mod 5 student guide - arcticnetmodule 5 - human use and governance student guide 1 1.0 governance of...

ARCTIC MARINE SCIENCE CURRICULUM

MODULE 5 HUMAN USE & GOVERNANCE

STUDENT GUIDE 2001

Prepared for: Fisheries and Oceans Canada

Northwest Territories Dept. of Education, Culture and Employment Nunavut Department of Education Yukon Department of Education

Prepared by: AIMM North Heritage Tourism Consulting

with Prairie Sea Services, Bufo Incorporated and Adrian Schimnowski

MODULE 5 STUDENT GUIDE

MODULE 5 - HUMAN USE AND GOVERNANCE STUDENT GUIDE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Governance of Marine Resources ................................................... 1 2.0 Global Change................................................................................. 26 Glossary..................................................................................................... 46


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1.0 Governance of Marine Resources

Sustainability refers to the conservation, protection, and regeneration of resources over an indefinite period of time. Central to sustainability is the idea that today's decisions affect the future of human health and well-being, the environment, and the economy. Sustainability requires knowledge and understanding of past events as well as the ability to make informed predictions of future events. From an aboriginal perspective, the concept of sustainability has historic roots and has traditionally guided aboriginal decision-making. Decisions must be sustainable now and in the future, for seven generations to come. The aim of sustainability is to make equitable decisions and to conduct activities so that human health and well-being, the environment, and the economy can be improved and maintained for future generations. Sustainability is a complex idea. It requires understanding, not just of social, environmental, and economic issues, but also of their ongoing interrelationship and interdependence. The process of sustainable decision making involves a critical examination of our priorities, habits, beliefs, and values. The challenge of sustainability is that it must be a collaborative process – citizens need to agree upon a vision as well as an action plan for the future. With sustainable development as a guiding precept, one considers simultaneously the positive and negative impacts of any decision on human health and well-being, the environment, and the economy. The

1.1 SUSTAINABILITY Sustainability, or sustainable development, plays an important role in management decisions related to Arctic marine resources. The following excerpt highlights some of the key components of sustainable development.


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"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Source: World Commission of Environment and Development, 1987.

Figure 1: Sustainable Development

Source: Education for a Sustainable Future

Quality of

Life

Environment Human

Health and Well-being

Economy

purpose of this is to integrate and balance our needs, so that an equitable quality of life for all can be achieved and sustained in the future, for seven generations to come. Source: Education for a Sustainable Future


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1.2 MANAGING OCEAN RESOURCES IN THE ARCTIC - AN INTRODUCTION

The terms above represent a sampling of the organizations, regulatory bodies, Acts, etc. that apply to the management of marine resources. Consider the following:

Each marine species gives rise to different concerns, may be subject to different regulations, and interact differently with other species. For example, seals are the main food source for polar bears. Any variation in numbers of seals due to harvesting, environmental factors or a changing climate could affect the polar bear population. Seals and polar bears are independently regulated as a marine species and terrestrial wildlife, respectively, under separate Acts and departments. Bowhead and narwhal


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populations in a specific region may still be affected by historic as well as present harvesting practices, while tourism and subsistence harvesting activities influence beluga whales. Fish that migrate across international boundaries require international co-operation for conservation and management.

Adapted from: Jurisdictional, Manitoba

First Nations and Inuit Issues for the

Western Hudson Bay Region, A Discussion Paper (February 2001)

In this module, you will investigate the complexity of the management of marine resources and identify issues that are of local importance. Sovereignty Over Water Resources An important starting point, when looking at issues related to marine resources is to determine who has "sovereignty" over particular areas of the ocean. Under common law, the right to fish is determined by ownership of the bed of the river, lake, or water body. The party who owns the bed has the exclusive right to fish in waters above that bed. Unlike provinces and the federal government, territorial governments own and control very limited lands in their territory, and usually did not own lands adjacent to rivers, or the beds of rivers and other water bodies. Therefore, they must rely on other legislation governing the right to fish. The Nunavut Final Agreement is changing the status of the lands in their territory and the resulting water rights. The Nunavut Final Agreement transfers land to Inuit throughout Nunavut Territory. Inuit owned lands are adjacent to rivers and coast, and include the beds of rivers and water bodies. The Agreement provides that the Inuit have the exclusive right to use waters flowing on or through their lands. The Nunavut Territory includes the most extensive marine areas of any province or territory. Only the federal government has greater territory in the offshore. The territorial government has limited legislative powers in the offshore marine area, and the federal government continues to own the seabed underlying the marine areas. Under the Agreement, the federal and territorial governments will use joint land and resource


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management boards to initiate a new type of management process. The United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea (1994) confirms international common law, where every coastal state has sovereignty over the sea adjacent to its coast for the distance of twelve nautical miles (territorial sea). These rights extend to the air space above, as well as the bed and subsurface resources. The Convention also establishes an economic zone that extends two hundred miles from the coastline and includes the territorial sea. Within this economic zone the federal government has rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage natural resources in waters adjacent to the seabed and in the seabed and subsoil, as well as any other economic activities. Territorial seas and economic zones are easy to define for large land masses, but are more difficult to define in the case of groups of islands, or archipelagos. The Convention attempts to clarify the status of archipelagos that are considered to be part of a country. This has important implications for the Canadian Arctic in determining which are internal or territorial waters versus international waters. For example, Hudson Bay, James Bay, and Hudson Strait are considered internal Canadian waters. Things are not clear-cut, however, and several disputes are still underway related to this very important point:

• There is been an ongoing dispute with the United States over whether waters in Canada's archipelago are international waters, or internal waters subject to the right of international navigation.

• Canada has a dispute with the United States about national borders, and ownership of the seabed and oil and gas and mineral resources in the Beaufort Sea.

• Canada has a dispute with Denmark over the Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, as to whether these waters are international or internal waters.


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1.3 THE ROLE OF LAND-CLAIMS AGREEMENTS

The previous section introduced the concept of sovereignty over ocean resources, and highlighted some of the changes brought about by the Nunavut Final Agreement. This section will address the role of land claims agreements in the management of ocean resources in further detail, including the various organizations and regulations that need to be considered in decision-making. All coastal areas in the NWT and Nunavut have been designated within the Nunavut or Inuvialuit Land Claim Settlement Areas. The North Slope (land base) of Yukon, adjacent to the Beaufort Sea is part of the Inuvialuit Settlement region. (See Figure 2: Land Claims Settlement Regions.) Inuvialuit Final Agreement The Inuvialuit Final Agreement was the most comprehensive land-claims settlement in Canada when it was signed in 1984. Its provisions for land-use planning, environmental review processes, and wildlife and fisheries management included the establishment of an Environmental Impact Screening Committee to assess the impacts of any development. If the committee considers any impacts to be serious, it refers the matter to the Environmental Impact Review Board (EIRB). The EIRB can do one of three things:

• Initiate public hearings • Recommend that the project go ahead and

recommend conditions associated with going ahead; or recommend the project not proceed;

• Or recommend that further assessment or review is required

Both the screening committee and the review board are composed of equal numbers of Inuvialuit and government appointees and a government-appointed chairman, which has approval by the Inuvialuit with a tie-breaking vote. For the management of fisheries, including marine mammals, the agreement establishes the Fisheries Joint Management Committee (FJMC), formed of two


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Figure 2: Land Claims Settlement Regions Source: Newparksnorth.org

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2

1 3

4

6 5

7 8

Legend 1 Council for Yukon First Nations Claim Area 2 Inuvialuit Settlement Region 3 Gwich'in Settlement Area 4 Sahtu Settlement Region Dene and Metis Claims areas of South Mackenzie 5 Deh Cho 6 North Slave (Treaty 11)* 7 South Slave (Treaty 8)* 8 Nunavut Settlement Region *Some overlap exists. Source: Newparksnorth.org


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The bond between Inuit and the land and wildlife was weakened when settlements replaced their nomadic lifestyle. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement aims to change that.

