module 1a: uttar pradesh history

Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History

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Uttar Pradesh State Information

Capital : Lucknow

Districts :70

Languages: Hindi, Urdu, English

Introduction to Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh has multicultural, multiracial, fabulous wealth of nature-hills, valleys, rivers, forests, and vast plains. Viewed as the largest tourist destination in India, Uttar Pradesh boasts of 35 million domestic tourists. More than half of the foreign tourists, who visit India every year, make it a point to visit this state of Taj and Ganga. Agra itself receives around one million foreign tourists a year coupled with around twenty million domestic tourists. Uttar Pradesh is studded with places of tourist attractions across a wide spectrum of interest to people of diverse interests. The seventh most populated state of the world, Uttar Pradesh can lay claim to be the oldest seat of India's culture and civilization. It has been characterized as the cradle of Indian civilization and culture because it is around the Ganga that the ancient cities and towns sprang up. Uttar Pradesh played the most important part in India's freedom struggle and after independence it remained the strongest state politically.

Geography of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is between latitude 24°-31°N and longitude 77°-84°E. Area wise, it is the fourth largest state of

India.. The Gangetic Plain occupies three quarters of the state. The entire state, except for the northern region, has a tropical monsoon climate. In the plains, January temperatures range from 12.5°C-17.5°C and May records 27.5°-32.5°C, with a maximum of 45°C. Rainfall varies from 1,000-2,000 mm in the east to 600-1,000 mm in the west.

Brief History of Uttar Pradesh The epics of Hinduism, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were written in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh also had the glory of being home to Lord Buddha. It has now been established that Gautama Buddha spent most of his life in eastern Uttar Pradesh, wandering from place to place preaching his sermons. The empire of Chandra Gupta Maurya extended nearly over the whole of Uttar Pradesh. Edicts of this period have been found at Allahabad and Varanasi. After the fall of the Mauryas, the present state of Uttar Pradesh was divided into four parts: Surseva, North Panchal, Kosal, and Kaushambi.

The western part of Uttar Pradesh saw the advent of the Shaks in the second century BC. Not much is known of the history of the state during the times of Kanishka and his successors. The Gupta Empire ruled over nearly the whole of Uttar Pradesh, and it was during this time that culture and architecture reached its peak. The decline of the Guptas coincided with the attacks of Huns from Central Asia who succeeded establishing their influence right up to Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh.


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The seventh century witnessed the taking over of Kannauj by Harshavardhana. In 1526, Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal dynasty. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Babar carried out extensive campaign in various parts of Uttar Pradesh. He defeated the Rajputs near Fatehpur Sikri while his son Humayun conquered Jaunpur and Ghazipur, after having brought the whole of Awadh under his control. After Babur's death (1530), his son Humayun forfeited the empire after being defeated at the hands of Sher Shah Suri at Kannauj.

After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545, Humayun once again regained his empire but died soon after. His son Akbar proved to be the greatest of Mughals. His established a unified empire over nearly the whole of the India. During his period, Agra became the capital of India and became heartland of culture and arts. Akbar constructed huge forts in Agra and Allahabad. The period of Jahangir (after 1605) saw arts and culture reach a new high. In 1627, after the death of Jahangir, his son Shahjahan ascended the throne. The period of Shahjahan is known as the golden period of India in art, culture, and architecture. It was during his reign that the classical wonder Taj Mahal was built in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The régime of Aurangzeb saw the peak of Mughal Empire in terms of geographic expansion.

Modern-day Uttar Pradesh saw the rise of important freedom fighters on the national scenario. Lal Bahadur Shastri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Smt. Indira Gandhi, and Charan Singh were only a few of the important names who played a

significant role in India's freedom movement and also rose to become the prime ministers of this great nation.

Districts of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is made up of 70 administrative districts, which are grouped into 17 divisions.

Agra Division-Agra, Aligarh, Etah, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Mahamaya Nagar (Hathras) and Mathura

Allahabad Division-Allahabad, Kaushambi, Fatehpur and Pratapgarh,

Azamgarh Division-Azamgarh, Ballia, Mau,

Bareilly Division-Bareilly, Badaun, Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur

Basti Division-Basti, Siddharthnagar, Sant Kabir Nagar

Chitrakoot Division-Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Mahoba

Devipatan Division-Gonda, Bahraich, Shravasti, Balrampur

Faizabad Division-Faizabad, Ambedkar Nagar, Barabanki, Sultanpur

Gorakhpur Division-Gorakhpur, Kushinagar (Padrauna), Devaria, Maharajganj,

Jhansi Division-Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur,

Kanpur Division-Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat (Akbarpur District), Etawah, Farrukhabad, Kannauj, Auraiya

Lucknow Division-Lucknow, Hardoi, Lakhimpur Kheri, Raebareli, Sitapur, Unnao


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Meerut Division-Meerut, Bulandshahr, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Ghaziabad, Bagpat,

Mirzapur Division-Mirzapur, Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi District), Sonbhadra

Moradabad Division-Moradabad, Bijnor, Rampur, Jyotiba Phule Nagar

Saharanpur Division-Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar

Varanasi Division-Varanasi, Chandauli, Ghazipur, Jaunpur

Business & Economy of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh provides employment to nearly one-third of the state's total workforce in its textiles and sugar-refining industries. Other prominent industries in Uttar Pradesh include vegetable oil, jute, and cement. The Union Government has established a number of large factories that manufacture heavy equipment, machinery, steel, aircraft, telephone, electronics equipment, and fertilizers. An oil refinery at Mathura and the development of coalfields in the southeastern district of Mirzapur are also major Union Government projects.

The state government promotes medium- and small-scale industries. Agriculture is the mainstay of the state's economy. The chief crops are rice, wheat, millet, barley, and sugarcane. Since the late 1960s, with the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seed for wheat and rice, greater availability of fertilizers, and increased use of irrigation, the state has become the largest producer of food grains in the country.

Uttar Pradesh Travel Information

Uttar Pradesh can be easily considered as the nerve center of India and all the images of India can be experienced here. This is the state that gave the world Taj Mahal, the mascot for India; Varanasi, the spiritual hot spot; Sarnath, where Buddha preached for the first time, and Mathura, the place so much synonymous with the life and times of Lord Krishna. There are many Tourist Attraction of Uttar Pradesh, which include Agra, Allahabad, Ayodhya, Deogarh, Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Kushinagar, Lucknow, Mathura, Sarnath, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Bithoor, Kalinjar and Kannauj

Rivers of Uttar Pradesh

Main rivers in Uttar Prdaesh are Alaknanda, Ramganga, Bhagirathi, Yamuna & Ganga

Education in Uttar Pradesh The female literacy situation in Uttar Pradesh is dismal at 42.98%. However, the male literacy rate is reasonably better at 70.23%. The overall literacy rate is still poor at 57.36% and much lower than the all India average. The State government has taken steps to make the population totally literate.

There are special programs like the World Bank aided DPEP. Steps are being taken with the help of NGOs and other organizations to raise participation. At the level of higher education and technical education Uttar


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Pradesh has 16 general universities, famous among those are Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU), Allahabad University, Madan Mohan Malaviya Engineering College, Agra University, Banaras Hindu University, Chaudhary Charan Singh University (Meerut), Aligarh Muslim University, prestigious Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Indian Institute of Management (Lucknow), Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Indian Institute of Information Technology (Allahabad), National Institute of Technology (Allahabad) and large number of polytechnics, engineering institutes and industrial training institutes.

Food of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is a gourmet's paradise. The cuisine consists of simple, vegetables curries of all kinds. However, a whole lot of fried foods like the kachori and puri, which are necessary during festivities, and the meat delicacies of Awadh are world famous. A lot of emphasis is placed on savories and sweetmeats in this state. The range could be anything from mathris to jalebis. Lucknow is also known worldwide for its biryanis and meat preparations.

Arts & Culture of Uttar Pradesh The population mostly comprises of an Indo-Dravidian ethnic group. Only a small population, in the Himalayan region, displays Asiatic origins. Hindus constitute more than 80 percent of the population, Muslims more than 15

percent, and other religious communities include Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists.

The handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh have earned a reputation for themselves over the centuries. The traditional handicrafts are of a vast variety such as textiles, metal ware, woodwork, ceramics, stonework, dolls, leather products, ivory articles, papier-mâché, articles made of horns, bone, cane and bamboo, perfume, and musical instrument. These cottage crafts are spread all over the state but the more important centers are located at Varanasi, Aamgarh, Maunath Bhanjan, Ghazipur, Meerut, Muradabad, and Agra.

Carpets from Bhadohi and Mirzapur are prized worldwide. Silks and brocades of Varanasi, ornamental brassware from Muradabad, chickan (a type of embroidery) work from Lucknow, ebony work from Nagina, glassware from Firozabad, and carved woodwork from Saharanpur also are important. The traditional pottery centers are located at Khurja, Chunar, Lucknow, Rampur, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, and Azamgarh. Khurja's dishes, pitchers, and flower bowls in blazed ceramic in blue, green, brown and orange colors are the most attractive.

Muradabad produces exquisite brass utility articles. Besides, minakari on silver, gold, and diamond-cut silver ornaments have made Varanasi and Lucknow world famous.

Music & Dance of Uttar Pradesh


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The state is known for pioneering the development of musical instruments, which find mention in ancient Sanskrit literature. Music is also known to have flourished in the Gupta Period (c. 320-540), and much of the musical tradition in Uttar Pradesh was developed during the period.

The musicians Tansen and Baiju Bawra, two of the Navaratnas (Nine Jewels) of the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, are still immortal for their contribution in the field of music.

The sitar (a stringed instrument of the lute family) and the tabla (consisting of two small drums), the two most popular instruments of Indian music, were developed in the region during this period.

The Kathak style of classical dance, which originated in Uttar Pradesh in the 18th century as a devotional dance in the temples of Vrindavan and Mathura, is the most popular form of classical dance in northern India.

There are also local songs and dances of the countryside, and the most popular of the folksongs are seasonal. The songs and dances of the countryside are significant features of local culture. They include the kajari of Mirzapur and Varanasi; the Alha Udal, a folk epic; and various village dances.

Festivals of Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh has a long list of fairs and festivals. More than 2,230 festivals are held annually. Some are organized at

several places simultaneously while others have only local importance.

Festivals and feasts are linked with the golden harvest - the sensuous spring, the reverence for mythology, religion or in honor of the past great men. These are zestfully celebrated with song, dance, and merriment; others with solemnity, fervor, fast, or feast. These fairs and festivals help the people keep the culture vibrant and promote artistic activities.

Facts related to Uttar Pradesh

Shakas had set up their

Kshsatraps in Mathura.

The brahmi inscription s of

Mora(Mathura ) is associated

with Sakas.

The Sakas conquered the area of

Mathura over Indian kings around

60BCE. Some of their satraps

were Hangamasha and Hagana,

who were in turn followed by the

Saka Great Satrap Rajuvula.

The Mathura Lion Capital

inscriptions attest that Mathura

fell under the control of the

Sakas. The inscriptions contain

references to Kharaosta Kamuio

and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja

Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the

son of Arta, as is attested by his

own coins.

Arta is stated to be brother of

King Moga or Maues. Princess

Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called

Kambojika, was the chief queen

of Shaka Mahakshatrapa

Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in


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Mathura is also verified from

some verses of the epic, the

Mahabharata, which are believed

to have been composed around

this period.

The Indo-Scythian satraps of

Mathura are sometimes called

the "Northern Satraps", as

opposed to the "Western

Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and

Malwa. After Rajuvula, several

successors are known to have

ruled as vassals to the Kushans,

such as the "Great Satrap"

Kharapallana and the "Satrap"

Vanaspara, who are known from

an inscription discovered in

Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd

year of Kanishka (c 130 CE), in

which they were paying

allegiance to the Kushans.

The Sakas

The indo-Greek rule in India was

primarily destroyed by the Sakas.

Sakas were the Scythians, which

refer to ancient Iranian people of

horse-riding nomadic

pastoralists.

In Sanskrit they are referred as

Sakas.

The 2nd century BC saw an

upheaval in the Central Asia. The

invasion by the Central Asian

nomadic tribes and tribes from

the Chinese region was

responsible for the migration of

the Sakas towards India.

Maues (80-65 BC)

Maues or Moga was the earliest

Shaka ruler.

He established Shaka power in

Gandhara and ruled around 80-

60BC

His capital was ”Sirkap” and he

issued a large number of copper

coins and few silver coins.

Some sources indicate that he

assumed the title of ” maharaja

mahatma ” and his coins are

bearing the images of Indian

deities’ viz. Shiva, and Buddha.

He used Greek and Kharoshthi in

coin legends.

Moga inscription

Moga inscription refers to the Taxila

copper plate. Taxila copper plate was

found in area of Taxila in modern

Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a

precise data and it is written in

Kharoshthi. This inscription is ascribed

to Shaka king Moga.

It was the Taxila Copper Plate

which has mentioned about the

dedication of a relic of the

Buddha Shakyamuni to a

Buddhist monastery by the Shaka

ruler Patika Kusulaka.

Patika Kusulaka is also

mentioned in Mathura lion capital.


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Azes-I & Azes II

Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara,

they were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the

Jhelum river in eastern Punjab.

But it was Azes-I who put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India.

Azes-I annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long

resistance.

In 58 BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in

India.

Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II.

There are some coins issued jointly be Azes-I and Azilises and jointly issued by

Azilises and Azes II.

Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last

Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas.

Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana Empire in North West India.

Bimaran casket

Bimaran casket was found in Jalalabad, Pakistan between 1833 to 1838. This casket is

important because it was found having the coins of Azes II.

It features the representations of Buddha surrounded by India deities Brahma

and Indra as bodhisattvas.

The Buddha is standing posture with bundled hair and wears a dhoti.

It was found in a steatite which was having some inscriptions.

The Bimaran casket is the First & Earliest known image of the Standing Buddha.

Introduction to Ancient History

Uttar Pradesh for its strategic position, in ancient times was known the Madhya Desh. Due to is

position, most invaders crossed it in the course of their invasions. Stretching from the north-west


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territories to the eastern states its history is almost synonymous to the history of north India.

The discovery of arms and implements in areas like Mirzapur, Sonebhadra, Bundelkhand and Sarai

Nahar area of Pratapgarh reveal that civilization dates back to the neo-Paleolithic age. There have

also been objects discovered in Alamgirpur, a suburban locality of Meerut which belonged to the

Harappan culture. Such evidences clearly stand as a proof to the historical significance of this vast

stretch of land.

This has also been proved by anthropologists. The finding of human skeletons in Sarainahar Rai

and Mehdaha in Pratapgarh have revealed microlyths dating back to 8000 years before Christ.

There are also enough indicators, which come from the stone age.

Historians have still not been satiated by what has been so far discovered from the state of Uttar

Pradesh. Today here is enoughand more for them to find out in the regions of Jajmau (Kanpur),

Fazilnagar (Deoria), Hulaskhera (Lucknow), Bheetargaon (Kanpur), Rajghat (Varanasi). These

experts believe that a lot more is still to be unravelled in terms of Uttar Pradesh's glorious past from

these sites.

Aryan Age

It is only from the Rigvedic age that some coherent historical account is found. Initially, the centre of

Aryan colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu or the region irrigated by seven rivers (undivided

Punjab). The seven rivers were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Askini (Chenab),Purushni(Ravi),

Vipasa (Beas) Shatudri (Sutlej) and Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan desert). More important of

the Aryan clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu, and Druh. These five clans were known as

Panchjan. Besides, there was one more prominent clan known as Bharat. Gradually, the Aryans

extended their territory towards the east. The Shatpath Brahman gives an interesting account of the

victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh (north Bihar) by the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas. Expansion

of territory saw the creation of new States (Janpadas) and emergence of new people and new

centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually lost importance and the centre of culture shifted to the plains

between Saraswati and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of Kuru, Fanchal, Kashi and Kosal.

The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar

Pradesh corresponds to this region. It was considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and

heroes, whose deeds are recorded in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, lived here. Its inhabitants

were considered to be the most cultured Aryans as their speech formed the norm and their conduct

was prescribed as the model. They were fully conversant with rituals and could worship and


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sacrifice without any flaw or fault. The rulers of these States, especially King Pravahna Jaivali of

Panchal, became immortal due to their noble deeds. Subsequent history got mingled for a long time

with the Puranas and Hindu scriptures, snapping the link with historical records. When this dark

period of history comes to an end and outlines of a proper history take shape again in sixth century

B.C., we find the 16 Mahajanpadas engaged in a state of serious competition for supremacy. These

States (Janapadas) and their capitals were:

1.Kuru (Meerut, Delhi and Thaneshwar)

Capital-Indraprasth(Indropal near Delhi)

2.Panchal (Bareilly, Budaun and Farrukhabad)

Capitals Ahichhatra (Ramnagar near Bareilly) and Kampilya (Farrukhabad)

3.Vats (Area around Mathura)

Capital-Mathura

4.Vats (Allahabad and nearby area)

Capital-Kaushambi (Kosam near Allahabad)

5.Kosal (Awadh)

Capital Saket (Ayodhya) and Shravasti (Sahet-Mahet in Gonda District)

6.Malla (District Deoria)

Capitals-Kushinagar (Kasia) and Pawa (Padrauna)

7. Kashi (Varanasi)

Capital-Varanasi


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8. Ang (Bhagalpur)

Capital-Champa

9.Magadh (South Bihar)

Capital-Girivraj (Rajgraha-Rajgiri near Bihar-sharif)

10.Vajji (District Darbhanga and Muzaffarpur)

Capitals Mithila, Janakpur, (on Nepal border) and Vaishali

11. Chedi (Bundelkhand)

Capital-Shuktimati (Probably near Banda)

12. Matsya (Jaipur)

Capital-Virat (near Jaipur)

13.Ashmak (Godawari valley)

Capital-Pandanya (place not known)

14.Avanti (Malva)

Capital Ujjaini (Ujjain)

15.Gandhar (north-west region, now in Pakistan)

Capital- Taxshila (near Rawalpindi)

16. Kamboj Capital-Rajapur (place not known)

Out of the above 16 States, eight (at serial number 1-7 and 11) were in present Uttar Pradesh.

More known among them were Kashi, Kosal and Vatsa. Besides these, certain republic states were

also within the boundries of present Uttar Pradesh e.g. Shakya state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of

Samsumergiri and Malla state of Pawapuri and Kushingar.

Vedic Period


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There is hardly any mention of the area comprising present Uttar Pradesh in Vedic hymns. Even

the sacred rivers, the Ganga and Yamuna, appear only on the distant horizon of the land of the

Aryans. In the later Vedic age, the importance of Sapta Sindhu recedes and Brahmarshi Desh or

Madhya Desh assumes significance. The region comprising Uttar Pradesh at that time became a

holy place of India and foremost centre of Vedic culture and knowledge.

The new States of Kuru-Panchal, Kashi and Kosal find mention in Vedic texts as prominent centres

of Vedic culture. The people of Kuru-Fanchcii were regarded as the best representatives of Vedic

culture. They enjoyed great respect as outstanding orators of Sanskrit. The conduct of schools and

institutions by them was laudable. The life of their kings was a model for other kings and their

Brahmins were held in high esteem for their piety and scholarship. The Upanishads prominently

mention the Panchal Parishad. The scholars from Kuru-Panchal were specially visited by the Videh

king on the occasion of Ashwamedh Yajna. The Panchal king Pravahan Jaivali himself was a great

thinker, who was praised even by Brahmin scholars like Shilik, Dalabhya, Shvetketu and his father

Uddalak Aruni. Ajatshatru of Kashi was another great philosopher king whose superiority was

acknowledged by Brahmin scholars like Dripti, Valhaki, Gargya etc.

Literature in various disciplines was authored on an extensive scale during this age culminating in

the Upanishads. They signify the highest reach of human imagination. The Upanishad literature

was the product of meditation in the Ashrams of the sages, several of which were in Uttar

Pradesh.Eminent sages like Bharadwaj, Yajnavalkya1 Vashishta, Vishwamitra, Valmiki and Atri had

either their Ashrams here or were otherwise connected with this State. Some Aranyaks and

Upanishads were written in the Ashrams located in this State.

Post Vedic Period

The cultural heritage of Uttar Pradesh was maintained in the period of the Ramayana and

Mahabharata i.e. the epic period. The story of Ramayan revolves round the 'Ikshwaku' dyanasty of

Kosal. The Mahabharata portrays the 'Kuru' dynasty of Hastinapur. Local people firmly believe that

the Ashram of Valmiki, the author of Ramayana, was in Brahmavart (Bithoor in Kanpur District). It

was in the surroundings of Naimisharany (Nimsar-Misrikh in Sitapur district) where Suta narrated

the story of Mahabharata, which he had heard from Ved Vyas himself. Some of the Smritis and

Puranas were also written in this State.

Gautam Buddha, Mahavir, Makkhaliputta Goshal and great thinkers brought about a revolution in

Uttar Pradesh in 6th century B.C. Out of these, Makkhaliputta Goshal, who was born at Shravan

near Shravasti, was the founder of Ajivika sect.


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Mahavir, the 24th Trithankar of Jains was born in Bihar but had a large number of followers in Uttar

Pradesh. He is said to have lived twice during rainy season in this State - once in Shravasti and the

second time in Padrauna near Deoria. Pawa proved to be his last resting place. In fact, Jainism had

entrenched itself in this State even before the arrival of Mahavir. Several Tirthankars such as

Parshwanath, Sambharnath and Chandraprabha were born in different cities in this State and

attained 'Kaivalya' here. Jainism must have retained its popularity in this State in subsequent

centuries also. This fact is borne by the ruins of several ancient temples, buildings, etc. The

remains of a magnificient Jain Stupa have been dug out near Kankali Tila in Mathura, while Jain

shrines built in early Middle Age are still preserved in Deogarh, Chanderi and other places.

Pre-Christ Era

All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed

Vatsa. Kosal and Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by one by Magadha, which became powerful

in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand dynasties.

The Nands ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C. The Nand empire extended almost to the whole of India

except Punjab and probably Bengal. It was during their reign that Alexander invaded India in 326

B.C. Several historians are of the view that the apprehension, that they will not be able to face the

forces of the powerful Magadh state, was at the root of Alexander's forces not advancing beyond

Beas river, which compelled him to go back.

With Alexander's retreat, India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give

reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana.

The whole of Uttar Pradesh enjoyed peace and prospeity during the reigns of Chandragupta, his

son Bindusara and grandson Ashok. The Government of India as the State Emblem has adopted

the Lion Capital, inscribed in the Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath. The Ashokan Pillars have been found

at Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sankisa, Kalsi, Siddharthnagar and Mirzapur, all of

which are in Uttar Pradesh. The Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan-Chawang* have seen

several rock edicts as well. Ashok also built the Dharmrajika Stupa at Sarnath.

The downfall of the Magadhan empire began with the death of Ashok in 232 b.C. His grandsons,

Dashrath and Samprathi divided the whole empire among themselves. The entire area south of

Narmada became independent and in 210 B.C. Punjab passed into other hands. the last ruler of

this dynasty was Brihdrath, who was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shung

in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra kept Magadhan empire intact. Patanjali's commertary refers to the seize of

Saket (Ayodhya) by the Greeks. Menander and his brother mounted a heavy attack in about 182

B.C. The invading armies accupied Kathiawad in far off south-west, Sagal (Sialkot in Punjab) and

Mathura. Later on the invaders laid a seize on Saket (Ayodhya) and advanced far in the Ganga

valley. Ultimately, Pushyamitra and his grandson Vasumitra challenged the invaders on the banks

of the Sindhu and defeated the Greeks. The invaders retreated and made Sagal (Sialkot) their


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capital. For long, Mathura remained a prominent city of Menander's empire. Menander or Milind

ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states flourished in Punjab up to

the first century of Chistain era. During this period the Shung dynasty was replaced by the danasty

in Magadh. It is said that the last king of Shung dynasty was of bad character and he was killed by

his minister Vasudev.Vasudev established Kanva dnasty in 75B.C. This dynasty continued to rule

for 45 years and its was brought to an end in 28 B.C. by Simuk, the founder of the Satavahana or

the Andhra Dynasty.

It was at this time that the attention of Central Asian rules was drawn towards India for the first time.

By 60 B.C. they had set up their Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka king was Maues who died

around 38 B.C. Mter the Sakas, the Parthians attecked north India and by the beginning of first

century A.D. they started defeating the Sakas. The Kushanas also mounted an attack around 40

A.D. The Kushanas too were one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of Central Asia. Soon the Kushana

rulers established their empire right fom Central Asia up to the Indus iver. Gradually, they occupied

the whole of north India.

