modern trends in architecture

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Chapter x Modern Trends in Architecture Chapter x Modern Trends in Architecture Modern Trends in Architecture 1 Modern Trends in Architecture 1 1. Introduction. 7. Formalism. 16. Tests and Exercises. 17. References. 2. Summary 3. Art Nouveau. 4. Modern Architecture 5. Modernism. 6. The Bauhaus School of Architecture 8. The International Style. 9. Futurism. 10. Constructivism. 11. CIAM. 12. Structuralism. 13. Late-modernism. 14. Postmodernism. 15. Deconstructivism. 1. Introduction. Modernism was not just another style - it presented a new way of thinking. This chapter describes the most important ideas that influenced architectural design in the twentieth century. It covers Art Nouveau, Modern Architecture, Modernism, The Bauhaus School of Architecture, Formalism, The International Style, Futurism, Constructivism, CIAM, Structuralism, Late-modernism, Postmodernism and Deconstructivism. These ideas and their inter-relationships are described with examples of representative architecture. Modernism was not just another style - it presented a new way of thinking. This chapter describes the most important ideas that influenced architectural design in the twentieth century. It covers Art Nouveau, Modern Architecture, Modernism, The Bauhaus School of Architecture, Formalism, The International Style, Futurism, Constructivism, CIAM, Structuralism, Late-modernism, Postmodernism and Deconstructivism. These ideas and their inter-relationships are described with examples of representative architecture.

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Page 1: Modern Trends in Architecture

Chapter x

Modern Trends in

Architecture

Chapter x

Modern Trends in

Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 1Modern Trends in Architecture 1

1. Introduction.

7. Formalism.

16. Tests and Exercises.17. References.

2. Summary3. Art Nouveau.4. Modern Architecture5. Modernism.6. The Bauhaus School of Architecture

8. The International Style.9. Futurism.10. Constructivism.11. CIAM.12. Structuralism.13. Late-modernism.14. Postmodernism.15. Deconstructivism.

1. Introduction.

Modernism was not just another style - it presented a new way of thinking. This chapter describes themost important ideas that influenced architectural design in the twentieth century. It covers ArtNouveau, Modern Architecture, Modernism, The Bauhaus School of Architecture, Formalism, TheInternational Style, Futurism, Constructivism, CIAM, Structuralism, Late-modernism, Postmodernismand Deconstructivism. These ideas and their inter-relationships are described with examples ofrepresentative architecture.

Modernism was not just another style - it presented a new way of thinking. This chapter describes themost important ideas that influenced architectural design in the twentieth century. It covers ArtNouveau, Modern Architecture, Modernism, The Bauhaus School of Architecture, Formalism, TheInternational Style, Futurism, Constructivism, CIAM, Structuralism, Late-modernism, Postmodernismand Deconstructivism. These ideas and their inter-relationships are described with examples ofrepresentative architecture.

Page 2: Modern Trends in Architecture

2. Summary

Art Nouveau.

Modern Architecture.

Modernism.

The Bauhaus School of Architecture

The International Style.

Futurism.

Constructivism.

CIAM.

Structuralism.

Late-modernism.

Post-modernism.

This is described as the first novel style on thecontinent.

Modern architecture was defined by thearchitecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, LouisSullivan, Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe.The building were characterized by free groundfloor plans,

Modernist architects attempted to applyscientific, analytical methods to design.

Flat roofs, smooth façades and cubic shapescharacterize the Bauhaus style.

Bauhaus and the International Style.

The futurists mainly worked on buildings used inthe service of technology and transport, i.e. newtasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used tocelebrate it.

When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

The Congres Internationaux d'ArchitectureModerne (CIAM). The organisation's foundingdeclaration was signed by twenty-four architectsat La Sarraz, Switzerland, in 1928.

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.

Late-Modernism is a pragmatic and technocraticarchitecture. It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements of Modernism.

Postmodernist architects use familiar shapes anddetails in unexpected, and sometimes amusing,

Art Nouveau.

Modern Architecture.

Modernism.

The Bauhaus School of Architecture

The International Style.

Futurism.

Constructivism.

CIAM.

Structuralism.

Late-modernism.

Post-modernism.

This is described as the first novel style on thecontinent.

Modern architecture was defined by thearchitecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, LouisSullivan, Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe.The building were characterized by free groundfloor plans,

Modernist architects attempted to applyscientific, analytical methods to design.

Flat roofs, smooth façades and cubic shapescharacterize the Bauhaus style.

Bauhaus and the International Style.

The futurists mainly worked on buildings used inthe service of technology and transport, i.e. newtasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used tocelebrate it.

When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

The Congres Internationaux d'ArchitectureModerne (CIAM). The organisation's foundingdeclaration was signed by twenty-four architectsat La Sarraz, Switzerland, in 1928.

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.

Late-Modernism is a pragmatic and technocraticarchitecture. It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements of Modernism.

Postmodernist architects use familiar shapes anddetails in unexpected, and sometimes amusing,

2 Modern Nigerian Architecture

ways.

Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have novisual logic.

Deconstructivism.

ways.

Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have novisual logic.

Deconstructivism. It is described as the first novel style on thecontinent. The beginning of this movement wasmarked in Brussels in 1892 by Victor Horta'sHouse. It later developed in France andGermany. It was mostly the style of decorationswith the exception of Gaudi's work at Barcelonaand Charles Rennice Mackintosh in Glasgow.The forms of t Nouveau are characterized by theubiquitous use of undulations like waves orflames or flower stalks or flowing hair. It is wellillustrated in Endell's Atelier Elvira.

Page 3: Modern Trends in Architecture

Art Nouveau.

Modern Architecture.

Modernism.

The Bauhaus School of Architecture

The International Style.

Futurism.

Constructivism.

CIAM.

Structuralism.

Late-modernism.

Post-modernism.

This is described as the first novel style on thecontinent.

Modern architecture was defined by thearchitecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, LouisSullivan, Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe.The building were characterized by free groundfloor plans,

Modernist architects attempted to applyscientific, analytical methods to design.

Flat roofs, smooth façades and cubic shapescharacterize the Bauhaus style.

Bauhaus and the International Style.

The futurists mainly worked on buildings used inthe service of technology and transport, i.e. newtasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used tocelebrate it.

When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

The Congres Internationaux d'ArchitectureModerne (CIAM). The organisation's foundingdeclaration was signed by twenty-four architectsat La Sarraz, Switzerland, in 1928.

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.

Late-Modernism is a pragmatic and technocraticarchitecture. It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements of Modernism.

Postmodernist architects use familiar shapes anddetails in unexpected, and sometimes amusing,

Modern Trends in Architecture 3

ways.

Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have novisual logic.

Deconstructivism.

Art Nouveau?

It is described as the first novel style on thecontinent. The beginning of this movement wasmarked in Brussels in 1892 by Victor Horta'sHouse. It later developed in France andGermany. It was mostly the style of decorationswith the exception of Gaudi's work at Barcelonaand Charles Rennice Mackintosh in Glasgow.The forms of t Nouveau are characterized by theubiquitous use of undulations like waves orflames or flower stalks or flowing hair. It is wellillustrated in Endell's Atelier Elvira.

It is described as the first novel style on thecontinent. The beginning of this movement wasmarked in Brussels in 1892 by Victor Horta'sHouse. It later developed in France andGermany. It was mostly the style of decorationswith the exception of Gaudi's work at Barcelonaand Charles Rennice Mackintosh in Glasgow.The forms of t Nouveau are characterized by theubiquitous use of undulations like waves orflames or flower stalks or flowing hair. It is wellillustrated in Endell's Atelier Elvira.

Art Nouveau. August Endell AtelierElvira, Munich, 1897.

Page 4: Modern Trends in Architecture

4 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Modern Architecture.

