

relationship between performance and the time to reach peak activation of right

TRI during the explosive strike of the throwing arm (r = -0.70, P < 0.05).

Anthropometric Characteristic Of Shot Putters

Malina, Harper, Avent and Campbell (1971), Thorland et al. (1981)

conducted research on 66 female track and field athletes who aged from 17.6 to

25 and 145 male and 133 female adolescent athletes who took part in track and

field, gymnastics, diving, and wrestling in the national competition respectively.

Both studies found that athletes in throwing events including shot put, were

taller, heavier and fatter compared to other athletes.

Also, Abraham (2010) conducted a study on 93 track and field athletes

where 20 of them were throwers whose mean age was 19. Subjects were

assessed on their height, weight, six skinfolds, two bicondylar breadths and two

girths. Throwers were found to be belonged to endomorphic mesomorphs body

types. They had the highest body fat percent (7.38±0.85%), which reflected in

the endomorphic components (i.e. 3.39±0.65). Throwers were found to have

significantly higher values of skinfold measurements than other groups.

However, comparing to other kinds of sport, shot putter were not not the ones

possessed the highest percentage body fat. According to Krawczyk, Sklad and

17  

Majle (1995), the percentage body fat of shot put athletes was 19.65 ±4.07 but

the percentage body fat of fencers, handball players, judoists and basketball

players were 21.89±4.48, 21.85 ±4.66, 20.26±7.74 and 20.07±4.79 respectively.

Relationship Between Anthropometric Characteristics

And Shot Put Performance

It had been a well known fact that the relationship established between

certain types of anthropometric characteristic could favor in certain types of

sport. As stated in Cater and Heath (1990), it could serve as a guideline to help

both children and adults to select the appropriate sports for both their present

and future potential body types.

Some researches indicated that certain anthropometric characteristics

could favor shot put performance. Shot putters who were better in performance

showed better anthropometric measurement. Singh et al. (2012) conducted a

study on 20 male shot putters who aged from 18 to 25. The height, weight,

widths, girths and skinfold thickness were assessed on the subjects. Researchers

found that for those who perform better in shot put were significantly taller

(p<0.01) and had significantly greater in all lengthen measurement. Also they

had significantly greater upper arm (p<0.05), forearm (p<0.01), chest (p<0.05),

18  

thigh (p<0.05) circumferences, bi-humerus (p<0.01), wrist (p<0.05),

bi-acromial (p<0.01), and hip (p<0.05) diameters when comparison made to

low performers. What is more, study found that lean body mass (p<0.05) was

significantly higher in better performers while in low performers, the

endomorphy (p<0.05) was significantly higher.

Also, Tešanović et al. (2010) concluded that “the anthropometric length

of the arm, the arm range and body mass can influence the achievement of

results in shot put, while the length of the legs plays no statistically important

role in the achievement of results”. Which a total of 112 male secondary school

students who aged 15 had tested on body mass index and anthropometric

dimensions that included height, length of leg and arm, and the shot put results.

The result was positive.

Summary

The performance of shot put was determined by multiple factors: The height

of release above the ground, the release angle and the speed of release (Probst

& Lawler ,2007), muscle power, muscle strength (Kyriazis et. al., 2009), Terzis

et al., 2012) and the level of activation of the muscles also contributed to the

performance (Terzis et al. 2007). Beside these factors, anthropometric

19  

characteristics also played an important role in gaining better result in shot put.

As studies have found that many top shot putters shared the similar

anthropometric characteristics (Abraham, 2010 ; Thorland et al.,1981), further

researches were conducted on the correlation between the anthropometric

characteristics and shot put performance. And researches indicated there was a

positive correlation between better anthropometric measurement and better shot

put performance (Singh et al. 2012; Tešanović et al. 2010).

20  

CHAPTER 3

METHOD

The main purpose of this investigation was to collect the data of

anthropometric characteristics of senior secondary school female shot put

athletes in Hong Kong.

The method of this study was divided into the following sections: (a) subjects;

(b) data collection; (c) measurement procedure, and (d) data analysis.