Source: Inuit and the Land as One www.nunavut.com

"A basic goal of the Inuvialuit Land Rights Settlement is to protect and preserve the Arctic wildlife, environment and biological productivity through the application of conservation principles and practices." Source: Inuvialuit Final Agreement

Inuvialuit and two government representatives, along with a tie-breaking chairman selected by the committee itself. The FJMC advises the minister of Fisheries and Oceans as to quotas, regulations, and research, and allocates subsistence quotas among communities. The minister can accept or reject the recommendations, with provision for further consultation with the FJMC. At the community level, Hunters and Trappers Committees (HTC) sub-allocate quotas, when required, set local by-laws, and serve as the liaison between the community and the FJMC. The Inuvialuit Final Agreement also states that Inuvialuit are to have equal representation on any land-use planning boards that might be established, although no such planning boards were explicitly specified in the agreement. The Nunavut Final Agreement The Nunavut Final Agreement (1993) for the central and eastern Arctic, exclusive of Quebec, is more comprehensive and specific than the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in its provisions for aboriginal control over marine habitat and stocks. It specifically provides for land-use planning by establishing the Nunavut Planning Commission, composed equally of government and Inuit representatives, and contains strong statements that habitat and wildlife will be managed according to the principles of conservation. Government retains the ultimate responsibility for wildlife conservation; however, beneficiaries (the Inuit people whose rights are defined in the Nunavut Final Agreement) have specific rights to take marine products, as follows:

• beneficiaries are the first priority, and can take up to the limit of their basic needs level, including inter-settlement trade;

• resident non-beneficiaries have next priority; • existing businesses have the next priority; • finally, beneficiaries have the right to any

further allowable catch. Inuit have preference in the development of any business based on harvesting, tourism, parks, and other marine products. They also have the right of free access and harvesting up to the total allowable harvest for each stock in any national park, park reserve, and


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Marine Provisions (Section 15.1.1)

• In marine areas, the legal rights of the Inuit flowing from the agreement are based on traditional and current use

• Inuit harvest wildlife that might migrate beyond the marine areas

• There is a need for Inuit involvement in aspects of Arctic marine management, including research; and

• There is a need to develop and co-ordinate policies for marine areas

conservation area that may be set up, unless they decide voluntarily to limit their take. Management of wildlife (including fish, sea birds, and marine mammals) is the responsibility of the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board (NWMB), composed of one member appointed by the Nunavut, three members appointed by the federal government, four members from designated Inuit organizations, and a tie-breaking chairman selected by the NWMB itself. Thus the NWMB is a powerful body with a mandate to control all aspects of marine harvesting and conservation in the Nunavut Settlement Area. The Minister of Fisheries and Oceans can interfere with this right only if it is demonstrated that NWMB actions threaten the conservation of stocks. The agreement further states that the Nunavut Impact Review Board, the Nunavut Water Board, the Nunavut Planning Commission, and the NWMB may jointly form a Marine Council, an advisory body only. The NWMB effectively brings four levels of government together under one umbrella. Representing the Government of Nunavut, the federal government, and designated Inuit organizations. The NWMB is likely to delegate part of its responsibilities to regional wildlife organizations and community-based Hunters and Trappers Organizations (HTOs). These groups will have considerable input into decisions related to harvesting, catch allocation, economic development based on marine resources, and marine research programs. For example, a local HTO could request a ban on particular research activities if these activities are likely to disturb particular wildlife or their habitat. The NWMB would then make the final decision, which could include recommendations for revisions to the planned research activities to meet the local concerns. As previously mentioned, the Nunavut Agreement gives beneficiaries the right of free access and hunting, within the limits of stock conservation, on all land and territorial waters. This means that parks and conservation areas are accessible to Inuit for harvest purposes, whereas they may be off-limits to non-Inuit.


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The magic of co-management is not that it brings aboriginal people to the science table, but rather that it makes science available to aboriginal people so that they can use it as a tool along with their indigenous knowledge...to make decisions consistent with their underlying philosophy of wise use.

Source: Marine Conservation in the Canadian Arctic:

A Regional Overview

Inuit see Conservation Areas as one mechanism for the protection of stocks, in effect creating large game preserves in key areas. This is part of the reasoning behind the proposed Isabella Bay bowhead sanctuary. The Role of Traditional Knowledge (TEK) Until land-claims agreements installed meaningful co-management structures, TEK had little impact on the development of government policy. Now that aboriginal people have equal representation on management boards, TEK and beliefs are incorporated into management decisions. The following excerpts discuss the role of TEK in the decision-making process that is part of co-management.

TEK and Decision-Making Traditional environmental knowledge (TEK) has an important role to play in the decision-making process that is a part of co-management. Aboriginal users of natural resources have built up a great storehouse of knowledge about their prey and the ecosystems that produce that prey. Aboriginal peoples have also developed a belief system that is still with them today – the theme of which is the holistic nature of ecosystems: All creatures and the Earth are interrelated, such that interference with one may have unpredictable effects elsewhere in the system. In a similar vein, Inuit object to ranking the importance of species both to ecosystems and to themselves, stating that all species might at one time be valuable as food and that all species have a function within the system, even if that function is unknown. Thus aboriginal people are Canada's original ecologists. Their belief in the interrelatedness of things is accompanied by their respect for the creatures that must be killed so that humans might live. Hunting and fishing for sport is not always understandable and, even today, aboriginal people raised on the land do not appreciate catch-and-release fish conservation practices. Don't toy with your food – if you catch it, you use it.