Germany, France and America have the lion'sshare in the establishment of modernarchitecture. Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings inthe 1890s in the neighbourhood of Chicago areconsidered as the first belonging to the “Neworiginal style” often interpreted as the OrganicMovement. The buildings had freely spreadingground plans, interweaving of exteriors andinteriors by means of terraces and cantileveredroofs.

The buildings of the Chicago School withSullivan's Guaranty Building in Buffalo from1895 are classified as belonging to earlyfunctionalism. Sullivan's grid of mullions and sillscarried through all floors except the bottom andtop ones is the establishment of a system valid tothis day. To this new trend belong Peter Behrens'AEG Turbine Erection Hall and Fagus Works atAlfred near Hanover by Walter Gropius andAdolf Meyer. This pioneer work can be misdatedby anyone as belonging to the thirties. The newstyle got established after 1925 and was acontinuation of the work of pioneers of 1900-14.Gropius ideology is in extreme contrast to LeCorbusier, with his social conscience andpedagogic faith. Both of them continued thestyle before 1914. Buildings of 1925-30 werewhite and cubic. That applied for example tovilla Garcher of 1929 by Le Corbusier andBauhaus in Dessau of 1926 by Gropius.

Mies van der Rohe uses splendid materials and a“noble special rhythm” in the German Pavilion ofBarcelona at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1929.

Germany, France and America have the lion'sshare in the establishment of modernarchitecture. Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings inthe 1890s in the neighbourhood of Chicago areconsidered as the first belonging to the “Neworiginal style” often interpreted as the OrganicMovement. The buildings had freely spreadingground plans, interweaving of exteriors andinteriors by means of terraces and cantileveredroofs.

The buildings of the Chicago School withSullivan's Guaranty Building in Buffalo from1895 are classified as belonging to earlyfunctionalism. Sullivan's grid of mullions and sillscarried through all floors except the bottom andtop ones is the establishment of a system valid tothis day. To this new trend belong Peter Behrens'AEG Turbine Erection Hall and Fagus Works atAlfred near Hanover by Walter Gropius andAdolf Meyer. This pioneer work can be misdatedby anyone as belonging to the thirties. The newstyle got established after 1925 and was acontinuation of the work of pioneers of 1900-14.Gropius ideology is in extreme contrast to LeCorbusier, with his social conscience andpedagogic faith. Both of them continued thestyle before 1914. Buildings of 1925-30 werewhite and cubic. That applied for example tovilla Garcher of 1929 by Le Corbusier andBauhaus in Dessau of 1926 by Gropius.

Mies van der Rohe uses splendid materials and a“noble special rhythm” in the German Pavilion ofBarcelona at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1929.

Fagus Works at Alfred near Hanover by Walter Gropius andAdolf Meyer, 1911-1914. Source: www.greatbuildings.com.

Modernist architecture emphasizes function. Itattempts to provide for specific needs ratherthan imitate nature. The roots of Modernismmay be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin(1901-1990), a Russian architect who settled inLondon and founded a group called Tecton. TheTecton architects believed in applying scientific,analytical methods to design. Their starkbuildings ran counter to expectations and oftenseemed to defy gravity. For examples ofModernism in architecture, look at works byRem Koolhaas and I.M. Pei. The Maison àBordeaux by Pritzker Prize Laureate RemKoolhaas was designed to meet the needs of aman who was confined to a wheelchair.

Robie house by Frank Lloyd Wright. Source: Author’sphotograph, 2005.

Chapel by Mies Van der Rohe at Illinois Institute ofTechnology, Chicago. Source: Author’s photograph, 2005.

Page 5: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 5

Germany, France and America have the lion'sshare in the establishment of modernarchitecture. Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings inthe 1890s in the neighbourhood of Chicago areconsidered as the first belonging to the “Neworiginal style” often interpreted as the OrganicMovement. The buildings had freely spreadingground plans, interweaving of exteriors andinteriors by means of terraces and cantileveredroofs.

The buildings of the Chicago School withSullivan's Guaranty Building in Buffalo from1895 are classified as belonging to earlyfunctionalism. Sullivan's grid of mullions and sillscarried through all floors except the bottom andtop ones is the establishment of a system valid tothis day. To this new trend belong Peter Behrens'AEG Turbine Erection Hall and Fagus Works atAlfred near Hanover by Walter Gropius andAdolf Meyer. This pioneer work can be misdatedby anyone as belonging to the thirties. The newstyle got established after 1925 and was acontinuation of the work of pioneers of 1900-14.Gropius ideology is in extreme contrast to LeCorbusier, with his social conscience andpedagogic faith. Both of them continued thestyle before 1914. Buildings of 1925-30 werewhite and cubic. That applied for example tovilla Garcher of 1929 by Le Corbusier andBauhaus in Dessau of 1926 by Gropius.

Mies van der Rohe uses splendid materials and a“noble special rhythm” in the German Pavilion ofBarcelona at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1929.

Figure 3. The Maison à Bordeaux by Rem Koolhaas

Modernism.

Modernist architecture emphasizes function. Itattempts to provide for specific needs ratherthan imitate nature. The roots of Modernismmay be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin(1901-1990), a Russian architect who settled inLondon and founded a group called Tecton. TheTecton architects believed in applying scientific,analytical methods to design. Their starkbuildings ran counter to expectations and oftenseemed to defy gravity. For examples ofModernism in architecture, look at works byRem Koolhaas and I.M. Pei. The Maison àBordeaux by Pritzker Prize Laureate RemKoolhaas was designed to meet the needs of aman who was confined to a wheelchair.

Modernist architecture emphasizes function. Itattempts to provide for specific needs ratherthan imitate nature. The roots of Modernismmay be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin(1901-1990), a Russian architect who settled inLondon and founded a group called Tecton. TheTecton architects believed in applying scientific,analytical methods to design. Their starkbuildings ran counter to expectations and oftenseemed to defy gravity. For examples ofModernism in architecture, look at works byRem Koolhaas and I.M. Pei. The Maison àBordeaux by Pritzker Prize Laureate RemKoolhaas was designed to meet the needs of aman who was confined to a wheelchair.

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6 Modern Nigerian Architecture

The Bauhaus School of Architecture

Bauhaus is a German expression meaning"house for building." In 1919, the economy inGermany was collapsing after a crushing war.Architect Walter Gropius was appointed to heada new institution which would help rebuild thecountry and form a new social order. Called theBauhaus, the Institution called for a new"rational" social housing for the workers.Bauhaus architects rejected "bourgeois" detailssuch as cornices, eaves and decorative details.They wanted to use principles of Classicalarchitecture in their most pure form: withoutornamentation of any kind. Bauhaus buildingshave flat roofs, smooth façades and cubicshapes. Colours are white, grey, beige or black.Floor plans are open and furniture is functional.

The Bauhaus school disbanded when the Nazisrose to power. Walter Gropius, Mies van derRohe and other Bauhaus leaders migrated to theUnited States. The term International Style wasapplied to the American form of Bauhausarchitecture. The name came from the book TheInternational Style by historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson.The book was published in 1932 in conjunctionwith an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Artin New York. The term is again used in a laterbook International Architecture by WalterGropius.

While Bauhaus architecture had beenconcerned with the social aspects of design,America's International Style became asymbolism of Capitalism: It is the favouredarchitecture for office buildings, and is alsofound in upscale homes built for the rich. One ofthe most famous examples of the style is theglass and bronze Seagram Building in New York,designed by Mies van der Rohe with PhilipJohnson.

Bauhaus is a German expression meaning"house for building." In 1919, the economy inGermany was collapsing after a crushing war.Architect Walter Gropius was appointed to heada new institution which would help rebuild thecountry and form a new social order. Called theBauhaus, the Institution called for a new"rational" social housing for the workers.Bauhaus architects rejected "bourgeois" detailssuch as cornices, eaves and decorative details.They wanted to use principles of Classicalarchitecture in their most pure form: withoutornamentation of any kind. Bauhaus buildingshave flat roofs, smooth façades and cubicshapes. Colours are white, grey, beige or black.Floor plans are open and furniture is functional.