Subjects

A total of 17 female shot putters were invited to this study. They were the

participants in the Inter-school Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and

Division Two (N=7) that organized by HK Island &Kowloon Secondary

Schools Regional Committee. They were all the Grade A athletes who studied

in Form 4 to 6 and aged from 16 to 18. Prior to the study, they were fully

informed of the purpose, benefits and risks of the study and all provided written

informed consent voluntarily.

Data Collection

In order to ensure the reliability of the measurement, there would only

have 1person do the measurement and 1 person do the recording. All the

21  

measurements would be measured on the right side of the body. Two

measurements would be made on each site and it would be measured in

succession to avoid experimenter bias that a complete data set would be

obtained before repeating the measurements for the second time. Then the mean

value would be recorded. Also, subjects were asked to wear minimal clothing

and not to wear any shoes.

Measurement Procedure

Subjects were informed of the purpose, benefits and risks of the study

and all provided written informed consent voluntarily. In the study, the

procedure and measuring instrument used would follow the procedures,

instructions and methods provided by the International Standards for

Anthropometric Assessment (2001). For this study, subjects would be measured

on the followings 4 categories: (1) Basic physical characteristics, (2) Skinfolds,

(3) Girths and (4) Arm Lengths.

Basic physical characterisics

In this part, body height, body weight, body mass index and fat mass would be

measured. In which body height was measured by a wall mounted stadiometer at

mid inspiration. The measurement was record to the nearest 0.1cm; body weight,

22  

body mass index and fat mass were recorded by TANITA TBF410 BIA scale

(TANITA Corp., Tokyo, Japan) which the measurements were recorded to the

nearest 0.1.

Skinfolds

In this part, skinfold thickness was measured by skinfold caliper which the

measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.01cm. There were a total of 8 sites

to be measured: (1)Triceps, (2)Subscapular, (3)Biceps,(4) Iliac Crest,(5)

Supraspinale, (6)Abdominal, (7)Front Thigh and (8) Medial Calf. All the

procedures, instructions and methods were stated below were from the

International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).

(1)Triceps. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the left

arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be relaxed with the

shoulder joint slightly externally rotated and elbow extended by the side

of the body. Method: The fold is parallel to the long axis of the arm

(p.71).

(2)Subscapular. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with

the arm hanging by the sides. Method: The line of the skinfold is

determined by the natural fold lines of the skin (p.72)

23  

(3)Biceps. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the left

arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be relaxed with the

shoulder joint slightly externally rotated and elbow extended by the side

of the body. Method: This skinfold is parallel to the long axis of the arm

(p.73).

(4)Iliac Crest. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the

left arm hanging by the side. The right arm should be either abducted or

placed across the trunk. Method: The line of the skinfold generally runs

slightly downward posterior-anterior, as determined by the natural fold

lines of the skin (p.74).

(5)Supraspinale. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with

the arms hanging by the sides. Method: The fold runs medially downward

at about a 45° angle as determined by the natural fold of the skin (p.75).

(6)Abdominal. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the

arms hanging by the sides. Method: This is a vertical fold. It is

particularly important at this site that the measurer is sure the initial grasp

is firm and broad since often the underlying musculature is poorly

developed. This may result in an underestimation of the thickness of the

24  

subcutaneous layer of tissue (p.76).

(7)Front Thigh. The subject assumes a seated position at the front edge

of the box with the torso erect and the arms hanging by the sides. The

knee of the right leg is usually bent at a right angle. In some subjects, this

skinfold may be easier to take with the knee extended. Method: (As there

were 3 methods of measuring this site, Method A would be used.) The

measurer stands facing the right side of the subject on the lateral side of

the thigh. The skinfold is raised at the marked site. The skinfold

measurement is taken while the knee is bent (p.77).

(8)Medial Calf. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with the

arms hanging by the sides and the right foot placed on the box. The right

knee is bent at about 90°. Method: The subject’s right foot is placed on a

box with the calf relaxed. The fold is parallel to the long axis of the leg

(p.79).