Magadh with reference to Uttar Pradesh

All the states were perpetually at war with each other. Kaushal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed

Vats. Later on Kausha and Vats in turn were subjugated one by one by Magadh, which became

most powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and

Nand Dynasty. The Nandas ruled from 343 BC to 321 BC. The Nanda empire was extended to

whole of India except Punjab and Bengal. It was during their regime that Alexander invaded India in

326 BC. According to the great historians, Alexander the great could not even face the forceful

Magadh army and had to return.

In the year 323 BC Chandragupta Maurya became the new emperor of Magadh. His grandson

Ashoka the great created the statue of four lions in Sarnath. The Lion Capitol inscribed in the

Ashoka pillar at Sarnath has been adopted by the government of India as the State Emblem. The

Ashoka pillars petrography are found in Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sakinssa, Basti

and Mirzapur. All the cities are in Uttar Pradesh. In the year of 232 BC, the death of Ashoka led to

the downfall of Magadh dynasty.

His whole empire was divided among his five sons. The Mauryan dynasty ruled over 137 years.

According to Vayu Purana the Mauryan dynasty ruled for 134 years.

The later ruler of Magadh dynasty was Brihdratha, who was assassinated by his chief commander

Pushyamitra.


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Detailed Political History of Magadha

Of all the Mahajanapadas, Magadha eventually emerged as most powerful mainly because of its

peculiar geographical location. It was bordered by Ganga River in North, Son River in West,

Vindhya ranges in south and Champa in East. The natural barriers protected Magadha from three

sides and it was not easy to invade such a territory. Here is a brief account of the poltical history of

Magadha since Rig-Vedic period accounts.

Earliest known king of Magadha was Brihadrath whose name appears in Rig-Veda as well as

Puranas. His son Jarasandha was killed by Bhima in Mahabharata war.

The Brihadrath dynasty was followed by Pradyotas. By that time, the practice of killing one’s father

to usurp the throne had crept in. The Pradyotas were notorious for patricide and irked people

overthrew them in a civil revolt. Next in the line was Haranyaka dynasty, whose great King

Bimbisara is remembered as most powerful King of Magadha before Mauryas. Bimbisara was a

contemporary of Buddha as well as Mahavira. Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances and sending

envoys to expand his power. Since patricide was in vogue those days, Bimbisara also became a

victim of it. His son Ajatshatru starved him to death.

Ajatshatru was also a valorous king who expanded his empire by fighting war with Kashi,

Licchhavis and others. During his reign, Mahavira, Buddha and also Makkhali Gosala or Gosala

Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path attained Nirvana.

Ajatshatru was a devout Buddhist as well as Jain. He enshrined the relics of Buddha in a stupa and

also renovated many monasteries. Under his sponsorship, the first Buddhist Council was organized

at Sattapani caves in Rajgir. By that time, Rajgir served as capital of Magadha. Ajatshatru built a

fort at Pataliputra and his son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city.

Ajatshatru was also a victim of patricide by his son Udayin. Same fate was shared by almost all

kings of Haranyaka dynasty. Again there was a civil revolt and public placed Shishunaga on throne

of Magadha. Shishunaga was amatya (minister) of last Haranyaka king Nagadasaka. Kalasoka, the

son of Shishunaga made Pataliputra as new capital of Magadha. He may be of dark complexion as

the contemporary Sri Lankan texts mention his name as Kakavarna (of color like a crow). Kalsoka

sponsored second Buddhist council in 383 BC under monk Sabakami. His ten sons ruled

simultaneously before Magadha slipped into hands of Nandas.

The founder of Nanda dynasty was Mahapadmananda. Since he had one of the largest standing

armies in the history of world {2 Lakh infantry, 8000 war chariots, 6000 elephants!}, he is also called

Ugrasena. His army was so large that he could arrange it in a lotus shape {Padmavyuh} and he

was so wealthy that his wealth could be counted in Padma (One quadrillion). He subdued all the


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contemporary powers and consolidated power of Magadha.

Mahapadmananda, who is thought to be from humble origin {son of a barber} was the first non-

kshatriya ruler in the history of India. Nandas were also the first empire builders of India.

The Nadas ruled for around 100 years. During the reign of last Nanda ruler Dhananada, Alexander

invaded from west. Alexander was able to cross Beas but before he could cross Ganga, he heard

that Dhananda’s 2 Lakh strong army is waiting for his men for a bloody massacre. He lost the

confidence and moved back. While moving back, he died on the way probably due to Malaria.

However, this invasion along with several other such invasions from west had put the North-West

on boil. In Magadha, the popularity of Dhananda had went down because of his lavishness and

greed that led to extortion and corruption. The situation was such that any brave heart could seize

the opportunity to topple the Nandas. This opportunity was cashed by Kautilya, who was once

thrown out of Nanda’s court. To seek revenge, he groomed Chandragupta Maurya, the brave

young man, who is thought to be the son of Dhananda’s shudra concubine Mura.

Chandragupta first gave a death blow to Greeks in north-west and then attacked and dethroned the

Nandas. Nandas life was spared and they were asked to run with as much treasure as much their

chariot could carry. The most important implication of rise of Chandragupta Maurya was that India

was, for the first time perhaps, united politically. The below map shows the extent of Maurya empire

at that time.

Meanwhile, Alexander was succeeded by his one of his generals Seleucus, who launched a

campaign to get back the Greek territories lost to Mauryas. He was able to cross Indus, but could

not succeed to defeat Chandragupta. An alliance was made in which Seleucus returned some of

the won areas to Chandragupta. Chandragupta gifted some 500 war elephants to Seleucus and

also some kind of matrimonial alliance was made in which son / daughter of one was married to the

daughter / son of other. Seleucus also sent Megasthenes to court of Chandragupta.

In the old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara and became a

disciple of Jain Monk Bhadrabahu. He spent his last days at Sharavanbelgola and supposed to

have died practicing Santhara there.

Chandragupta’s successor Bindusara (also known as Amitraghata- destroyer of enemies) carried

on the legacy of Mauryas and cemented good alliances with Greek King Antiochus-I. He ruled for

some 25 years and was successes by Ashoka after a bloody battle of succession among his sons.

During the time of Ashoka, the boundaries of Maurya empire extended to maximum by that time.

He invaded and annexed Kalinga mainly because Kalinga controlled land and sea routes to South

India. However, this battle changed his mind and introduced a new element in the politics of India in

the form of cultural coherence based on the moral values of Buddhism and a norm of benignity,

civility and humanity in matters of governance.


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However, such a policy was bound to have its side effects on polity after Ashoka’s death. Asoka

died in 232 BC after ruling for four decades. His sons could not survive the waves of changes. His

six successors including Jaluka, Samprati and Dasaratha could rule for only 52 years.

The life of last Maurya ruler Brihadrath was troubled. By this time, there were repeated attacks of

Yavanas / Greeks from western side. His brave commander Pushyamitra Shunga was able to repel

two attacks of Greeks but was not happy with the attitude of his master. He killed Brihadrath in 185-

184 BC and thus closed the chapter of Mauryas from Indian history, thus founding Sunga dynasty.

Pushyamitra and his son Agnimitra ruled from Pataliputra. The later Shungas made Vidisha as their

capital. However, by the time of Shungas, many independent rulers had appeared in west as well

as south. The most remarkable was rise of Satavahanas in south and Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, and

many others in west and Kharvela in Kalinga (east). Thus, the boundaries of Magadh by the time

of Shunga had narrowed down to some parts of Central India.

The last Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed by his own amatya (minister) Vasudeva Kanva around

73BC. Thus, Magadha slipped into hands of Kanvas, who were Brahmins by caste. Only few rulers

of this Kanva dynasty are known on the basis of numismatics. This dynasty was finally overthrown

by Satavahanas in 30BC and thus once mighty Magadha was broken into many small parts ruled

by different dynasties at different periods.

The age of Buddha- Important cites in Uttar Pradesh

Sarnath

About 10 km. from the holy city of Varanasi, Sarnath is the place where more than 2,500 years ago

Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. An imposing conical structure, 34

meters in height, called Dhamek stupa signifies the "seat of the holy Buddha." There are also the

ruins of Dharmarajika Stupa, besides the original Mulgandhakuti Temple, which according to Hieun

Tsang was about 61 mtr. high. That's the place where Buddha rested and meditated in Sarnath.

After converting to Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka visited Sarnath in 273-232 B.C. and erected a

smooth glistening stone pillar here, to mark the foundation of the Buddhist Sangha. The Lion

Capital on top of this pillar is now India's National Emblem. Then there is the Chaukhandi Stupa,

which was a terraced temple during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) All three stupas--

Dharmarajika, Chaukhandi and Dhamek are outstanding in their architectural features. A journey to

Sarnath would be incomplete without a visit to the library at Mugandh Kuti Vihara, which houses

some amazing frescoes done by Koset Nosu. The Sarnath Museum, not far from the site, also

houses some of the finest specimens of Buddhist sculpture.


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Sravasti

After attaining Enlightenment Lord Buddha was constantly mobile spreading his message of

humanity, Universal brotherhood and salvation amongst the different segments of the society. This

service to humanity would stop for a brief period in the monsoons. This period too, however, would

be used by Lord Buddha to meditate and preach, on choosing an ambient place. It was during this

process that Lord Buddha turned towards Shravasti, 134km. from Lucknow. The town played host

to Lord Buddha for 27 years and was his annual rainy season retreat. Believed to be founded by

the mythological King Sravast (hence names after him), the site holds ruins of many ancient

Stupas, majestic monasteries and beautiful temples. This place also has an Anand Bodhi tree, an

offspring of the original bodhi tree, planted by Buddha's main disciple Anand.

The site of Mahet is spread over an area of 400 acres. The two main attractions here are the Pakki

Kuti and the Kachchi Kuti while Sahet, spread over an area of 32 acres and a little distance away

from Mahet, it was here that Anathpindak, a wealthy merchant, constructed the Jetavana Vihar.

The remants of several temples, Stupas and Viharas have been found here. Like wise the huge

World Peace Bell is another attraction, which was established with the help of the Japanese. The

motive was to convey the message of humanity of Lord Buddha through the bell's toll. There are

also the Thai-Sri Lankan-MyanmarChinese-Korean Buddhist Temples, the Shobhnath Temple,

Swarna Gandha Kuti, the Ananda Bodhi Tree and the Angulimal Cave here.

Sankisa

Sankisa is identified with the present village of Basantpur in Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh.

Situated on the banks of river Kali, Sankisa is most easily accessible from Agra which is 175 km

away on the Agra-Mainpuri road. The nearest railhead is Pakhna which is 11.5 km away. Sankisa is

the place where the Buddha descended from heaven along with Lord Brahma and Devraj Indra

after giving a discourse to his mother, Mayadevi. Emperor Ashoka erected an elephant pillar here

to mark this holy spot.

Kaushambi

In his bid to spread his message Lord Buddha also visited Kaushambi, 60km. from Allahabad,

counted one amongst the most prosperous cities of those times. It was the Capital city of the then

Vatsa Janpada, with Udayan as the king. This place is believed to have been visited by Lord

Buddha in the 6th and 9th year after attaining enlightenment. He delivered several sermons here,

elevating it to a centre of higher learning for the Buddhists. Excavations have revealed ruins of an

Ashokan Pillar, an old fort and the Ghositaram Monastery, besides a huge number of sculptures

and figurines, cast coins and terracotta, objects.


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Kushinagar

Kushinagar, is one of the principal centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, is the place where Lord Buddha

left his corporeal self and attained Mahaparinirvana. The credit for bringing this ancient site to light

goes to General A. Cunningham and A.C.I. Carlyl, who, after excavating the site in 1861, Later,

between 1904 and 1912, several excavations conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India at

Kushinagar confirmed its identity. The monuments of Kushinagar are situated in three distinct

groups comprising the main site of the Nirvana Temple, the central stupa and surrounding

monasteries, the Mathakuar shrine to the southwest, and the Ramabhar Stupa a kilometer to the

east.

Nirvana Stupa is a huge brickwork stupa, exposed by Carlyl in 1876, which stands at a height of

2.74 mtr. A copper vessel was unearthed at this site. It bore an inscription in ancient Brahmi, which

stated that Lord Buddha's remains had been deposited here. Mathakuar shrine lies about 400

yards from the Parinirvana stupa. A black stone image of the Buddha in the bhumi sparsha mudra

was recovered here. The last sermon by Lord Buddha was given here. Ramabhar Stupa is a large

stupa which rises to a height of 49 ft. It marks the site where the Lord Buddha was cremated. In

ancient Buddhist texts this stupa has been referred to as Mukut-Bandhan Vihar.

The age of Buddha- Introduction with reference to Uttar Pradesh

There are numerous sites in Uttar Pradesh that are associated with Lord Buddha and

Buddhism. In fact Uttar Pradesh along with modern Bihar form the hub of early

Buddhism. It was from these parts that the religion spread to the rest of the world.

Kapilvastu - The capital city of Shakya clan whose ruler was King Suddhodana, father of

the ‘Enlightened One’

Sarnath - Where the Buddha after attaining enlightenment delivered his first historical

sermon

Sravasti - Where he spent 27 monsoons and showed his divine prowess

Sankisa - It is said that Gautam Buddha descended here after giving a sermon to his

mother in heaven

Kaushambi - Where Buddha visited in the sixth and ninth years after attaining

enlightenment


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Kushinagar - Lord Buddha achieved his Mahaparinirvana, freedom from cycle of birth

and rebirth

Uttar Pradesh is a cradle of Buddhism where all significant aspects of Buddha’s life can

be seen and experienced.

The Buddha

Buddhism is a world religion and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,

who is known as the Buddha (literally the Enlightened One or Awakened One).

Siddh rtha Gautama was the historical founder of Buddhism. After asceticism and

meditation, he discovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from

the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Early texts suggest that Gautama

was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his

religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the

human condition.

Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu Kshatriya family. The Buddha's father was King

uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, Uttar Pradesh.

Queen Maya, his mother, on her way to her father's kingdom gave birth to her son at

Lumbini, Nepal, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The infant was given the name

Siddhartha (P li: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth

celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced

that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.

When he reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to a cousin Ya odhar They had a son, named Rahul. Siddhartha is then said to have spent 29 years as a

prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with

everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt

that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's

efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen

an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the

prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased

man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to

overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic and hence left his

princely abode for the life of a mendicant.

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the

street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his


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quest, Bimisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but

promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left

Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of

Alara Kalama (Skr. r da K l ma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him.

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set

out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through

deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practicing self-mortification. After nearly

starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he

collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider

his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching

his father start the season's plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that

was blissful and refreshing, the jh na.

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative jhana was the right

path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what

Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-

indulgence and self-mortification.

Gautama was famously seated under a banyan tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in

Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.

Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and

become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, he is said to have

attained Enlightenment. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the

Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The

Enlightened One"). He is often referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha, or "The

Awakened One of the Shakya Clan."

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into

the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries

became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching.

Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to

be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirv na as the perfect peace of a

mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or

"defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no

personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to

possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who

became his first lay disciples. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former

teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had

already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near V r nasī (Benares) in northern


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India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his

first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together

with him, they formed the first Sangha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become

Arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of

his friends, the number of such Arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of

three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples,

respectively. This swelled the Sangha to more than 1000.

For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic

Plain, in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people:

from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals

such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes,

and had no caste structure. The Sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding

the Dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the

Vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled. One reason was

that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of

year, the Sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people

would come to them.

The first Vassana was spent at Varanasi when the Sangha was formed. After this, the

Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King

Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji,

one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two

foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo

Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, King Suddhodana sent, over a period of time, ten

delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the

delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the Sangha to become

Arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who

also became an Arahant), however, delivered the message.

Two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month

journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the Dharma as he went. Buddhist texts say that

King Suddhodana invited the Sangha into the palace for a meal, followed by a Dharma

talk. After this he is said to have become a Sotapanna. During the visit, many members

of the royal family joined the Sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha

became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahul also joined,

and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and

became an Arahant.


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Of the Buddha's disciples , Sariputta , Maudgalyayana , Mahakasyapa, Ananda and

Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples

were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and

Punna. In the fifth Vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he

heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to King

Suddhodana and taught the Dharma, after which his father became an Arahant.

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist

texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha

Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the Sangha, but he refused. Maha

Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal

Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the Sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha.

In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered

and, five years after the formation of the Sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as

nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But

he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisara. The emperor

accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist

"Viharas." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar.

The Maurya empire reached its peak at the time of Emperor Asoka, who himself

converted to Buddhism after the Battle of Kalinga. This heralded a long period of

stability under the Buddhist emperor. The power of the empire was vast - ambassadors

were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism. The Buddha did not appoint any

successor and asked his followers to work for personal salvation. The teachings of the

Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils

in order to reach consensus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice. Buddha

attained Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Ku in ra, modern Kushinagar in Uttar

Pradesh.

Jainism with reference to

Uttar Pradesh

Jainism

Originated in India thousands of years

ago and is thought to have heavily

influenced the two other main belief

systems of the region at that time:

Hinduism and Buddhism. The religion

centres on the progress of one’s soul

towards a divine consciousness through

self-reformation, wisdom and self-

control and pacifism towards all living

creatures. There are two main sects of

Jains today; the Digambara and

the Svetambara. There are thought to

be 10 million Jains worldwide, the


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majority of them in India and amongst

Indian expatriate communities in North

America, Asia and East Africa.

Origins

Jainism grew in India many thousands

of years ago. As with Hinduism, some

Jains believe that the origins are millions

of years ago, although obviously it is

impossible to verify the exact origins.

The more realistic assessment is that

the religion dates back to the second or

third millennium BCE, and there are

archaeological remnants found among

the Indus Valley civilisations (sites such

as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in

modern Pakistan) from around 1500

BCE that appear to mention

Jain Tirthankaras.

Jains believe that there had been 24

great teachers known as ‘Tirthan-karas’ (‘those who have discovered and then

shown the way to eternal salvation’) who

taught people how to live in harmony

with the universe and ultimately to

achieve spiritual liberation through their

own example. The first of

these Tirthankaras was Rushabha. The

23rd was Parsva who lived from 872-

772 BCE according to some sources.

The last of these teachers born in

northern India in 599 BCE was

Virdhamana, the son of King

Siddhartha. At the age of 30, he went

into seclusion as an ascetic and

following twelve years of intense prayer

and contemplation, claimed to reach

enlightenment. It was at that point that

he was given the title Mahavira (great

hero). He spent the rest of his life

teaching others how to fulfil the purpose

of their existence and to achieve

complete liberation from the shackles of

modern life. He is widely accredited with

establishing the present ‘Jain’ belief

system. Mahavira passed away in 527

BCE at the age of 72 years leaving

behind 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns.

The 24 Tirthankaras in order are:

Rushabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath,

Abhinandan Swami, Sumatinath,

Padmaprabhu, Suparshvanath,

Chandraprabhu, Pushpadanta,

Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, Vasupujya

Swami, Vimalnath, Anantnath,

Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthananth,

Aranath, Mallinath, Munisuvrata Swami,

Nami Nath, Neminath, Parshavnath and

Mahavira.

As mentioned earlier, through various

interactions in India, Jainism had an

influence on Hinduism and Buddhism,

and they share concepts such as the

seeking of freedom from worldly life and

reincarnation of the soul. Some scholars

suggest that Hinduism adopted

vegetarianism through strong Jain

influence across India.

Sacred Texts

Jains believe that the knowledge of the

true path (dharma) reaches a zenith and

then wanes several times through the

cycle of history, and each time the

knowledge is revived through

a Tirthankara just as other monotheistic


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faiths believe that prophets were sent by

a Creator to revive faith.

Mahavira is believed to have recorded

his teachings in a series of texts known

as the Agamas, although the Jain texts

are the major source of controversy

between the sects. The Digambara sect

believes that following a vast famine in

350 BCE when many monks died, the

original texts were also lost, whereas

the Svetambara sect (whilst

acknowledging that the Purvas texts

were lost) believes that the majority of

the texts survived in the form that we

have today.

The most often cited book of the Jains is

the Tattvartha Sutra (Book of Reality)

thought to date from the second

millennium BCE, but only recorded in

written form in the 5th century CE by

Umasvati, and it is at that point that

Jainism splintered into the two main

sects.

Beliefs

The Jains have 5 great vows by which

they try to live their lives:

Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living

beings (human, animal or plant life)

including a spectrum of harm from insult

and injury to death;

Not getting too attached (Aparigraha) to

material possessions, people or places;

Not telling lies (Satya);

Not stealing (Asteya) or taking things

that are not willingly handed over;

Sexual restraint (Brahmacarya)

practised as celibacy by monks and

nuns, and monogamy by normal society.

They believe that all human, animal and

plant life has a soul and therefore all of

these life forms must be treated equally

and fairly.

Jains believe that the purpose of man

and creatures is to realise the soul’s true

nature through the triple gems of (1) true

perception, (2) true knowledge and (3)

true conduct.

Unlike many other faiths, the Jains do

not believe in a creator God or in

spiritual beings such as angels, but do

focus on the concept of reincarnation

through which the soul evolves in life

cycles until it reaches enlightenment

when the soul is called jina (victorious).

Whereas the major monotheistic faiths

also believe in a spiritual journey, in the

case of those faiths (Judaism,

Christianity and Islam), their followers

seek the help of the Creator God to

achieve spiritual liberation, whereas

Jains believe that this journey is

undertaken purely through their own

efforts to achieve inner peace.

Moreover, the philosophy is that every

soul is the architect of its own destiny.

As a result of these beliefs, Jains also

believe in an infinite Universe that was

never created and will never end, but

goes through major cycles.


Uppcsnotes.in

The ultimate goal of self-reformation and

the application of the Jain triple gems is

to break free from the cycle of birth and

death. In Jainism, a soul that frees itself

(moksha) from the samsara cycle of life

and death is called siddha (liberated

soul) whereas those souls which are still

attached to the wordly life are

called samsarin (mundane souls). A

liberated soul experiences boundless

knowledge, power, perception and

happiness.

As a result of these beliefs, they are

vegetarians and aim to live in a manner

which minimises the use of natural

resources so as to limit the impact upon

other life forms. Rigid followers will allow

head lice to survive on their head and

not shave their head or take any

medicine. Even bacteria is not

supposed to be killed.

Jains believe in soul reincarnation

through phases including hell-being,

sub-human (animal, plant and insects),

human and super-human, and that there

are an infinite number of souls in the

Universe, that like matter, pre-existed

creation.

Modern Jains

Modern Jain society has a concept of

monks and nuns similar to Buddhism

and Christianity, but has no priestly

class. Monks and nuns live a celibate

and ascetic lifestyle and take on greater

vows and responsibilities than normal

society.

Jains are recognised by their symbol

which is the Swastika. Although this

symbol was misused by the Nazis of

Germany in the last century, the original

Jain symbol signifies peace and well-

being. The Jain Swastika appears in all

temples and holy books, and during

ceremonies, a swastika is created using

rice.

Jains do have some idols, but these

represent souls that have conquered

their passions rather than deities.

Jains have several days of fasting on

which they abstain from all food but can

take water. During the fast, they focus

on worship, contemplation and reading

scriptures. Although there are specific

fast days, Jains also perform voluntary

fasts at any time of the year to cleanse

themselves.

Their festivals include the following:

Mahavira Jayanti – a celebration of the

birth of Mahavira

Paryushana – 8 days of fasting

Divali – a festival of renewal and lights

also celebrated by Hindus, but

significant for Jains as the day that

Mahavira achieved enlightenment

Kartak Purnima – an annual pilgrimage

to the key Jain sites in India

Mauna Agyaras – a single day of fasting

Kshamavaani – a day to seek

forgiveness from everyone else


Uppcsnotes.in

Jains are renowned for the value that

they place on education, and are

recognised in India as the most literate

community. Their libraries are well

respected and complement the zeal for

knowledge to enrich the soul.

Jainism in Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh, a state in north India has

a long association with Jainism. Today

the state is home to a number of Jain

monuments, such as Jain

Temples and Jain Tirths.

Parshvanatha, the twenty-third

tirthankara, was born in Benaras (now

Varanasi) in 872 BCE. According to Jain

tradition, Kashi (now Varanasi) is the

birthplace of three more tithankaras,

namely Suparshvanatha,

Chandraprabha and Shreyansanatha.