The Bauhaus school disbanded when the Nazisrose to power. Walter Gropius, Mies van derRohe and other Bauhaus leaders migrated to theUnited States. The term International Style wasapplied to the American form of Bauhausarchitecture. The name came from the book TheInternational Style by historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson.The book was published in 1932 in conjunctionwith an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Artin New York. The term is again used in a laterbook International Architecture by WalterGropius.

While Bauhaus architecture had beenconcerned with the social aspects of design,America's International Style became asymbolism of Capitalism: It is the favouredarchitecture for office buildings, and is alsofound in upscale homes built for the rich. One ofthe most famous examples of the style is theglass and bronze Seagram Building in New York,designed by Mies van der Rohe with PhilipJohnson.

The concept of formalism can be traced as farback as Plato, who argued that 'eidos' (or shape)of a thing included our perceptions of the thing,as well as those sensory aspects of a thing whichthe human mind can take in. Plato argued thateidos included elements of representation andimitation, since the thing itself could not bereplicated. Subsequently, Plato believed thateidos inherently was deceptive.

In 1890, the Post-impressionist painter MauriceDenis wrote in his article 'Definition of Neo-Traditionism' that a painting was 'essentially a flatsurface covered in colours arranged in a certainorder.' Denis argued that the painting orsculpture or drawing itself, not the subject of theartistic work, gave pleasure to the mind.

Denis' emphasis on the form of a work led theBloomsbury writer Clive Bell to write in his 1914book, Art, that there was a distinction between athing's actual form and its 'significant form.' ForBell, recognition of a work of art asrepresentational of a thing was less importantthan capturing the 'significant form', or true innernature, of a thing. Bell's work harkened back tothe Aristotelian concept of general forms and'species.' For Aristotle, that an animal was a dogwas not important; that a dog was a Dalmatian oran Irish wolfhound was. Echoing this line ofthought, Bell pushed for an art that used thetechniques of an artistic medium to capture theessence of a thing (its 'significant form') ratherthan its mere outward appearance.

Throughout the rest of the early part of the 20thCentury, European structuralists continued toargue that 'real' art was expressive only of athing's ontological, metaphysical or essentialnature. But European art critics soon began usingthe word 'structure' to indicate a new concept ofart. By the 1930s and 1940s, structuralistsreasoned that the mental processes and socialpreconceptions an individual brings to art aremore important that the essential, or 'ideal',nature of the thing. Knowledge is created onlythrough socialization and thought, they said, anda thing can only be known as it is filtered throughthese mental processes. Soon, the word 'form'was used interchangeably with the word'structure'.

Page 7: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 7

Bauhaus is a German expression meaning"house for building." In 1919, the economy inGermany was collapsing after a crushing war.Architect Walter Gropius was appointed to heada new institution which would help rebuild thecountry and form a new social order. Called theBauhaus, the Institution called for a new"rational" social housing for the workers.Bauhaus architects rejected "bourgeois" detailssuch as cornices, eaves and decorative details.They wanted to use principles of Classicalarchitecture in their most pure form: withoutornamentation of any kind. Bauhaus buildingshave flat roofs, smooth façades and cubicshapes. Colours are white, grey, beige or black.Floor plans are open and furniture is functional.

The Bauhaus school disbanded when the Nazisrose to power. Walter Gropius, Mies van derRohe and other Bauhaus leaders migrated to theUnited States. The term International Style wasapplied to the American form of Bauhausarchitecture. The name came from the book TheInternational Style by historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson.The book was published in 1932 in conjunctionwith an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Artin New York. The term is again used in a laterbook International Architecture by WalterGropius.

While Bauhaus architecture had beenconcerned with the social aspects of design,America's International Style became asymbolism of Capitalism: It is the favouredarchitecture for office buildings, and is alsofound in upscale homes built for the rich. One ofthe most famous examples of the style is theglass and bronze Seagram Building in New York,designed by Mies van der Rohe with PhilipJohnson.

Formalism.

The concept of formalism can be traced as farback as Plato, who argued that 'eidos' (or shape)of a thing included our perceptions of the thing,as well as those sensory aspects of a thing whichthe human mind can take in. Plato argued thateidos included elements of representation andimitation, since the thing itself could not bereplicated. Subsequently, Plato believed thateidos inherently was deceptive.

In 1890, the Post-impressionist painter MauriceDenis wrote in his article 'Definition of Neo-Traditionism' that a painting was 'essentially a flatsurface covered in colours arranged in a certainorder.' Denis argued that the painting orsculpture or drawing itself, not the subject of theartistic work, gave pleasure to the mind.

Denis' emphasis on the form of a work led theBloomsbury writer Clive Bell to write in his 1914book, Art, that there was a distinction between athing's actual form and its 'significant form.' ForBell, recognition of a work of art asrepresentational of a thing was less importantthan capturing the 'significant form', or true innernature, of a thing. Bell's work harkened back tothe Aristotelian concept of general forms and'species.' For Aristotle, that an animal was a dogwas not important; that a dog was a Dalmatian oran Irish wolfhound was. Echoing this line ofthought, Bell pushed for an art that used thetechniques of an artistic medium to capture theessence of a thing (its 'significant form') ratherthan its mere outward appearance.

Throughout the rest of the early part of the 20thCentury, European structuralists continued toargue that 'real' art was expressive only of athing's ontological, metaphysical or essentialnature. But European art critics soon began usingthe word 'structure' to indicate a new concept ofart. By the 1930s and 1940s, structuralistsreasoned that the mental processes and socialpreconceptions an individual brings to art aremore important that the essential, or 'ideal',nature of the thing. Knowledge is created onlythrough socialization and thought, they said, anda thing can only be known as it is filtered throughthese mental processes. Soon, the word 'form'was used interchangeably with the word'structure'.

The concept of formalism can be traced as farback as Plato, who argued that 'eidos' (or shape)of a thing included our perceptions of the thing,as well as those sensory aspects of a thing whichthe human mind can take in. Plato argued thateidos included elements of representation andimitation, since the thing itself could not bereplicated. Subsequently, Plato believed thateidos inherently was deceptive.

In 1890, the Post-impressionist painter MauriceDenis wrote in his article 'Definition of Neo-Traditionism' that a painting was 'essentially a flatsurface covered in colours arranged in a certainorder.' Denis argued that the painting orsculpture or drawing itself, not the subject of theartistic work, gave pleasure to the mind.

Denis' emphasis on the form of a work led theBloomsbury writer Clive Bell to write in his 1914book, Art, that there was a distinction between athing's actual form and its 'significant form.' ForBell, recognition of a work of art asrepresentational of a thing was less importantthan capturing the 'significant form', or true innernature, of a thing. Bell's work harkened back tothe Aristotelian concept of general forms and'species.' For Aristotle, that an animal was a dogwas not important; that a dog was a Dalmatian oran Irish wolfhound was. Echoing this line ofthought, Bell pushed for an art that used thetechniques of an artistic medium to capture theessence of a thing (its 'significant form') ratherthan its mere outward appearance.

Throughout the rest of the early part of the 20thCentury, European structuralists continued toargue that 'real' art was expressive only of athing's ontological, metaphysical or essentialnature. But European art critics soon began usingthe word 'structure' to indicate a new concept ofart. By the 1930s and 1940s, structuralistsreasoned that the mental processes and socialpreconceptions an individual brings to art aremore important that the essential, or 'ideal',nature of the thing. Knowledge is created onlythrough socialization and thought, they said, anda thing can only be known as it is filtered throughthese mental processes. Soon, the word 'form'was used interchangeably with the word'structure'.

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8 Modern Nigerian Architecture

The International Style

The change of conditionsunder which architecture wasoperating in this period is verysignificant it is the change fromthe personal to impersonalclient. Cube and groups ofcubes were characteristic of1 9 3 0 . T h e i n c r e a s e dinternationalism style is auniform style which spread fastbecause of easy travelling, andthe well illustrated cheapprinting and technical press.The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a styleof pioneer countries to a stylesucceeding with works all overthe world.