Girths

In this part, anthropometric tape was used to measure the girths which the

measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.1cm. There were a total of 5 sites

to be measured: (1)Arm (relaxed), (2)Arm (flexed and tensed), (3)Waist

25  

(minimum), (4)Gluteal (hips) and (5)Calf (maximum). All the procedures,

instructions and methods were stated below were from the International

Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).

(1)Arm (relaxed). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with

the arms hanging by the sides. The subject’s right arm is abducted

slightly to allow the tape to be passed around the arm. Method: The girth

of the arm is measured at the marked level of the Mid-acromiale-radiale®.

The tape should be positioned perpendicular to the long axis of the arm

(p.86).

(2)Arm (flexed and tensed). The subject assumes a relaxed standing

position with the left arm hanging by the side. The subject’s right arm is

raised anteriorly to the horizontal with the forearm supinated and flexed

at about 45-90°to the arm. Method: The flexed and tensed arm girth is

measured at the level of the peak of the contracted Biceps. The measurer

stands to the side of the subject and with the tape loosely in position. The

subject is asked to partially tense the elbow flexors to identify the

probable peak of the contracted muscles. The subject is encouraged to

contract the arm muscles as strongly as possible and hold it while the

26  

measurement is made at the peak of the Biceps. If there is no obvious

peak of the Biceps this girth should be measured at the level of the

Mid-acromiale-radiale landmark (p.87).

(3)Waist (minimum). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position

with the arms folded across the thorax. Method: This girth is taken at the

level of the narrowest point between the lower costal (10th rib) border

and the iliac crest. The measurer stands in front of the subject who

abducts the arms slightly allowing the tape to be passed around the

abdomen. The stub of the tape and the housing are then both held in the

right hand while the measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the

tape at the back to the adjudged level of the narrowest point. The

measurer resumes control of the stub with the left hand and using the

cross-hand technique positions the tape in front at the target level. The

subject is instructed to lower their arms to the relaxed position. The tape

is then readjusted as necessary to ensure it has not slipped and does not

excessively indent the skin. The subject should breathe normally and the

measurement is taken at the end of a normal expiration (end tidal). If

there is no obvious narrowing the measurement is taken at the mid-point

27  

between the lower costal (10th rib) border and the iliac crest (p.91).

(4)Gluteal (hips). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with

the arms folded across the thorax. The subject’s feet should be together

and the gluteal muscles relaxed. Method: The girth is taken at the level of

the greatest posterior protuberance of the buttocks which usually

corresponds anteriorly to about the level of the symphysis pubis. The

measurer passes the tape around the hips from the side. The stub of the

tape and the housing are then both held in the right hand while the

measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the tape at the back to

the adjudged level of the greatest posterior protuberance of the buttocks.

The measurer resumes control of the stub with the left hand, and using

the cross-hand technique, positions the tape in front and the sides so that

the tape is held in a horizontal plane at the target level. The tape is then

readjusted as necessary to ensure it has not slipped (p.92).

(5)Calf (maximum). The subject assumes a relaxed standing position

with the arms folded across the thorax. The subject stands with the feet

slightly apart and mass equally distributed on both feet.Method: The girth

of the thigh is taken 1 cm below the level of the Gluteal fold,

28  

perpendicular to the long axis of the thigh. It is usually helpful to have

the subject stand on a box or stool for this measure. The measurer passes

the tape between the lower thighs and then slides the tape up to the

correct plane. The stub of the tape and the housing are both held in the

right hand while the measurer uses the left hand to adjust the level of the

tape to the target level. The measurer resumes control of the stub with the

left hand and using the cross-hand technique positions the tape so that it

is held in a perpendicular plane. The tape is then readjusted as necessary

to ensure it has not slipped and does not excessively indent the skin

(p.95).

Lengths

In this part, anthropometer was used to measure the arm lengths which

the measurements were recorded to the nearest 0.1cm. There were two arm

lengths which are acromiale-radiale length and radiale-stylion length. All the

procedures, instructions and methods were stated below were from the

International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).