Source Adapted from: Marine Conservation in the

Canadian Arctic: A Regional Overview


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1.4 GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES There are numerous government departments that have are active in the management of marine resources. Descriptions of some of these departments, their legislative mandate is provided below. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) This federal department has primary responsibility of the Northwest, Nunavut and Yukon Territories, and the Arctic Ocean. It owns and manages the majority of the land, other than lands and subsurface rights transferred to the Inuit, and limited territorial and municipal lands. It is involved in the following types of activities:

• Negotiating and implementing the Nunavut Final Agreement;

• Developing onshore and offshore mineral and energy resources in the Canadian Arctic, as it owns and manages land on behalf of the federal government;

• Working with the National Energy Board to jointly manage development of oil and gas in the offshore waters in the Arctic Ocean;

• (subject to the requirements of the Nunavut Final Agreement) responsible for permits and regulation for land, water, and mineral resources (many of these functions under the existing acts have been modified for the Nunavut Territory)

Environment Canada

• Regulates the environment under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (addresses international air quality, ocean dumping and regulation of toxic substances);

• Includes the Canadian Wildlife Service, responsible for the Canada Wildlife Act (other than polar bears, includes only migratory birds and terrestrial species); is active with the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board.

Figure 4: Hunter


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Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency

• Under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, establishes a process to assess the environmental aspects of a project before that project is either authorized by a federal department, federal lands are used, or federal money is provided.

• Environmental assessment in the Nunavut Final Agreement replaces the process under the Act when development and impacts from that development occur in the territory.

Parks Canada Agency

• Mandate to protect and present nationally significant examples of Canada's natural and cultural heritage, and to foster public understanding, appreciation and enjoyment in ways that ensure the ecological and commemorative integrity of these places for present and future generations;

• Parks Canada has extensive powers over parks under the National Parks Act, including management of fisheries, the control of renewable resource harvesting, and the protection of fish habitat;

• Legislation to establish and manage national marine conservation areas has been proposed but not enacted;

• Parks Canada is required under the Nunavut Final Agreement to negotiate Inuit impact and benefit agreements for both existing and new parks as well as marine conservation areas in Nunavut.


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Marine Protected Areas and the Canadian Arctic

Although the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are generally defined under the Oceans Act, the Act was designed to encourage stakeholder participation in defining the specific boundaries and management plans for each MPA according to its purpose, location and nature. A strong emphasis is placed on involving stakeholders in the beginning stages so that the priorities and goals of the communities and stakeholders affected are considered. It also provides the opportunity for creating a process that will be flexible at all stages of development. An MPA in the Arctic requires working closely with coastal communities and stakeholders within existing co-management frameworks that have been established under northern land claim agreements. MPA planning provides an opportunity for DFO and northern communities to work together towards oceans conservation while stimulating local involvement and responsibility, enhancing opportunities for monitoring and guardianship of community areas, and improving decision making. MPA’s are based on adaptive management, which presents the opportunity to “learn by doing”. Potential MPA’s are generally identified through the broader integrated management planning process.

Source: New Parks North

March 2000 http://www.newparksnorth.org/mpa.htm

htt

Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) • DFO has the lead oceans role within the

Federal Government and is responsible for co-ordinating federal policies and programs related to the oceans.

• The management of fish and protection of fish habitat in fresh and marine waters under the Fisheries Act;

• Marine management in Hudson Bay and Arctic waters under the Oceans Act (the domestic application of the previously discussed United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea);

• Following a merger of the Canadian Coast Guard with DFO (1996), regulation of navigation and shipping under the Canada Shipping Act, and issuance of approvals under the Navigable Waters Protection Act.

In 1997, Canada adopted the Oceans Act to address Canada's economic, social and environmental oceans objectives. This Act requires DFO to lead the development of a Canada’s Oceans Management Strategy. The Act mandates a collaborative approach to the development of this strategy and stipulates that the strategy be based on 3 principles:

• Sustainable development • Integrated management • Precautionary approach

Canada’s Oceans Management Strategy will position Canada as a world leader in oceans management. It is supported by 3 programs:

• Marine Environmental Quality Program – providing scientific assessment

• Integrated Management Program – engaging citizens and building consensus

• Marine Protected Areas (MPA) Program – providing special protection

Integrated management is a proactive approach towards sound oceans management. It is an ongoing and collaborative planning process that brings together interested parties, stakeholders and regulators to reach general agreement on the best mix of conservation, sustainable use and economic development of coastal and marine areas for the benefit of all Canadians.


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INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROJECTS IN THE ARCTIC HUDSON BAY INTEGRATED

MANAGEMENT PROJECT

BEAUFORT SEA INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT PLANNING

INITIATIVE • Fisheries and Oceans

Canada • Environment Canada • Inuvialuit Regional

Corporation • Inuvialuit Game

Council • (Inuvialuit) Fisheries

Joint Management Committee

• Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers

• Inuvialuit Communities

• Community Hunters and Trappers Committees

• Federal Government • Fisheries and Oceans

Canada • Environment Canada • Indian and Northern Affairs

Canada • Parks Canada Heritage • Ministry of Transport • Canadian Environmental

Assessment Agency • Canadian Wheat Board • Natural Resources Canada • Province of Manitoba • Conservation • Highways and

Transportation • Nunavut Government • Executive and

Intergovernmental Affairs • Community Government

and Transportation • Sustainable Development • Department of Public

Works • Nunavut Tungavik Inc. • Kivalliq Inuit Association • Community Hunters and

Trappers Committees

• Nunavut Wildlife Management Board

• Nunavut Impact Review Board

• Nunavut Water Board • Nunavut Planning

Commission • Keewatin Wildlife

Federation • Manitoba, Ontario and

Quebec First Nations • World Wildlife Fund • Mining Watch Canada • Taiga Rescue Network • University of Manitoba • Churchill Northern Studies

Centre • Yukon College • Hudson Bay Port

Company • Manitoba Hydro • Manitoba Mining

Association • Communities of Churchill,

York Factory, Split Lake, Aquggiak, Arviq, Sanikiluaq, Arviat, Issatik, Aiviit, Aqigiq, Baker Lake, Iqaluit, Fort Severn

Two major integrated management projects are currently underway in the Arctic. The following table summarizes the participants in these projects:


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Figure 6: Maritime Zones

The Following Maps Illustrate the area to which Canada's Oceans Strategy will apply and Canada's Maritime Zones.

Figure 5: Canada's Ocean Management Zones

Figure 5: Maritime Zones Maritime ZonesArea of Application of Canada’s Oceans Strategy

Continental Shelf

Exclusive Economic Zone

Contiguous Zone

Continental Shelf

Continental Slope

Continental Rise Deep Seabed

The High Seas

Sovereign rights for exploring and exploiting non-living

resources of sea-bed and subsoil, plus sedentary

species

Sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving

and managing living and non-living resources of the

water, sea-bed and subsoil

(Claimable to a

maximum of 350nm

or 100nm from the

2500m isobath)

Common heritage of mankind

Inte

rna

l W

ate

rs

Te

rrit

ori

al

Se

a

12nm

24nm

nm = nautical miles

200nm350nm

or 100nm from the 2500m isobath

Figure 2.

Te

rrit

ori

al

Se

a B

as

eli

ne

For illustrative and discussion purposes only.