The change of conditionsunder which architecture wasoperating in this period is verysignificant it is the change fromthe personal to impersonalclient. Cube and groups ofcubes were characteristic of1 9 3 0 . T h e i n c r e a s e dinternationalism style is auniform style which spread fastbecause of easy travelling, andthe well illustrated cheapprinting and technical press.The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a styleof pioneer countries to a stylesucceeding with works all overthe world.

When the 20th century began it was greeted with a sense of hope,not only by the majority of intellectualists: it was believed thatfurther progress of technical, intellectual and social changeswould lead to a completely new era with completely “new”people. Particularly noteworthy achievements in architecturebore witness to this enthusiasm in two countries whose politicaland industrial development had hitherto been somewhatretarded: Italy and Russia.

The futurists, particularly Antonio Sant'Elia and Vigilio Marchi,mainly worked on buildings used in the service of technology andtransport, i.e. new tasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used to celebrate it. Powerstations, railway stations, airports and, of course, entire citiesconsisting of powerful collections of skyscrapers and multi-storeytransport system, were the focus of the Futurists' designs. Theyshowed greater enthusiasm for the urban chaos of the metropolisthan the majority of the architectural avant-garde in othercountries. Few of the innumerable dynamic, upward striving andgigantic designs were realized. They were too aesthetically andfinancially advanced for the resources available at the time.

Despite realizing so few projects, the Futurists were prolificpublishers of manifestoes. Their dramatic words and Utopianplans penetrated as far as Russia, where Constructivism was soonto become the leading style.

Futurism in Italy

Carpenter Centre, Harvard University, Boston. Architect: Le Corbusier. Source:Author’s photograph, 2005.

Carpenter Centre, Harvard University, Boston. Architect: Le Corbusier. Source:Author’s photograph, 2005.

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Modern Trends in Architecture 9

The change of conditionsunder which architecture wasoperating in this period is verysignificant it is the change fromthe personal to impersonalclient. Cube and groups ofcubes were characteristic of1 9 3 0 . T h e i n c r e a s e dinternationalism style is auniform style which spread fastbecause of easy travelling, andthe well illustrated cheapprinting and technical press.The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a styleof pioneer countries to a stylesucceeding with works all overthe world.

Futurism

When the 20th century began it was greeted with a sense of hope,not only by the majority of intellectualists: it was believed thatfurther progress of technical, intellectual and social changeswould lead to a completely new era with completely “new”people. Particularly noteworthy achievements in architecturebore witness to this enthusiasm in two countries whose politicaland industrial development had hitherto been somewhatretarded: Italy and Russia.

The futurists, particularly Antonio Sant'Elia and Vigilio Marchi,mainly worked on buildings used in the service of technology andtransport, i.e. new tasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used to celebrate it. Powerstations, railway stations, airports and, of course, entire citiesconsisting of powerful collections of skyscrapers and multi-storeytransport system, were the focus of the Futurists' designs. Theyshowed greater enthusiasm for the urban chaos of the metropolisthan the majority of the architectural avant-garde in othercountries. Few of the innumerable dynamic, upward striving andgigantic designs were realized. They were too aesthetically andfinancially advanced for the resources available at the time.

Despite realizing so few projects, the Futurists were prolificpublishers of manifestoes. Their dramatic words and Utopianplans penetrated as far as Russia, where Constructivism was soonto become the leading style.

Futurism in Italy

When the 20th century began it was greeted with a sense of hope,not only by the majority of intellectualists: it was believed thatfurther progress of technical, intellectual and social changeswould lead to a completely new era with completely “new”people. Particularly noteworthy achievements in architecturebore witness to this enthusiasm in two countries whose politicaland industrial development had hitherto been somewhatretarded: Italy and Russia.

The futurists, particularly Antonio Sant'Elia and Vigilio Marchi,mainly worked on buildings used in the service of technology andtransport, i.e. new tasks created as a result of the industrialrevolution and which could also be used to celebrate it. Powerstations, railway stations, airports and, of course, entire citiesconsisting of powerful collections of skyscrapers and multi-storeytransport system, were the focus of the Futurists' designs. Theyshowed greater enthusiasm for the urban chaos of the metropolisthan the majority of the architectural avant-garde in othercountries. Few of the innumerable dynamic, upward striving andgigantic designs were realized. They were too aesthetically andfinancially advanced for the resources available at the time.

Despite realizing so few projects, the Futurists were prolificpublishers of manifestoes. Their dramatic words and Utopianplans penetrated as far as Russia, where Constructivism was soonto become the leading style.

Futurism in Italy

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10 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Constructivism.

Constructivism among other things shared withFuturism an enthusiasm for the apparentlyunlimited possibilities which new buildingtechnologies offered the architect. Otherimportant influences included Cubism andSuprematism, which was founded by KasimirMalevich. He was concerned with overcomingflat surface thinking in favour of three-dimensional spatial thinking in painting, and thedevelopment of an “art of spatial, constructivedesign”.

El Lissitzky, the multi-faceted artist who hadworked in Germany, was a key figure in thespread of Constructivism in the area ofarchitecture. In 1922 he co-organized the firstRussian art exhibition in Berlin, and made animportant contribution to the influence ofConstructivism on the Stijl and the Bauhaus.When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

Buildings consist of harshly juxtaposed elementsreduced to basic forms and colours, reachingobliquely or directly to the sky, their designdirectly derived from the structure, which isexposed by generous glazing. FamousConstructivist projects include Tatlin'sMonument for the Third International of 1919, adynamic sculptural structure which was to haveprovided an office and conference building forthe communist world organization , El Lissitzky'sLenin Tribune, a steel framework which was tohave projected at an oblique angle above themasses assembled for inspiration, and his"Wolkenbugel” skyscrapers which he designedaround 1925. The few Constructivist projects tobe realized include the Leningradskaja Prawdahouse in Moscow and the Lenin Mausoleum onRed Square in Moscow.

It is not surprising that the aesthetic Utopianswith their radical design ideas were particularlystrongly attracted to radical political ideologies.The attraction of Russian Constructivists tocommunism ultimately proved far moredisastrous than the links between many ItalianFuturists and the emergence of Fascism in Italy.Initially sharing the philosophy of the Bolshevists

Constructivism among other things shared withFuturism an enthusiasm for the apparentlyunlimited possibilities which new buildingtechnologies offered the architect. Otherimportant influences included Cubism andSuprematism, which was founded by KasimirMalevich. He was concerned with overcomingflat surface thinking in favour of three-dimensional spatial thinking in painting, and thedevelopment of an “art of spatial, constructivedesign”.

El Lissitzky, the multi-faceted artist who hadworked in Germany, was a key figure in thespread of Constructivism in the area ofarchitecture. In 1922 he co-organized the firstRussian art exhibition in Berlin, and made animportant contribution to the influence ofConstructivism on the Stijl and the Bauhaus.When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

Buildings consist of harshly juxtaposed elementsreduced to basic forms and colours, reachingobliquely or directly to the sky, their designdirectly derived from the structure, which isexposed by generous glazing. FamousConstructivist projects include Tatlin'sMonument for the Third International of 1919, adynamic sculptural structure which was to haveprovided an office and conference building forthe communist world organization , El Lissitzky'sLenin Tribune, a steel framework which was tohave projected at an oblique angle above themasses assembled for inspiration, and his"Wolkenbugel” skyscrapers which he designedaround 1925. The few Constructivist projects tobe realized include the Leningradskaja Prawdahouse in Moscow and the Lenin Mausoleum onRed Square in Moscow.

