models on psychology

7/29/2019 models on psychology

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Health Belief Model

The health belief model, developed by researchers at the U.S. Public Health Service in the

1950s, was inspired by a study of why people sought X-ray examinations for tuberculosis.

The original model included these four constructs: Perceived susceptibility (an individual's assessment of their risk of getting the

condition). The greater the risk is of getting a certain medical condition, the more a

person will engage in behaviors to decrease the risk. That's why people get

vaccinations to prevent disease, brush their teeth to prevent gum disease, and workout

to stay healthy.

Perceived severity (an individual's assessment of the seriousness of the condition, andits potential consequences). For example, getting the flu seems like a fairly minorthing for most people, just bed rest for a few days and you're all better. However, for

people who can't afford to take a few days off work, or for people who already have

an underlying medical condition, getting the flu could be a very serious thing.

Individual differences influence the perceived severity and varies greatly between

people.

Perceived barriers (an individual's assessment of the influences that facilitate ordiscourage adoption of the promoted behaviour). Perceived barriers is someone's own

thoughts about the obstacles in the way of adopting a new behavior, and also the

consequences of continuing an old behavior. The perceived barriers are the most

influential construct because they determine if someone will adopt a new behavior or

not, depending on if the benefits of the behavior outweigh the consequences.

Perceived benefits (an individual's assessment of the positive consequences ofadopting the behaviour). It's why people eat fruits and vegetables, use sunscreen, or

get health screenings. Perceived benefits is opinion based, not everyone adopts the

same behaviors. You only adopt behaviors that you think will decrease the chance of

getting a disease that you think you are more susceptible to.

A variant of the model include the perceived costs of adhering to prescribed intervention

as one of the core beliefs.

Protection Motivation Theory

PMT is a theory that was originally created to help clarify fear appeals. The Protection

Motivation Theory proposes that we protect ourselves based on four factors: the perceived
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severity of a threatening event, the perceived probability of the occurrence, or vulnerability,

the efficacy of the recommended preventive behavior, and the perceived self efficacy.

Protection motivation stems from both the threat appraisal and the coping appraisal.

The threat appraisal assesses the severity of the situation and examines how seriousthe situation is.

The coping appraisal is how one responds to the situation. The coping appraisalconsists of both efficacy and self-efficacy. Efficacy is the individual's expectancy that

carrying out recommendations can remove the threat. Self-efficacy is the belief in

one's ability to execute the recommended courses of action successfully.

PMT is one model that explains why people engage in unhealthy practices and offers

suggestions for changing those behaviors. It is educational and motivational. Primary

prevention: taking measures to combat the risk of developing a health problem

Social learning theory

SLT is a perspective that states that people learn within a social context. It is facilitated

through concepts such as modeling and observational learning. People, especially children,

learn from the environment and seek acceptance from society by learning through influential

models. Social learning theory is a perspective that states that social behavior (any type of

behavior that we display socially) is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions

of others. The social behavior is also influenced by being rewarded and/or punished for these

actions.

Bandura proposed that the modeling process involves several steps:

Attention: In order for an individual to learn something, they must pay attention to the

features of the modeled behaviour.

Retention: Humans need to be able to remember details of the behaviour in order to learn

and later reproduce the behaviour.

Reproduction: In reproducing a behavior, an individual must organize his or her responses

in accordance with the model behavior. This ability can improve with practice.

Motivation:There must be an incentive or motivation driving the individuals reproduction

of the behaviour. Even if all of the above factors are present, the person will not engage in the

behaviour without motivation.
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Theory of Resoned Action

The theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction ofbehavioral intention,

spanning predictions ofattitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of

behavioral intention from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinalinfluence

Attitudes: the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these

beliefs You might have the beliefs that exercise is good for your health, that exercise makes

you look good, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. Each of

these beliefs can be weighted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues

of time and comfort).

Subjective norms: looks at the influence of people in one's social environment on his

behavioral intentions; the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each

of their opinions, will influence one's behavioral intention

You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join

them. However, your spouse might prefer a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who

work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of

their opinions, will influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which will lead to your

behavior to exercise or not exercise.

Behavioral intention: a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms

toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior.

Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with

their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to

your actual behavior.

Theory of interpersonal behaviour

Individual performing a given behaviour is a function of

The degree to which the behaviour is already habitual Intentions to perform that behaviour Conditions facilitating or inhibiting carrying out that behaviour

Intentions are influenced by

The individuals anticipated emotional response on performing that behaviour A cognitive summing up of positive and negative consequences of performing that

behaviour
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Perceived social norms and whether that behaviour is appropriate to individuals socialrole

Felt obligation to perform the behaviour according to individuals internalised values.

The Rossiter-Percy Model

The Rossiter-Percy Model is proposed as offering a sound theoretical rationale for message

execution (depending on whether the targeted decision is high-risk or low-risk) and message

content (depending on whether the primary motivation for the decision is negative or

positive, and further on the specific motive classification, together with its relevant emotion-

shift sequence).