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1.5 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS A number of agreements at the international level attempt to approach the management of ocean resources from a global perspective. However, it should be noted that the majority of international agreements/strategies do not include a legally binding commitment (the Kyoto Protocol is one exception). A sampling of these agreements is as follows:

• The 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) strengthened international pressure on coastal states to conserve biodiversity and to preserve marine habitats. • Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy

(AEPS) resulted from a meeting in Finland in 1991. In 1996, a declaration was signed establishing the Arctic Council. The Arctic Council is building on the work started by AEPS and is a high level forum designed to identify priorities for regional cooperation for environmental and sustainable development in the Arctic. The Council sponsors four subsidiary groups: - Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP) - Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna - Emergency Prevention Preparedness and Response - Protection of the Marine Arctic Environment

• In 1992, 154 countries at Rio de Janeiro signed the United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 by consensus. Industrialized countries entered legally binding commitments to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% compared to 1990 levels for the period of 2008-2012.


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• At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, governments from around the world agreed to Agenda 21. This work plan identifies what needs to be done to achieve sustainable development in the 21st century, recognizing the special importance of oceans and coastal zones in relation to sustainable development. It calls on coastal states to commit themselves to integrated management and sustainable development of the coastal and marine environment.

• The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities was adopted in 1995 by over one hundred governments who attended the international conference. Canada agreed to a national program of action to address the protection of the marine environment from land-based sources of pollution. This program includes an Arctic chapter that applies to the Canadian Arctic region. Canada also a participant in an Arctic regional chapter formed of Arctic circumpolar countries.

• The Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), representing the concerns of all Arctic aboriginal people, has developed its own science and technology policy, expressed in the paper "Principles and Elements for a Comprehensive Arctic Policy." ICC calls for a holistic approach to sustainable development in the Arctic that recognizes the rights of indigenous people and that, among other things, requires that development be based on the principle of conservation of marine systems.

Case Study - Migratory Birds The following news release illustrates recent developments related to laws pertaining to hunting and use of migratory birds.


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NEWS RELEASE November 20, 1997

U.S. SENATE RATIFIES AMENDMENTS TO MIGRATORY BIRD

TREATIES WITH CANADA AND MEXICO

The U.S. Senate has approved amendments to migratory bird treaties with Canada and Mexico that will improve the management of birds that migrate between the countries and provide fairness in the regulation of waterfowl harvests to Alaska's indigenous people and Canada's aboriginal people. The Migratory Bird Convention with Canada, signed in 1916, is North America's oldest international wildlife conservation pact. The United States and Mexico signed a similar treaty in 1936. The treaties provide protection for all species of migratory birds in North American except in regulated hunting seasons for game birds. By barring migratory bird hunting between March 10 and September 1, however, the original treaties did not adequately take into account traditional harvests of migratory birds by northern indigenous people during the spring and summer months. These harvests have gone on for centuries and continued despite the treaty prohibitions. In many cases, the birds are a vital food source for northern indigenous people of Canada and Alaska. The amendments will allow the United States and Canada to recognize and cooperatively manage these subsistence hunts with native people. Because no new harvests are being established, biologists expect the amendments to have little or no impact on either the number of birds flying south or the abundance of game species. In fact, the amendments should improve management of these birds by creating a partnership with indigenous people who are stewards of some of the most important habitat in the world. "The amendments are a win-win for native people, migratory birds, and everyone who enjoys birds," Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt said. "The amendments not only recognize the centuries-old harvest of migratory birds by native people but also improves the conservation of these birds by including native peoples in the management process." "The amendments also will benefit bird conservation by increasing cooperation and the flow of information between the three countries," he said. The amendments to the migratory bird treaties also:

• Increase information exchanges and data collection among the three countries and Aboriginal and indigenous people, expanding the scientific base for migratory bird management;

• Update certain parts of the treaties including the species list and outdated protection measures;


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Ε Check Your Understanding

1. Describe how the changes to the Migratory Bird Act reflect a new

perspective on aboriginal use of resources. 2. Why are changes like this important to aboriginal people in the Arctic? 3. What other laws, treaties, etc. have an impact on how residents of the

Arctic are able to utilize the ocean's resources?

(cont’d) • Provide a forum whereby the countries can work cooperatively to resolve

migratory bird problems in a manner consistent with the principles underlying the treaties and, if necessary, design special actions or policies to conserve and protect species of concern.

While the amendments provide for a legal spring and summer harvest for some far northern people, the Canadian and American governments are required to ensure this migratory bird harvest is conducted in accordance with conservation principles. The United States will establish specific harvest regulations for spring and summer seasons in cooperation with local and state cooperative management organizations. Following ratification, the United States and Canada will engage in regulatory processes to ensure the amendments are properly implemented. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will rely on authority under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 to establish subsistence harvest seasons in Alaska. The public will have ample opportunity to comment on regulations. The Service also will establish cooperative management bodies comprising Alaska Natives and state and Service officials to recommend annual regulations for the hunts.


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Case Study - Shipping Through the Arctic Waters The following article provides information on the internationally contentious topic of ownership of the Northwest Passage, why this is an important issue, and potential problems for Canada.

Who Owns the Water?

Today, only a handful of ships can navigate the Northwest Passage each year, and those are steeled against the dangerous ice floes and often are accompanied by icebreakers. Changes caused by the global warming trend could change this situation. Experts are actually considering whether the Northwest Passage will become the Panama Canal of the North- a tanker superhighway that ships clamour to traverse because it is, as explorers Martin Frobisher, John Davis and Henry Hudson suspected, a shortcut from the wealth of Asia to the hungry markets of Europe. In fact, it would reduce the journey by more than a third and result in huge cost savings. The following information addresses some of the facts and concerns related to increased traffic through the Northwest Passage:

• In the fall of 1999 the Russians pulled a massive floating dry dock all the way through the Northwest Passage , the first foreign industrial use of the passage in history.

• The Japanese have invested millions of dollars on ice research in recent years. • Five ships showed up in Iqaluit in early July 1999, lining up almost a week early

for a chance to navigate the passage, the coast guard was still escorting ships in the second week of November, two weeks later than usual.

• The Canadian Coast Guard is considering setting up a mandatory reporting system for any ships taking on the passage. The current system is voluntary and most-but not all-vessels declare themselves to Canada before they go through. At the present time, Canada is not set up for monitoring undeclared traffic through the passage.

• Canada considers the Northwest Passage an internal waterway over which it has exclusive control and has the right to set the rules over who gets to go through and in what sort of vessels (a key concern is to avoid letting substandard ships with a high risk of causing oil spills pass through).

• Part of Canada's claim to sovereignty stems from the fact that the water is covered with ice most of the year, the warming trend is making this claim even weaker.

• To other countries (US as well as Europe) the Northwest Passage is an international strait that ought to be governed by the world's shipping community.

• The US has caused several international incidents over their use of the Northwest Passage, including sending an oil tanker through in 1969, and an ice-breaker in 1985.


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Figure 7: Navigation in the Arctic

(cont’d) • Other troublesome incidents include: a refitted Russian cruise ship stranded in the

Arctic for two weeks in 1997, a Chinese government research vessel showed up unannounced at Tuktoyaktuk for unknown reasons in 1999, a submarine reported near Cumberland Sound off Baffin Island also in 1999 (it is not known which country sent the submarine), submarine sightings near Pangnirtung at the time of French President Jacques Chirac's visit.