It is not surprising that the aesthetic Utopianswith their radical design ideas were particularlystrongly attracted to radical political ideologies.The attraction of Russian Constructivists tocommunism ultimately proved far moredisastrous than the links between many ItalianFuturists and the emergence of Fascism in Italy.Initially sharing the philosophy of the Bolshevists

Figure 4. Vladimir Tatlin: Model for the 3rd InternationalTower, 1919-1920

who seized power, they were increasinglyalienated by the political paralysis whichoccurred with the rise of Stalin in the mid-1920,and were finally completely outlawed. The ideasof Constructivism were, however, to exert aninfluence on the future: Golosov' Club ofCommunal Workers (1927-29) in Moscow, withits contrasting glass and wall surfaces of rounda n d c l e a r r e c t a n g u l a r f o r m s ,looks like something built in the 1990's.

who seized power, they were increasinglyalienated by the political paralysis whichoccurred with the rise of Stalin in the mid-1920,and were finally completely outlawed. The ideasof Constructivism were, however, to exert aninfluence on the future: Golosov' Club ofCommunal Workers (1927-29) in Moscow, withits contrasting glass and wall surfaces of rounda n d c l e a r r e c t a n g u l a r f o r m s ,looks like something built in the 1990's.

6. C IAM (Cong re s I n t e rna t i onauxd'Architecture Moderne) (1928 - 1956)

CIAM was formed one year before the building ofthe German Pavilion in Barcelona. Its foundationmarks the determination of Modernist architectsto promote and finesse their theories. For nearlythirty years the great questions of urban living,space, and belonging were discussed by CIAMmembers. The documents they produced, andthe conclusions they reached, had a tremendousinfluence on the shape of cities and towns theworld over.

The organisation's founding declaration wassigned by twenty-four architects at La Sarraz,Switzerland, in 1928. The La Sarraz Declarationasserted that architecture could no longer exist inan isolated state separate from governments andpolitics, but that economic and social conditionswould fundamentally affect the buildings of thefuture.

The Declaration also asserted that as societybecame more industrialised, it was vital thatarchitects and the construction industryrationalise their methods, embrace newtechnologies and strive for greater efficiency. (LeCorbusier, one of the movement's founders, oftenliked to compare the standardised efficiency ofthe motor industry with the inefficiency of thebuilding trade.)

CIAM's early attitudes towards town-planningwere stark: "Urbanisation cannot be conditionedby the claims of a pre-existent aestheticism; itsessence is of a functional order… the chaoticdivision of land, resulting from sales, speculations,inheritances, must be abolished by a collectiveand methodical land policy."

At this early stage the desire to re-shape cities andtowns is clear. Out is the "chaotic" jumble ofstreets, shops, and houses which existed inEuropean cities at the time; in is a zoned city,comprising of standardised dwellings anddifferent areas for work, home, and leisure.

The Athens Charter

The fourth CIAM Congress in 1933 (theme: "TheFunctional City") consisted of an analysis of thirty-four cities and proposed solutions to urban

problems. The conclusions were published as"The Athens Charter" (so-called because theCongress was held on board the SS Patris enroute from Marseilles to Athens). This documentremains one of the most controversial everproduced by CIAM. The charter effectivelycommitted CIAM to rigid functional cities, withcitizens to be housed in high, widely-spacedapartment blocs. Green belts would separateeach zone of the city. The Charter was notactually published until 1943, and its influencewould be profound on public authorities in post-war Europe.

The End of CIAM

It didn't take long for architects to question theconclusions reached at Athens, and to worrypublicly about the sterility of the city envisionedby CIAM. Chief among these doubters wereyoung British architects Alison and PeterSmithson, who led a breakaway from CIAM in1956. Three years previously they had outlinedtheir concerns; "Man may readily identify himselfwith his own hearth, but not easily with the townwithin which it is placed. 'Belonging' is a basicemotional need- its associations are of thesimplest order. From 'belonging'- identity- comesthe enriching sense of neighbourliness.

The short narrow street of the slum succeedswhere spacious redevelopment frequently fails."

The Smithsons worried that CIAM's ideal citywould lead to isolation and communitybreakdown, just as European governments werepreparing to build tower blocks in their ruinedcities.

The last CIAM meeting was held in 1956. By themid-1950s it was clear that the officialacceptance of Modernism was stronger thanever and yet the concerns voiced by theSmithsons and their allies that the movementwas in danger of creating an urban landscapewhich was hostile to social harmony, would riseto a crescendo in the decades to come.

CIAM succeeded in developing newarchitectural ideas into a coherent movement,but Modernists would spend many yearsdefending, and often undoing, its legacy.

Page 11: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 11

Constructivism among other things shared withFuturism an enthusiasm for the apparentlyunlimited possibilities which new buildingtechnologies offered the architect. Otherimportant influences included Cubism andSuprematism, which was founded by KasimirMalevich. He was concerned with overcomingflat surface thinking in favour of three-dimensional spatial thinking in painting, and thedevelopment of an “art of spatial, constructivedesign”.

El Lissitzky, the multi-faceted artist who hadworked in Germany, was a key figure in thespread of Constructivism in the area ofarchitecture. In 1922 he co-organized the firstRussian art exhibition in Berlin, and made animportant contribution to the influence ofConstructivism on the Stijl and the Bauhaus.When applied to architecture, the principles ofConstructivism mean that spatial design isunderstood as a form of design whichthoroughly embraces space.

Buildings consist of harshly juxtaposed elementsreduced to basic forms and colours, reachingobliquely or directly to the sky, their designdirectly derived from the structure, which isexposed by generous glazing. FamousConstructivist projects include Tatlin'sMonument for the Third International of 1919, adynamic sculptural structure which was to haveprovided an office and conference building forthe communist world organization , El Lissitzky'sLenin Tribune, a steel framework which was tohave projected at an oblique angle above themasses assembled for inspiration, and his"Wolkenbugel” skyscrapers which he designedaround 1925. The few Constructivist projects tobe realized include the Leningradskaja Prawdahouse in Moscow and the Lenin Mausoleum onRed Square in Moscow.

It is not surprising that the aesthetic Utopianswith their radical design ideas were particularlystrongly attracted to radical political ideologies.The attraction of Russian Constructivists tocommunism ultimately proved far moredisastrous than the links between many ItalianFuturists and the emergence of Fascism in Italy.Initially sharing the philosophy of the Bolshevists

who seized power, they were increasinglyalienated by the political paralysis whichoccurred with the rise of Stalin in the mid-1920,and were finally completely outlawed. The ideasof Constructivism were, however, to exert aninfluence on the future: Golosov' Club ofCommunal Workers (1927-29) in Moscow, withits contrasting glass and wall surfaces of rounda n d c l e a r r e c t a n g u l a r f o r m s ,looks like something built in the 1990's.

6. C IAM (Cong re s I n t e rna t i onauxd'Architecture Moderne) (1928 - 1956)

CIAM was formed one year before the building ofthe German Pavilion in Barcelona. Its foundationmarks the determination of Modernist architectsto promote and finesse their theories. For nearlythirty years the great questions of urban living,space, and belonging were discussed by CIAMmembers. The documents they produced, andthe conclusions they reached, had a tremendousinfluence on the shape of cities and towns theworld over.

The organisation's founding declaration wassigned by twenty-four architects at La Sarraz,Switzerland, in 1928. The La Sarraz Declarationasserted that architecture could no longer exist inan isolated state separate from governments andpolitics, but that economic and social conditionswould fundamentally affect the buildings of thefuture.

The Declaration also asserted that as societybecame more industrialised, it was vital thatarchitects and the construction industryrationalise their methods, embrace newtechnologies and strive for greater efficiency. (LeCorbusier, one of the movement's founders, oftenliked to compare the standardised efficiency ofthe motor industry with the inefficiency of thebuilding trade.)

CIAM's early attitudes towards town-planningwere stark: "Urbanisation cannot be conditionedby the claims of a pre-existent aestheticism; itsessence is of a functional order… the chaoticdivision of land, resulting from sales, speculations,inheritances, must be abolished by a collectiveand methodical land policy."