According to Jain tradition, five

tirthankaras were born at Ayodhya

including Rishabhanatha, Ajitanatha,

Abhinandananatha, Sumatinatha and

Anantanatha. The famous naked Jain

male torso found at Lohanipur, whether

Mauryan or, more likely Kushana, is

generally taken as indicative evidence of

some sort of representational cult in

early Jainism which reached an early

height at Mathura, and certainly

inscriptions from the many ayagapatas

of the Mathura region make clear that

puja to the tirthankaras with lay and

ascetic involvement was an important

dimension to this.

The mahajanapadas

The literal meaning of Mahajanapadas

is great kingdoms. They flourished in the

north/north western parts of India before

the rise of Buddhism. Aryans have

migrated into India long time back and

there were regular friction between them

and the non aryan tribes concerning,

cattle, fodder, land etc. These tribes of

Aryans were called as Janas by many

Vedic texts. Later on there was a

merger of the Vedic Janas into

Janapadas. Different regions of

the Indian subcontinent were previously

divided into Janapadas, this was a clear

demarcation by boundaries. Many

Janapadas by 600 BCE further

developed into bigger political bodies.

These kingdoms came to be known as

Mahajanapadas in the Buddhist

traditions.

Sixteen great kingdoms as they are

referrd to by buddhist and other texts.

The sixteen mahajanapadas include

Kasi, Kosala, anga, Magadha, Vajji,

Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru,

Panchala,Machcha, Surasena, Assaka,

Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.

Out of the above 16 states Kuru,

Panchal, Shursen, Vats, Kaushal, Malla,

Kashi and Chedi were present in Uttar

Pradesh and are still in the state. More

known among them were Kaushal,

Kashi and Vats beides these certain

republican states were also within the

boundary of Uttar Pradesh.


Uppcsnotes.in

Kasi:

The name Kasi is the tribe who settled

in the region around Varanasi where

itself the capital was located. There is a

belief that Varanasi got its name from

the rivers that surround the city, namely

Varuna and Asi. Kasi occupied a

predominant position among the sixteen

Mahajanapadas, before the rise

of Buddha. We come to know a lot

about Kasi from the Jatakas which were

a voluminous body of myths and folklore

revolving about prvious births of the

buddha. This supremacy called for a

long drawn conflict for mastery between

other cities, like Kosala, Anga and

Magadha with Kasi. Kasi was no doubt

influencial that is the reason why we get

a mention of Kasi in the Vedic

texts. Matsya Purana and Alberuni are

the texts where we read Kasi as

Kausika and Kaushika, others read it as

Kasi.

Kosala:

Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas,

Kosala is one, which comprised of

Shravasti, Kushavati, Saket and

Ayodhya. Kosala constituted of the

territories of modern Oudh or Awadh

which is located in Uttar pradesh. The

state capital of Kosala

was Ayodhya which was under the

command of Prosenjit the Kosala King,

a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

The southern side it was bordered by

the Ganges, the east had river Gandhak

encircling it. Magadha was a

neighbouring state to Kosala, and there

were conflicts between them. Ajatshatru

who was the king of Magadha and

Prasenjit were in continuous struggle for

power which finally came to an end with

the alignment of the confederation of

Lichchavis with Magadha. After

Prasenjit, Vidudabha rose into power

and Kosala ultimately amalgamated into

Magadha.

Anga:

India's earliest empire was evolving

around the Gangetic plains, which

included the Mahajanapadas. Anga was

one of these evolving states, which is

one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas that

prospered during that period. Malini,

Champapuri, champa Malini, Kala Malini

etc were the different names by which

this sate was called. The Angas were

first referred to in the Atharva Veda as

the detested people. Atharva Veda

considers Anga an unholy place and

some even condemned it as a place

where wives and children were sold.

Mahabharata, testifies the people of

Anga to be of noble birth or 'Sujati'

proclaiming the sanctity of the place

Champa as a pilgrimage. During the

reign of Bimbisara, this Mahajanapada

was usurped and taken over by

Magadha. Champa was also a major

seat for the spread of Jainism and

Buddhism.

Magadha:

Magadha emerged as a powerful

kingdom in the reign of Bimbisara and


Uppcsnotes.in

his son Ajatshatru. The earliest ruling

dynasty according to Mahabharata

and Puranas seems to be founded by

king Brihadratha. The Vedas have a

mention of the Magadhas as semi

'brahmanised' and this was a reason for

the not so good impression of the

people. Kikata was a non Aryan country

according to Yasaka and the king

Pramaganda is said to be the ruler of

Kikata. Kikata on the other hand was

considered a synonym for Magadha in

later Vedic literature.

The city was known by many other

names like Magadhapura,

Brihadrathapura, Vasumati,

Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri.

Buddhism and Jainism were in vogue in

the religious scenario during that time,

and Magadha became a dynamic center

of Jainism along with the first Budhist

Council being held in Rajagriha in the

Vaibhara Hills.

Vajji or Vriji:

Sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient Inida

includes Vajji as one of them. The Vajji

was a confederation a many clans of

which the Licchhavis, the Vedehans,

Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most

important. It was actually known as the

Vajji Sangha or the union of Vajji, which

comprised of many janapadas, gramas

(villages), gosthas (groups). The

eminent people were chosen from each

khandas (districts) to represent on their

behalf in Vajji gana parishad (people's

council of Vajji). The chairman of the

council was called Ganapramukh (head

of the democracy), but often he was

addressed as the king.The other

executives were Mahabaladhrikrit

(equivalent to the minister of internal

security), binishchayamatya (chief

justice), dandadhikrit (other justices) etc.

Vajji had its capital at Vaishali.

Malla:

Malla was an ancient dynasty in India

and is one of the sixteen

mahajanapadas. Epics like

Mahabharata mentions that the Mallas

were considered along with the tribes of

the Angas, Vangas and Kalingas.

Buddhist and Jain works have the

mention of the Mallas who existed in a

republic that consisted of nine teritories.

In a more original context it is evident

that they actually had a monarchical

form of government in the beginning but

later they transformed into the republic

form{Samgha). The Mallas were very

warlike and brave people and have

been mentioned and referred as Vrtaya

Kshatriyas by Manusmriti, as Vasishthas

in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta.

Mallas have also suffered domination by

the Magadha empire after Buddha's

death.

Chedi or Cheti:

The Chedis were group of ancient

people of India living on the south of the

river Yamuna. They are mentioned in

the Rigveda, and city called Suktimati is

mentioned as the capital of Chedi.

Chedi kingdom was one of the sixteen

Mahajanapadas, and was ruled by


Uppcsnotes.in

Sisupala, an ally of Jarasandha of

Magadha and Duryodhana of Kuru.

Prominent Chedis during Kurukshetra

War included Damaghosha, Shishupala,

Dhrishtaketu, Suketu, Sarabha, Bhima's

wife and so on. Chedi was the place that

was chosen for spending the 13th year

of exile by the Pandavas.

Vamsa:

The Vamsa or the Vatsa was the

kingdom that followed the monarchical

form of government. This kingdom is

one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, and

the capital of this was located at

Kausambi. One very important aspect of

this city was that it formed the hub of all

economic activitioes and had a

prosperous trade and business

relations. 6th century Bc has the

account of Udyana to be the ruler of the,

kingdom at the time of Buddha. About

Udayana it is said that earlier there were

resentments on his side regarding

Budhism as he was very warlike and

aggressive but in the later years

became more tolerant and finnaly a

folower of Buddha. So much he was

affected by his teachings that he made

buddhism his state religion.

Kuru:

The kuru janapada is one of the sixteen

mahajanapadas. Regarding the origin of

the Kurus it has been said that they

belong to the Puru-Bharata family.

Kurus were the specific origin of people

living in the Kurukshetra and according

to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini,

the kurus came from the Uttarakuru.

Testified by the Vayu Purana, the

founder of Kurukshetra or kuru janapada

was Kuru who was the son of

Samvarsana of the Puru lineage. During

sixth/fifth century BCE, the Kurus are

believed to have shifted to republic form

of government.

Panchala:

Panchala was divided into Uttara-

Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala.

Counted among the sixteen

Mahajanapadas, the northen Panchala

had Chhatravati as its capital and the

south had its capital at Kampilya. In

Panchala is situated the renouned city

of Kanyakubja. Like many other

kingdoms it was seen that the Panchals

tooo had shifted to a republican form of

government in sixth and fifth century

BCE from being a monarchy.

Machcha or Matsya:

The Kingdom of Matsya was again an

important part of the sixten

mahajanapadas. This lay south of the

Kurus and west of the Yamuna which

separated them from the Panchalas.

The Machcha tribe inhabited this region

which had its capital at Viratanagara.

The Matsyas are generally linked up

with the Surasenas in Pali literature. The

Matsya tribe in comparison to the other

janapadas were of not much poolitical

emminence during the age of Buddha.

Matsyas and the chhedis have a

connection here when we see that they

were once ruled by the same king


Uppcsnotes.in

Sujata, and Matsya was a part of the

kingdom ofn Chedi.

Surasena:

The kingdom of Surasena, underwent a

lot metamorphosis in terms of religion.

The capital which was Mathura, was the

centre of Krishna worship at the time of

Megasthenes. Whereas Avantipura who

was the king of Surasena was one of

the first desciples of Buddha, and it

gained prominence evr since then in

Mathura. The geographical locattion of

this kingdom among the sixteen

mahajanapadas was south west of

Matsya and west of the river Yamuna.

There were various tribe that in habited

the region and they were headed by a

chief.

Assaka or Ashmaka:

Kingdom of Assaka or Ashmaka was

situated in the southern part of India and

one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. The

Ashmaka had its capital located at

Potana or Potali which have

resemblences of Paudanya of

Mahabharatha. The Assakas are placed

in the north-west in the Markendeya

Purana and the Brhat Samhita. There

are numerous associations regarding

the identification of assakas. That is why

we have different views on this. Like the

commentator of Akutilya's Arthashahstra

identifies it with Maharashtra.

Avanti:

Avanti was an important kingdom of the

sixteen mahajanapadas, and it lay in the

western part of India. Buddhism rose to

its prominence in this kingdom and and

this was one of the other kingdoms

which initiated Buddhism in a larger

manner. The kingdom was divided as

north and south Avanti and the north

had its capital at Ujjaini. Mahissati was

the capital of Avanti in the beginning

which was integrated into Ujjaini during

the period of Mahavira and Buddha.

Avanti in the later stages of historu was

amalgamated into the Magadha empire

under the reign of Shishunaga.

Gandhara:

The Gandhara kingdom comprised of

the Gandharas who were highly trained

in the art of war and they have a

mention in the Atharva Veda as well .

though in the Vedas they are mentioned

as the despised people along with some

others due to their allegiance to non

Aryan group. Puranic and Buuddhistic

tradition included Gandharas in

Uttarapatha. The Gandhara kingdom of

the sixteen mahajanapadas was

founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha

who was the son of Yayati. It was alos

believed once according to Gandhara

Jatakas that they they were a part of

Kashmir. Gandhara was an important

seat of international commercial

activities, and provided communication

with other countries like Iran and Central

Asia.

Kamboja:


Uppcsnotes.in

Kamboja was believed to have

composed of parts that were o the either

side of the Hindukush. Whereas

originally they were located somewhre

else. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of

the Buddhist traditions refers to the 'cis-

Hindukush branch' of ancient Kambojas.

The kamboja being one of the sixteen

mahajanapadas were a republic since

ages. There are many evidence from

the Mahabharata, Kautiliya's

Arthashastra and Ashoka's Edict No.

XIII which affirms that the Kambojas

were a republic people.

Magadha emerged as a very powerful

mahajanapada with time and this

marked the annexation of sevaral

janapadas of the 'Majjhimadesa'. The

Kasis, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas etc

were certainly among the exterminated

clans which had no trace in the folklore,

poetry and so on. The sixteen

Mahajanapadas were infact

distinguished as the ones belonging to

the Majjhimadesa or mid India, or

Uttarpatha or the north-west region.

Delhi sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. This basically came into existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj. After Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi Sultanate went into the hands of one of Ghori's generals known as Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th century, he established a series of rulers and this dynasty was called as the slave dynasty since the rulers had been

military slaves. Read more about the history of the Delhi sultanate in India. The extent of Delhi sultanate was till Bengal in the east and Deccan in the south. Even such a big sultanate faced constant threats from the North West and was also under pressure from internal politics within independent nobles. There was instability and unrest in the kingdom as there five dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi dynasty. It was under the Khilji dynasty that most of South India was conquered. The territory was never fixed and depended upon the ability of the ruler as to how much was he able to conquer and control. The effectiveness of a ruler during this time depended entirely upon his ability to conquer the places that fell near military highways and trade routes, collect land tax for revenue of the state and have firm authority over military and state governors. Agriculture and its related activities were the main source of livelihood in the kingdom but due to continued political unrest and instability, thepeasants suffered greatly. During this time, Persian language developed to a great extent at the places where power was concentrated.

Mahmud of Ghazni

Ghazni was a small kingdom in

Afghanistan, which was founded

by a Turkish nobleman in the

tenth century. One of its

successors, namely Mahmud

wanted to make Ghazni into a

big and powerful kingdom;


Uppcsnotes.in

therefore, he decided to conquer

a part of Central Asia.

In order to make his large and

powerful army, Mahmud had

needed a huge property; hence,

he decided to attack India to rob

Indian wealth (to accomplish his

great ambition).

The first raid of Mahmud began

in A.D. 1,000. In a short period

of twenty-five years, Mahmud

made seventeen raids.

Meanwhile, he fought battles in

Central Asia and in Afghanistan

as well.

Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025,

Mahmud attacked only on the

temple towns in northern India,

as he had heard that there were

much gold and jewelry kept in

the big temples in India.

One of these attacks, which is

frequently mentioned while

discussing Medieval History,

was the destruction of the

Somnath temple located in

western India.

In 1,030, Mahmud died and the

people of northern India get

relieved. Though Mahmud was

destructor for the Indians, but in

his own country, he was a

builder of a beautiful mosque

and a large library.

Mahmud was the patron of the

famous Persian poet, Firdausi,

who wrote the epic poem ‘Shah

Namah.’

Mahmud sent the Central Asian

scholar Alberuni to India, who

lived here for many years and

had written his experience,

describing the country and the

condition of the people.

Muhammad Ghori

Muhammad Ghori was the ruler

of the Ghor kingdom, a small

kingdom of Afghanistan. He was

the supreme ruler of Ghurid

Empire.

Ghori was more ambitious than

Mahmud, as he was not only

interested in robbing wealth of

India, but also intended in

conquering northern India and

adding it to his kingdom.

Since Punjab had already been a

part of the Ghazni kingdom;

therefore, it made easier to

Ghori to plan India campaign.

Muhammad's most important

campaign in India was against


Uppcsnotes.in

the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III.

In 1191, Prithviraj defeated

Ghori; this battle is popularly

known as the ‘first battle of

Tarain.’

In 1192, Muhammad Ghori

defeated Prithviraj in the second

battle of Tarin. The defeat of

Prithviraj opened the Delhi area

to Muhammad and he began to

establish his power.

In 1206, Ghori was murdered

and his kingdom in northern

India was left in the control of his

general Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

After Muhammad Ghori’s death,

slave sultans were ruled India.

The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290)

Mamluks were the earliest rulers

of the Delhi Sultanate. They are

also known as the Slave Kings

because many of them were

either slaves or were the sons of

slaves and became Sultans.

The first of the slave kings

was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was

the general of Muhammad

Ghori. After the death of Ghori,

Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and

established his kingdom.

The ruler of Ghazni tried to

annex the territory held by Qutb-

ud-din, but he failed. When

lltutmish succeeded Qutbud-din

as Sultan, a separate kingdom

was established in the northern

India, namely Delhi Sultanate.

Over a period of time, the

Sultans of Delhi extended their

control up to Bengal in the east

and Sind in the west.

During the Sultanate period,

there was the problem of the

local Indian rulers who had been

conquered. Sultans had taken

territories of some rulers and

some others were allowed to

keep it.

The rulers who were allowed to

keep their territories paid a sum

of money as a tribute and

agreed to help the Sultan with

military support when required.

Sultanate had also problems

from the north-west, for

example, the rulers of

Afghanistan were quiet, but the

Mongol people of Central Asia,

led by Chenghiz Khan, made

fresh conquests.

The Sultan Iltutmish had faced

the administrative problems.


Uppcsnotes.in

However, when he died, his

daughter Raziya became the

sultan and she had to face the

problems.

After Iltutmish, the next important

Sultans was Balban, a strong

and iron-willed Sultan. He was

more successful in solving the

problems than his predecessors.

He defended the Sultanate from

the attacks of the Mongols.

Balban fought against the local

rulers who troubled him. His

biggest problem was the nobles

who had become very powerful

and were threatening the

position of the Sultan. Slowly but

firmly, Balban broke their power

and finally the position of the

Sultan became all-important.

Balban’s success was integrated

into his strategic administrative

policy. He successfully changed

the organization of the army and

curbed the revolt of the nobles.

Balban encouraged people to do

the ‘sijdah’ in his

presence. Sijdah means, people

had to kneel and touch the

ground with their forehead in

salutation to him (Balban).

Sijdah, horrified the orthodox

Muslims. According to Muslims

belief, “all men are equal, and

therefore, no one should do

the sijdah before anyone else

except God.”

Khilji dynasty came

after Mamluks and ruled until A.

D. 1320.

Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)

In 1,290, the Slave Sultans were

succeeded by a new dynasty,

known as Khiljis. Jalal ud din

Firuz Khilji was the founder of

Khilji dynasty.

Alauddin Khilji, who was the

nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-

ud-din was one of the most

ambitious and powerful sultans

of Khilji dynasty. He wanted to

conquer the world (to become

second Alexander).

Alauddin Khilji, when became

sultan, gave presents (of gold) to

the citizens. At the same time,

he also contended that he was a

strong and powerful ruler and

hence, he would deal severely

with anyone who showed signs

of disloyalty.


Uppcsnotes.in

Alauddin Khilji raised the land

taxes on the wealthier people of

the Doab (the fertile area

between the Ganga and

Yamuna rivers). Further, he

strictly monitored the revenue,

which the nobles got from their

land and hence, did not allow

them to keep anything, which

was not their due.

The prices of goods were also

closely controlled so that

everyone could afford to pay the

price demanded as well as no

one could make a large profit.

Alauddin Khilji made a new

policy i.e. he ordered a new

assessment of the cultivated

land and the revenue. First, the

land under cultivation (of his

kingdom) was measured. And

the revenue of these lands was

assessed on the basis of the

measurement.

Alauddin Khilji campaigned

against the kingdoms of Gujarat

and Malwa. He tried to establish

his control over Rajasthan by

capturing the famous forts of

Ranthambhor and Chittor.

Under the command of Malik

Kafur, Ala-ud-din sent a large

army towards the south with the

intention to conquer the

peninsula as well as obtain

money and wealth.

Malik Kafur plundered in all

directions and collected a large

amount of gold from the various

kingdoms of the south, including

the Yadavas (of Devagiri),

the Kakatiyas (of Warangal), and

the Hoyasalas (of

Dvarasamudra).

The defeated rulers were allowed

to keep their throne provided

they paid a tribute. Malik Kafur

also conquered the city of

Madurai. By the time, no north

Indian ruler attempted to

penetrate so far in the south

India.

In 1,315, Aladdin Khilji died. After

his death, there was a chaotic

situation for the succession.

Ambitious Malik Kafur made

himself as sultan, but lacked

support from Muslim amirs and

hence, he was killed only after

few months.

By 1,320, three more Khilji

successors assumed power, but

no one sustained rather killed

brutally. Likewise, a new dynasty

namely Tughlaq was founded.


Uppcsnotes.in

Tughlaq dynasty came after the

Khilji dynasty and ruled from

A.D. 1320 to 1413.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1413)

In 1,320, Ghazi Malik became

the king under the title

of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq.

Likewise, the ‘Tughlaq’ dynasty

began.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-

51), the eldest son and

successor of Ghiyath al-Din

Tughlaq, was one of the most

ambitious and powerful Sultans

of Tughlaq dynasty.

Ibn Battutah, the North African

Arab traveler, came India during

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s

period and he had written the

detailed description of the

Muhammad’s kingdom.

Muhammad was a man of ideals

who attempted as far as

possible, to rule on the principles

of reason. He was a great

knowledgeable mathematician

and a logician.

Muhammad increased the taxes

of the peasants (especially who

were from the Doab area).

However, a famine in the Doab

region made condition worse.

As a result of famine, the people

refused to pay the extra taxes

and rose in rebellion; therefore,

finally, the Sultan had to cancel

his order.

Muhammad also moved the

capital from Delhi to Devagiri

(which he renamed Daulatabad).

As per his strategic plan,

Daulatabad (located nearby

modern Aurangabad in

Maharashtra) was a better place

for controlling the Deccan.

The moving of the capital was,

however, not successful, as it

was too far from northern India,

and hence, the Sultan could not

keep a watch on the northern

frontiers. Therefore, Muhammad

returned the capital back to

Delhi.

Muhammad decided to issue

'token' coins on brass and

copper, which could be

exchanged for silver coins from

the treasury. This scheme would

have worked, if he had

monitored it carefully and

allowed strictly only to the

government body to issue token


Uppcsnotes.in

coins. But it did not happen

rather many people started

making brass and copper

‘tokens’ and the Sultan,

therefore, had no control over

the finances. The token coins

had to be withdrawn.

Unfortunately, Muhammad’s

many administrative policies

failed; hence, gradually he lost

the support not only of the

people, but also many of the

nobles and the ulema.

The ulema were the scholars of

Islamic learning who were

generally orthodox in their

outlook.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

In March, 1351, Muhammad

died. After his death, his

cousin Firoz Shah came to the

throne who ruled till 1388.

Firoz realized that one of the

reasons for the failure of

Muhammad was that he did not

have the support of the nobles.

Therefore, Firoz first established

a friendly relation with them and

made them happy by giving

them, grants or revenue.

Firoz, further, allowed the

orthodox ulema to influence

state policy in certain matters.

Thus Firoz improved his

relationship with the powerful

groups at the court; however, in

spite of all these, the power of

the Sultan decreased.

In the meantime, the governors

of certain provinces, including

Bihar and Bengal, had rebelled

against the Sultanate. Firoz tried

to control them, but was not very

successful.

Firoz was interested in improving

the general welfare of his

subjects. He improved parts of

the kingdom by starting new

irrigation schemes. The Yamuna

Canal was one of his schemes.

Firoz also established a few new

towns, such as Ferozpur,

Ferozabad, Hissar-Firoza, and

Jaunpur.

Firoz also constructed many

educational centers and

hospitals. He was interested in

the ancient culture of India. Firoz

order to translate a number of

Sanskrit books into Persian and

Arabic languages.

Firoz also owned two of the

pillars of the emperor Ashoka


Uppcsnotes.in

and one of them was placed on

the roof of his palace.

In September 1388, Firoz died,

after which there was a civil war

among his descendants.

Because of the political

instability, the governors of

many provinces became

independent kings and finally

only a small area around Delhi

remained in the hands of the

Tughluq Sultans.

Sayyid Dynasty (1413 – 1451)

By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty

ended completely and local

governor occupied Delhi and

given way to Sayyid Dynasty.

In 1398, Timur, the Turkish chief

invaded India and robbed Indian

wealth. While returning back, he

appointed Khizr Khan as the

governor of Delhi.

Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from

Daulat Khan Lodi and founded

Sayyid dynasty in 1414. Sayyid

dynasty ruled Delhi until 1451.

In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence,

his son Mubarrak Khan

succeeded. Mubarrak Khan

represented himself as ‘Muizz-

ud-Din Mubarak Shah’ on his

coins.

Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434

and he was succeeded by his

nephew Muhammad Shah.

Muhammad Shah ruled till 1445.

Muhammad succeeded by Ala-

ud-din Alam Sham, who ruled till

1451. In 1451, Bahlul Lodi

became the Sultan and founded

the Lodi dynasty.

Lodi Dynasty came after Sayyid

dynasty and ruled until A.D.

1526.

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)

Lodi dynasty was originally from

Afghan who ruled Delhi

Sultanate for about 75 years.

Bahlul Lodi

Bahlul Lodi, who founded the

dynasty and ruled Delhi from

1451 to 1489. After his death in

1489, his second son Sikandar

Lodi succeeded the throne.