• There is some speculation that the Arctic's freshwater will become a hot international commodity worth more than oil.

• Reduction in ice will make it easier to get at the Arctic's oil and gas reserves, the diamond finds, and the minerals and metals near Cambridge Bay.

• OTHER EXPERTS DISAGREE that new shipping routes are in demand or that using the Northwest Passage would make economic sense.

Source: FOCUS The Globe and Mail, Saturday, February 5, 2000, Page A9

found at http://www.indelta.com/carc/whatsnew/writings/amitchell.html


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1. The Northwest Passage is still along way from being a reliable open-water route today. There is no sign yet that a ship not strengthened against the ice could get through, but it has to be considered as a future possibility. a) Assess the potential risks and benefits of increased use of the Northwest Passage by examining the implications for the economy, society, and the environment. b) Interview Elders to obtain their thoughts on the opening of the passage.


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1.6 POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES

Oil and gas development has important economic potential for the Arctic. However, in decision-making for sustainability, environmental and social factors also need to be considered. The following list summarizes some of these areas:

• Marine mammals • Arctic human communities • Subsistence lifestyles (e.g. harvest practices

and availability of food supply) • Oil spill preparedness and response in sea ice

conditions • Permafrost and transition zones • Sustainability of renewable resources • Flora and other fauna • Other human activities (e.g. tourism, scientific

research) • Air and water quality • Ports and shore reception facilities • Effects of ice scour and movement

The following table provides more details on the potential environmental effects of oil and gas activities.


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ACTIVITY POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Seismic Activity

• Noise effects on fish, sea birds and marine mammals • Accidental oil spillage from ships or other accidents

Exploration: Rig emplacement Drilling

• Seabed disturbance due to dredging, filling and anchoring

• Discharges of drill cuttings, drill fluids, excess cement, platform drainage, household discharges and emissions of exhaust gases

• Discharges from supply vessels, helicopter transportation, etc.

• Risk of blowouts • Noise

Development & Production: Platform installation Drilling Production

• Seabed disturbances or loss of habitat due to dredging, filing and anchoring

• As under exploration, but more extensive orders of magnitude larger discharges to sea floor, water column and air. Extended risk of blowouts and oil spills

• Chronic discharges of oil and chemicals to water, chronic emissions of gases with climate effects, acidifying affects etc. additional risks of spills, discharges and emissions connected to transportation (tankers, supply vessels, pipelines, etc.) noise

Decommissioning & Reclamation: Removing installations

• Seabed disturbance, disturbance from cutting piles containing oil and chemicals, dredging, air emissions, noise, etc.


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Ε Check Your Understanding Imagine a fictional community perched on the edge of a large oil and gas reserve. This community has strong traditional hunting practices in place, but also has a large number of youth that are looking for economic opportunities that would allow them to remain in their community. The local marine waters are also part of the beluga migration route. Using the information above as a starting point, carry out any research needed to write a letter to the local hamlet council either recommending or not recommending oil and gas development from one of the following perspectives:

• Elder • High School Youth About to Graduate • Mayor • School Teacher • Territorial Leader (e.g. premier) • Oil Company Executive • Other (your suggestion)

Remember that arguments should be based on a sustainable development perspective that considers the economy, the environment and human health and well-being.


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2.0 GLOBAL CHANGE

INTRODUCTION Human use is having significant change on the Arctic environment. These changes are not just the result of what is happening locally, many of the changes are the result of what is happening on a global scale. This section will examine some of the major factors that are impacting on the Arctic environment in general, and specifically, on the Arctic marine resources. 2.1 CLIMATE CHANGE Inuit Observations on Climate Change Inuvialuit hunters and trappers on Banks Island have recently been noticing environmental changes that are significant and worrying. The climate has become unpredictable; the landscape unfamiliar. Given the dramatic changes that local people have observed, the International Institute for Sustainable Development and the Hunters and Trappers Committee of Sachs Harbour initiated a year-long project to document the problem of Arctic climate change and communicate it to Canadian and international audiences. The project combined participatory workshops, semi-structured interviews, community meetings and fieldwork to better understand the extent of local knowledge with respect to climate change. Completed in 2000, this project has set a new standard for collaboration between scientists and local community members. Some of the changes documented by this project include:

• Autumn freeze-up occurs up to a month later than usual and the spring thaw is earlier every year.

• There are smaller amounts of multi-year sea-ice and it now drifts far from the community in the summer, taking with it the seals upon which the community relies for food.

• In the winter, the sea-ice is thin and broken, making travel dangerous for even the most experienced hunters.

• In the fall, storms have become frequent and severe, making boating difficult.


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• Thunder and lightning have been seen for the

first time. • Hot weather in the summer is melting the

permafrost and causing large-scale slumping on the coastline and along the shores of inland lakes.

• Melting has already caused one inland lake to drain into the ocean, killing the freshwater fish. Around the town of Sachs Harbour.

• Building foundations are shifting. • New species of birds such as barn swallows

and robins are arriving on the island. • In nearby waters, salmon have been caught for

the first time. • An influx of flies and mosquitoes are making

life difficult for humans and animals.


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Did You Know…

Greenhouse Gases

• The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide absorb some of the sun's heat and warm the Earth

• Every year, human activities release 28 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the sky; half of which remains in the atmosphere.

• Burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas accounts for 80--85% of man-made carbon dioxide emissions.

• Transportation is the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

• Twenty-five percent of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions are the direct result of activities by individual Canadians.

• Without a concerted effort by all Canadians, by 2010 our greenhouse gas emissions are expected to be 20--25% higher than in 1990.

Source: Environment Canada's

Green Lane

2.2 THE SCIENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE

TAMPERING WITH THE EARTH’S THERMOSTAT The following information is taken from Environment Canada's Green Lane website (www.msc.ec.gc.ca/cd/climate) Understanding the Earth’s climate Climate change is something that all Canadians should know about. It is a problem that we all contribute to, and it is going to affect our country in many ways. This fact sheet explains how the Earth's climate functions - what major factors are involved, some of the other influences, and how they all interrelate. With a good understanding of how climate works, it is easier to understand climate change, and how it might affect all of us. What is climate? Like many things in nature, the Earth's climate is the result of a delicate balancing act. The sun's rays, our atmosphere, the continents and the oceans are all involved in a complex series of interactions. The main elements of the Earth's climate system – along with many other influencing factors – work in concert to create weather systems. Satellite images show us how these systems swirl across the surface of the globe like dancers in a waltz. Is there a difference between "climate" and "weather"? Canada's climate is described as "temperate", meaning that most of the country experiences four seasons. Our geography affects the climate from region to region. For example, the Pacific Ocean, westerly air currents, and the Rocky Mountains act together to give Canada's west coast mild weather and lots of rainfall. This is a general description of the area's climate; its weather is what actually happens from day to day. Specific occurrences, such as a perfect sunny day or a sudden downpour, are weather events. Another way to describe the difference is to say that climate is what you expect, and weather is what you