At this early stage the desire to re-shape cities andtowns is clear. Out is the "chaotic" jumble ofstreets, shops, and houses which existed inEuropean cities at the time; in is a zoned city,comprising of standardised dwellings anddifferent areas for work, home, and leisure.

The Athens Charter

The fourth CIAM Congress in 1933 (theme: "TheFunctional City") consisted of an analysis of thirty-four cities and proposed solutions to urban

6. C IAM (Cong re s I n t e rna t i onauxd'Architecture Moderne) (1928 - 1956)

CIAM was formed one year before the building ofthe German Pavilion in Barcelona. Its foundationmarks the determination of Modernist architectsto promote and finesse their theories. For nearlythirty years the great questions of urban living,space, and belonging were discussed by CIAMmembers. The documents they produced, andthe conclusions they reached, had a tremendousinfluence on the shape of cities and towns theworld over.

The organisation's founding declaration wassigned by twenty-four architects at La Sarraz,Switzerland, in 1928. The La Sarraz Declarationasserted that architecture could no longer exist inan isolated state separate from governments andpolitics, but that economic and social conditionswould fundamentally affect the buildings of thefuture.

The Declaration also asserted that as societybecame more industrialised, it was vital thatarchitects and the construction industryrationalise their methods, embrace newtechnologies and strive for greater efficiency. (LeCorbusier, one of the movement's founders, oftenliked to compare the standardised efficiency ofthe motor industry with the inefficiency of thebuilding trade.)

CIAM's early attitudes towards town-planningwere stark: "Urbanisation cannot be conditionedby the claims of a pre-existent aestheticism; itsessence is of a functional order… the chaoticdivision of land, resulting from sales, speculations,inheritances, must be abolished by a collectiveand methodical land policy."

At this early stage the desire to re-shape cities andtowns is clear. Out is the "chaotic" jumble ofstreets, shops, and houses which existed inEuropean cities at the time; in is a zoned city,comprising of standardised dwellings anddifferent areas for work, home, and leisure.

The Athens Charter

The fourth CIAM Congress in 1933 (theme: "TheFunctional City") consisted of an analysis of thirty-four cities and proposed solutions to urban

problems. The conclusions were published as"The Athens Charter" (so-called because theCongress was held on board the SS Patris enroute from Marseilles to Athens). This documentremains one of the most controversial everproduced by CIAM. The charter effectivelycommitted CIAM to rigid functional cities, withcitizens to be housed in high, widely-spacedapartment blocs. Green belts would separateeach zone of the city. The Charter was notactually published until 1943, and its influencewould be profound on public authorities in post-war Europe.

The End of CIAM

It didn't take long for architects to question theconclusions reached at Athens, and to worrypublicly about the sterility of the city envisionedby CIAM. Chief among these doubters wereyoung British architects Alison and PeterSmithson, who led a breakaway from CIAM in1956. Three years previously they had outlinedtheir concerns; "Man may readily identify himselfwith his own hearth, but not easily with the townwithin which it is placed. 'Belonging' is a basicemotional need- its associations are of thesimplest order. From 'belonging'- identity- comesthe enriching sense of neighbourliness.

The short narrow street of the slum succeedswhere spacious redevelopment frequently fails."

The Smithsons worried that CIAM's ideal citywould lead to isolation and communitybreakdown, just as European governments werepreparing to build tower blocks in their ruinedcities.

The last CIAM meeting was held in 1956. By themid-1950s it was clear that the officialacceptance of Modernism was stronger thanever and yet the concerns voiced by theSmithsons and their allies that the movementwas in danger of creating an urban landscapewhich was hostile to social harmony, would riseto a crescendo in the decades to come.

CIAM succeeded in developing newarchitectural ideas into a coherent movement,but Modernists would spend many yearsdefending, and often undoing, its legacy.

problems. The conclusions were published as"The Athens Charter" (so-called because theCongress was held on board the SS Patris enroute from Marseilles to Athens). This documentremains one of the most controversial everproduced by CIAM. The charter effectivelycommitted CIAM to rigid functional cities, withcitizens to be housed in high, widely-spacedapartment blocs. Green belts would separateeach zone of the city. The Charter was notactually published until 1943, and its influencewould be profound on public authorities in post-war Europe.

The End of CIAM

It didn't take long for architects to question theconclusions reached at Athens, and to worrypublicly about the sterility of the city envisionedby CIAM. Chief among these doubters wereyoung British architects Alison and PeterSmithson, who led a breakaway from CIAM in1956. Three years previously they had outlinedtheir concerns; "Man may readily identify himselfwith his own hearth, but not easily with the townwithin which it is placed. 'Belonging' is a basicemotional need- its associations are of thesimplest order. From 'belonging'- identity- comesthe enriching sense of neighbourliness.

The short narrow street of the slum succeedswhere spacious redevelopment frequently fails."

The Smithsons worried that CIAM's ideal citywould lead to isolation and communitybreakdown, just as European governments werepreparing to build tower blocks in their ruinedcities.

The last CIAM meeting was held in 1956. By themid-1950s it was clear that the officialacceptance of Modernism was stronger thanever and yet the concerns voiced by theSmithsons and their allies that the movementwas in danger of creating an urban landscapewhich was hostile to social harmony, would riseto a crescendo in the decades to come.

CIAM succeeded in developing newarchitectural ideas into a coherent movement,but Modernists would spend many yearsdefending, and often undoing, its legacy.

Page 12: Modern Trends in Architecture

12 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Structuralism.

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.Within a highly structured or orderedframework, Structuralists often attempt to instilinnovation and complexity. They may viewModernist architecture as poorly defined andunliveable. The Kunsthal in Rotterdam by RemKoolhaas has been called a Structuralist design.

Some younger CIAM members searched for thestructural principles of urban growth and for thenext significant unit above the family cell. Inshort they established a clear position forthemselves within the field based on the re-assertion of the importance of both the socialand symbolic aspects of the built environment.The position was based on the assertion of theimportance of vernacular values and buildingform .

In the 1950's and 1960's in both the UnitedStates and Europe the influence of structuralistthought already prevalent in linguistics andanthropology began to inflect the mostadventurous architecture of the period. This ledto speculattion on the possible existence of deepstructures linking late twentieth century westernsociety and its built environment with those of'traditional' African and Asian cultures.

The speculation that there might exist acorresponding language of architecture, thestructure of which might be uncovered andanalyzed, led to a semiotic analysis of the builtenvironment.

The more obvious result of structuralism inarchitecture came from the interest of a numberof architects who simply grafted onto thetraditional architectural project a set of formalgestures which simply symbolized the broadershift in thought in western society whichstructuralism represented. The components ofarchitectural form were generally clearlyarticulated - one could always tell, for example,where column became beam and load bearingbecame non-load bearing.

The Arrival of Structuralism in Architecture

Structuralism in the 1950's and the 1960's

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.Within a highly structured or orderedframework, Structuralists often attempt to instilinnovation and complexity. They may viewModernist architecture as poorly defined andunliveable. The Kunsthal in Rotterdam by RemKoolhaas has been called a Structuralist design.

Some younger CIAM members searched for thestructural principles of urban growth and for thenext significant unit above the family cell. Inshort they established a clear position forthemselves within the field based on the re-assertion of the importance of both the socialand symbolic aspects of the built environment.The position was based on the assertion of theimportance of vernacular values and buildingform .

In the 1950's and 1960's in both the UnitedStates and Europe the influence of structuralistthought already prevalent in linguistics andanthropology began to inflect the mostadventurous architecture of the period. This ledto speculattion on the possible existence of deepstructures linking late twentieth century westernsociety and its built environment with those of'traditional' African and Asian cultures.

The speculation that there might exist acorresponding language of architecture, thestructure of which might be uncovered andanalyzed, led to a semiotic analysis of the builtenvironment.