Sikandar Lodi

Sikandar Lodi took the title of

Sikandar Shah. It was Sikandar

Lodi who founded Agra city in


Uppcsnotes.in

1504 and moved capital from

Delhi to Agra.

Sikandar Lodi, further, abolished

the corn duties and patronized

trade and commerce in his

kingdom.

Ibrahim Lodi

After Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi

(the youngest son of Sikandar

Lodi) became sultan. Ibrahim

Lodi was the last ruler of Lodi

dynasty who ruled from 1517 to

1526.

Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by

Babur in 1526, in the first battle

of Panipat and from now Mughal

Empire established.

Lodi Administration

The Lodi kings tried to

consolidate the Sultanate and

attempted to curb the power of

rebellious governor.

Sikandar Lodi who ruled from

1489-1517, controlled the

Ganges valley up to western

Bengal.

Sikandar Lodi moved capital

from Delhi to Agra, as he felt

that he could control his

kingdom better from A gra. He

also tried to strengthen the

loyalty of the people by various

measures of public welfare.

The Nobles

During the sultanate period, the

nobles played a powerful role.

Sometimes, they even

influenced state policy and

sometimes (as governors), they

revolted and became

independent rulers or else

usurped the throne of Delhi.

Many of these nobles were

Turkish or Afghani, who had

settled in India.

Some of the nobles were men

who came to India only in search

of their fortune and worked for

the Sultan.

After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian

Muslims and Hindus were also

appointed as officers (nobles).

The Sultan followed the earlier

system of granting the revenue

from a piece of land or a village

to the (noble) officer instead of

paying them salary.

As the power of the Sultanate

gradually declined, the number

of new kingdoms arose in

different parts of the

subcontinent. Most of them


Uppcsnotes.in

began as provinces of the

Sultanate, but later became

independent province.

Gurjar Prathihar


The line of Nagabhata ruled first

at Ujjain and later

at Kannauj during the 8th to 11th

centuries.

In the complicated and badly

documented wars of the early 9th

century—involving Pratiharas,

Rastrakutas, and Palas—Nagabhata II played an important

part. About 816 he invaded

the Indo-Gangetic Plain and

captured Kannauj from the local

king Chakrayudha, who had the

protection of the Pala

ruler Dharmapala.

With the power of the

Rastrakutas weakened,

Nagabhata II became the most

powerful ruler of northern India

and established his new capital

at Kannauj.

After the death of Mahendrapala,

the succession is obscure. The

power of the Pratiharas was

apparently weakened by dynastic

strife. It was further diminished

as a result of a great raid from

the Deccan, led by the

Rastrakuta king Indra III, who

about 916 sacked Kannauj.

Their last important

king, Rajyapala, was driven from

Kannauj by Maḥmūd of

Ghazna in 1018 and was later

killed by the forces of

the Chandela king Vidyadhara.

For about a generation longer a

small Pratihara principality

apparently survived in the area

of Allahabad.

Sources of Gurjara Pratiharas’ History

Historians believe that after the

Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas

came to India from the central

Asian region and settled in

Rajasthan. Gradually, they

gained political importance.

The bardic tradition of Rajasthan

claims that the Gurjara

Pratiharas, Chalukyas,


Uppcsnotes.in

Parmaras, and Chahmanas

were born out of a yajna done at

Mount Abu. Therefore, these

four dynasties are also known

as agnikulas (fire-clans).

The four dynasties of Rajputs

were created for the protection

of the country from external

aggressions.

The literary meaning of Pratihara

is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed

that their ancestor Lakshmana

served as a door keeper to his

brother Rama. Therefore, they

were called as Pratihara.

The geographical name of

Gujarat is supposed to be

derived from Gurjara.

Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas

The Gwalior inscription

mentioned the early history of

the family. The inscription was

founded by King Bhoja in the

7th century. He was the most

famous king of the Gurjara

Pratiharas dynasty.

Nagabhatta-I was the real

founder of the fame of family. He

defeated the Muslim forces from

the Arabs.

During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja

followed an aggressive imperial

policy. He defeated Pala king

Dharmapala of Bengal.

The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva

defeated Vatsaraja and took

away the political benefit of the

defeat of Pala king.

Dharmapala took advantage of

the defeat of Vatsaraja and

installed his own nominee

Chakrayudba on the throne of

Kanauj.

Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II

(A.D.815) made an alliance with

Andhra, Vidharbha, and Kalinga.

He made extensive preparation

to fight against his rivals.

Nagabhatta II first defeated

Chakrayudha and captured

Kanauj. Then he defeated

Dharmapala and fought with

Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta

king.

Nagabhatta also defeated Sultan

Vega who was the son of the

governor of Sind under the

Caliph-l Mamun.

Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by

his son Ramabhadra.


Uppcsnotes.in

Ramabhadra was succeeded by

his son Bhoja-I about A.D. 836.

Bhoja-I restored the falling

prosperities and reputation of his

dynasty.

A golden opportunity to the king

Bhoja-I was provided by the

death of Devapala of Bengal and

Rashtrakuta's invasion of Bengal

thereafter.

The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II

was involved in the struggle with

the Eastern Chalukyas.

Bhoja-I defeated Krishna-II and

captured the region of Malwa

and Gujarat.

After victory over two great rivals,

Bhoja-I founded his sovereignty

over the Punjab, Avadh, and

other territories of north India

and consolidated his empire.

Bhoja-I was a devotee of Vishnu,

and adopted the title

of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has been

inscribed in some of his coins.

He is also known by other

names as 'Mihir', 'Prabhasa,' etc.

Bhoja-I was succeeded by his

son Mahendrapala-I about A.D.

885.

Mahendrapala-I also extended

the boundaries of his empire.

During his reign, the Pratihara

Empire stretched almost from

the Himalayas in the north to the

Vindhyas in the south and from

Bengal in the east to Gujarat in

the west.

Mahendrapala-I was also known

as 'Mahendrayudha',

and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He was

a liberal patron of learned men.

Rajashehara was learned man of

his court. He had

written Karpuramanjari, Bala-

Ramayana, Bala Bharata,

Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana

Kosha, and Haravilasa.

The Pratiharas dynasty

dominated north India for over

two hundred years from the

8th century to the 10th century

A.D.

Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited

India in A.D. 915-916.

Al-Masudi mentioned about the

great powers and prestige of the

Pratihara rulers and the

vastness of their empire.

Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-

Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000


Uppcsnotes.in

villages, the cities and rural

areas were about 2,000 km in

length and 2,000 km in breadth.

The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II

again attacked Kanauj between

A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and

completely destroyed it. This

weakened the Pratihara Empire.

Krishna-III was other

Rashtrakuta ruler invaded north

India in about A.D. 963. He

defeated the Pratihara rulers.

This led to decline of Pratihara

Empire.

The Pratiharas were patrons of

learning and literature.

Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived

at the court of Mahendrapala-I.

The Pratihara kings were

followers of Hinduism.

They build with many fine

buildings and temples at Kanauj.

The epigraphic records show that

the building of temples and the

educational institutions attached

with them, formed community

projects, in which the entire

village community participated.

Many Indian scholars went to the

court of the Caliph at Baghdad

along with embassies. However,

the names of the Indian kings

are not known who sent these

embassies.

This interaction between India

and Arab led to the spread of

Indian culture, literature, and

science, especially mathematics,

algebra, and medicine to the

Arab world from where these

were further transmitted to

Europe.

Although the Pratiharas were

well known for their aggression

to the Arab rulers of Sindh.

Despite all this, the movement of

scholars and trade between

India and west Asia remained

uninterrupted.

Important Jain sites in Uttar

Pradesh

Shri Ahichchhatra Tirth

Geographic location: It is near the

Ramnagar village of district Bareilly.

Various Jain idols and inscriptions found

during the land excavations tell us about

the historical importance of this

place.This place is known for ages for

the event that took place while

BhagwanParshwanatha attained

‘KevalGyan’ here through deep


Uppcsnotes.in

‘Tapashcharan’.In the ancient

Parshvanath Temple, there are 5 Vedis

dedicated toTikhal Baba (black idol of

Lord Parshvanath with engraved

footprints), Lord Parshvanath and Lord

Chandraprabhu (white statues of Lord

Mahavir), Lord Mahaveer, Lord

Parshvanath (white Idol in khandagasan

posture) and a statue of Lord

Sheetalnath.

Shri Ayodhya Tirth

Ayodhya is a famous tirthkshetra in

Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is located on

Delhi-Luknow-Mughalsarai rail route. It

is about 6 kilometers away from

Faizabad and 139 kilometers away from

Lucknow. There are very ancient

temples belonging to different society

and culture. For Jains the importance of

this place is due to that

BhagwanAdinathji adopted diksa at this

place. After diksa, many times he came

wandering here and his samavasranas

were set here. This holy land is the

birthplace of Bhahubali, Brahmi,

Sundari, King Dashrath,

AcharyaPadaliptasurisvarji, King

Harishchandra, ShriRamchandra,

Achalbhrata, and the ninth Gandhara of

Mahavir Swami and others.

There are four temples, two

Svetambar’s and two Digambar’s

temples. During 1965 an idol of

Bhagawan Rishabhdev 885 centimeters

or 31 feet high in Kayotsarga posture in

RaiganjDigambar temple a really

speculator was installed (Figure 2).

There are Tonks of Bhagwananantnath

Swami Bhagwan Abhinandan Nath,

Bhagwansheetalnath, Bhagwan Ajitnath

and Bhagwan Adinath at Ayodhya.

During a digging project undertaken

twenty-five years age, broken idols of

Jains were found and it is considered

that these pertain to the Maurya period.

Shri Kampilaji Tirth

The tirthkampilaji (kampilapur) village is

situated 10 kilometers away from the

nearest railway station kyamganj. This

comes under the district Farrukabad of

Uttar Pradesh.There are literary

references in Jain scriptures of temples,

which existed even before 6th century

B.C. in Mathura, Kampila and other

places. Temple making appears to have

its start from North India. Kampil, a

small village that has been erased from

the memory of the mankind, is actually a

very important place from historical and

mythological point of view. Two famous

pilgrimage centers of Jains religion i.e.

the Shwetambar Jains temple,

dedicated to the 13th Teerthankar of the

Jains & Digambar Jain temple are also

situated in Kampil. The idol is nearly 60

centimeters in height and black –

colored. This marvelous idol of

Bhagawan Vimlanath is in the

Padmasana Posture (a Digambar

temple) and the other one in Swetambar

temple the idol is 45 centimeters in

height having white color of Bhagawan

Vimalnath in the Padmasana posture. It

is believed that Draupadi, the daughter


Uppcsnotes.in

of Drupad, the king of Paanchaal, was

born in Kampil. The sacrificial alter

(Yagyakund) from which Draupadi is

believed to have been born from the fire

of knowledge, is situated in Kampil till

date.

Two famous pilgrimage centers of Jains

religion i.e., the Shwetambar Jain

temple, dedicated to the 13th

Teerthankar of the Jains & Digambar

Jains temple are also situated in Kampil.

Apart from these, there are many old

temples, which prove the historical &

religious importance of Kampil. The

idols of this place belong to the Gupta

Age.

Jain Shrines of Kakandi

The village is called Kuhukan (Kakandi)

where this temple is situated.Jain’s 9th

Tirthankar Lord Pushpdantji was born

here and had his Kalynaka’s of chayan,

births, diksa here. He took his Diksha in

Pushpak-van, meditated for 4 years and

went on a fast. Ultimately he attained

the true light of knowledge, 'The Kewal

Gyan. The nearby villages Kukubh and

Kakandi stand in ruins today, with

several mounds in the vicinity. The local

people call them 'Dedara' which

represent the Jain Devalaya. The place

commands obeisance because four

Kalyanaks of Bhagwan Suvidhinath, the

9thTirthankar of the set of 24 for the

present cycle of time occurred here. A

grey colored Manastambh has also

been found in the forest is known as

Kukubh Van and it is 24 ft. high. King

Samudragupta had this Manastambh

erected in the year 460 A.D.The present

name of this place is Khukkhundu.

Jain Shrines of Kaushambi

This shrine is located on the northern

bank of the Yamuna River some 60

kilometers away from Allahabad in Uttar

Pradesh. Ancient Jain scriptures reveal

that there had been 16 Mahajanpadas in

the 6th century B.C. Vats Desh was one

such Mahajanpada whose capital was

Kaushambi. With the end of the

legendary Hastinapur Kingdom, which is

believed to have been flooded and

destroyed by the river Ganges, the

Chandravanshi kings made Kaushambi

their capital, 22 of their descendants are

said to have ruled from here. The town,

however, got its due importance with the

presence of the 6th Tirthankar

Padmaprabhu, who was born here. His

Kalynaka’s of chayan, births, diksa and

'The Kewal Gyan' took place here.

There is beautiful temple dedicated to

Lord Bhagwan Padmaprabhuji. Apart

from above many ancient idols were

found during excavation, which prove

the historical and religious importance of

this place.

Shri Chandrapuri Teerth

This holy place is on the bank of the

river Ganga near the Chandravati

village. The nearest railway Kadipur is at

a distance of 5 kilometers and Varanasi

is at a distance of 23 kilometers. This is


Uppcsnotes.in

the birthplace of Bhagwan

Chandraprabhu the 8thTirthankar. At

this holy place, four kalyanak, Chyavan,

Janam, Deeksha and Kevalgyan, took

place. Both Shwetambar and Digambar

temples are situated at the bank of holy

river Ganga. They are adjusent to each

other and managed by single trust. Shri

Chandraprabh Bhagwan, Swetvarn idol

in padmasan mudra about 45

centimeters in height is placed in each

temple. The pilgrim’s get enlighten in

prayer to Bhagawan, and experience

spiritual peace here.

History of this tirth starts from the period

of 8thTeerthankar Shri Chandraprabh

Bhagwan. Once upon a time, King

Mahasen was the ruler of this place. On

a lucky day his wife Queen Laxmimati

has seen a miraculous nightmare giving

indications of birth of Teerthankar. Right

on that moment, the soul (jeev) of

Padmanabh entered in the kukchhi

(ovary) of Laxmimati. She gave birth to

a son on Poush Krishna 11 in

Anuradhanakshatra. As she desired

moon (Chandra) during her pregnancy,

the newborn child was named As

Chandraprabh. He was married in his

younger days and after ruling many

years he decided to take deeksha.

Prabhu took Deeksha after performing

Varshidaan with eleven thousand kings

on Poush Krishna Teras in

Anuradhanakshatra at Sahasamra Van.

He came to same place after roaming

for three years and started meditation

under a Punnag tree. It was here that

Prabhu attained Kevalgyan on Falgun

Krishna Saptami in Anuradhanakshatra.

The Indra along with many other dev

has organisedsamavasaran on this

occasion. Many Sashtras & TeerthMalas

describe this teerth.

Shri Ratnapuri

It is located on the Ayodhya- Lucknow

national highway, to the west of

Ayodhya near village Ronahi. Ratnapuri

is the birthplace of Lord Dharamnath

and the site of his sacred grove.

Bhagwan Dharamnath had a

Kalyanakas Chyavan, Janam, Tap

(Penance) and Gayan (Knowledge) here

as such it is called a KalyanakKshetra.

There is only one small temple in a

village Rohini where the idol of

Tirthankara Dharamnath of about 25

Centimeters, a very antique one is

placed. There are Shwetambar and

Digambar temples. The footprints of

Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath, blue

colored in Shwetambar temples. The

white colored idol (90 centimeters) of

Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath in

padmasanastha in Digambar Jain

templeis the main attraction of this

place.

Varanasi (Kashi Banaras)

According to the Jain traditions, Kashi

has the honor of being the birth place of

four Tirthankars namely, Bhagwan

Suparshavathji, Chandraprabhji,

Shreansnathji and Parshvanathji. Where

Parshavnathji and Suparshavnathji were

born in Varansai, Bhagwan


Uppcsnotes.in

Chandraprabhji was born in Chandrapur

about 15 km away from Varanasi. Shree

Shreansnathji was born in Singhpur

village which is presently known as

Sarnath.

Bhadaini Jain Pilgrimage

The birthplace of the 7thTirthankar Sri

Suparshavnathji was in 'Bhandani'

Muhallah', situated near the banks of the

river Ganga. The place is about 1.5 km.

Away from Bhelupura and known s the

Jainghat'. This place is believed to be

very sacred not only because it was

Lord Sri Suparshvanath's birth place,

but he had his Kalyanakas Chyavan,

Janam, Tap (Penance) and Gayan

(Knowledge) here at present, there is a

white coloured 68 cm high idol placed

here and worshipped by the

shwetambars. On the other hand, a

black idol of 46 cm. height is placed

here and is worshiped by the believers

of Digambar sect.

Bhelupura

This place is also located near the

Varanasi. This is the birthplace of

23rdTirthankar, Lord Sri Parshavnath.

This place has a white stature of 60

centimeter height, which is worshipped

by the believers of Svetambara sect,

and a black idol with a height of 75

centimeters is worshipped by the

believers of Digambara sect.These

temples are definitely worth seeing. This

place is believed to be one of the most

sacred places of pilgrimage for the Jain

devotees. There are number of other

temples belonging to both sects of

Jains.

Singhpuri Teerth

Digambar temple is at a distance of 7

kilometers from Varanasi Chhavani

station situated at Sarnath crossing. The

shwetambar temple is at a distance of 8

kilometers from the station situated in

Hiravanpur Village nearby

Chandravatiteerth is only at a difference

of 15 kilometers. This is an ancient

place widely known for 4 kalyanak of

Shri Shreyansnath Bhagwan 11th

Tirthankar. A huge ashtakod stoop

(octagonal pillar) of 103 feet height is

still present showing its historical

establishment. It is considered to be

2200 years old. The artistic work on it is

unmatched. At present one Shwetambar

Jain temple, a Digambar Jain temple,

one pillar exists there. The White

colored idols of Shri Shreyanshnath

Bhagwan in Padmasanastha 30

centimeters in height, (Shwetambar)

and the other one Blue coloured idol 75

cms of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in

Padmasanastha, (Digambar) are placed

in the temples. Somenath Bodh temple

also exists here.

Shauripur Tirth

The Shauripur village is on the bank of

the Yamuna River near to railway

station in Agra Fort. It is 2 kilometers


Uppcsnotes.in

from Bateshwar, another Jain Tirth. It

can also be reached from Ferozabad via

Shikohabad. This temple of Shri

Neminath Bhagwan is located at

Shauripur village on the bank of river

Yamuna, about 75 kilometers from

Agara and 25 kilometers from

Shikohabad on the Northern railway.

Shri Neminath was born at this place.

Since this is the land of Chyavan and

birth Kalyanakas of Bhagawan

Neminath, the twenty-second of the 24

Tirthankaras of the present the group,

this is known as a holy Kshetra.

Moreover, this was the lane of

attainment of omniscience and nirvana

of many saints. This was also the

birthplace of Karna the donor. In

addition to Old Jain DigambarMandir,

The Baruamatt and 5 Tonks known as

panchmathi are very impressive and

mentionable. Idols of Bhagawan

Neminathinpadmasana posture are

placed in these temples.

Jain Siddha Kshetra of Mathura

Sri Jambu Swami was born in Champa

and was the son of a rich man, Seth

Rishabhdutt. Even though he was

married at the age of 16, he was

initiated by Lord Mahavir's disciple

Sudhama Swami and lived as a

Brahmachari for the rest of his life. After

20 years of hard penance he attained

the light of true knowledge and was

enlightened at Chaurasi. He is the last

Kewal Gyani of the Jains. A temple has

been built here in his memory and

dedicated to this holiness. This place is

better known as Chawrasi. The present

Main temple has Tirthankar Ajitnath as

main deity with charan of Jambuswami

adorning the main vedi. After

Jambuswami his charan were obtained

and later on temple was built and they

were placed by Mathura samaj. The

mulnayak Ajitnathbhagwanpratima is

really impressive and very beautiful

made of white stone. It was discovered

from Gwalior during some excavation

work of land. There are 9 more vedis in

main temple of Parasnath, Neminath,

Mahavirbhagwan. Two special vedis are

made here of standing karyotsargs

statues of Pratham (first) Kevali

Bahubali swami and Antim (last)

KevaliJambu swami facing each other

adding glory and dignity to temple.

Hastinapur

According to Jain tradition, Hastinapur

was one of the earliest Indian cities like

Ayodhya and Kashi and came into

existence during the time of

Rishabhadeva also known as

Bhagawan Adinatha (the first

tirthankara) whose grandson,

Somaprabha, was the first ruler of the

place. It is also said to be the birthplace

of three Jain tirthankars, Shantinatha,

Kunthnnath and Arahanatha. The

Buddhists say that this city was the

capital of Kururattam. The Mahabharata

also gives the early history of the place,

the founder of which is generally

believed to be King Hastin, fifth in


Uppcsnotes.in

descent from Bharta. It was the capital

of the Kauravas and Pandavas. It is said

to have extended as far as Barnawa in

the west and Puth in the south. At the

time of the Mahabharata War it was in

the heyday of its prosperity which,

however, began to decline thereafter.

The severe floods in the Ganga, which

washed away the city, and the transfer

of the capital of Kaushambi left in

complete obscurity but it was

rehabilitated twice within the next few

centuries though it never achieved its

former glory. Hastinapur is considered

to be the most ancient capital city of

India. Though it has been the venue of

all the politics related to the mahabharat

but it has a history that dates back to the

times of Bhagawan Adinatha. It is said

that after relinquishing his throne

Bhagawan Adinatha entered the life of

an ascetic at this place. The conception,

birth, ordaining and enlightenment of

Lords Shantinath, Kunthunath and

Arahnath had also occurred at this very

place. Hastinapur is said to be the

birthplace of the Tirthankaras

Shantinath, Kunthunath and Aranatha;

their footprints can be seen on a small

hill nearby. Right now there are huge

temples of both the Shwetambar and

the Digambar sects.

Jamboodweep

With the completion of the Jambu-

dweep shrine in 1985, Hastinapur has

become a favorite center for studying

Jaina cosmology and cosmography,

'Jamboodweep' is a special feature of

Hastinapur pilgrimage. It has come up

with the inspiration and keen interest of

ascetic Aryika Jnanmatiji. Apart from

Jamboodweep' there are lotus temple,

meditation temple and Indradhawaj

temples. All these new temples are

worth seeing.

Rishabhanchal Tirth

This new Jain Pilgrimage centre has

been recently established at a village

Morta, which is 8 km. away from

Ghaziabad and 25 km. from Delhi on the

Meerut road. President of India laid

down the foundation stone of this teerth

on 20th October 1991. The main temple

carries the idol of Bhagwan Shri

Rishabh Dev, which is 4.5 feet tall in

white marble, in Padamasan posture.

Rishbhanchal is a grand and big temple,

having 52-kalash and 81 feet high

artistic shikhar and popular as a center

of meditation, yoga, worship and human

welfare. It is a unique religious place. It

is established under the able guidance

of Great Sadhivi Pujjya Bal Bramcharini

Maa Shri Kaushalji and is indicative of

peace and prosperity for this area.

Primary medical services, moral

education, yoga and meditation training,

library and boarding and lodging

facilities are all available here.

political history


Uppcsnotes.in

In ancient times, Uttar Pradesh was

known as the Madhya Desh. Being on

the route of invaders from north-west

and forming part of the rich fertile plain

between Delhi and Patna, its history is

closely linked to the history of north

India. Although not much is known

about its pre and post historic periods,

discovery of arms and implements of

ancient and neo-paleolithic age in

excavations in Mirzapur, Sonebhadra,

Bundelkhand and Sarai Nahar area of

Pratapgarh and of Harappan objects in

Almgirpur in Meerut take us back to

remore antiquity.

Aryan Age

It is only from the Rigvedic age that

some coherent historical account is

found. Initially, the centre of Aryan

colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu

or the region irrigated by seven rivers

(undivided Punjab). The seven rivers

were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum),

Askini (Chenab), Purushni(Ravi),

Vipasa(Beas), Shatudri (Sutlej) and

Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan

desert). More important of the Aryan

clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu

and Druh. These five clans were known

as Panchjan. Besides, there was one

more prominent clan known as Bharat.

Gradually, the Aryans extended their

territory towards the east. The Shatpath

Brahman gives an interesting account of

the victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh

(north Bihar) by tej Brahmans and the

Kshatriyas. Expansion of territory saw

the creation of new States (Janpadas)

and emergence of new people and new

centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually

lost importance and the centre of culture

shifted to the plains between Saraswati

and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of

Kuru, Panchal, Kashi and Kosal.