Acromiale-radiale. The subject assumes a relaxed standing position with

the arms hanging by the sides.The right forearm should be pronated.

29  

Method: This represents the arm length. It is the distance between the

previously marked Acromiale and Radiale landmarks. One branch of the

caliper or segmometer is held on the Acromiale while the other branch

isplaced on the Radiale. If the branches of the segmometer are too short

to allow clearance of the Deltoids, a large sliding caliper should be used

(p.102).

Radiale-stylion. The subject assumes a relaxed position with the arms

hanging by the sides. The right forearm should be slightly externally

rotated to a mid-pronated position. Method: This represents the length

of the forearm. It is the distance between the previously marked Radial

and Stylion landmarks. One caliper (or segmometer) branch is held

against the Radiale and the other branch is placed on the Stylion

landmark (p.103).

Delimitations

The study was delimited to the followings:

1. The subjects were delimited to 17 female athletes who were participants in

the Inter-School Athletics Competition Division One and Two that held by

the HK Island &Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee

30  

(HKSSF).

2. All the subjects were aged from 16 to 18 ±0.81.

3. The selected anthropometric measures were conducted in the laboratory of

Dr. Stephen Hui Research Centre for Physical Recreation and Wellness of

Hong Kong Baptist University.

Limitations

The study was limited to the following factors:

1. Owing to the small sample size (N=17), the results of this study could not

create a good generalization.

2. The ideal anthropometric measurement is required subjects to put on

swimming suits. In this study, subjects were only required to put on minimal

clothing, thus, it might affect the findings of the measurement.

3. Since the subjects came on different days and time to conduct the

measurement thus might affect the unity and accuracy of the measurements.

Data Analysis

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 18.0) was used to analyze the

data collected. Mean, standard deviations, minimum and maximum were

31  

calculated for each variable. And the Spearman’s rho correlation was used to

determine the relationship between the result and the measured and calculated

anthropometric variables.

32  

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Results

Seventeen shot putters from Inter-school Athletics Competition Division

One (N=10) and Division Two (N=7) that was organized by HK Island

&Kowloon Secondary Schools Regional Committee were invited to participate

in this study. The purpose of this study is to find out the anthropometric

characteristics of secondary-school-level female shot putters. The researcher

also wanted to find out the correlation between athletes’ results and other

variables.

The descriptive statistics of the subjects’ age, body height, body weight,

BMI, fat mass, skinfold, girths, arm length and result were summarized from

Table 1. to Table 4:

33  

Table 1

Values of physical characteristics of the subjects (N=17)

Variables Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation

Age 16.00 18.00 16.82 0.81

Height

(cm)

161.00 173.00 166.68 3.97

Weight

(kg)

53.00 99.70 76.06 15.16

BMI 19.70 34.70 27.33 4.69

Fat

Mass

(%)

0.24 0.52 0.35 0.08

Table 2

Values of skinfold measurements of the subjects (N=17)

Variables

(cm)

Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation

Triceps 2.00 4.14 2.53 0.66

Subscapular 2.02 4.14 2.74 0.70

Biceps 1.07 4.17 1.77 0.79

Iliac Crest 2.00 4.16 2.89 0.69

Supraspinale 1.16 4.15 2.73 0.93

Abdominal 2.01 6.05 3.39 1.05

Front Thigh 1.00 4.18 2.22 1.05

Medial Calf 1.02 3.11 1.80 0.69

34  

Table 3

Values of girths of the subjects (N=17)

Variables

(cm)

Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation

Arm(relaxed) 23.00 34.50 29.04 3.74

Arm(flexed

& tensed)

25.10 37.35 30.86 3.54

Waist

(minimum)

67.00 100.00 80.50 9.59

Gluteal

(hips)

92.00 114.50 102.95 7.47

Calf

(maximum)

34.00 46.00 39.58 3.43

Table 4

Values of arm length and result of the subjects (N=17)

Variables Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Deviation

Acromiale-radiale

(cm)

27.25 32.50 30.04 1.40

Radiale-stylion

(cm)

22.00 26.70 23.96 1.21

Total arm length*

(cm)

50.35 59.05 54.00 2.40

Result (m) 6.78 9.43 7.94 0.97

*Total arm length was the sum of Acromiale-radiale and Radiale-stylion

The Spearman’s rho correlation was used to determine the relationship

between the result and the measured and calculated anthropometric variables

that were computed in Table 5.