The more obvious result of structuralism inarchitecture came from the interest of a numberof architects who simply grafted onto thetraditional architectural project a set of formalgestures which simply symbolized the broadershift in thought in western society whichstructuralism represented. The components ofarchitectural form were generally clearlyarticulated - one could always tell, for example,where column became beam and load bearingbecame non-load bearing.

The Arrival of Structuralism in Architecture

Structuralism in the 1950's and the 1960's

Current architecture is oftenclassified into Late-Modern andPost-Modern architecture.Late-Modernism is a pragmaticand technocratic architecture.It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements ofModernism. It is representedby:

Sculptural Form (Brutalism,Geometric Expression)

Pompidou Centre in Paris. Competition from 1971. Renzo Pianoand Richard Rogers.

Page 13: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 13

Structuralist architects view design as a processof searching for basic, underlying structures.Within a highly structured or orderedframework, Structuralists often attempt to instilinnovation and complexity. They may viewModernist architecture as poorly defined andunliveable. The Kunsthal in Rotterdam by RemKoolhaas has been called a Structuralist design.

Some younger CIAM members searched for thestructural principles of urban growth and for thenext significant unit above the family cell. Inshort they established a clear position forthemselves within the field based on the re-assertion of the importance of both the socialand symbolic aspects of the built environment.The position was based on the assertion of theimportance of vernacular values and buildingform .

In the 1950's and 1960's in both the UnitedStates and Europe the influence of structuralistthought already prevalent in linguistics andanthropology began to inflect the mostadventurous architecture of the period. This ledto speculattion on the possible existence of deepstructures linking late twentieth century westernsociety and its built environment with those of'traditional' African and Asian cultures.

The speculation that there might exist acorresponding language of architecture, thestructure of which might be uncovered andanalyzed, led to a semiotic analysis of the builtenvironment.

The more obvious result of structuralism inarchitecture came from the interest of a numberof architects who simply grafted onto thetraditional architectural project a set of formalgestures which simply symbolized the broadershift in thought in western society whichstructuralism represented. The components ofarchitectural form were generally clearlyarticulated - one could always tell, for example,where column became beam and load bearingbecame non-load bearing.

The Arrival of Structuralism in Architecture

Structuralism in the 1950's and the 1960's

Late-modernism.Current architecture is oftenclassified into Late-Modern andPost-Modern architecture.Late-Modernism is a pragmaticand technocratic architecture.It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements ofModernism. It is representedby:

Sculptural Form (Brutalism,Geometric Expression)

Extreme Articulation(Team Ten,Structuralism)Second MachineAesthetics (Isozaki,Renzo Piano PompidouCentre)Slick-Tech (Membrane,Shaped Skyscrapers)Twenties Revivalism(Eisenman, Meier)Late-Modern Space(Gridism, Complexsimplicity)

Current architecture is oftenclassified into Late-Modern andPost-Modern architecture.Late-Modernism is a pragmaticand technocratic architecture.It draws its inspirations from thehighest achievements ofModernism. It is representedby:

Sculptural Form (Brutalism,Geometric Expression)

Pompidou Centre in Paris. Competition from 1971. Renzo Pianoand Richard Rogers.Pompidou Centre in Paris. Competition from 1971. Renzo Pianoand Richard Rogers.

Page 14: Modern Trends in Architecture

15 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Postmodernism.

Postmodern architecture evolved from themodernist movement, yet contradicts many ofthe modernist ideas. Combining new ideas withtraditional forms, postmodernist buildings maystartle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiarshapes and details are used in unexpected ways.Buildings may incorporate symbols to make astatement or simply to delight the viewer. Only aplural definition will reflect Post-Modernarchitecture. It takes a positive approachtowards metaphorical buildings, the vernacularand a new ambiguous kind of space.

Post-Modern architecture is concerned withcomfort, traditional buildings and a way of life.The distinguishing characteristics of Post-Modernism are contextualism, allusion to otherdesigns and ornament. It grew in popularitystarting from the sixties and was particularlypopular in the seventies up till 1980. It isrepresented by:

This is allusion to history. It can be recognizedthrough decorative mouldings and symbolicelements in an aggressive way.

This alludes to the past; it is insensitive to thenuances of time and context.

This is a hybrid between modern and traditional.

An architecture that pays tribute to contextualparameters.

The architects have turned to metaphors at handas the most renowned examples reflect. Suchexamples are Ronchamp (monk), Sydney Opera(sail boats) and TWA terminal (bird). Some haveeven used metaphors in the image of the humanbody.

Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters (the centerbuilding, above) is often cited as an example ofpostmodernism. Like many buildings in theInternational Style, the skyscraper has a sleek,classical facade. At the top, however, is anoversized "Chippendale" pediment.

Historicism

Straight-revivalism.

Neo-vernacular architecture

Adhocism and Urbanism.

Metaphor and metaphysics.

Postmodern architecture evolved from themodernist movement, yet contradicts many ofthe modernist ideas. Combining new ideas withtraditional forms, postmodernist buildings maystartle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiarshapes and details are used in unexpected ways.Buildings may incorporate symbols to make astatement or simply to delight the viewer. Only aplural definition will reflect Post-Modernarchitecture. It takes a positive approachtowards metaphorical buildings, the vernacularand a new ambiguous kind of space.

Post-Modern architecture is concerned withcomfort, traditional buildings and a way of life.The distinguishing characteristics of Post-Modernism are contextualism, allusion to otherdesigns and ornament. It grew in popularitystarting from the sixties and was particularlypopular in the seventies up till 1980. It isrepresented by:

This is allusion to history. It can be recognizedthrough decorative mouldings and symbolicelements in an aggressive way.

This alludes to the past; it is insensitive to thenuances of time and context.

This is a hybrid between modern and traditional.

An architecture that pays tribute to contextualparameters.

The architects have turned to metaphors at handas the most renowned examples reflect. Suchexamples are Ronchamp (monk), Sydney Opera(sail boats) and TWA terminal (bird). Some haveeven used metaphors in the image of the humanbody.

Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters (the centerbuilding, above) is often cited as an example ofpostmodernism. Like many buildings in theInternational Style, the skyscraper has a sleek,classical facade. At the top, however, is anoversized "Chippendale" pediment.

Historicism

Straight-revivalism.

Neo-vernacular architecture

Adhocism and Urbanism.

Metaphor and metaphysics.

Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters

The key ideas of postmodernism are set forth intwo important books by Robert Venturi:

and

Postmodern addition to the Oberlin College artmuseum in Ohio, 1977

Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Postmodern Architects

Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

Michael Graves

Philip Johnson

Husband and wife team Robert Venturi andDenise Scott Brown are known for architecturesteeped in popular symbolism. Kitsch becomesart in designs which exaggerate or stylize culturalicons. Mocking the austerity of modernistarchitecture, Venturi is famous for saying, "Less isa bore."

When Robert Venturi built this home for hismother, he shocked the world. Postmodern instyle, the Vanna Venturi house flew in the face ofmodernism and changed the way we think aboutarchitecture.

The design of Vanna Venturi House appearsdeceptively simple. A light wood frame isdivided by a rising chimney. The house has asense of symmetry, yet the symmetry is oftendistorted. For example, the façade is balancedwith five window squares on each side. The waythe windows are arranged, however, is notsymmetrical. Consequently, the viewer ismomentarily startled and disoriented. Inside thehouse, the staircase and chimney compete forthe main center space. Both unexpectedly divideto fit around each other.

The radical house Venturi built for his mother isfrequently discussed in architecture and arthistory classes and has inspired the work of manyother architects.

Complexity and Contradiction in ArchitectureLearning from Las Vegas.

Vanna Venturi House

This photo taken at Oberlin Collegeshows how Robert Venturi exercisedarchitectural wit: an exaggeratedclassical column is placed inside astark, purely functional space.