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get. Climatologists study elements of the Earth's climate to better understand how climate works, how the Earth's climate has changed over time, and what we might expect in the future. As scientists learn more, forecasters also benefit as they get new tools and information to help them do a better job of predicting both the climate and the weather. When the TV weather reporter "puts the satellite picture into motion", you can see how a change in one part of the climate system can affect areas thousands of kilometres away. The unusual weather experienced in most of Canada during the spring and summer of 1999 was linked to a shift in the Pacific Ocean currents (known as "La Niña"). The result: cold Arctic air was pushed down over parts of western Canada causing summer snowfalls and unseasonably cold temperatures. The cold air moving south in turn helped to push hot humid air from the Gulf of Mexico up into central and eastern Canada, resulting in record-breaking heat waves, poor air quality and severe storms in many areas. It's a little like the ripples created by pushing down on one corner of a waterbed. Do people affect climate? We often say that you can't do anything about the weather, but it's clear that human activities do have an impact on the Earth's climate. Over time, the growing human population has changed the face of the world: converting wilderness to agricultural land, building large urban areas, cutting down or burning jungles and forests, and contributing to the formation and spread of deserts. Changing the nature of the land area affects its interactions with the other elements of the climate system. Humans also burn large amounts of biomass (wood and combustible agricultural products and by-products) and fossil fuels (such as oil, natural gas and coal) for heat and energy. These activities affect the climate with the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which is the primary cause of the world getting warmer. Other heat-absorbing gases (such as methane and nitrous oxide) and particles that are released into the atmosphere are also important factors.


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How does a change in climate influence our weather? A change affecting one part of the climate system can impact the weather all around the world. For example, a volcanic eruption can put a lot of ash, dust and other fine particles into the atmosphere, blocking out some of the sun's rays. This changes the normal balance: less sunlight reaches the Earth's surface, so that the year following a major eruption is usually cooler than normal. The summer of 1991 was cool and rainy in many parts of Canada following the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines. A large eruption may influence the weather for two or three years. In climate terms, this is a relatively short-term change. The Earth's gradual warming is happening more slowly, and the changes are more diverse, irregular and difficult to predict. Scientists in Canada and around the world have been examining the potential impacts of climate change and are developing a good understanding of how different regions are likely to be affected. By looking at the expected changes over time in average temperatures, it is possible for scientists to predict how wind and precipitation patterns may change. With this information, scientists can anticipate the types of weather systems and events that an area is likely to experience in the future, and project how this might influence other elements of the ecosystem. Understanding the greenhouse effect The "greenhouse effect" is a popular term used to describe how the Earth's atmosphere keeps our planet at a comfortable temperature for plants, animals and people to live. In a greenhouse, energy from the sun passes through the glass as rays of light. This energy is absorbed by the plants, soil and other objects in the greenhouse. Much of this absorbed energy is converted to heat, which warms the greenhouse. The glass insulates the greenhouse, working to prevent the heat from escaping. The Earth's atmosphere acts much like the glass in a greenhouse. About half of the solar radiation from


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the sun passes through the atmosphere (the rest reflects off clouds, gets scattered by water vapour and particles, or is absorbed by the atmosphere). Some of the solar radiation that reaches the Earth is reflected back into space (light-coloured areas like snow-caps reflect the most), and some is absorbed by the oceans and land. The energy that is absorbed is converted into heat, warming the surface of the Earth and the air around it. Some of the heat energy is radiated back out into space, but most of it is kept in by our atmosphere. Some of the gases in the atmosphere act like the glass in a greenhouse – they insulate the Earth by preventing the heat from escaping. These "greenhouse gases" absorb heat and radiate it back to the Earth's surface. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder that it is now - about 33°C colder - making the average temperature on the planet -18°C.

Figure 8: The Greenhouse Effect


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The greenhouse gases Water vapour (H2O) is the most common greenhouse gas. The amount of water vapour stored in the atmosphere increases as surface temperatures rise, because higher temperatures increase both evaporation and the capacity of air to hold water vapour. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released to the atmosphere through the natural processes of plant and animal life, decay, and the burning of fuels and other materials. It is removed from the atmosphere by the photosynthesis of plants and absorption by the oceans. Methane (CH4) is not as common in volume as H2O or CO2, but is more effective at trapping heat, making it a very powerful greenhouse gas. It is created when matter decays in an oxygen-free environment. The main sources are wetlands, rice paddies, animal digestive processes, fossil fuel extraction and decaying garbage. Nitrous oxide (N2O) comes mostly from soils and the oceans. Some is released by burning fossil fuels and organic material. Soil cultivation and fertilizer use add to the amount of N2O in the atmosphere. Ozone (O3) exists naturally in the upper atmosphere where it plays an important role in shielding the Earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Most of the ozone found at ground level is the result of chemical reactions involving pollutants. Halocarbons are a group of human-made chemicals containing a halogen (bromine, chlorine, and fluorine) and carbon. They are extremely powerful greenhouse gases. How is the greenhouse effect linked to climate change? The natural greenhouse effect works to insulate the Earth's surface from heat loss, making it a unique planet for growing and living things. However, when the amounts of these gases change, it affects the ability of the atmosphere to trap heat. Human


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activities have resulted in increasing concentrations of some greenhouse gases, which is intensifying the greenhouse effect. The most serious impact of human activities is the release of great quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere - largely as a result of our dependence on fossil fuels as a source of heat and energy. In effect, we are cranking up the thermostat in the greenhouse. But, unlike most real greenhouses, the Earth doesn't come with windows that open to vent the excess heat. It is this "enhanced greenhouse effect" that is causing the Earth to get gradually warmer. Sometimes this trend is referred to by the term "global warming". However, the increasing amounts of greenhouse gases will have an impact on the Earth's climate that far exceeds just a change in temperature. We have learned that a change in one part of the climate system can lead to a series of reactions that can disrupt normal weather patterns around the world. The term "global climate change" more clearly describes the situation the world is facing.

Figure 9: Expected temperature change over the next century


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Understanding climate change In very simple terms, there are 3 facts to consider in understanding climate change: 1. Human activities are responsible for increasing the

concentrations of some greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

2. The Earth is warming up more quickly than at anytime in the past 10,000 years.

3. Increasing temperatures will lead to changes in other aspects of the Earth's climate, which may disrupt weather patterns around the world.

The role of climate science Through the study of our climate and the environment, science has been able to show us that human activities are affecting the Earth's climate. Science is also playing a major role in guiding international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and cope with the effects of climate change. We have been tampering with the Earth's thermostat, and – while there's no way to turn it back down right away – our best hope of finding ways to moderate the impacts lies with science. The ongoing work of scientists in Canada and around the world will also be crucial for helping people to prepare for our changing climate. What are the uncertainties? Most scientists agree that global temperatures have been increasing recently. However, scientists do not agree on why this is happening or what should be done about it. Two main positions that scientists take: • Some scientists believe that recent increases in

global temperatures are the result of human activities. They point to large temperature increases that have occurred in the last 100 years, and blame them on the increase in "greenhouse gases" that has occurred during the same period.