35  

Table 5

Relationship between the result and anthropometric variables

r p

Height 0.39 0.12

Weight 0.38 0.13

BMI 0.34 0.17

Fat Mass 0.24 0.34

Skinfold (sum)** 0.28 0.40

Arm(relaxed) 0.47 0.053

Arm(flexed &

tensed)

0.29 0.24

Waist (minimum) 0.35 0.16

Gluteal (hips) 0.20 0.44

Calf (maximum) 0.35 0.16

Total arm length 0.21 0.40

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

**Skinfold (sum) was the sum of the 8 skinfold sites

In the above, the result could show only the weak relationships between

female athletes’ best shot put results and anthropometric measures which were

not significant at the 0.05 level (p< 0.05).

Discussions

This discussion chapter is divided into three parts: (a) anthropometric

characteristics and the result of the shot putters; (b) relationship between the

result of shot put and the anthropometric measures; and (c) factors affecting the

result of this study.

Anthropometric characteristics and the result of the shot putters in

36  

secondary school level

In this study, a total of 17 anthropometric variables (i.e. height, weight,

BMI, fat mass, 8 skinfold sites, 5 girths sites, upper arm and lower arm length)

were measured.

According to So et al. (2008), the mean height of girls in the year of 2005

to 2006 who were aged 16 was 158.4 cm (± 5.4), girls aged 17 was 158.7 cm (±

5.4), girls aged 18 was 158.7cm (± 5.7) and the mean of these three age groups

was 158.6 cm (± 0.17). In comparison to this, the mean height of the subjects

was 166.7 cm (±3.97) which was significantly taller than the average girls’

height. The mean weight of girls in the year of 2005 to 2006 who aged 16 was

51.1kg (± 9.1), girls aged 51.1 kg (± 9.5), girls aged 18 was 51.3 kg (± 8.3). The

mean weight of the subjects was 76.06 kg (± 15.16) which was significantly

heavier than the mean weight, 51.1kg (± 0.12), of those three age groups. The

mean BMI of girls in 2005 to 2006 who aged 16 was 20.4 (± 3.4), girls aged 17

was 20.3 (± 3.6), girls aged 18 was 20.4 (± 3.8). The mean BMI of the subjects

was 27.33 (± 4.69) which was significantly higher than the mean BMI, 20.4 (±

0.06), of the three age groups.

The standard deviation in the measurement of (1) fat mass, (2) skinfold

37  

and (3) girths were significantly large: (1) The fat mass of the subjects varied

from 24.2% to 51.8% (± 8%); (2) The standard deviation of triceps, subscapular,

biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf were

±0.66, ±0.70, ±0.79, ±0.69, ±0.93, ±1.05, ±1.05, and ±0.69 respectively; (3)

The standard deviation of arm (relaxed), arm (flexed & tensed), waist

(minimum), gluteal (hips) and calf (maximum) were ±3.74, ±3.54, ±9.59, ±7.47,

and ±3.43 respectively. This indicated that there was heterogeneity of

anthropometric characteristic of the subjects. For the arm length, there was no

significant difference among subjects with standard deviation for

acromiale-radiale was ±1.4 cm, radiale-stylion was ±1.2cm

and total arm length was ±2.4cm.

Comparing to other types of sports, shot putters in this study had

significantly high percentage body fat (i.e. 35±8). According to Krawczyk et al.

(1995), the percentage body fat of athletes among the track and field events

were as followed: vertical jump, sprints, long-distance runs, long-distance walk

and heptathlon were 13.41 ±2.21, 14.89 ±2.88, 17.89 ±3.66, 17.98 ±3.66 and

15.12 ±2.07 respectively. Whereas the percentage body fat of athletes from

other types of sports were as followed: kayaking 16.26 ±4.32, rowing

38  

17.71±3.82, skiing 16.98±1.76, biathlon 17.24±3.92, judo 20.26±7.74, fencing

21.98±4.48, handball 21.85±4.66, basketball 20.07 ±4.79, tennis 17.74±1.53

and swimming 15.51±2.52.