Page 15: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 15

Postmodern architecture evolved from themodernist movement, yet contradicts many ofthe modernist ideas. Combining new ideas withtraditional forms, postmodernist buildings maystartle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiarshapes and details are used in unexpected ways.Buildings may incorporate symbols to make astatement or simply to delight the viewer. Only aplural definition will reflect Post-Modernarchitecture. It takes a positive approachtowards metaphorical buildings, the vernacularand a new ambiguous kind of space.

Post-Modern architecture is concerned withcomfort, traditional buildings and a way of life.The distinguishing characteristics of Post-Modernism are contextualism, allusion to otherdesigns and ornament. It grew in popularitystarting from the sixties and was particularlypopular in the seventies up till 1980. It isrepresented by:

This is allusion to history. It can be recognizedthrough decorative mouldings and symbolicelements in an aggressive way.

This alludes to the past; it is insensitive to thenuances of time and context.

This is a hybrid between modern and traditional.

An architecture that pays tribute to contextualparameters.

The architects have turned to metaphors at handas the most renowned examples reflect. Suchexamples are Ronchamp (monk), Sydney Opera(sail boats) and TWA terminal (bird). Some haveeven used metaphors in the image of the humanbody.

Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters (the centerbuilding, above) is often cited as an example ofpostmodernism. Like many buildings in theInternational Style, the skyscraper has a sleek,classical facade. At the top, however, is anoversized "Chippendale" pediment.

Historicism

Straight-revivalism.

Neo-vernacular architecture

Adhocism and Urbanism.

Metaphor and metaphysics.

The key ideas of postmodernism are set forth intwo important books by Robert Venturi:

and

Postmodern addition to the Oberlin College artmuseum in Ohio, 1977

Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Postmodern Architects

Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

Michael Graves

Philip Johnson

Husband and wife team Robert Venturi andDenise Scott Brown are known for architecturesteeped in popular symbolism. Kitsch becomesart in designs which exaggerate or stylize culturalicons. Mocking the austerity of modernistarchitecture, Venturi is famous for saying, "Less isa bore."

When Robert Venturi built this home for hismother, he shocked the world. Postmodern instyle, the Vanna Venturi house flew in the face ofmodernism and changed the way we think aboutarchitecture.

The design of Vanna Venturi House appearsdeceptively simple. A light wood frame isdivided by a rising chimney. The house has asense of symmetry, yet the symmetry is oftendistorted. For example, the façade is balancedwith five window squares on each side. The waythe windows are arranged, however, is notsymmetrical. Consequently, the viewer ismomentarily startled and disoriented. Inside thehouse, the staircase and chimney compete forthe main center space. Both unexpectedly divideto fit around each other.

The radical house Venturi built for his mother isfrequently discussed in architecture and arthistory classes and has inspired the work of manyother architects.

Complexity and Contradiction in ArchitectureLearning from Las Vegas.

Vanna Venturi House

The key ideas of postmodernism are set forth intwo important books by Robert Venturi:

and

Postmodern addition to the Oberlin College artmuseum in Ohio, 1977

Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Postmodern Architects

Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown

Michael Graves

Philip Johnson

Husband and wife team Robert Venturi andDenise Scott Brown are known for architecturesteeped in popular symbolism. Kitsch becomesart in designs which exaggerate or stylize culturalicons. Mocking the austerity of modernistarchitecture, Venturi is famous for saying, "Less isa bore."

When Robert Venturi built this home for hismother, he shocked the world. Postmodern instyle, the Vanna Venturi house flew in the face ofmodernism and changed the way we think aboutarchitecture.

The design of Vanna Venturi House appearsdeceptively simple. A light wood frame isdivided by a rising chimney. The house has asense of symmetry, yet the symmetry is oftendistorted. For example, the façade is balancedwith five window squares on each side. The waythe windows are arranged, however, is notsymmetrical. Consequently, the viewer ismomentarily startled and disoriented. Inside thehouse, the staircase and chimney compete forthe main center space. Both unexpectedly divideto fit around each other.

The radical house Venturi built for his mother isfrequently discussed in architecture and arthistory classes and has inspired the work of manyother architects.

Complexity and Contradiction in ArchitectureLearning from Las Vegas.

Vanna Venturi House

Vanna Venturi House

Sackler Museum Boston. Source:Author’s photograph 2005.

, Harvard University,

Page 16: Modern Trends in Architecture

16 Modern Nigerian Architecture

Deconstructivism.

D e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m , o rDeconstruction, is an approachto building design whichattempts to view architecturein bits and pieces. The basicelements of architecture aredismantled. Deconstructivistbuildings may seem to have novisual logic: They may appearto be made up of unrelated,disharmonious abstract forms.Deconstructivism ideas areborrowed from the Frenchphilosopher Jacques Derrida.F o r e x a m p l e s o fD e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i narchitecture, look at works by:

Peter Eisenman

Frank Gehry

Richard Meier

Rem Koolhaas

WORKS BY FRANK GEHRY

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,Spain 1997

Construction System:s t e e lframe, titanium sheathing

Notes: A free sculpture ofcurvaceous metal-clad forms.

T h e n e w G u g g e n h e i mMuseum Bilbao by FrankGehry was probably the mostoften mentioned new buildingo f 1 9 9 8 a n d 1 9 9 9 i narchitecture circles. Thecomposition continues ac u r v a c e o u s , f r e e - f o r msculptural style that hasbecome a Gehry signature. Thea b s t r a c t , f r e e - f o r mcomponents of this style werepresent in the early GehryHouse, and a similarly sleekcurvaceous cladding was

D e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m , o rDeconstruction, is an approachto building design whichattempts to view architecturein bits and pieces. The basicelements of architecture aredismantled. Deconstructivistbuildings may seem to have novisual logic: They may appearto be made up of unrelated,disharmonious abstract forms.Deconstructivism ideas areborrowed from the Frenchphilosopher Jacques Derrida.F o r e x a m p l e s o fD e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i narchitecture, look at works by:

Peter Eisenman

Frank Gehry

Richard Meier

Rem Koolhaas

WORKS BY FRANK GEHRY

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,Spain 1997

Construction System:s t e e lframe, titanium sheathing

Notes: A free sculpture ofcurvaceous metal-clad forms.

T h e n e w G u g g e n h e i mMuseum Bilbao by FrankGehry was probably the mostoften mentioned new buildingo f 1 9 9 8 a n d 1 9 9 9 i narchitecture circles. Thecomposition continues ac u r v a c e o u s , f r e e - f o r msculptural style that hasbecome a Gehry signature. Thea b s t r a c t , f r e e - f o r mcomponents of this style werepresent in the early GehryHouse, and a similarly sleekcurvaceous cladding was

The Seattle Public Library by Pritzker Prize Laureate Rem Koolhaas.

Page 17: Modern Trends in Architecture

Modern Trends in Architecture 17

D e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m , o rDeconstruction, is an approachto building design whichattempts to view architecturein bits and pieces. The basicelements of architecture aredismantled. Deconstructivistbuildings may seem to have novisual logic: They may appearto be made up of unrelated,disharmonious abstract forms.Deconstructivism ideas areborrowed from the Frenchphilosopher Jacques Derrida.F o r e x a m p l e s o fD e c o n s t r u c t i v i s m i narchitecture, look at works by:

Peter Eisenman

Frank Gehry

Richard Meier

Rem Koolhaas

WORKS BY FRANK GEHRY

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,Spain 1997

Construction System:s t e e lframe, titanium sheathing

Notes: A free sculpture ofcurvaceous metal-clad forms.

T h e n e w G u g g e n h e i mMuseum Bilbao by FrankGehry was probably the mostoften mentioned new buildingo f 1 9 9 8 a n d 1 9 9 9 i narchitecture circles. Thecomposition continues ac u r v a c e o u s , f r e e - f o r msculptural style that hasbecome a Gehry signature. Thea b s t r a c t , f r e e - f o r mcomponents of this style werepresent in the early GehryHouse, and a similarly sleekcurvaceous cladding was