• Other scientists believe that the temperature increases are a result of natural patterns, which have nothing to do with human activities. They are not worried about current increases, since temperatures have increased and decreased in the past.

Figure 10: Scientists at Work


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Some questions… Are all the consequences of climate change negative? Isn’t there the possibility that we might be much better off with a warmer climate? If climate change occurs slowly, it will bring significant benefits as well as problems, particularly for northern countries like Canada. Some possible benefits in Canada include lower heating costs in winter, and longer and warmer growing seasons, which could potentially improve crop yields if adequate moisture is available. Climate change may also present major opportunities to expand into new areas of environmental technology and services, increase exports, and create jobs. However, results from the Canada Country Study on Climate Impacts and Adaptation indicate that if climate change is rapid the risks of danger increase significantly since it will be much more difficult to adapt. Moreover, impacts elsewhere in the world can have indirect yet significant consequences for Canadians. In some places, recent weather conditions have been the coldest anyone can remember. Doesn’t this prove global warming predictions are wrong? No. While one week in spring may be cooler than the previous week, this doesn’t mean that summer is not coming. Likewise, when the temperatures for one or more years are cooler than in preceding years, this doesn’t mean that global warming is not happening. Climate change can only be viewed over a long time scale, during which there are bound to be natural fluctuations in weather and climate. It has been suggested that within 50 years, global warming will cause the climate in Halifax to be similar to that of Boston today, Toronto’s like that of Kentucky, and Vancouver’s like that of San Francisco. What’s so bad about that? Average climate in parts of Canada could indeed become similar to conditions that already exist elsewhere today. But the geography, ecosystems, culture and socio-economic infrastructures in Canada have been shaped by the climate of today and the recent past. For example, storm sewer and drainage systems in Canadian cities are based on


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local rainfall characteristics, and residential and commercial buildings are designed for temperate to cold climates. If the climate changes considerably, our society and everything in it will have to adapt to a new climate with new variables. If climate change occurs rapidly, the process of adaptation can be costly, disruptive, and potentially unsuccessful and dangerous. The same is true for the natural environment. Why can’t ecosystems adapt to climate change without significant impacts on their form or productivity? For millions of years, plants, animals and other living things have relocated and adapted in response to changing climatic conditions. But the rate of future climate change may be more rapid than at any time in the last 10,000 years. Many species may not be able to adapt or migrate fast enough to survive. In addition, farming, over-fishing, logging and other activities have altered many of the world’s ecosystems. Pollution and other effects of natural resource use have also increased since industrialization began, thus weakening some species. These relatively recent changes suggest that ecosystems are less likely to adapt to the additional stress of climate change without some effect on their composition and resource base including clean water, food, productive soils, and wood for fuel or construction, for example How reliable are the models used to predict future climate change? Predictions of climate change are calculated by computer models that mathematically simulate the interactions of the land, sea, and air, which together determine the Earth’s climate. Climate models are based on a wealth of scientific observations and well-established laws of physics. For these reasons, scientists have considerable confidence in the models’ prediction that a build-up of greenhouse gases will eventually lead to a significant alteration in the Earth’s climate. The models generally agree on what may happen at the continental scale, and that significant impacts may already be unavoidable. On the other hand, these simulations cannot pinpoint exactly how large the increase in global average temperature will be. There is also uncertainty


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concerning the rate and magnitude of climate change at a regional level. One wild card is the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions. This will largely depend on the success of efforts now underway to lessen the rate and impact of climate change. Reports indicate that the largest changes in regional climate due to warmer global temperatures will occur in northern countries such as Canada. Does this mean we are much more at risk of danger than countries near the equator? Climate models suggest that temperature changes in response to a global warming will be greatest at polar continental latitudes and greatest in winter. Thus, climate change in Canada is expected to be greater than in most other countries. However, because our current climate regularly undergoes large changes from week to week, season to season and year to year, Canadians may be better prepared to deal with climate variability and climate change. Why do Scientists and politicians see things differently? Why are most politicians more cautious? Scientists are comfortable with uncertainty. They operate on "theories". They collect a large body of evidence that illustrates that a given theory is likely to be happening. Very rarely are theories proven beyond and doubt, with 100% certainty. However, politicians and citizens often need more certainty before they are willing to change the way they live and act. For example, reduction carbon emissions would mean that we could not consume as much energy as we do. We would have to cut back on our electricity use, on our cars, and on the production of goods. Many people, such as factory workers would likely lose their jobs if production were cut back. Also, environmentally friendly production practices would likely cause the price of goods to increase, making it harder to afford items we depend on. Given these issues, politicians are reluctant to take steps to reduce carbon emissions because of the potential of angry voters. Because we are not 100% sure that human production of carbon dioxide (and other greenhouse gasses) is the culprit, politicians


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are drawn to other arguments claiming that temperature increases are a natural part of Earth's climate history. Predicted Changes in Canada's Arctic Environment Canada has undertaken a national assessment of the impacts of climate change and variability on Canada. The following information has been taken from a section of the resulting report: Responding to Global Climate Change in Canada's Arctic, Volume II of Canada Country Study: Climate Impacts and Adaptation. Global circulation models suggest the following changes might take place:

• 5 to 70C warming over the mainland from west to east and over much of the Arctic Islands

• Up to a 100C warming over central Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean northwest of the Islands

• Summer likely to see up to a 50C warming on the mainland extending into the central Arctic Islands

• Summer to see a 1 to 20C warming over northern Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, and the northwestern High Arctic Islands

• A modest cooling may occur over the extreme eastern Arctic in winter and spring

• Increased of up to 25% in precipitation spread throughout the year over much of the region, but mainly in summer and autumn

• Some early autumn or spring precipitation currently in the form of snow would become rain

Potential Impacts of global changes include:

• Over half the discontinuous permafrost zone would disappear eventually

• Boundary between continuous and discontinuous permafrost will shift northward by hundreds of kilometres

• Decrease in the Northwest Passage winter fast-ice thickness by about half a metre (although increased snow cover thickness could temper this)


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• Increase in the ice free season of 1 to 3 months • Open water season should lengthen from the

current average of 60 days to about 150 days for the Beaufort Sea

• Maximum extent of open water in summer will increase from its present range of 150-200km to 500-800km

• Maximum thickness of first-year ice will decrease by 50-75%

• An increase in storm surge frequency will impact some areas significantly, such as the Beaufort Sea

• Some coastal areas currently protected virtually year-round from wave action by sea ice (such as the northwest Arctic Islands) will be at risk

Potential Impacts on Fisheries The fisheries industry in the Arctic comprises commercial, recreational, and subsistence fisheries. These are primarily freshwater in nature. Of these three, subsistence fishery is particularly important in the Arctic. Some predictions as to the impacts of climate change on fisheries in the Arctic include:

• Increased overall sustainable harvest due to anticipated increases in overall fish production (related to a longer, warmer growing season and less ice cover which will mean more intense nutrient re-circulation from wind-generated turbulence and higher fish species diversity and individual species populations)

• Location of preferred fishing areas and fish catchability will alter both temporally and spatially, in accordance with changes in the location of ice edges and polynyas

• Potential for the establishment of self-sustaining pacific salmon populations, particularly sockeye, in the western Arctic


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1. Why is it important to distinguish between climate and weather when talking about climate change?