The mean result of the subjects ,7.94m ±0.97, was significantly lower than

the record of Inter-School Athletics Competition , 12.86m, held by Ho Yin

Chiu, 2012. This indicated that the secondary school level female shot putters in

the year 2012 to 2013 had lower performances.

Relationship between the result of shot put and the anthropometric

measures

In this study, the findings showed that there were weak relationships

between the shot put performances and the height (r=0.39, p<0.12), weight

(r=0.38, p<0.13), BMI (r=0.34, p<0.17), fat mass (r=0.24,p<0.34), skinfold

(sum) (r=0.28, p<0.40), arm (relaxed) (r=0.47, p<0.053), arm (flexed & tensed)

(r=0.29, p<0.24), waist (minimum) (r=0.35,p<0.16), gluteal (hips) (r=0.20,

p<0.44), calf (maximum) (r=0.35, p<0.16) and total arm length (r=0.21,

p<0.40).

Despite the fact that there was no significant correlation between the

39  

result and the measured anthropometric variables, the arm (relaxed) (r=0.47,

p<0.053) had the relatively closest significant level (p<0.05) among all the

variables examined. Therefore, it might be the factor that had the highest

potential to affect the performance of shot put.

As there were weak relationships found between the shot put results and

anthropometric measurements, other variables might contribute more to

performance. Young (2004) stated that the distance of the shot is determined by

the release height, angle of release, the velocity of release and the release

position relative to the point of measurement. Skillful athletes have higher

abilities in controlling these parameters than the less skilled ones. Therefore,

shot putters who have higher anthropometric measurements cannot outperform

the skilled ones. Also muscle power and strength are important in achieving

better performances as stated in Kyriazis et al. (2009), Terzis et al. (2012) and

Judge et al. (2013).

All in all, since these anthropometric characteristics could not show a

strong relationship with the result, this might not be a good indicator in talent

selection in secondary school girls who are aged 16 to 18 in Hong Kong.

Factors affecting the result of this study

40  

Measuring error. Although the measurements of the skinfold, girths and

arm length were measured twice, measuring error still exists by using the

caliper, measuring tape and anthropometer. Also, the optimal clothing for

anthropometric measurements was swimsuit. The subjects were asked to put on

minimal clothing only in order to lower the level of embarrassment. What was

more, it took three weeks to finish the measurement. Subjects came on different

days and time in those three weeks thus might affect the unity and accuracy of

the measurements.

Subjects’ background. As the subjects were not the elite athletes but

were only in secondary school level. they were not truly shot put athletes. Some

subjects claimed that they mainly played basketball or volleyball and they were

not really good at shot put. They took part in the competition just because they

were asked by their physical education teachers. This could significantly affect

the results of the study.

41  

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

As this study was to find out the anthropometric characteristics of

secondary-school-level shot putters, the correlation of the shot put performance

and anthropometric variables were also examined.

A total of seventeen female shot put athletes aged from 16 to 18 who took

part in Inter-school Athletics Competition Division One (N=10) and Division

Two (N=7) were invited to participate in this study and their participation were

solely voluntary.

For this study, the subjects would be measured in the followings 4

categories: (1) Basic physical characteristics, (2) Skinfolds, (3) Girths and (4)

Arm Lengths which the procedures, instructions and method were provided by

the International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment (2001).

Statistical Package for the Social Science 18.0 was used for analyzing the

data collected. Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ age, height, weight, BMI,

fat mass, skinfold, girths, arm length and result were calculated and Spearman’s

rho correlation was used to analyze the relationship between the shot put

42  

performance and the anthropometric variables.

The results of this study were summarized in the following:

1. The mean height (166.7cm ±3.97), weight (76.06kg ± 15.16) and BMI

(27.33 ± 4.69) of the female shot putter were significantly higher than the

mean height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI (20.4±0.06) of

average girls according to So et al. (2008).