S.No

.

Country Capital

1. Kuru (Meerut,

Delhi and

Thaneshwar)

Indraprasth

(Indropal near

Delhi)

2. Panchal

(Bareilly,

Budaun and

Farrukhabad)

Ahichhatra

(Ramnagar near

Bareilly) and

Kampilya

(Farrukhabad)

3. Vats (Area

around

Mathura)

Mathura

4. Vats

(Allahabad

and nearby

area)

Kaushambi

(Kosam near

Allahabad)

5. Kosal

(Awadh)

Saket (Ayodhya)

and Shravasti

(Sahet-Mahet

in Gonda District)

6. Malla (District

Deoria)

Kushinagar

(Kasia) and Pawa

(Padrauna)


Uppcsnotes.in

7. Kashi

(Varanasi)

Varanasi

8. Ang

(Bhagalpur)

Champa

9. Magadh

(South Bihar)

Girivraj (Rajgraha

-Rajgiri near

Bihar-Sharif)

10. Vajji (District

Darbhanga

and

Muzaffarpur)

Mithila, Janakpur,

(on Nepal border)

and Vaishali

(Basra in

Muzaffarpur

district)

11. Chedi

(Bundelkhand

)

Shuktimati

(Probablynear

Banda)

12. Matsya

(Jaipur)

Virat (near

Jaipur)

13. Ashmak

(Godawari

valley)

Pandanya (Place

not known)

14. Avanti

(Malva)

Ujjaini (Ujjain)

15. Gandhar

(north-west

region, now in

Pakistan)

Taxshila (near

Rawalpindi)

16. Kamboj Rajapur (place

not known)

The entire region extending up to

Prayag in the east bore the name of

Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh

corresponds to this region. It was

considered sacred in Hindu mythology

as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are

recorded in the Ramayan and

Mahabharat, lived here. To be the most

cultured Aryans as their speech formed

the norm and their conduct was

prescribed as the model. They were fully

conversant with rituals and could

worship and sacrifice without any flaw or

fault.

Out of the above 16 States, eight (at

serial number 1-7 and 11) were in

present Uttar Pradesh. More known

among them were Kashi, Kosal and

Vatsa. Besides these, certain republic

states were also within the boundries of

present Uttar Pradesh example: Shakya

state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of

Samsumergiri and Malla state of

Pawapuri and Kushinagar.

Just Before Christ

All the States were perpetually at war

with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi

and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and

Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by

one by Magadha which became

powerful in the entire region. Magadh

was ruled in succession by Haryank,

Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The

Nandas ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C.

The Nand Empire extended almost to

the whole of India except Punjab and


Uppcsnotes.in

probably Bengal. It was during their

reign that the Alexander invaded India in

326 B.C. Several historians are of the

view that the apprehension, that they

will not be able to face the forces of the

powerful Magadh State, was at the root

of Alexander's forces not advancing

beyond Beas river, which compelled him

to go back. With Alexander's retreat,

India witnessed a great revolution. As a

result the Nand rulers had to give reins

of power to Chandragupta, a scion of

the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of

Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh

enjoyed peace and prospeity during the

reigns of Chandragupta, his son

Bindusara and grandson Ashok.

For long, Mathura remained a prominent

city of Menander's empire.Menander or

Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later

on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states

flourished in Punjab up to the first

century of Chistain era. During this

period the Shung dynasty was replaced

by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that

the last king of Shung dynasty was of

bad character and he was killed by his

minister Vasudev. Vasdev established

Kanva dynasty in 75 B.C. by Simuk, the

founder of the Satavahana or the

Andhra Dynasty. It was at this time that

the attention of Central Asian rulers was

drawn towards India for the first time. By

60 B.C. they had set up their

Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka

king was Maues who died around 38

B.C. After the Sakas, the Parthians

attacked north India and by the

beginning of first century A.D. they

started defeating the Sakas. The

Kushanas also mounted an attack

around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were

one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of

Central Asia. Soon the Kushanas rulers

established their empire right from

Central Asia up to the Indus river.

Gradually, They occupied the whole of

north India.

Kushan Dynasty

The Kushan dynasty was established by

Kujul Kadphises I. His son and

sucessor, Vim Kadphises or Kadphises

II had come upto the Ganga valley. His

sucessor, Kanishk was doubtlessly the

greartest among all Kushan

rulers.Stories of war which Kanishk

fought with the king of Soked (Saket)

have been preserved in the accounts of

Chinese and Tibetan historians and

several inscriptions and coins found in

excavations in extensive parts of Uttar

Pradesh indicate that this territory was

at sometime part of the Kushan empire.

Mathura was at that time a well known

centre of art.

The reign of Kanishk and genealogy of

Kushan rulers are uncertain. Some

scholars are of the view that Kanishk

ascended the throne in 78 AD, while

some others are of the view that

Kanishk ruled between 120 and 140 AD.

His capital was Purushpur of Peshawar

and other capital was in Mathura.

Gandhar, Kashmir and basins of Indus

and Ganga Valleys came under his

kingdom. After Kanishk his son Huvishk


Uppcsnotes.in

succeeded to the throne and was

followed by his son.Vasudev.The empire

of the Kushanas was greatly reduced

during Vasudev's rule and after him

disintegrated and split into several small

border kingdoms. With the approach of

third century AD, the Kushan

sovereignty in Madhya Desh had

collapsed and a number of smaller

states had once again sprung up in the

place. Although the names of some of

them are still preserved in the pillar

inscription of Samudragupta (4th

century AD) at Allahabad, the most

powerful dynasty to rule north India

during this period was of the Nagas.

Another sect of the Nagas, the

Bharshivas also rose to power during

this period. An idea of their power and

the extent of their empire can be had

from the fact that they performed ten

ashwamedh Yajnas and were anointed

with sacred water brought from the

Ganga for their coronation.

The history of the period from the middle

of the second century up to the rise of

the Gupta rulers in the 4th century is

very febulous. The Kushanas were

losing power and several smaller states

has once again started establishing their

suverainty. The Panchalas of Ahichhatra

had a powerful kingdom which probably

extended upto Mathura. The entire area

comprising Kumaon and Garhwal and

probably extending upto Kulu and Simla

hills formed the kingdom of the

Kunindas. The remains found in

Kashipur and various places in Terai

show that it was an important and

powerful kindgom. After the decline of

the Kushan power, Kaushambi (Kosam

near allahabad) probably became

independent. A local dynasty reled over

Magadh and subsequently the Guptas

also emerged from this very region.

The Gupta Dynasty and its Downfall

With the accession of Harsha, the ruling

dynasty of Thaneshwar and Kannuaj

joined hands. Kannauj became a major

city of north India. For centuries, it

enjoyed the same prestige which

Patalipurta had enjoyed earlier.

Because of its grandeur and prosperity,

it was known as 'Mahodaya Shri' and its

possession became the goal of

successive Hindu rulers after Harsha

(i.e. after 647 AD). The Chinese

trabveller, Yuan-Chwang, who visited

the country at that time, has given a

vivid description of Kannauj. After

Harsha, north India was once again

thrown in turmoil. It is not possible to

construct a coherent history of the

period on the basis of available material.

Only a few events can be narrated.

Age of Instability

During the first quarter of 8th century

AD, Yashovarman established away

over Kannauj. He overran almost the

whole of India and once again made

Kannauj a city of splendour. In alliance

with Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, he

also sent his army into Tibet and


Uppcsnotes.in

attained substantial success also but

later on Lalitadity dethroned and killed

him in 740AD. During the reign of later

Ayudh rules, Kannauj became a bone of

contention betwen Palas of Bengal,

Rashtrakuts of south and Gurjar

Pratihars of western India but ultimately

the Gurjar Pratihars were successful.

The empire that they established was in

no way inferior to the empires of any

Gupta in its extend and fame. The

Gurjar Pratihars held sway over north

India during the whole of the 9th and

10th centuries. They were vanquished

by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018-19 AD.

The Chandel rulers of Jejak-Bhukti of

present bundelkhand successfully met

the onslaught of Mahmud of Ghazni,

thanks to their fortress at Kalinjar. Two

Chandel rulers, Dhang and Vidyadhar

played a glorious role in the wars with

invaders.

After the decline of Pratihars, anarchy

once again gripped madhya Desh but

rise of Gaharwars at the time helped in

restoration of peace and order and a

new era a prosperity began in theregion.

The two prominent Gaharwar Rulers

were Govind Chandra (1104-1154 AD)

and Jaichandra (1170 -1193 AD). Due

to short-singhtedness of Jaichandra,

Chauhan king Prithvaraj III had to face

defeat at the hands of Mahammad Ghori

at the Battle of Taran in 1192 AD and he

himself was defeated and slain at

Chhandwar in Etawah next year. Soon,

Meerut, Koil (Aligarh), Asani, Kannauj

and Varanasi also fell victims to

invaders. Though the Chandel ruler

Parmardidew (Veer Parmal of folk-lore)

was defeated in a battle with Qutub-ud-

din Aibak in 1203 AD, the Chandels

later retrieved the situtaion and

continued to rule Jeijak-Bhukti, albeit

with reduced territory for over about two

centuries. Similarly, the distant north hill

region also remained safe from the

invaders.

Muslim Rulers of Delhi:

Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the

throne of Delhi in 1206 AD and founded

the Slave dynasty. The Slaves and after

them, the Khilijis and Tughlaqs gradually

extended the frontiers of Delhi

Sultanate. The present Uttar Pradesh

formed part of their empires. Although

Sambhal, Kara and Budaun were given

to important feudal lords but by and

large the entire State continued to

oppose the Sultans of Delhi. The names

of Katehar, Kampil, Bhojpur and Patiali

stand out prominently in this context.

The history of Madhya Desh in 13th and

14th centuries is a saga of brave

resistance and barbaric repression stray

glimpses of which are found in the

works of contemporary historians. Even

before the beginning of the end of this

period, the empire of Tughlaqs of Delhi

had started to disintegrate and in 1394

AD. an independent State was

established in the eastern part of this

region. It was the Sharqi empire which

was foundedin Jaunpur by Malik Sarvar

Khwajajahan, a rebel Governor of the

Tughlaq ruler. The Sharqi rulers

constantly contended with the Sultans of


Uppcsnotes.in

Delhi for 84 long years and did not

accept Delhi's suzerainty over Kannauj

and border districts.

Four years after the secession of

Jaunpur i.e., in 1398 AD, a Chughtai

Turk of Samarkand known as Timur of

Taimur Lang or Tamerlane, invaded

India. Though the brunt of Taimur's

barbarism was mainly borne by Delhi

and Punjab, the Doab region also did

not escape it. For instance, meerut,

Harwar and Katehar had to go through a

bitter experience of the invasion.

Taimur's invasion brought the Tughlaq

rule to an end. The last Tughlaq ruler,

Mohamamed Tughlq died in 1412 AD

heralding the end of the Tughlaq

dynasty in Delhi. The Syeds and the

Lodies ruled over the remnants of the

Delhi empire from 1414 AD to 1526 AD,

but most of the Doab continued to be

under several Hindu and Muslim

chieftains. An important event of the

contemporay history was that Sikandar

Lodi made Agra his sub-capital.

The Mughal Period

Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of

the Lodi rulers at the Battle of Panipat in

1526 AD and occupied Agra, But even

after this, the Afghans continued their

resistance in the Ganga valley and

Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi,

Etawah and Kannauj had surrendered

only after a bitter fight. Babar founded

the Mughal empire but his son Humayun

had to face a crushing defeat at the

hands of Afghan chief Sher Shah. The

main battlefield in the war between the

Mughals and Sher Shah were Chunar,

Chausa and Bilgram. Sher Shah himself

was killed in 1545 AD fighting the

Chandels in his bid to occupy the

famous Kalinjar fort. With the death of

Sher Shah, a luminous star on the

horizon of Mediaeval history had set.

After this, a series of important events

took place.

Humayun ascended the throne once

again and after his death the second

battle of Panipat was fought. Akbar

ascended the throne in 1556 AD

ushering in a new era in Indian history. It

was an era of peace, prosperity and

strong administration, of liberalism and

integration of Hindu and Muslim

cultures. This process of integration

continued during the period of his

successors, Jahangir and Shahjahan.

As contemporary Muslim historians

observe, the role of Uttar Pradesh in

taking 'Hindustan' to the pinnacle of

progress, prosperity and glory was

significant. Two famous ministers of

Akbar, namely Birbal and Todermal,

belonged to Uttar Pradesh. Agra

continued to be the capital of the

Mughal empire till Shahjahan shifted the

capital to Delhi. The reversal of this

liberal policy by Aurangzeb was a great

setback to the Mughal empire. Within a

few decades of his death, the mighty

Mighal empire was finished. Even during

his life time, Bundelkhand had sounded

the siren of revolt under Veer

Chhatrasal. This war of Bundelas was

fought intermittantly for 50 years and

Chhatrasal had to accept help of


Uppcsnotes.in

Peshwa Bajirao which helped the

Marathas to get a foothold in Uttar

Pradesh.

In Avadh the local governor, Saadat Ali

Khan declared independenace in 1732

AD and his successors continued to rule

up to 1850 AD. Almost simultaneously

the Rohillas also established an

independent State in Rohilkhand and

continued to rule up to 1774 AD, when

the then Nawab of Avadh defeated them

with the help of East India Company.

The Marathas tried for sometime to

establish themselves in the Ganga-

Yamuna Doab, but their defeat at

Panipat in 1761 AD put an end to their

expansionist ambitions.

Nawabs of Avadh

The British East India Company came

into contact with the Avadh rulers

during the reign of the third Nawab of

Avadh, Shuja-ud-daula (1754-1775

AD). Shuja-ud- daula had entered into

an alliance with Mir Qasim, the fugitive

Nawab of Bengal, against the

Company, In 1784. Mir Qasim was

defeated by the British and was forced

to cede Kara and Allahabad. Thereafter

the Britishers pursued a policy to

usurpe large territories by coercing the

rulers of Avadh at one time and cajoling

them at the other.The territories

obtained from the Nawabs in

1775,1779 and 1801 AD and those won

by Lord Lake from the Scindia in 1803

AD were initially attached to the Bengal

province and were named as

Conquered and Ceded Provinces.

In 1816 AD, the districts of present

Kumaon, Garhwal and Dehra Dun were

taken from the Gurkha invaders under

the Treaty of Sanguli and annexed to

British territories. The large territory thus

formed was made an administrative unit

called the North-Western Provinces in

1836 AD. Pursuing a policy of annexing

States, Lord Dalhousie ultimately

annexed Avadh in 1856 AD and placed

it under a Chief Commissioner. The last

Nawab of Avadh, Wajid Ali Shah was

externed to Calcutta and put on a

pension. At the same time Jhansi was

also annexed by the British

First War of Independence and After

The relations between the Nawabs and

the East India Company remind us of

the weaknesses of the Nawabs on the

one hand and arrogance, might and

betrayal on the part of the British on the

other. When the British usurped Avadh,

it was but natural that there should be a

ravolt at the national level. It happened

in 1857 A.D. In this revolt, which was, in

effect, the first war of Indian

independance, the people of Uttar

Pradesh played a glorious role. The

sense of duty and dedication to the

cause of freedom displayed in this

historic struggle by Rani Lakshmi Bai of

Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh,

Bakht Khan, Nana Saheb, Maulvi

Ahmadullas Shah, Raja Beni Madhav


Uppcsnotes.in

Singh, Azimullas Khan and a host of

other patriots have made them immortal.

In 1858 AD, the Delhi Division was

taken out from the North-Western

Provinces and the State's capital was

shifted from Agra to Allahabad. On

November 1, the same year, political

power was tranferred from East India

Company to Queen Victoria through a

Royal Proclamation. In 1877 AD, the

posts of Lt. Governor of North-Western

Provinces and Chief Commissioner of

Avadh were merged. From then, this

large territory was called North Western

Provinces of Agra and Avadh. The

name was again changed in 1902 AD to

United Provinces of Agra and Avadh. It

was made a Governor's province in

1921 AD and after some time its capital

was shifted to Lucknow. Its name was

shortened to United Provinces in 1937

AD. About two and a half years after

independance i.e. January 12, 1950, it

got its present name of Uttar Pradesh.

When the Constitution of free India

came into force on January 26, 1950,

Uttar Pradesh became a full-fledged

province of the Republic of India. There

is not doubt the the history of Uttar

Pradesh has run concurrently with the

history of the country during and after

the British rule, but it is also well know

that the contribution of the people of the

State in National Freedom Movement

had been significant.

Pre Medival History

Harsha or Harshvardhana (590-647)

ruled Northern India for over forty years.

He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan

and younger brother of Rajyavardhan,

king of Thaneshwar. At the height of his

power his kingdom spanned the Punjab,

Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo

Gangetic plain.

As a consequence to the coronation of

Harshavardhana, dynasty of

Thaneshwar and Kannauj

amalgamated. Kannauj became a

prominent city of North India and for

centuries its glory perpetuated, only

comparable to Patliputra. It was the

desire of every state to rule kannauj.

The Chinese traveler, Yhan-Chawang

visited the country at the time of Harsha

and praised his reign.

After Harsha, there was again political

instability in North India. It was difficult

to put on record and congruous and

consistent history of that period on the

basis material available. Only few

events, here and there can be reckoned.

In the first quarter of the 8th century,

Yashoverman established his

supremacy over Kannauj. Almost entire

India came under his rule and Kannauj

regained its lost fame and glory. With

the co- operation of Lalitaditya

Muktapeed he defended India from

Arab’s attack. During that time there

was a fear among the neighbouring

states due to the Arab’s strength by

which they ruled from China, Turkistan

to Carboda city of Spain.


Uppcsnotes.in

Later on, Lalitaditya dethroned and

assassinated him in 740 AD. There was

a long drawn rivalry among Pals of

Bengal, Rashtrakutas of South and

Gurjar Pratihars of Gujarat to gain the

control of Kannauj. However the

ultimate success was achieved by the

Gurjar Pratihars. Their empire was vast

and famed one, comparable to any king

of the Gupta dynasty or emperor

Harshavardhan. Gurjar Pratihars

dominated the entire 9th and 10th

centuries in India. They were defeated

by Mohammad Ghaznavi in the year

1018-18.

The Madhyadesh was again in the grip

of anarchy with the downfall of

Pratihars, but with the emergence of

Gaharwar dynasty peace and order was

restored and a new era of prosperity

began. There were two Gaharwar kings-

Govind Chandra and Jaichand. It was

the betrayal of Jaichand that Prithviraj

was defeated at the hands of

Muhammad Ghori at the Tarain in the

year 1192. Jaichand himself was later

on defeated and killed at Chandwar

(Etawah). There was further unrest and

invasions continued till the Chandels

came to rule. They ruled more than two

centuries and brought peace and order.

Shung and Kanwa dynasty


The coins found in excavations have indicated that entire Uttar Pradesh was ruled by Shung

dynasty in 1 century BC or even thereafter.

The stone inscriptions of Ayodhya are related to Shung dynasty.

SUNGA EMPIRE(187 to 78 BCE)

Pushyamitra Sunga(187–151 BCE):

The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Sunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire(when the emperor Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then Senapati of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Sunga). Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern Malwa.

The empire of Pushyamitra was

extended up to Narmada in the

south, and controlled Jalandhar

and Sialkot in the Punjab in the

north-western regions, and the

city of Ujjain in central India. The

Kabul Valley and much of the

Punjab passed into the hands of

the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan

to the Satavahanas.

Origin:

Patanjali in his Mahabhashya and Panini in his Ashtadhyayi clearly states Pushyamitra Sunga was a Brahmin from Bhardwaj Gotra.


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The meaning of “Sunga” is the fig tree in Sanskrit. So Sungas took their dynastic name from the fig tree. (Other example of Indian dynasties like Kadamba (a tree name) of Banavasi, Pallava(Sanskrit word for “branch and twig”) of Kanchi who took their dynastic name from tree.)

Prosecution of Buddhists

It believed by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.

The earliest reference to persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga is from the Sarvastivadin Buddhist text of 2nd Century CE, Divyavadana and its constituent part, the Ashokavadana.Tibetan Buddhist Historian Taranatha also mentions proscution.

Pushyamitra Sunga might have withdrawn royal patronage of Buddhist institutions. With patronage shifting from Buddhism to Brahmanism, the Buddhists sided with Sunga’s enemies, the Indo-Greeks.

According to some historians, Pushyamitra Sunga prosecuted Buddhists because:

1. There is evidence of damage to Buddhist establishments at Takshashila around the time of Sunga.

2. Sanchi stupa was destroyed by Pushyamitra Sunga, but later

restored by his successor Agnimitra.

3. The Bharhut Stupa gateway was not constructed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga, but was constructed by his successors who had a more tolerant attitude to Buddhism, compared to Pushyamitra Sunga.

4. The destruction of Ghositarama monastery at Kaushambi, in 2nd century CE, is attributed to Pushyamitra Sunga.

5. Deokothar Stupas (located between Sanchi and Barhut) suffered destruction during the same period, also suggesting some kind of involvement of Sunga rule.

Some historians have expressed skepticism of Pushyamitra’ s persecution of Buddhists because:

1. The account of the Tibetan Buddhist Historian Taranatha is absurd.

2. Archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.

3. The Ashokavadana legend is likely a Buddhist version of Pushyamitra’s attack on the Mauryas, reflecting the declining influence of Buddhism in the Sunga Imperial court. The very same Ashokavadana attributes similar cruelty to Ashoka against the Ajivikas.

4. Support of Buddhism by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection “during the supremacy of the Sungas(but


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they may be Pushyamitra’s Successor)

5. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti.

Sunga Dynasty ended, Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas and the Shakas; and hence Buddhism did not suffer any real set-back due to the Sunga Dynasty.

Agnimitra(149–141 BCE):

He was the second King of the Sunga Dynasty of northern India. He succeeded his father, Pushyamitra Sunga.

He was hero of Kalidasa’s play Malavikagnimitra. According to Kalidasa in the Malavikagnimitra, Agnimitra belonged to the Baimbika family (Baimbika-kula), while the Puranas mention him as a Sunga.

The Malavikagnimitra, informs us that , a war broke out between the Sungas and neighboring Vidarbha kingdom during Agnimitra’s reign. Before the rise of the Sungas, Vidarbha(under Yajnasena) had become independent from the Mauryan Empire. Yajnasena was defeated and recognized the suzerainty of the Sunga rulers.

Vasumitra:

In the Malavikagnimitram, Kalidasa tells us that Vasumitra guarded the sacrificial horse let loose by his grandfather

Pushyamitra, and he defeated the armies of the “Yavana” (or Indo-Greeks) on the banks of the Sindhu River.

Devabhuti (83–73 BCE):

The last of the Sunga emperor was Devabhuti (83–73 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva).The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.

Cultural contributions of Sungas:

Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period.

It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue.

Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school of art, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of art.

During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It


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remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.

Later Sunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.

Kanva dynasty(75 BCE – 30 BCE):

The Kanva or Kanvayana Dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the Eastern part of India.

Vasudeva Kanva (75–66 BCE) was the founder of the Kanva dynasty.He was originally an Amatya (minister) of last Sunga ruler Devabhuti.

The Kanvas were Brahmins and considered themselves as descendents from Rishi Kanva.

At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as the Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the Gangetic planes was under different rulers.

Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers.Much detail about these kings has been ascertained only on the basis of Numismatics. Last ruler was Susharman (40 – 30 BCE).

Their dynasty was brought to an end by the ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty or

‘Andhra bhritya’ dynasty in Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.

The Chandelas


Yashovarman, also known as

Lakshavarman, was a king of

the Chandela dynasty of India.

He ruled in the Jejakabhukti

region (Bundelkhand in present-

day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar

Pradesh).

The Khajuraho inscription also

states that Yashovarman turned

the

rivers Ganga and Yamuna into

his "pleasure-lakes", and that the

waters of these rivers became

muddy when his might elephants

bathed in them. This suggests

that Yashovarman controlled the

area around present-

day Allahabad.

The Chandelas initially ruled as

feudatories of

the Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Ka

nnauj).

From the ninth century to the 13th

century, the Chandelas ruled over

central India. Their first capital city was

Khajuraho, which was later shifted to


Uppcsnotes.in

Mahotsava Nagar or Mahoba. They are

regarded to be Chandravanshi; i.e., the

descendents of Soma (Sanskrit literal

meaning: moon). The roots of Chandela

Rajput can be traced to Sapai, which

was popularly known as Samapada

Nagar. The title given to them was Rao.