2. How does the burning of fossil fuels affect climate? 3. Which greenhouse gas does NOT occur naturally? 4. What economic aspects of global climate change make this issue highly

political? 5. Summarize the main aspects of climate changes and indicate where

uncertainties still lie (what don't people agree on). 6. So you think a warmer climate would be a bad think? Justify your

answer. 7. What do Elders in your community say about global warming? Can they

identify differences in weather and climate in their lifetime (remember to differentiate between weather and climate)?

8. Why is ozone depletion an important issue for the Arctic Marine Environment?

A Related Concern - the Ozone Layer Ozone is one of the gases that absorbs infrared radiation. Ground-level ozone is harmful to the environment and to humans. However, the upper-level ozone, at altitudes between 10 km and 50 km is extremely important because it absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching Earth's surface. Natural events have caused the amount of upper-level ozone to vary somewhat for millions of years which still remaining at a safe level. However, human activities are now causing greater ozone depletion. The biggest cause of ozone depletion is the use of CFCs. The depletion is most noticeable over the poles, and particularly over Antarctica. The large opening in the ozone layer above Antarctica is called an ozone hole. In the Arctic, an increase in UV radiation will have a big impact on oceans. UV can penetrate the upper layer of oceans and interfere with the production of plankton, which is critical to food webs involving krill, fish, seabirds, whales, and other organisms.


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2.2 CONTAMINANTS In Module 2, you studied the transfer of toxic substances that can take place through a food chain, and result in the process called bioaccumulation. In this section, you will learn more about the sources and pathways of those contaminants. The Arctic Ocean receives contaminants from air, other oceans, rivers, and from direct discharges. The fate of these substances is determined both by Arctic Ocean circulation patterns and by the stratification of the ocean waters. Air, water, and ice can carry contaminants over great distances. The maps on the following page illustrate these wind and ocean currents, and the important location of oil and gas activities.

"One of the most important areas of activity for Inuit Tapirisat of Canada and all northerners is issues related to contaminants in the Arctic. Inuit did not create the industrial pollution that is entering the Arctic, its ecosystems and our food. But it is Inuit who will bear the immediate and long term consequences because we will continue to be dependent on locally available country foods. Therefore if Arctic lands, air, waters and animals are contaminated, it is Inuit who will suffer the most immediate physical, spiritual, economic and social impacts. Yet at the same time, this will serve as a clear and early indicator of a global problem. It should not be surprising, therefore, that Inuit take a very strong position in demanding a tough and effective Canadian policy related to the control of contaminants."

Source: http://www.tapirisat.ca


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Figure 11: Ocean Currents for the Transport of Contaminants

Figure 12: Wind Currents for the Transport of Contaminants


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Figure 13: Oil and Gas Activities Transportation Routes


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In winter, industrial areas of Eurasia are within the Arctic air mass. This air mass can efficiently transport particle-bound contaminants across the pole. Semi-volatile compounds are carried to the Arctic by cycles of evaporation, transport, and condensation in what is referred to as a multi-hop process (contaminants can "land" and then be released back into the atmosphere to be transported again). The cold climate traps them more effectively here than anywhere else on the globe. Snow, ice, rain, and dry deposition cleanse the air and contaminate the surfaces on which they land. The contaminants often end up in meltwater that feeds both rivers and the ocean surface layer. Rivers process contaminants along their routes by sedimentation and re-suspension of particles. Lakes, estuaries, and deltas serve as sediment traps and sinks for contaminants. Ice forming in the shelf seas can pick up contaminants from the coastal shelves, and can travel far in the Beaufort Gyre and Transpolar Drift. The ice may release its load of contaminants in the biologically productive shelf seas and in the North Atlantic, or elsewhere in the Arctic where they can be taken up into the food chain. Another important pathway is via ocean currents. They act slowly compared with the atmosphere, but take water with water-soluble and particle-adsorbed contaminants from distant industrialized coasts into the Arctic within a few years, and out again through the East Greenland Current and the Canadian Archipelago. The sea is the final resting place for most contaminants. Modeling is a useful tool for understanding contaminant transport. Its importance will grow as the basic processes become better understood and the models improve. As mentioned in earlier sections, Canada is involved in international agreements that are seeking to reduce the impacts of contaminants of the marine ecosystem.

It appears that all rivers in the Hudson Bay watershed, including those from United States, flow to our bay through streams that enter into larger rivers that inter into the bay. When you think about it, Hudson and James Bays are like sewage lagoons for every piece of garbage being dumped by southerners into their rivers. The scientists have said contaminants settle inside Hudson Bay, where we know they are carried by animals like fish, seals, and fish-eating birds. It doesn’t matter where you are in the system because sea mammals use currents to travel everywhere, and leave the bay through Hudson Strait. The contaminants like methyl-mercury are created when man disturbs the ecosystem by building dikes or dams, and making huge reservoirs. The microscopic organisms eat the contaminants, then fish get it from eating these tiny organisms. Seals and fish-eating birds eat the fish and, finally, humans eat the fish, seals, and fish-eating birds.

Lucassie Arragutainaq, Sanikiluaq Source: Voices From the Bay


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Figure 14: Multi-hop Transport of Contaminants Source: Arctic Pollution Issues - A State of the Arctic Environment Report

http://www.amap.no


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Glossary Carbon Cycle A process occurring in nature that maintains a balance between the release of carbon compounds from their sources and their absorption in sinks, such as oceans and forests Carbon Sink Natural systems in the environment, such as forests and oceans, that absorb carbon compounds such as C02; oceans are the largest active carbon sinks CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons, the only manmade greenhouse gas; released from refrigeration units, aerosol sprays, and insulating foams; present m the atmosphere in small, but increasing concentrations Climate Long-term atmospheric trends. Common Law The body of law based on custom and usage and recognized and confirmed by judgements of the courts. Economic Zones Area within 200 miles from coastline where federal government has rights to natural resources. GCMs General circulation models; complex mathematical computer models used to predict global climate change Global Warming The possible increase in average global temperature resulting from greater concentrations of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse Effect The warming influence produced by greenhouse gases as they absorb energy radiated from the earth; without this effect, the earth’s temperatures would be much cooler Greenhouse Gases Trace gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and CFCs Sovereignty Power or authority. Sovereignty over water resources refers to authority over them, decision-making power over their use, etc. Weather Short-term atmospheric conditions

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