2. Measurements in fat mass, skinfold and girths had a significantly large

standard deviation indicating that the subjects had very different

anthropometric characteristics.

3. There was a very weak and non-significant relationship between the result

of shot put and the anthropometric variables of the female shot putters.

4. The arm (relaxed) (r=0.47, p<0.053) had the relatively closest significant

level (p<0.05) among all the variables examined. Therefore, it might be the

factor that had the highest potential to affect the performance of shot put.

Conclusions

The findings can be concluded that the subjects’ average height (166.7cm

±3.97), weight (76.06kg ± 15.16) and BMI (27.33 ± 4.69) of the subject are

higher than the average height (158.6±0.17), weight (51.1kg±0.12) and BMI

43  

(20.4±0.06) of normal girls with same age as stated in So et al. (2008). The

obvious differences in fat mass, skinfold and girths among the subjects

indicated that the anthropometric characteristic of the subjects varies. Also, the

relationship between the shot put performance and the anthropometric variables

is very weak.

Recommendations for future studies

1. The sample size can be extended to Division Three athletes, so a more

complete outlook of the anthropometric characteristics of female secondary

school shot putters can be developed.

2. Subjects can be divided into high performance group and low performance

group so as to study if there are differences between the two groups in terms

of anthropometric characteristics.

3. Muscles power and strengthen of lower extremities can be included in the

study since they are good indicators of better performance.

44  

REFERENCES

Abraham, G. (2010). Analysis of anthropometry, body composition and performance

variables of young Indian athletes in southern region. Indian Journal of Science

and Technology, 3(12), 1210-1213.

Carter, J.E.L. & Heath, B.H. (1990). Somatotyping － development and applications.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Judge, L. W., Bellar, D., Thrasher, A., Simon, L., Hindawi, O. S., & Wanless, E.

(2013). A Pilot Study Exploring the Quadratic Nature of the Relationship of

Strength to Performance Among Shot Putters. International Journal of Exercise

Science, 6(2), 10.

Krawczyk, B., Sklad, M., & Majle, B. (1995). Body components of male and female

athletes representing various sports. Biology of Sport, 12, 243-250.

Kyriazis, T., Terzis, G., Boudolos, K., & Georgiadis, G. (2009). Muscular power,

neuromuscular activation, and performance in shot put athletes at preseason and

at competition period. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research /

National Strength & Conditioning Association, 23(6), 1773-1779.

doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b3f91e

Linthorne, N. P. (2001). Optimum release angle in the shot put. Journal of Sports

Sciences, 19(5), 359-372.

Lipovšek, S., Škof, B., Štuhec, S., & Čoh, M. (2011). Biomechanical Factors of

Competitive Success With the Rotational Shot Put Technique. / Factores

biomecánilcos del éxito en la competencia con la técnica de rotación en

lanzamiento de Bala. / Facteurs biomécaniques de l'avantage compétitif de la

technique du lancer de poids en rotation. New Studies In Athletics, 26(1/2),

100-110.

Malina, R. M., Harper, A. B., Avent, H. H., & Campbell, D. E. (1971). Physique of

female track and field athletes. Med. Sci. Sports, 3(1), 32-38.

45  

Probst, J., & Lawler, P. (2007). Important Flight Parameters in the Shot Put. Modern

Athlete & Coach, 45(1), 39-40.

Programme Hightlights on Secondary Education. (n.d.) Retreived April, 29th,

2013, from

http://www.edb.gov.hk/tc/edu-system/primary-secondary/secondary/highlights/i

ndex.html

Records of Inter-School Athletics Competiction.(n.d.) Retreived April, 29th, 2013,

from http://www.hkssf-hk.org.hk/hk/sec/events/athletics/ath_records.htm

Silvester, J. (2003). SHOT PUT. In K. Pagel & R. Pagel (Eds.), Complete book of

throws (pp.31- 65). Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics

Singh, K., Singh, P., & Singh, C.(2012) Anthropometric Characteristics, Body

Composition and Somatotyping of High and Low Performer Shot Putters.