They are the only hereditary title holders

of Kanpur district. After the Muslim

invasion the royals resided in Sapai. It

was also called Sampada Nagar.

The kingdom of the Chandels of

Khajuraho were always a part of this

large empire of the Gurjara Pratiharas,

the extent of which varied with the

fortunes of the kings. The Chandel

rulers for about hundred years that is,

from Nannuk till Harsh Dev, were but

vassals of the Pratiharas. They

proclaimed themselves independent

when the Pratihara empire weakened

and disintegrated. Earlier, the Pratiharas

helped the Chandels and other kings of

the region in defending the country from

the aggression of Muslim invaders from

the Middle East. This collective defence

against the invaders rendered security

in the region which created favourable

circumstances for encouraging art and

culture.

The founder of the Chandel dynasty,

Nannuk was the ruler of a small

kingdom. According to inscriptions, he

was the chief of his clan in the first

quarter of the ninth century. Epigraphic

records show that Khajuraho, then

called Khajuravatika -Bearer of Dates or

Khajuravatika – Garden of Dates, was

the stronghold of Nannuk and his

people. Later on, his descendants linked

their lineage with the Moon or with

Chandratreya of the legend, in order to

attribute some divine links to the origin

of their dynasty. Vakapati succeeded his

father Nannuk during the second quarter

of the ninth century.

The celebrated Gurjar king, Mihir Bhoja

was his contemporary. Samrat Mihir

Bhoj had to fight many battles against

his two enemies, the Devapala of

Bengal and Kokal, the Kalchuri king.

Vakapati the ruler of Khajuraho, had to

often assist Pratiharas in the battle field,

because he was a vassal of the

Pratiharas. The inscription mention the

Vindhya Hills, one of the frequent places

of warfare, as the pleasure mount

(Krida-giri) of Vakapati. It can be

inferred on the basis of this inscription

that Vakapati managed to extend his

territory so as to include some hills of

the Vindhyas, Jaishakti and Vijayshakti,

the two sons of Vakapti, succeeded him,

one after the other. Both the princes

were strong and valorous and annexed

considerable territories to their kingdom.

Jaishakti, the elder brother who ruled

first, was also called Jai Jak and from

this name the region ruled by the

Chandelas acquired the name of

Jaijikbhukti. He was succeeded on the

throne by his younger brother,

Vajaishakti. According to Khajuraho

inscriptions, Vijaishakti fought many

battles and subjugated a number of

neighbouring areas. The exploits and

deeds of bravery of Jai and Vijai are

oftern sung in ballands as if the two


Uppcsnotes.in

were joint rulers. Nannuk, Jai and Vijai

over a period of time added large

chunks of adjoining territories to their

domain, and whatever was their status

viz a viz the Palas of Bengal and

Pratiharas their overlords, they always

were the master of the land they held.

Rahil, the son of Vijaishakti, ascended

the throne after him.

The village Rahilya which is 3 km south

west of Mohaba was named after him.

There he also built a tank known as

Rahilyasagar and a temple on its banks,

which is now in ruins. The period of rule

of Rahil is said to be of only twenty

years and is credited to the end of the

ninth century. He was succeeded by his

son Harshdev around 900 AD.

Harshdev earned for himself a

memorable place in the history of

Chandel rulers. In the 25 years or so of

his rule, he extended his territory and

enhanced the prestige of his dynasty.

He was the first Chandel prince whose

power was to be reckoned with in those

times.

The Chauhans

Origins

According to the Rajput bards, Chauhan

is one of the four Agnikula or 'fire

sprung' clans who were created by the

Gods in the anali kund or 'fountain of

fire' on Mount Abu to fight against the

Asuras or demons. Chauhan is also one

of the 36 ruling races of the Rajputs.

Agnikula origin was perpetuated by

Raso from the 16th century onwards.

Chauhan gotracharya: Samved,

Somvansh, Madhyandini Shakha,

Gotracharya is used for marriage

relationship and has not changed from

time immemorial. Chauhans are termed

as Agnivanshi khstriyas.

History

According to the Rajput bards the

Chauhan is one of the four Agnikula or

'fire sprung' tribes who were created by

the gods in the Agni kund or 'fountain of

fire'on Mount Abu to fight against the

Asuras or demons. There was an Asur

Named Dhunda at Mount Abu. All

Rajputs of the world were unable to kill

him. Then Guru Vashistha make a

Yagya at Mount Abu. In the agni of that

Yagya 4 Rajputs took Birth Ist was

solanki, 2nd was Parmar ,3rd was

parihar but those 3 were also unable to

kill asur Dhundha. Then 4th birth from

that Kund Was Anhil, his name was

Anhil, Guru Vashishtha take the 4

Swear from Anhil those were Satya,

Dharm,Karm & Daya, those were 4

Aans for Anhil So he named as The

follower of charaans ie. Chauhan.The

Anhil killed that Asur Dhundha & free

the Earth from Asurs. Chauhan is also

one of the 36 ruling races of the

Rajputs. Chauhans were mainly used as

foot soldiers in many battles due to their

huge population.

The Chauhan dynasty flourished from

the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one

of the four main Rajput dynasties of that


Uppcsnotes.in

era, the others being Pratiharas,

Paramaras and Chalukyas. Chauhan

dynasties established themselves in

several places in North India and in the

state ofGujarat in Western India. They

were also prominent at Sirohi in the

southwest of Rajputana, and at Bundi

and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also

associate them with Sambhar, the salt

lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur)

district (the Sakhambari branch

remained near lake Sambhar and

married into the ruling Gurjara-Pratihara,

who then ruled an empire in Northern

India). Chauhans adopted a political

policy that saw them indulge largely in

campaigns against the Chalukyas and

the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th

century they founded the city of

Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part

of their kingdom, and in the 12th century

captured Dhilika (the ancient name of

Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed

some of their territory along the Yamuna

River. Prithviraj III has become famous

in folk tales and historical literature as

the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted

the Muslim attack in the First Battle of

Tarain (1191). Armies from other Rajput

kingdoms, including Mewar assisted

him. However, Prithviraj was defeated in

the Second Battle of Tarain the following

year. This failure ushered in Muslim rule

in North India in the form of the Slave

Dynasty, the first of the Delhi

Sultanates.

Ajmer,erected its castle of Taragarh.

The name of Ajaipal is one of the most

conspicuous that tradition has

preserved, and is always followed by the

epithet of Chakravartin, or universal

potentate. His era must ever remain

doubtful, unless, as already observed,

we should master the characters said to

belong to this race, and which are still

extant, both on stone and on copper.

Prithi Pahar was brought from

Mahishmati to Ajmer. By a single wife

he had twenty-four sons, whose

progeny peopled these regions, one of

whose descendants, Manika Rae, was

lord of Ajmer and Sambhar, in the year

S. 741, or A.D. 685. Prithiraj, the

descen-dant of Manika Rae, even when

emperor of all Northern India. Manika

Rae, whom we may consider as the

founder of the Chauhans of the north,

recovered Ajmer. He had a numerous

progeny, who established many petty

dynasties throughout Western Rajwara,

giving birth to various tribes, which are

spread even to the Indus. The Khichi,

the Hara, the Mohil, the Nirwana,

Bhadauria, the Bhaurecha ,the

Dhanetiya, and the Baghrecha, are all

descended from him.

The Chauhans later asserted their

independence from the Pratiharas, and

in the early eleventh century, the

Sakhambari king Ajaya-Raja founded

the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the

southern part of their kingdom, and in

the mid twelfth century, his successor

Vigraharaja enlarged the state, captured

Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from

the Tomaras and annexed some of their

territory along the Yamuna River,

including Haryana and Delhi. In 12th

century the Chauhans dominated Delhi,

Ajmer and Ranthambhor. They were


Uppcsnotes.in

also prominent at Godwar in the

southwest of Rajputana, and at Hadoti

(Bundi and Kota) in the east. Chauhans

adopted a political policy that saw them

indulge largely in campaigns against the

Chalukyas and the invading Muslim

hordes.

The Chauhan kingdom became the

leading state and a powerful kingdom in

Northern India under King Prithviraj III

(1165-1192), also known as Prithvi Raj

Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III

has become famous in folk tales and

historical literature as the Chauhan king

of Delhi who resisted and repelled the

invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the

first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies

from other Rajput kingdoms, including

Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan

kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj faced

defeat in the war against Mohammed of

Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of

Tarain.

After Prithviraj III

Prithviraj's defeat and capture at Tarain

ushered in Muslim rule in North India by

the Delhi Sultanate. The Chauhans of

Ajmer remained in exile due to

Muhammad of Ghor and his successors,

the Sultans of Delhi, and thus swelled

the ranks of the armed forces of the

Maharana of Mewar, until 1365, when

Ajmer was captured by the Sisodias

rulers of Mewar, and Ajmer was then

returned to the Chauhans.

A branch of the Chauhans, led by

Govinda, the grandson of Pritviraj III,

established themselves as rulers of

Ranthambore from the thirteenth to the

fifteenth centuries, until Ranthambore

was captured by Rana Kumbha of

Mewar. The Hadas, great dynasty of the

Chauhans, moved into the Hadoti region

in the twelfth century, capturing Bundi in

1241 and ruled there until the twentieth

century. One sect of these Hada

Rajputswon Kota The Dhanetiyas of

Shahabad, which by a singular fatality

has at length come into the possession

of the Hadas of Kota and ruled their till

the merger of state in independent India.

Chauhans of the Deora branch

established the state of Sirohi in

southern Rajasthan, and ruled there

from the fifteenth century until Indian

Independence. In western India,

Chauhans are found at Devgadh Baria,

founded by Dungarsinhji, a member of

the Khichi Chauhan clan about 700

years ago. Rajkumar (Bhadaiyan State

of Awadh) and Bachgoti (Diyara State of

Awadh) are two other branches of

Chauhans in Uttar Pradesh. Chauhan's

are also found in Khurja Dasheri and

Arnia.

Religion

In India, Chauhans are predominantly

Hindu.

Some Chauhan Rajputs of the Doab

region of Punjab also adopted Sikhism

and are called Sikh Rajputs, not to be

confused with Jat Chohans of the

Punjab (who happen to write the

transliteration of their name in English

differently).


Uppcsnotes.in

85 villages of chauhan's lies in western

uttarpradesh, in the district of

Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Agra Etc. Village

Davkoura lies in Bulandshahr have 75%

population of Chauhan's.

The gahadavala

Introduction. The Gahadvala or sometime spelled as Gadhwal is a Suryavanshi Kshatriya dynasty that ruled the kingdom of Kannauj for approximately a hundred years, beginning in the late eleventh century. Rajput Rathore claim being descendants of Gaharwars Rebuilding the Kannuj Kingdom.

The Kannauj kingdom was established in the tenth century by Som Chand, who came from Kannuaj near Allahabad; Chand ousted the Katyuri Kings originally from Katyur valley near Joshimath, who had ruled the area since the seventh century AD. Chand retained the name of Kurmanchal for the state,

and Kurm for the people, leaving the capital in Champawat. Kurmanchal named this region Kumaon. Foundation of the Gahadwar Dynasty at Kannuj. Chandradeva founded the Kannauj Gaharwar dynasty in 1090 A.D.. Chandradeva expanded the kingdom to include Delhi, Ayodhya, and Varanasi (modern Benares). During the rule of his successor, Govindachandra, from 1114–1154, the state of Gaharwar reached the pinnacle of its power, occupying much of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Govindachandra moved his capital from Kannauj to Varanasi. His queen Kumaradevi was a devout Buddhist, and Govindachandra was a patron of both Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries. Expansion to Include Delhi. During the Rajput Raaj in India, the Gaharwar king, Chandradev, successfully commanded Delhi and annexed it to his State of Kannauj. Delhi was under Pratihara sovereignty at that time, who was being attacked by Rashtrakuta. Chandradev attacked both Rashtrakuta and Pratihara amid their battle with each other, defeated the two enemies now united against him, and took over the state of Delhi. After the dissolution of the Pratihara empire, Chandradev fought off repeated incursions, which laid down the foundation of the renaissance era in Delhi. Gaharwar dynasty rule of the district is proved by the discovery at Kudarkot of a


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copper plate grant dated in the reign of Chandradeva. Chandradeva founded the Gaharwar dynasty at Kanyakubja after defeating a chief named Gopala of Tuar clan. His jurisdiction extended over nearly all of what is modern Uttar Pradesh including this district. Chandradeva was succeeded by Madanpala, who ruled for a very short period. Madanpala was succeeded by his son Govindachandra. Two copper plate grants of Govindachandra, dated respectively Samvat 1161, or A. D. 1104, and Samvat 1174 or 1117 A. D. have been found in Bisahi, two miles north-east of Tehsil Bidhuna. Another copper plate grant of this king dated Samvat 1166 or A. D. 1109 was found at Rahan. Govindachandra seems to have wielded substantial power in the State while he was only a Yuvaraja, or Crown Prince. He defeated the invading Muslims prior to 1109 A.D., for the Rahan plate records that he "again and again by the play of his matchless fighting" compelled the Hammira (i.e. Amir) to "lay aside his enmity". The Rahan plate further described Govindachandra as "terrific" in cleaving the frontal gloves of arrays of irresistible mighty large elephants from Gauda", which shows that Govindachandra must have made some encroachments on Magadha. In short, Govindachandra made himself a power and revised the glories of this region. Govindachandra was succeeded by his son Vijayachandra in 1155 A. D. Like his father, Vijayachandra also successfully faced Muslim aggressions. As Vijayachandra' reign began, an unmistakable symptom of decline of the Gaharwar power manifested itself in the loss of Delhi, the Tuar rulers there

stopped recognizing Vijaychandra as their sovereign and probably aligned with Chauhans of Ajmer. The full significance of this loss was realised when, about a generation later, the Muslims attacked Delhi and occupied it, rendering the Gaharwar frontier defenceless. Vijayachandra was succeeded by his son, Jaichandra, in 1170 A. D. Jaichandra may be described as the last great king of the Gahadavala dynasty, whose power and extensive jurisdiction struck even Muslim historians. During the reign of Jaichandra, the Chauhans, from Ajmer, had annexed Delhi and were at this time bidding for supremacy in the North under Prathviraja ChauhanIII. The Chandellas were to the south there; at this time, their power was at its height. Additionally, there were repeated Muslim invasions of North-western India, which had already threatened the unity of India. Prithviraj carried off Samyukta, daughter of Jaichandra. Samyukta's elopement with Prithviraj III, heir to the rival Chauhan Rajput kingdom to the west, is the subject of many romantic tales, although this may have been the seed of the dissension between the kingdoms. Jaichand was destined to be the last Gaharwar king of Kannauj. He sought help from Muslims of North to invade Chauhans of Ajmer-Delhi. After fall of Delhi, the city of Kannauj was also attacked by Muhammad of Ghor in 1194; Jaichandra drowned in the Ganges fighting the battle; his kingdom was conquered and sacked by Muhammad's armies. Some survivors, led by Jaichand's son or grandson Siyaji (Shiv ji), fled west to the Marwar desert region of Rajasthan, where they


Uppcsnotes.in

established themselves as rulers in the early thirteenth century, founding the Rathore clan which ruled the princely state of Marwar or Jodhpur. Collateral Branches of Gahadvala Dynasty. Chand Kings of Kumaon.

Another branch escaped to the Kumaon hills, where 300 years later they usurped power in Kumaon by defeating the ruling Katyuri dynasty. The Chand kings mention Rathore as their kul The present king of Kumaon is Raja Mahendra Chand of Lamakhet (Pithoragarh), married to Rani Gita Chand of Rina and has three children (Rajkumari Aakanksha Chand, Rajkumari Mallika Chand, Rajkumar Aryan Chand) Vijaypur-Kantit. Another grandson, Bijai Chand, fled to Kantit in the Mīrz pur District and, overcoming the Bhar R ja of that place, founded the family of the Gaharw r R jas of Bijaipur-Kantit. All the other Gaharw rs trace their lineage to Ben res or Bijaipur. Dahia kingdom is an extension of this line also. Manda Kings. Kings of Manda trace their line from a younger brother of Jaichandra of Kannauj. The last king was Raja Vishvanath Pratap Singh of Manda, prime - minister of India from 1989-91. Gaharwar, Rathore and Bundela share the Kashyap Gautra, and Gaharwar is

considered the original bloodline for both Bundela and Rathore. The Gaharwar era in India was brief, but its impact has lasted through the era of renaissance in India. Bundela. All the other Gaharw rs trace their lineage to Ben res or Bijaipur. Another group of warriors that migrated southward from Kannauj came to occupy territory immediately west of Daiya, Manda, and Vijaypur. This line came to be known as Bundela and gave its name to the Bundelkhand that comprises parts of both current Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

the Gupta Dynasty


There is controversy among scholars about the original homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh, in north India, as the vassal of the Nagas or Bhaarshivas. Thereafter they rose in prominence.

Early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh.

The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.


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Chandragupta I conquests are known from a lengthy eulogy composed by his court-poet Harishena and inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad.

in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling on earth.

A large number of Buddha images have been unearthed at Sarnath, and one of them is justly regarded as the finest in the whole of India. Stone and bronze images of Buddha have also been found at Mathura and other places.

The images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest panels of the Deogarh temple (Jhansi district). Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave in Udayagiri.

Gupta Empire

The start of Gupta Empire is considered by many historian from the reign of Maharaja Shrigupta.

Chandragupta-I was the first powerful ruler of Gupta Empire and ascended the throne in 320 AD.

The Gupta Period from 320 AD to 550 AD is also known as the Golden Age of India.

In the Gupta period India attained the peak of glory in every aspects starting from science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy.

Emperors of Gupta Empire

Shrigupta and Ghatotkacha. The reign of Maharaja Shrigupta (240 AD to 280 AD) is considered by many historians to be the starting point of Gupta Empire.

Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Shrigupta and ruled from 280AD to 319 AD.

Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I was the son of Ghatotkacha and succeeded his father. He was the first powerful king of the dynasty. He ruled the Empire from 320 AD to 335 AD.

Chandragupta I adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja: meaning King of Kings.

He married princess Kumaradevi of neighboring kingdom Lichchhavi and gained the control of the territory of north Bihar.

The starting of the reign of Chandragupta-I is considered by many historians as the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta and Chandragupta II

Samudragupta,succeeded his father Chandragupta I and ruled the Gupta dynasty for


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about 45 years from 335 AD to 380 AD. He is also known as 'Napolean of India'.

Many historians believe that Chandragupta II was nominated by his father Samudragupta as the next heir of Gupta Empire.But Ramagupta,the eldest son of Samudragupta succeeded his father and became the emperor.

Chandragupta II killed him and ascended the throne. He was an extremely powerful emperor. Chandragupta II is most commonly known as Vikramaditya,ruled the Gupta Empire from 380 AD to 413 AD.

Other Emperors

Kumaragupta I,the son of Chandragupta II succeeded his father and ruled the dynasty till 455 AD. After Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta succeeded his father.

He is considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors.

He also adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

After Skandagupta, the Gupta dynasty didn't get any powerful ruler and finally the dynasty was overpowered by the Vardhana ruler Harshavardhana.

Note:Some of the weak rulers who ruled after Skandagupta were, Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta

III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

Fa-hien's India Visit

Fa-hien was the first Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

Nine Gems or Navaratnas

At the time of Vikramadityas reign, the glory of Gupta Empire reached its peak.

A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of Vikramaditya.

The group comprised of

Kalidasa Vetala Bhatta Varahamihira Vararuchi Amarasimha Dhanvantari kshapanak Shanku Ghatakarpura

Kalidasa

Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays.

Abhijnanasakuntalam : tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala

Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika


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Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi

Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems:

Raghuvamsa ("Raghu Dynasty ") and

Kumarasambhava.

Vetala Bhatta

Vetala Bhatta was a Brahmin in the court of Vikramaditya.

He is known for his contribution of "Nitipradipa ".

Varahamihira

Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of Gupta era.

He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika,a book on mathematical astronomy.

His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human interest.

Vararuci

Vararuci was one of the nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II of Gupta era.

Amarasimha

Amarasimha was one of the nine Gems in the court of Vikramaditya of Gupta era.

He is notably known for his famous Sanskrit thesaurus Amarakosha.

It is also known as Namalinganushasana.

Dhanvantari

Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the worlds first surgeons and medical practitioner from Gupta era.

He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda.

He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine.

Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari.

He is also credited for the discovery of the antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt.

Dhanvantri is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.

The Huna Invasion


In the beginning of the sixth century A.D. when the Gupta empire was disintegrating, they repeated their invasion under their ruler Toramana. Though there is no conclusive evidence that Toramana was a Huna yet, mostly he had been accepted so. This time the Hunas succeeded


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and occupied Kashmir, then Punjab, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Bhanu Gupta had to fight against Toramana.

The Maukharis held the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj, had conquerred a part of Magadha.

The Maukhri dynasty king of Kannauj Ishanverma defeated the Huns are freed the north India.

The nomadic savages or tribes who lived in the neighbourhood of China were the Hephthalites (the Sanskrit name of which is Hunas). Studies show that the Hunas extended their kingdom from the border of Persia to Khotan in Central Asia. There were two branches of Hunas that advanced towards the west. One branch of the Hunas moved towards the Roman Empire and the other towards India. This branch of the Hunas, which came to India, was referred to as the White Hunas. The invasion of India by the Hunas began about a hundred years after the Kushanas’ invasion. In historical studies, one of the most warlike tribes, popular for their barbarism and cruelty, was the Huna tribe. There were two major invasions of the Hunas in the subcontinent. The reasons that led to the invasions While the Gupta Empire ruled over a major part of India, after the death of the

Gupta emperor, Samudragupta, there was less control of the Guptas in Western India. During this time, the Hunas armed forces attacked the Gupta dynasty and they were able to win Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal, Rajasthan, Punjab, and parts of Malwa. This way, the Hunas established their kingdom in some parts of India and Tormana was the white Hun leader. First major invasion of India by the Hunas: 458 AD The Gupta Empire in India reigned in the Ganges basin during the 5th century, and the Kushan dynasty occupied the area along the Indus. After defeating the Kushanas, the Hunas entered the subcontinent from the Kabul valley. They entered Punjab and the Gupta Empire failed to protect the northeast frontier of the empire and this made easier for the Huns to enter an unguarded entrance in the Gangetic valley, just into the heart of the Gupta Empire. This was in 458 AD. The Hephthalites, known as the Hunas in India kept on invading India until the Gupta ruler Skandagupta repulsed them. The Hunas, under the leadership of Toramana, suffered a crushing defeat by the Gupta emperor Skandagupta. Second invasion of India by the Hunas: About 470 AD The Hunas waited till 470 AD, till the death of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta to invade India again in a proper manner. During this time, the Guptas had been ruling over a greater part of India. This time Hunas were under the leadership of Mihirkula (also known, as Mihirgula or the “Indian Attila”). He was the successor and son of Toramana, and


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known as a very tyrant ruler and a destroyer. This time, the Hunas were successful in their invasion of India. They temporarily overthrew the Gupta Empire. Mihirkula ruled from his capital at Sakal, which is today the modern Sialkot. The Huna power in India collapsed after the defeat of Mihirkula. Mihirkula was defeated successively by two Indian rulers, Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta Baladitya of the later Gupta dynasty. Aftermath of the battles: Winner and Loser Before the defeat of the Hunas by Skandagupta, the first invasions of the Hunas displaced the Gupta Empire rule from the North Western part of India. This invasion also influenced the chieftains and regional kings to become more ambitious and rebel against the Gupta Empire. The Hunas ruled over Gandhar and central Punjab and also controlled the Kushans. The first Hun king Toramana ruled northern India as far as Malwa in central India. After his death, his son Mihirkula, who destroyed the Gupta Empire, ruled over North Western India for thirty years. However, Mihirakula was driven out of the plains and into Kashmir and died in about 542 A.D. After his death, the political power of the Hunas declined. The larger implications of the battle

Toramana, the first white Huna king, conquered Punjab, Rajputana, Kashmir, parts of Doab and Malwa. He ruled and operated the interiors of India by keeping his base at Punjab.

During his rule, he reduced the power of a number of local kings and chieftains as his subordinates and assumed the title of "Maharajadhiraja".

Some of the provincial governors of the Gupta Empire also joined Toramana during the course of his invasion in India.

In extensive regions of Sutlej and Yamuna, the coins and inscriptions of Toramana were found.

However, Toramana's rule in India did not last long and he was defeated by Skandagupta, which forced him to flee to the other side of India.

When Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihirkula, he entered and ruined every city and town along the Ganges. The capital town Pataliputra was reduced to a small village. The Hunas persecuted Buddhists and destroyed all the monasteries and the Gupta regime was completely extinguished.

However, when Mihirkula was defeated by two major rulers Yasodharman and Narasimhagupta Baladitya, he had to leave India forever. The Hunas suffered a great loss.

The overall place and significance of the invasions in the Indian History The Hunas' invasion in India had far reaching effects and significance in Indian History, as mentioned below:

First of all, the Hunas had destroyed the dominance of the


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Gupta Empire in India and on their feudatories.

Small kingdoms began to grow and prosper on the ruins of the Gupta Empire.

The trade connections between the Guptas in India and the Roman Empire also weakened after the Huna invasion that completely devastated the Gupta economy. Due to this, the economic and cultural cities like Pataliputra or Ujjain lost their glory.

The socio-political and economic life during the later Guptas also deteriorated.

On the other hand, trade with South East Asia and China prospered through ports like Tamralipta, Kaveri Pattanam, etc.

There was a racial admixture in India after the Huna invasion and this was one of the most significant effects.

Various tribes entered India through North West, same as the central Asian tribes, some of whom remained in Northern India and some moved further to the south and the west.

For the first time, Indian culture got introduced to the Hunas’ martial culture.

After the Hunas were driven out of India in 528, few of them blended with the Indian population and became a part of the local population, which exists even today such as Gurjaras and the ancestors of some of the Rajput families.

The Huna invasions of India led to

socio-economic and cultural

transformation of the Indian society as a

whole.

The Kushana Dynasty


Under the rule of Kanishka, the Kushana empire reached its maximum territorial limits. This empire extended from the Central Asia to the northern India, while including Varanasi, Kaushambi and Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh region.

The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculptural art which are known for producing the earliest images of Buddha and Buddhisattavas.

The successors of Kanishka had ruled for another one hundred and fifty years. His son Huvishka kept the empire intact. While Mathura became an important city under his rule, like his father Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism religion.

The last significant Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire got much reduced in his rule. Various inscription with his name are found in and around Mathura. He was a worshipper of Siva. And after Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern India after which the empire faded away.

Wema Kadphises further extended the Kushana empire atleast upto Mathura, although one of his inscription is found from Ganwaria (Siddharthnagar


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district of Uttar Pradesh) and his coins are discovered all over Uttar Pradesh and from Bihar as well.

Mathura was most probably the eastern head-quarter of the Kushane empire. Most sites in Uttar Pradesh attained their peak of prosperity during the Sunga-Kushana phase when a large number of flourishing urban centres can be archaeologically attested.

KUSHANS

In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India witnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Aral Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and evicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes were divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans. The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indian civilisation in the south-east.

The leader of the Kushans was

kadphises and his rule probably began

in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south

of Hindu Kush, conquered Kabul and

annexed Gandhara including the

kingdom of Taxila. Kadphises died in 77

A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans

had supplanted the princes belonging to

the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian

communities along the frontiers of India.

The successor of kadphises was Vima-

Kadphses. He conquered large parts of

norther India. His coins show that his

authority extended as far as Banaras

and as well as the Indus basin. In all

likelihood his power extended as far as

Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa

and Western India acknowledged his

sovereignty.

By that time the Chinese reasserted

their authority in the north and this led to

a collusion with the Kushans. The

Chinese general pan-chao conquered

Chinese Turkistan and established the

Chinese authority in parthia that is on

the territory south of the Caspian sea.

These advances frightened the

Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II,

claimed the hand of a Chiese princes,

an acknowledgement of his equality with

the son of Heaven. The proposal was

rejected and Kadphises, dispatched a

large army, But the army was decimated

because of the difficult terrain. And it

was easily defeated by the Chinese.

The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay

tribute the China and the Chinese

records so that the Kushans continued

to send missions to Cnina till the close


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of the century. Rossibly the reign of

Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D.

The next ruler, Kanishka probably

belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of

the horde. His capital was Purushapura

and here he erected a large number of

Buddhist buildings. In his early years he

annexed Kashmir and consolidated his

rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin.

His army crossed the Pamirs and

inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The

chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the

Ksshgar were made to pay tribute.

Tradition states that while Kanishka was

on his return from the Chinese

Turkistan, he was sothered to death by

his officers who had got weary of his

campaigns. Most of his time was spent

on waging wars.

A large number of inscriptions were

incised during the times of Kanishka and

his successor. According to evidence,

Kanishka became an active partron of

the Buddhist Church during the later

part of his reign. Althouth the Buddhist

records gloat over this fact and regard

him as the second Asoka, his coins

prove that he honoured a medley of

gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and

Indian. The prominent Indian duty on the

coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly

of deities by the Kushans offers a great

deal of speculation. May be Kansihka

follwed a loose from of Zorostrianism

and freely venerated the deities of other

greeds.

Also, Kanishka covened a council of

Buddhist theologians to settle disputes

relating to Buddhist faith and practices.

The conclusions of this council were

engraved on copper sheets and

preserved in the stupa of the capital.

The delgates to the council primarily

belonged to the Hinayana sect.

The Buddhism of this period was

definitely a lax one. The Mahayana sect

was popular. But early Buddhism was

an India product and was based on the

Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of

souls and the blessedness of escape

from the pains of being. This Buddhism

was supported by a practical system of

ethics inculcating a stoic devotion to

duty for its own sake. Such a teaching

needed fundamental changes to attract

the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad

horseman and the Helloe rized

Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead

teacher passed into a worship of living

seviour.

Soon the Kushan power declined.

Within the Kingdom, harm was done to

the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and

Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler probably

performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices.

Apart from these two communities, a

few other tribes also, like the Malavas

and the Kunindas, probably regained

their importance at the expense of the

Kushan empire.

Apart from the weaknesses to the

successors of Kanishka, developments

in the Persia influenced the history of

North western India. The Parthians were

overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who

established theSassanian dynasty. His

successors annxed Peshawar and

Taxila during the middle of the 3rd


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century. And Kushan kings in the north-

west became the vassals of the

Sasssanians. The successors of

Kanishka, as established today, are the

following : Vashiska (102-106),

Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c.

152-176). The history after this period is

extremely vague. Over the ruins of the

empire, in Central Asia and the west,

rose the Sassanian empire of Persia

and in India. The Gupta empire.

Speaking in general about the

achievement of the Kushans, the first is

the economic prosperity. As the Kushan

empire was situated in a crucial

geographical region. There was brisk

trade. Moreover, the very area covered

by the Kushan empire helped the flow of

trade between the east and the west.

Some trade routes which came into

existence in this period continued to

serve the future also. Gold coins of

great complexity were issued by the

Kushans.

These coins speak of the prosperity of

the people. The coins of Kanishka

usually show the figure of Kanishka

standing and sacrificing at altar, and on

the obverse, deities belonging to various

religions. The coins of the Kushans also

show that the Kushans were in contact

with the Romans - the weight of the

Kushan coins has certain similarities

with the Roman coins. According to the

author of the Periplus god and silver

species were imported at Barygaza

(Broach).

As regards art and literature, we have to

state that their greatest contribution was

the Gandhara art. It was in this period

that the stone images of the Buddha

and the Bodhisattavas were craved out.

The chief of quality of this art is the

blending of Buddhist subjects with

Greek forms. Images of the Buddha

appear in the likeness of Apollo, and

theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino

of Zeus. The imprint of this school of art

is still to be found in Mathura and

Amarvati. Indeed, the carving of images

and the building of temples was not

neglected in earlier days, but under the

Kushans they attained a refinement.

The Chaitya built at Peshawar was as

high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing

through Gandhara, during the fifth

century, praised the images of the

Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous

other deities. The early rulers fostered

the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also

the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place

artistic products were sent to Sarasvati

and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great

builder - tower at Peshawar, a new city

in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine

buildings and sculptures at Mathura. It

was at the last place a portrait stature of

Kanishka has been found but its head is

not there. Further, the die-engravers

employed by the Kushans were far from

negligible. A special note is to be taken

of coinage. The Kushan coins became

the prototypes for many varieities of

coins of Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas,

some kings of Nepa and several Kings

of Chedi. Eminent Buddhist writers -

Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra

were the names associated with

Kanishka. The first was a poet,

musician, scholar and a zealous


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Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court

physician of Kanishka.

The next thing to be noted about the

Kushana is their religion. In all

likelihood, missionaries propagated

Buddhism in central Asia and China in

this period. Possibly, it was during the

time of Kanishka that Mahayana

Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth

Buddhist council that was summoned by

Kanishka canonized the doctrines of

Hinayana and Mahayana. The

deliberations of the conference were

engraved on sheets of copper and were

sealed and deposited in a stupa, but

they have not been found so far. But to

regard Kanishka as the founder patron

of the Mahayana sect, which came into

existence under the Kushans, is a

disputable point. Even though many

scholars regard Kanishka as the second

Asoka some writers do not agree with

this view. In addition to these things, we

must mention that the Kushana kings

patronized all kinds of religions,

including Hinduism. Kanishka was

definitely and eclectic monarch as he

honored a medley of gods belonging to

the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths.

Not only Buddhism flourished under the

Kushanas but there were definitely

stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical

sects started merging. Along with

religion, Sanskrit language received an

impetus. In a way the Kushan age

constituted the prelude to the Gupta

age.

In this ammner, the services rendered

by the Kushanas are commendable. A

mere evaluation of the personality of

Kanishka alone would not help us to

estimate the importance of the

Kushanas as the empire lasted for three

centuries. To a certain extent, the

prosperious time of peace during the

Gupta period was directly due to the

Kushans undertaking the unconscious

role of the shield and buckler of Indian

civiliszation and culture. The Kushan

state was a buffer between the Aryan

civilization and the nomadic hordes in

central Asia who from time to time, had

overrun the civilized worlds with the

sweep of avalanches. It was also

responsible for the exchange of ideas

and goods between different civilization

because of the peculiar geographical

position occupied by the Kushanas a

clearing house for the ideas and goods

of different civilization.

The Mughals 1

Introduction

In the fourteenth century, the

disintegration of the Mongol empire led

Timur to unite Iran and Turan under one

rule. Timur's empire was spread from

the lower Volga to the river Indus,

including Iran,

Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Trans-

Oxiana, Afghanistan, and some part of

Punjab.

In 1404, Timur died and Shahrukh

Mirza, his grandson, succeeded his

empire.


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Timur gave patronage to arts and

letters and he promoted Samarqand and

Herat as the cultural centers of West

Asia.

During the second half of the fifteenth

century, the power of Timurids declined,

largely because of the Timurid practice

of partitioning of the empire.

The various Timund territories that

developed during his time, were kept

fighting and backbiting to each other.

Their conflicting acts gave an

opportunity to two new powers to come

to the forefront:

a) The Uzbeks: In the north, the Uzbeks

thrust into Trans-Oxiana. Though the

Uzbeks had become Muslims, but

Timurids looked them down because

they (Timurids) considered them to be

uncultured barbarians.

b) Safavid Dynasty: In the west (i.e.

Iran), the Safavid dynasty appeared.

They were descended from an order of

saints who traced their ancestry to the

Prophet.

Safavids dynasty promoted the Shi’ite

sect among the Muslims, and

persecuted to all those who were not

ready to accept the Shia views.

The Uzbeks, on the other hand, were

Sunnis. Thus, the political conflict

between these two elements was

estranged on the basis of sectarian

views.

The power of the Ottoman Turks had

escalated in the west of Iran and they

wanted to rule Eastern Europe as well

as Iran and Iraq.

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur

Babur born on 14 February 1483 at Andijan in Mughalistan (present day Uzbekistan). Babur had the prestige of being a descendant of two of the most legendary warriors of Asia namely Changez, and Timur. Babur groomed himself to his begs by his personal qualities. He was always prepared to share the hardships with his soldiers. Babur was fond of wine and good company and was a good and cheerful companion. At the same time, he was a strict disciplinarian and a hard taskmaster. Babur took good care of his army and other employees, and was prepared to excuse many of their faults as long as they were not disloyal. Though Babur was an orthodox Sunni, but he was not prejudiced or led by the religious divines. Once, there was a bitter sectarian conflict between the Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however, in such a condition, Babur’s court was free from theological and sectarian conflicts. Though Babur declared the battle against Rana Sanga a jihad and assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after the


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victory, but the reasons were noticeably political. Babur was master of Persian and Arabic languages, and is regarded as one of the most famous writers in the Turkish language (which was his mother tongue). Babur’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi is considered as one of the classics of world literature. His other popular works are masnavi and the Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi work. Babur was a keen naturalist, as he described the flora and fauna of India in considerable details. Babur introduced a new concept of the state, which was to be based on: a) The strength and prestige of the Crown; b) The absence of religious and sectarian bigotry; and c) The careful fostering of culture and the fine arts. Babur, with all these three features provided a precedent and a direction for his successors

In 1494, Babur, at the young age of merely 14, succeeded to Farghana. Farghana was a small state in Trans-Oxiana.

Shaibani Khan, the Uzbek chief,

defeated Babur and conquered

Samarqand.

In 1504, Babur conquered Kabul; at

that time, Kabul was under the rule of

the infant heir of Ulugh Begh.

Almost 15 years, Babur struggled hard

and kept attempting to re-conquest his

homeland from the Uzbeks. He

approached the ruler of Herat (who was

also his uncle) for the help, but he did

not receive any positive response.

Shaibani Khan defeated Herat, which

led to a direct conflict between the

Uzbeks and the Safavids because

Safavids was also claiming Herat and its

surrounding area, namely Khorasan.

In the battle of 1510, Shaibani Khan

defeated and killed by Kasim Khan.

By taking the help of Iranian power,

Babur attempted to recover Samarqand.

As a result of this, the Iranian generals

wanted to treat Babur as the governor of

an Iran rather than as an independent

ruler.

After the massive defeat, the Uzbeks

swiftly recovered; resultantly, Babur had

been overthrown again from Samarqand

and he had to return back to Kabul.

Shah Ismail (Shah of Iran) was

defeated in a battle by the Ottoman

sultan; the changes in geo-political

scenario forced Babur to move towards

India.

Once Babur said that from the time he

won Kabul (i.e. in 1504) to his victory of

Panipat, he had never ceased to think of

the conquest of Hindustan.


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Timur, the ancestor of Babur, had

carried away a vast treasure along with

many skilful artisans from India. The

artisans helped Timur to consolidate his

Asian empire and beautify the capital.

They (the artisans) also helped Timur to

annex some areas of Punjab.

Reasons of India Conquest

Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian

said that "Babur ruled over Badakhshan,

Qandhar, and Kabul which did not yield

sufficient income for the requirements of

his army; in fact, in some of the border

territories, the expense on controlling

the armies and administration was

greater than the income".

Babur was also always remained

apprehensive about an Uzbek attack on

his territory Kabul, and hence,

considered India to be a safe place of

refuge, as well as a suitable base for

operations against the Uzbeks.

By the time, the political scenario of north-west India was much suitable for Babur's entry (into India).

In 1517, Sikandar Lodi had died and Ibrahim Lodi (his son) had succeeded him.

Ibrahim Lodi was an ambitious emperor whose efforts to build a large centralized empire had alarmed the Afghan chief as well as the Rajputs.

Daulat Khan Lodi was one of the most powerful chiefs of his time. Though, he

was the governor of Punjab, but he was almost an Independent ruler.

Daulat Khan wanted to conciliate with Ibrahim Lodi; therefore, he sent his son to his (Ibrahim’s) court to pay homage. However, he was also intended to strengthen his power by annexing the frontier tracts of Bhira.

In 1518-19, Babur seized the powerful fort of Bhira and sent letters as well as verbal messages to Ibrahim Lodi and Daulat Khan. Babur asked them for the cession of all those areas, which had belonged to the Turks.

Daulat Khan detained Babur's envoy at Lahore, neither granted him audience nor allowed him to go and meet Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expelled Babur’s agent from Bhira.

Once again in 1520-21, Babur crossed the Indus, and easily clutched Bhira and Sialkot (popular as the twin gateways to Hindustan) and then, Lahore was also surrendered to him.

After capturing Bhira and Sialkot, Babur planned to proceed further, but because of the revolt in Qandhar, he returned back.

Babur recaptured Qandhar after almost one and half years. His political stability again encouraged him to move towards India.

Daulat Khan sent Dilawar Khan (his son) to Babur’s court and invited Babur to come India. Daulat Khan suggested Babur to replace Ibrahim Lodi, as he (Ibrahim Lodi) was a tyrant ruler.


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Rana Sanga (Rana of Mewar), most likely at the same time, also sent a message to Babur inviting him to attack India. Two embassies from the powerful kingdom convinced Babur to conquest India again.

In 1525, when Babur was in Peshawar, he received a message that Daulat Khan Lodi had changed the sides.

Daulat Khan had collected an army of 30,000-40,000 men and ousted Babur's soldiers from Sialkot, and tried to advance towards Lahore. However, as Babur came, Daulat Khan’s army ran away; resultantly, Daulat Khan got surrendered and was pardoned. Babur became the ruler of Punjab. Major Battles First Battle of Panipat

On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of Panipat, was fought between Babur and the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi). The battle took place in north India (Panipat) and marked as the beginning of the Mughal Empire.

The first battle of Panipat was one of the earliest battles in which gunpowder firearms and field artillery were used. However, Babur said that he used it for the first time in his attack on the Bhira fortress.

Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with the force estimated at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants.

Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of merely 12,000; however, in

India, a large number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers joined Babur in Punjab. In spite of Indian army support, Babur's army was numerically inferior.

Babur made a master plan and strengthened his position. He ordered one of his army wings to rest in the city of Panipat, which had a large number of houses. Further, he protected another wing by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees. On the front side, Babur lashed with a large number of cans, to act as a defending wall. Between two carts, breastworks were erected so that soldiers could rest their guns and fire.

Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) device technique, which had been used by the Ottomans in their well-known battle against Shah Ismail of Iran.

Babur had also invited two Ottoman master-gunners namely Ustad Ali and Mustafa.

Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army men, could not assume the strongly defended position of Babur.

Ibrahim Lodi had apparently expected Babur to fight a mobile mode of warfare, which was common with the Central Asians.

Babur's gunners used their guns strategically with good effect from the front; however, Babur gave a large part of the credit of his victory to his bowmen.

After the seven or eight days fight, Ibrahim Lodi realized Babur’s strong position. Further, Lodi’s forces were also


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hesitant to fight with Babur’s modern technological warfare.

Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a group of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he (Lodi) had been killed in the battle field.

It is estimated that more than 15,000 men (of Lodi kingdom) were killed in the first battle of Panipat. Battle of Khanwa On March 17, 1527, the Battle of Khanwa was fought near the village of Khanwa (about 60 km west of Agra). It was fought between the first Mughal Emperor Babur and Rajput ruler Rana Sanga.

The Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga, was the great threat for Babur to establish a strong Mughal empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley, as Sanga planned to expel Babur from India or else confined him at Punjab.

Babur had an authentic reason to accuse Rana Sanga i.e. of breach of an agreement. In fact, Sanga invited him (Babur) to India with a promise to fight with him against Ibrahim Lodi, but he (Rana) refused.

The battle of Khanwa was aggressively fought. As Babur reported, Sanga had more than 200,000 men including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen, supported with an equal force fielded by Hasan Khan Mewati.

Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground, was highly technical; he ordered his soldiers (who had been sheltering behind their tripods) to attack in the

center. Thus Sanga's forces were hemmed in, and finally defeated. Rana Sanga escaped from the battle field. Later he (Rana) wanted to renew the conflict with Babur, but he was poisoned by his own nobles.

The battle of Khanwa strengthened Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later, Babur conquered the chain of forts including Gwalior, Dholpur, east of Agra, etc.

Babur also conquered Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati and Chanderi (Malwa) from Medini Rai. Chanderi was captured after killing almost all the Rajput defenders men and their women performed jauhar (it was the custom of self-immolation of queens and royal female of the Rajput kingdoms). The Afghans Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which was under the domination of the Afghan chiefs had submitted their allegiance to Babur, but internally planned to throw it off at any time.

Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had supported the Afghan sardars.

The Afghans had ousted the Mughal officials in eastern Uttar Pradesh and reached up to Kanauj many times, but their major weakness was the lack of a competent leader. Afghan leaders invited Mahmud Lodi. He (Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of Ibrahim Lodi and also had fought against Babur at Khanwa. The Afghan


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leaders welcomed him as their ruler, and congregated strength under his leadership.

The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s leadership, was a great threat for Babur, which he (Babur) could not ignore. At the beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra for the east and he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghagra River.

While Babur was fighting with the Afghans (in the east), he received a message i.e. crisis situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided to conclude the war with an agreement with the Afghans. He made a vague claim for the suzerainty over Bihar, and left the large parts in the Afghan’s hands.

On 26 December, 1530, when Babur was returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) died near Lahore.

The Mughals 2

Humayun’s Conquest

-1556), Humayun had faced many adverse conditions; however, he did not lose his patience rather fought with courage.

succeeded Babur (his father) in December 1530 at the young age of 23.

Babur, because of his pre-matured death, could not consolidate his empire; therefore, Humayun, when became the ruler, he had to struggle with various problems. Major Problems

Major problems (left behind by Babur) were: o The administration systems of Mughal Empire were weak and the finances were unjustifiable. o The Afghans had not been subdued entirely; hence, they were cultivating the hope of expelling the Mughals from India. o When Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, the Mughal Empire included Kabul and Qandhar; however, there was loose control over Badakhshan (beyond the Hindukush Mountains). o Kabul and Qandhar were under the charge of Kamran, Humayun's younger brother. Kamran was not satisfied with these poverty-stricken areas therefore, he marched towards Lahore and Multan, and occupied them.

reluctantly accepted his brother’s autocratic act, as he was not interested in starting a civil war. However, Kamran accepted the suzerainty of Humayun, and promised to help him whenever it required.


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Afghans in the east and Bahadur Shah (ruler of Gujarat) in the west were becoming problems that Humayun had to suppress.

and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but in 1532, Humayun had defeated the Afghan forces.

besieged Chunar (from the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri).

powerful fort that commanded the land and the river route resting between Agra and the east; Chunar was popular as the gateway of eastern India.

Suri (also known as Sher Khan) persuaded Humayun to get permission to retain possession of the fort and he promised to be loyal to the Mughals. Sher Shah also sent one of his sons to Humayun court as a hostage. Humayun was in haste to return back to Agra; therefore, he accepted Sher Shah’s offer.

who was of the same age of Humayun had strengthened himself enough to threaten him (Humayun) in the north.

Bahadur Shah had overrun and conquered Malwa and then moved towards Rajasthan and besieged Chittor and soon abridged the Rajput defenders to sore straits.

Karnavati (the widow of Rana Sanga),

sent a rakhi (a thread that normally sister gives her brother and in return brother promises to protect her) to Humayun seeking his help and Humayun courteously responded.

intervention, Bahadur Shah made an agreement with the Rana Sanga and left the fort in his (Rana Sanga’s) hands; however, he (Bahadur Shah) extracted a large indemnity in cash and kind.

yun spent one and half years of his time in building a new city nearby Delhi, and he named it as Dinpanah.

to impress friends and foes alike. Another intention was, Dinpanah could also serve as a second capital, in case, Agra was threatened by the Gujarat ruler Bahadur Shah (who already had conquered Ajmer and overrun eastern Rajasthan.

simultaneously, he supplied arms and men to Tatar Khan (Tatar Khan was a cousin of Ibrahim Lodi), to invade Agra with a force of 40,000 men.

The Afghan forces run away, as the Mughal forces arrived. Tatar Khan was defeated, and he was killed.

now invaded Malwa. He advanced forward slowly and cautiously, and covered a position midway between Chittoor and Mandu. Likewise, Humayun cut off Bahadur Shah from Malwa.


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Chittoor to surrender. It became possible because Bahadur Shah had fine artillery, which was commanded by Rumi Khan, an Ottoman master gunner.

with the Mughals and he left his fortified camp and escaped to Mandu to Champaner, then to Ahmadabad and finally to Kathiawar. Thus the rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the huge treasure boarded by the Gujarat rulers at Mandu and Champaner, came into the hands of Humayun.

’s attack (on Mughal Empire) was gone with his death, as he died while fighting with the Portuguese. Sher Shah’s Upsurge

Humayun’s absence from Agra (between February 1535 and February 1537), gave an opportunity to Sher Shah to strengthened his power and position.

continued to acknowledge loyalty to the Mughals, but steadily he planned to expel the Mughals from India.