Rossiter-Percy proposes a two-variable marketing communication model that begins from thepremise of consumer decision making. The two variables (dependent variables) in the

Rossiter-Percy Model are awareness and attitude. The present focus is only on the attitude

part of the model. Rossiter and Percy classify attitude types in terms of two dimensions: the

level of perceived risk associated with the decision (high or low), and the nature of the

primary motivation driving the decision (positive or negative). The nature of these two

dimensions is explained below, in the context of social marketing communications.

Perceived Decision Risk

It should be noted that previous descriptions of the Rossiter-Percy Model refer to the

perceived decision risk dimension as involvement. However, because of the varying

definitions and uses that now characterize involvement, the more precise term perceived

decision risk is used for this dimension. The degree of perceived risk which may be

financial, functional, psychological, or social in making the decision is dichotomized as

high or low. Perceived decision risk is a personal characteristic, not a product characteristic,

although, for many decisions and products, most people will experience the same level of riskand thus products


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(Or behaviors) can be loosely classified as high risk or low risk. The adoption of

smoking, for example, is often a low-risk decision, or is seen to be at the time, whereas the

decision to quit is high-risk, certainly for the addicted smoker. In the Rossiter-Percy Model

the level of perceived decision risk largely determines how message claims are executed,

rather than what their content is. Message claims must be credible for high-risk decisions but

need only arouse curious disbelief (i.e., it might be true) for low-risk decisions.

Decision Motivations

The nature of the motivation on which the decision is based largely determines the content of

message claims or pro-choice arguments. For positive motivations, the goal is to

(temporarily) achieve a positive experience (i.e., above normal); whereas for negative

motivations, the goal is to remove or avoid a negative experience and return to normal.

Negative motivations relate to actions taken to solve current problems or to avoid future

problems. These actions are therefore encouraged and maintained via negative reinforcement.

In social marketing areas such as environmental protection, road safety, and public health the

focuses are usually on problem avoidance by adopting the recommended behavior (e.g.,

avoiding nuclear accidents; reducing chances of a work accident or its severity; safe sex), or

problem removal (e.g., recycling; counselling for domestic violence).

The Role of Emotions

The Rossiter-Percy Model explicitly delineates the role of emotions in message strategy.

Motivation is considered to be goal-directed (i.e., a cognitive component), with emotions

being the energizers of action towards the goal (i.e., the affective arousal from the emotions is

the source of drive). Both cognitions and emotions are required for achieving the desired

behavioral result. Knowledge is usually insufficient to achieve behavioral change if this

knowledge is unrelated to the relevant motive.

Morality and Legitimacy

Morality refers to individuals beliefs about certain actions being right or wrong or whether

they should take the action or not. Legitimacy refers to individuals perception of whether the

established laws, rules and regulations, are fair in the approach, concerning the legal angle.

People follow those rules very easily which they believe are just and are applied in a fair and

unbiased manner. Both these concepts are important in certain parts of social marketing.

These have been neglected in application broadly and few studies exist which use these

concepts to bring a social change. Hence, it is important to examine peoples perceived

legitimacy of laws and the authorities behind the laws.


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Research suggests various other emotions other than fear, to reorient the behaviors.

They are as follows: sadness, guilt/remorse, anger, surprise, shame/embarrassment,

acceptance/warmth/love and peace of mind/relief. Few studies incorporate measures of moral

norms within the public health domain, ex. Donating blood or intentions of donating blood,

genetically produced food consumption, condom use, etc. As such there are few studies or

research that has considered the use of moral or legitimacy appeals. Road safety campaigns

have used morality and legitimacy concepts widely for some time. This would consider from

wearing seatbelt to driving within the speed limit in built-up areas.

In ethical dilemma, people have choice to either take and ethical or an unethical

stance. It was found that if unnoticed most people would opt for unethical means. On the

other hand, it was found that increasing moral salience by simply having people read or sign

an honor code significantly reduced or eliminated unethical behavior.

Research also suggests empirical relationship between moral reasoning development to

criminal behaviors and behaviors such as delinquency, honesty, altruism and conformity.

Having learnt these behaviors, it is possible to influence these in the youth. Also, in the

substance use programs like drug abuse, etc. it will benefit more when included with morality

of substance use and legitimacy of laws restricting such use along with emphasis on health

effects. Regardless of specific learning strategies, moral education interventions can be

successful in advancing moral growth and teaching values. Appropriate interventions are the

key.

Diffusion of Innovations

What qualities make innovations spread?

1) Relative advantage

This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes by

a particular group of users, measured in terms that matter to those users, like economic

advantage, social prestige, convenience, or satisfaction.

2) Compatibility with existing values and practices

This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the values,

past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.

3) Simplicity and ease of use

This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use.

4) Trialability

This is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis.


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5) Observable results

The easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to

adopt it.

The importance of peer-peer conversations and peer networks

The adoption of new products or behaviors involves the management of risk and uncertainty.

Its usually only people we personally know and trust and who we know have successfully

adopted the innovation themselveswho can give us credible reassurances that our attempts

to change wont result in embarrassment, humiliation, financial loss or wasted time. As an

innovation spreads from early adopters to majority audiences, face-to-face communication

therefore becomes more essential to the decision to adopt.

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