International Journal of Sports science and Engineering,06(03),153-158.

So, H. K., Nelson, E. A., Li, A. M., Wong, E. M., Lau, J. T., Guldan, G. S., ... & Sung,

R. Y. (2008). Secular changes in height, weight and body mass index in Hong

Kong Children. BMC Public Health, 8(1), 320.

Terzis, G. G., Karampatsos, G. G., & Georgiadis, G. G. (2007). Neuromuscular control

and performance in shot-put athletes. Journal Of Sports Medicine & Physical

Fitness, 47(3), 284-290.

Terzis, G., Kyriazis, T., Karampatsos, G., & Georgiadis, G. (2012). Muscle strength,

body composition, and performance of an elite shot-putter. International

Journal Of Sports Physiology And Performance, 7(4), 394-396.

Terzis, G., Georgiadis, G., Vassiliadou, E., & Manta, P. (2003). Relationship between

shot put performance and triceps brachii fiber type composition and power

production. European journal of applied physiology, 90(1-2), 10-15.

Tešanović, G., Mihajlović, I., Bošnjak, G., & Dragosavljević, P.(2010). RELATIONS

BETWEEN THE BODY MASS INDEX AND THE ANTHROPOMETRIC

46  

DIMENSIONS AND THE RESULTS ACHIEVED IN SHOT PUT.Acta

Kinesiologica 4(2),78-82.

Thorland, W., Johnson, G., Fagot, T., Tharp, G., & Hammer, R. (1981). Body

composition and somatotype characteristics of junior Olympic

athletes. Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise, 13(5), 332-338.

The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (2001).

International Standards for Anthropometric Assessment.

Retrieved from:

http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/83631355/1318405609/name/6692536-ISAK-BO

OK.pdf

Young, M. (2004). Critical Factors in the Shot Put. Track coach, 166, 5299-5304.

Young, M., & Li, L. (2005). Athletics: Determination of critical parameters among

elite female shot putters. Sports Biomechanics, 4(2), 131-148.

Zatsiorsky, V. M., Lanka, G. E., & Shalmanov, A. A. (1981). Biomechanical analysis

of shot putting technique. Exercise & Sport Sciences Reviews, 9353-389

47  

APPENDIX A

Consent From to Athletes

Dear athletes, 

 

Anthropometric Characteristics

Of Senior Secondary School Female Shot Put Athletes In Hong Kong

 

I am Mo Wai Man Teresa, a year 3 student in Hong Kong Baptist University

majoring in Physical Education and Recreation Management, is now going to

complete my Honors Project on the above mentioned topic.

In this study, wearing minimal clothing is required to undertake the following

measurements: 1) Basic physical characteristic which include height, weight and fat

mass, 2) Skinfold on 8 sites, 3) Girths on 5 sites, and 4) Length of the upper arm and

lower arm.

Should there be any queries or if you want to get a copy of this research report,

please contact Mo Wai Man Teresa, cell phone: 6180 5937.

Thank you.

Yours sincerely,

Mo Wai Man Teresa

Date:

I, , understand my involvement of doing this

measurement test is voluntary, and I have been told that my name will be kept

confidential, I have the right to ask for the completed report.

Signature Date

48  

APPENDIX B

Data Collection Sheet

Date: Venue: Measurer: Mo Wai Man Teresa

Subject’s Name: Age: School:

Result:

Basic physical characteristic

Variables Measurement

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

BMI

Fat Mass (%)

Skinfold (8)

Variables Measurement 1(cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)

Triceps

Subscapular

Biceps

Iliac Crest

Supraspinale

Abdominal

Front Thigh

Medial Calf

Girths (5)

Variables Measurement 1 (cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)

Arm (relaxed)

Arm (flexed &

tensed)

Waist (minimum)

Gluteal (hips)

Calf (maximum)

Lengths (2)

Variables Measurement 1 (cm) Measurement 2 (cm) Mean (cm)

49  

Acromiale-radiale

Radiale-stylion