Bahadur Shah, as he (Bahadur Shah) had helped him with heavy subsidies, which enabled him to recruit and maintain a large and competent army including 1,200 elephants.

Humayun attacked Sher Khan and captured Chunar and then he invaded

Bengal for the second time, and seized Gaur (the capital of Bengal).

sent a proposal to Humayun that he would surrender Bihar and pay an annual tribute of ten lakhs of dinars if he was allowed to retain Bengal. However, Humayun was not in a mood to leave Bengal to Sher Khan.

manufactures, and a center for foreign trade. Secondly, the ruler of Bengal who had reached Humayun's camp in a wounded condition, informed that resistance to Sher Khan was still continued.

suspicious intention of Sher Shah, Humayun rejected Sher Khan's proposal and decided a campaign to Bengal. Soon after, the Bengal ruler submitted to his wounds; therefore, Humayun had to undertake the Bengal campaign all alone.

yun was not much beneficial, but rather was the prelude to the disaster, which overtook his army at Chausa after a year.

south Bihar. With a master plan, he let Humayun campaign Bengal so that he might disrupt Humayun's communications with Agra and bottle him up in Bengal.

took steps to establish law and order. But this did not solve any of his problems. On the other hand, Humayun’s situation was further made worse by his younger brother, Handal,


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as he attempted to crown himself of Agra. However, because of Sher Khan's master plans, Humayun was totally cut off from all news and supplies from Agra. Humayun’s Downfall Humayun’s Difficulties

After a stay of three to four months at Gaur, Humayun planned back to Agra, leaving a small garrison behind. In spite of having a series of problems such as the rainy season, discontent in the nobility, and the constant harrying attacks of the Afghans, Humayun managed to get his army back to Chausa near Buxar, without any serious loss.

’s act, he left Lahore to suppress Hindal’s rebellion at Agra. But Kamran, though not disloyal, made no attempt to send any help to Humayun.

Sher Shah, Humayun crossed to the eastern bank of the Karmnasa River and gave full opportunity to the Afghan horsemen encamped there. It was the great mistake of Humayun that reflected not only a bad political sense, but also a bad generalship as well.

’s forces attacked on Humayun surreptitiously; however, Humayun, somehow managed to escape from the battle field. He swam across the river with the help of a water-carrier. Sher Shah robbed Humayun’s treasures. In this war, about 7,000

Mughal soldiers and many prominent nobles were killed.

1539, only the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and the nobles could have saved Humayun.

-hardened force of 10,000 Mughals under his command at Agra. But he had not come forward to help Humayun, probably, he had lost confidence in Humayun's leadership. On the other hand, Humayun was not ready to assign the command of the armies to Kamran, as he could misuse it to store power for himself. The confusions between the two brothers grew till Kamran decided to return back to Lahore with his army.

Humayun at Agra was no match against Sher Shah. However, in May 1540, the battle of Kanauj was bitterly contested. Both the younger brothers of Humayun namely Askari and Hindal, fought courageously, but to no avail.

battle of Kanauj taken away Humayun’s empire and he became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under Kamran. Sher Shah, now became the sole powerful ruler of north India.

and its neighboring countries for the next two and a half years, planning various schemes to regain his kingdom. But hardly anyone was ready to help him. Surprisingly, his own brothers were against him, and even had tried to kill or imprison him. Nevertheless, Humayun faced all these trials and tribulations with great fortitude and courage. The


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downfall period of Humayun reflected the best part of his character.

Humayun reached at the court of the Iranian king. In 1545, with the help of Iranian king, Humayun recaptured Qandhar and Kabul. Reasons of Humayun’s Downfall

The major reasons for Humayun's failure were: o Humayun’s inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power and Sher Shah’s deceptive trick. o The presence of large numbers of Afghan tribes across the north India and their nature of getting united under a capable leader (like Sher Shah). o Without getting the support of the local rulers and zamindars, the Mughals were bound to remain numerically inferior. o The differences of Humayun with his brothers, and his alleged faults of character. o Though Humayun was a competent general and politician, his two mistakes i.e. ill-conceived Bengal campaign and wrong interpretation of Sher Shah’s proposal made him lose.

as he experienced from rich to rag and again from rag to rich.

-up of the Sher Shah’s empire, Humayun again recovered Delhi; however, he did not live long to enjoy his victory.

the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi.

the orders of Akbar (son of Humayun) and Humayun's first wife (Bega Begum). And, the tomb was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect appointed by Bega Begum.

1565 (nine years after the death of Humayun) and completed in 1572. The total cost spent in the building (of tomb) was 1.5 million rupees (at the time). Sur Empire Sher Shah

Sher Shah Suri ascended the throne of Delhi at the age of 67. His original name was Farid and his father was a jagirdar at Jaunpur.

Sher Shah spent his childhood with his father and remained actively involved in the affairs of his father’s jagir. Because of this, he learned rich administrative knowledge and experience.

never let any opportunity to go in vain. The defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi and the misunderstanding in Afghan affairs let Sher Shah emerge as the most important Afghan sardars (of that time).

Because of his smart skill set and administrative quality, Sher Shah


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became as the right hand of the ruler of Bihar.

Shah adorned him the title of ‘Sher Khan.’

mightiest empire, which had come into existence (in north India) since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

’s empire was extended from Bengal to the Indus River (excluding Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire Rajasthan.

Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, ascended the gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, and in a short span of time, took the control of whole of western and northern Rajasthan. He further expanded his territories during Humayun's conflict with Sher Shah.

Maldeo was killed after a courageous resistance. His sons, Kalyan Das and Bhim, took shelter at the court of Sher Shah.

clashed at Samel (located between Ajmer and Jodhpur). While invading different jagirs of Rajasthan, Sher Shah had taken the great precautions; at every step, he would throw up entrenchments to guard against a surprise attack.

besieged and conquered Ajmer and Jodhpur, forced Maldeo into the desert.

Sher Shah overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His last campaign was against Kalmjar; it was a strong fort and the key to Bundelkhand.

a gun burst and severely injured Sher Shah; the incident took, Sher Shah’s life.

Islam Shah (his second son), who ruled till 1553.

and general, but most of his energies were lost in controlling the rebels raised by his brothers. Besides, rebels of tribal feuds also pulled Islam Shah’s attention.

’s death (November 1554) led to a civil war among his successors. The civil war created a vacuum that ultimately provided an opportunity to Humayun to recover empire of India.

Afghans, and recovered Delhi and Agra. Sher Shah’s Work

Sher Shah was one of the most distinguished rulers of north India who had done a number of developmental works (along with well-planned administrative works). His works can be studied under the following heads: Administrative Works

-established law and order across the length and breadth of his empire.


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emphasis on justice, as he used to say, "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful".

whether they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations.

Qazis were appointed at different places for justice, but as before, the village panchayats and zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local level.

and dacoits.

zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government. Economic & Development Works

promotion of trade and commerce and also the improvement of communications in his kingdom.

the old imperial road known as the Grand Trunk Road, from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal.

Jodhpur and Chittoor, noticeably linking up with the road to the Gujarat seaports.

Sher Shah built about 1,700 sarai; some of them are still existing, which reflect how strong these sarai were.

sarai developed into qasbas (market-

towns) where peasants flocked to sell their produce.

’s roads and sarai have been called as "the arteries of the empire." These development works strengthened and fasten the trade and commerce in the country.

’s entire empire, customs duty was paid only at two places: the goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside paid customs duty at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali and goods coming, from West and Central Asia paid custom duty at the Indus. No one was allowed to levy custom duty at roads, ferries, or town. The duty was paid a second time at the time of sale.

compel the people to treat merchants and travelers well and not to harm them in any way.

goods.

Shaikh Nizami i.e. "If a merchant should die in your country it is a perfidy to lay hands on his property."

Shah made the local village headmen and zamindars responsible for any loss that the merchant suffered on the roads.

s of a merchant were stolen, the headmen and/or the zamindars had to produce them, or to trace the haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for the thieves and robbers.


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(to make

innocent responsible), but the same law (discussed in the immediate above point) was applied in cases of murders on the roads.

Shah’s law and order in the picturesque language i.e. "a decrepit old woman might place a basketful of gold ornaments on her head and go on a journey, and no thief or robber would come near her for fear of the punishment which Sher Shah inflicted."

’s currency reforms also promoted the growth of commerce and handicrafts.

the trade and commerce purpose, Sher Shah made an attempt to fix standard weights and measures across his empire.

to Multan. At that time, Multan was one of the central points for the caravans going to West and Central Asia.

Shah built a number of sarai at a distance of every two kos (about eight km) on all the major roads.

sarai was a fortified lodging or inn where travelers could pass the night and also keep their goods in safe custody.

Hindus and Muslims were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas were appointed for providing bed and food to the Hindu travelers, and grains for their horses.

‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher Shah) says, "It was a rule in the sarai that whoever entered there, received provision suitable to his rank, and food and litter for his cattle, from the government."

down villages around the sarai, and the land was set apart in these villages for the expenses of the sarai. Administrative Division

A number of villages comprised a pargana. The pargana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general administration, and the munsif or amil looked after the collection of Land revenue.

Above the pargana, there was the shiq or sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdran and a munsif-i-munsifan.

ounts were maintained both in the Persian and the local languages (Hindavi).

central machinery of administration, which had been developed during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah did not favor leaving too much authority in the hands of ministers.

devoting himself to the affairs of the state from early morning to late at night. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the people.


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xcessive centralization of authority, in his hands, has later become a source of weakness, and its harmful effects became apparent when a masterful sovereign (like him) ceased to sit on the throne.

be based on the guess work, or by dividing the crops in the fields, or on the threshing floor rather Sher Shah insisted on measurement of the sown land.

ray) was drawn up, laying down the state's share of the different types of crops. This could then be converted into cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates in different areas. Normally, the share of the state was one-third of the produce.

’s measurement system let peasants to know how much they had to pay to the state only after sowing the crops.

crops cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to pay was written down on a paper called patta and each peasant was informed of it.

the peasants anything extra. The rates which the members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid down.

other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and half seers per bigha was also levied.

was very solicitous for the welfare of the peasantry, as he used to say, "The cultivators are blameless, they

submit to those in power, and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages, and the country will be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long time before it again becomes prosperous".

in order to administer his vast empire. He dispensed with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers directly after verifying their character.

th of Sher Shah's personal army was recorded as: o 150,000 cavalry; o 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks or bows; o 5,000 elephants; and o A park of artillery.

different parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was posted in each of them.

on the bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.

Malik Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign. Religious Views

any new liberal policies. Jizyah continued to be collected from the Hindus.


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’s nobility was drawn

exclusively from the Afghans.

The Mughals 3

Akbar the Great

Mughal rulers, was born at Amarkot.

(brother of Humayun) captured young Akbar. Kamran treated the child well; however, Akbar was re-united with his parents after the capture of Qandhar.

When Humayun died, Akbar was in Punjab, commanding operations against the Afghan rebels.

Kalanaur at the age of merely thirteen years and four months.

were still strong beyond Agra, and were reorganizing their forces under the leadership of Hemu.

besieged. Sikandar Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was forced to loiter in the Siwalik Hills.

Akbar and a loyal and favorite officer of Humayun, became the wakil (advocate) of the kingdom and received the title of ‘khan.i.khanan;’ . He united the Mughal forces.

considered the most serious for Akbar. Further, the area from Chunar to the border of Bengal was under the domination of Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah.

’s reign, Hemu had started his career as a superintendent of the market, but soon promoted under Adil Shah. Surprisingly, Hemu had not lost a single one of the twenty-two battles in which he had fought.

Hemu as wazir, gave the title of ‘Vikramajit,’ and entrusted him with the task to expel the Mughals. Second Battle of Panipat

army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong park of artillery marched towards Delhi.

-contested battle, Hemu defeated the Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan strengthened his army marched towards


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Delhi before Hemu could have time to consolidate his position again.

between the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at Panipat.

’s artillery had been captured by a Mughal force, the tide of battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, an arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he fainted. Hemu was arrested and executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire.

teen age; he had been supported by a group of nobles. Bairam Khan’s Conquest

Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost next four years and during this period, he kept the nobility fully under control.

The territories of the Mughal Empire were extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east) and Ajmer (in the west).

vigorous efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa. Bairam Khan’s Downfall

Over a period of time, Akbar was approaching the age of maturity. On the other hand, Bairam Khan became arrogant and had offended many powerful persons and nobles of Mughal court (as he held supreme power). Many of the nobles complained to Akbar that

Bairam Khan was a Shia, and that he was appointing his own supporters and Shias to high offices, while neglecting the old nobles.

were not much serious in themselves, but he (Bairam Khan) became egoistical, and hence failed to realize that Akbar was growing up. In fact, there was friction on a petty matter, which made Akbar realize that he could not leave the state affairs in someone else's hands for any more.

his cards cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting, and came Delhi. From Delhi, Akbar issued a farman (summon) dismissed Bairam Khan from his office, and ordered all the nobles to come and submit to him personally.

farman made Bairam Khan realize that Akbar wanted to take power in his own hands; so, he was prepared to submit, but his opponents were keen to ruin him. They heaped humiliation upon him until he was goaded to rebel.

almost six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received him cordially, and gave him the option of serving at the court (anywhere), or retiring to Mecca.

Mecca. On his way to Mecca, he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge.

child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khan's widow (who was


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also his cousin), and brought up the child as his own son.

’s child later became popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the most significant offices and commands in the Mughal Empire.

groups and individuals in the nobility became politically active. The group included Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anaga, and her relatives. However, Maham Anaga soon withdrew from politics.

’s son, Adham Khan, was an impetuous young man. He assumed independent airs when he had been sent to command an expedition against Malwa. He claimed the post of the wazir, and when this was not accepted, he stabbed the acting wazir in his office. His tyrannical act enraged Akbar. In 1561, Adham Khan had been thrown down from the parapet of the fort and he died.

’s maturity and establishing his full authority, the Uzbeks formed a powerful group. They held important positions in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa.

Between the period of 1561 and 1567, the Uzbeks rebelled many times, forced Akbar to take the field against them. Every time Akbar was induced to pardon them. However, 1565 rebel exasperated Akbar at such a level that he vowed to make Jaunpur his capital till he had rooted them out.

’ rebellions, Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim, who

had seized control of Kabul, advanced into Punjab, and besieged Lahore. As a result of this, the Uzbek rebels formally proclaimed him as their ruler.

’s attack was the most serious crisis Akbar had to face since Hemu's capture of Delhi. However, Akbar's bravery and a certain amount of luck enabled him to triumph.

to Lahore, forced Mirza Hakim to retire. Meanwhile, the rebellion of the Mirza’s was crushed, the Mirzas fled to Malwa and thence to Gujarat.

Jaunpur from Lahore. Crossing the river Yamuna nearby Allahabad (at the peak of the rainy season), Akbar surprised the rebels led by the Uzbek nobles and completely routed them out.

Uzbek leaders were killed in the battle; likewise, their protracted rebellion came to an end. Expansion of Mughal Empire

During Akbar’s initial period, Malwa was being ruled by a young prince, Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur’s accomplishments were a mastery of music and poetry. Besides, the romantic story of Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati is also very famous. Rani Rupmati is known in history because of her beauty.

Because of Baz Bahadur’s interest in music and poetry, Mandu (Baz Bahadur’s capital) had become a celebrated center for music. The army, however, had been neglected by Baz Bahadur.


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Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anaga. Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (in the battle of Sarangpur) and the Mughals took valuable assets, including Rupmati. However, she refused to go with Adham Khan and preferred to commit suicide.

After defeating Malwa, Adham Khan ruled with cruelties, because of this, there was a reaction against the Mughals, which supported Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa.

expedition to Malwa (led by Abdullah Khan). Baz Bahadur defeated again and he had to flee west. He took shelter with the Rana of Mewar.

to another, Baz Bahadur, finally approached to Akbar's court and was enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. Likewise, the extensive territory of Malwa came under Mughal rule. Kingdom of Garh-Katanga

In 1564, Mughal arms (led by Asaf Khan) overran the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present Madhya Pradesh.

-Katanga consisted of a number of Gond and Rajput principalities.

Sangram Shah), ruler of Garh-Katanga married his eldest son Dalpati Shah with

Rani Durgawati (daughter of famous Rajput Chandel Emperor Keerat Rai of Mahoba) and strengthened his position.

i Shah died soon after his marriage and the princess Durgavati became a widow. But she made her minor son king and ruled with great courage.

markswoman with both guns and bow & arrow. She fought many successful battles against her neighbors, including Baz Bahadur of Malwa.

Allahabad moved towards Garh-Katanga with 10,000 cavalries. Some of the semi-independent rulers of Garha-Katanga found it an opportune moment to throw off the Gond supremacy.

supported by her nobles rather left with a small force. She fought bravely but defeated. Once finding that she lost the battle and was in danger of being captured, she stabbed herself to death.

ime, Asaf Khan also became despotic; however, when Akbar had dealt with the rebellion of the Uzbek nobles, he forced Asaf Khan to expel his illegal games.

-Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah and took ten forts to round off the kingdom of Malwa. Gujarat Expedition

In 1572, after defeating Rajputs (namely Chittoor, Ranthambhor, Jodhpur, etc.), Akbar advanced towards


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Ahmadabad via Ajmer; however, Ahmadabad surrendered without a fight.

turned his attention towards the Mirzas who held Broach, Baroda, and Surat (regions of Gujarat).

saw the sea for the first time at Cambay, he rode on it in a boat.

In 1573, when Akbar returned back, after defeating Gujarat, a fresh rebel broke out all over Gujarat. Immediately after hearing the news, Akbar moved out of Agra and traversed across Rajasthan in merely nine days.

Ahmadabad. In this journey, which normally took six weeks, only 3,000 soldiers were accompanied with Akbar. But with only 3,000 soldiers, Akbar overcame the 20,000 rebellions.

(the Afghan ruler) in Bihar and executed him on the spot. Likewise, ended the last Afghan kingdom from northern India. Akbar’s Administrative System

Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system.

73, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘karoris’ were appointed throughout the north India. Karoris were responsible for the

collection of a crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000).

system called the dahsala; under this system, the average produce of different crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years.

measurement system (known as the zabti system) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.

zabti system, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached with iron rings.

zabti system, originally, is associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal's bandobast.

officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar.

zabti system, a number of other systems of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The most common and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’

batai system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion.

between zabti and batai under certain


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conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity.

batai system, the peasants were given the choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the state preferred cash.

indigo, oil-seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops.

widely used (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar's time was nasaq.

Most likely (but not confirmed), under the nasaq system, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. This system required no actual measurement, however, the area was ascertained from the records.

er cultivation almost every year was called ‘polaj.’

called ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full (polaj) rate when it was cultivated.

two to three years was called ‘chachar,’ and if longer than that, it was known as ‘banjar.’

good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce was the state demand, it varied according to the

productivity of the land, the method of assessment, etc.

development and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi (loans) to the peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments. Army

Akbar organized and strengthened his army and encouraged the mansabdari system. “Mansab” is an Arabic word, which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’

mansabdari system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles; however, towards the end of the reign, it was raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs.

mansabs (ranks) were categorized as: o Zat o Sawar

‘zat’ means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also his salary.

‘sawar’ rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.

mansabdar was expected to maintain a corps of elephants, camels, mules, and carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army.


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mansabdars were paid

very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at the time.

A mansabdar, holding the rank of: o 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Rs. 500/month; o 1,000 zat received Rs. 4,400/month; o 5,000 zat received Rs. 30,000/month.

as such no income tax.

musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also recruited in the contingents. Administrative Units

Akbar followed the system of the Subhah, the pargana, and the sarkar as his major administrative units.

Subhah was the top most administrative unit, which was further sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent to district) was constituted of certain number of parganas and pargana was the collective administrative unit of a few villages.

subhah was subedar.

sarkar were the faujdar and the amalguzar.

faujdar was in-charge of law and order, and the amalguzar was

responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue.

mpire were classified into jagir, khalsa and inam. Income from khalsa villages went directly to the royal exchequer.

Inam lands were those property, which were given to learned and religious men.

Jagir lands were allotted to the nobles and members of the Royal family including the queens.

Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a general supervision over all types of lands for the purpose of imperial rules and regulations and the assessment and collection of land revenue uniformly.

bar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power among various departments.

During the Sultanate period, the role of wazir, the chief adviser of the ruler, was very important, but Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir by creating separate departments.

wazir as head of the revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs (only). However, to emphasize on wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the title of diwan or diwan-i-ala (in preference to the title wazir).

diwan was held responsible for all income and expenditure, and held


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control over khalisa, jagir and inam lands.

was known as the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakhshi (and not the diwan) who was considered as the head of the nobility.

appointments to mansabs or for the promotions, etc., were made to the emperor through the mir bakhshi.

mir bakhshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence officers and news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted in all regions of the empire and their reports were presented to the emperor’s court through the mir bakhshi.

mir saman was the third important officer of Mughal Empire. He was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the provisions and articles for the use of the inmates of the harem or the female apartments.

by the chief qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments.

people as well as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously divided his time. The day started with the emperor's appearance at the jharoka of the palace where large numbers of people used to assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler, and to present petitions to him if required so. Akbar’s Provinces

In 1580, Akbar classified his empire

into twelve subas (provinces) namely: o Bengal o Bihar o Allahabad o Awadh o Agra o Delhi o Lahore o Multan o Kabul o Ajmer o Malwa and o Gujarat

Each of these subah consisted of a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a waqia-navis. Integration of States

By adopting a liberal policy of religious toleration and, in some cases, by giving important jobs, including service at the court and in the army, to the Hindus, Akbar successfully attempted to integrate all religious people.

saints, such as Chaitanya, Kabir, and Nanak, (resided in different parts of the country)


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emphasized on the essential unity of Islam and Hinduism.

took, after coming into power, was to abolish the jizyah (tax), which the non-Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state.

Akbar also abolished the pilgrim-tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. Further, Akbar abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.

successfully attempted to gather a band of intellectual people with liberal ideas at his court. Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the most recognized scholars of that time. However, both of them were persecuted by the mullahs for having sympathy with Mahdawi ideas.

more popular as Raja Birbal was one of the most trustworthy nobles of Akbar’s court.

Ibadat Khana (or the Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby Agra), which Akbar kept open for all religious people including Christians, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains, and even atheists.

’s Ibadta Khana horrified many theologians, and various rumors spread i.e. Akbar about to forsake Islam. However, Akbar was less successful in his effort to find a meeting place between the votaries of different religions in his territory.

Ibadat Khana had not led to a better understanding among the different religions, but rather lead to bitterness, as the representatives of each religion criticized the other and tried to prove that their religion was superior to others. In 1582, by understanding the conflicting situation, Akbar withdrawn the debates in the Ibadat Khana.

(Hindu philosophers) to explain the doctrines of Hinduism. He also invited Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism.

Christian religion, Akbar also met with some Portuguese priests, he sent an embassy to Goa, requesting them to send learned missionaries to his court. Two Portuguese saints namely Aquaviva and Monserrate came and remained at Akbar’s court for almost three years.

h Hira Vijaya Suri, the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, he also spent a couple of years at Akbar’s court.

-ul-Qadir Bada'uni (an Indo-Persian historian and translator) asserted that as a result of knowing different religious views, Akbar gradually turned away from the Islam and set up a new religion, which was compounded many existing religions. However, there is very little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually promulgated a new religion of such kind.

Bada'uni for the so called new path was “tauhid-i-ilahi.” The literal meaning of tauhid-i-ilahi is “Divine Monotheism.”


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‘Pabos’ (or kissing the

floor before the sovereign), a ceremony which was previously reserved for God.

ed to emphasize the concept of ‘sulh-kul’ (or peace and harmony) among different religions in other ways as well. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Most likely, it was the time when the Quran was also translated for the first time. Social Reforms

Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms. He stopped sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage.

marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife was barren.

girls and 16 for boys.

spirits.

syllabus, emphasizing more on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects including agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc.

poets, painters, and musicians, as his court was infused with famous and scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’

’s empire (as many historians claim) was essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of cultural integration. It was enlightened with social and cultural matters. Foreign Power

Akbar was apprehensive because of the growing power of the Portuguese, as they had been interfering the pilgrim traffic (to Mecca), not sparing even the royal ladies.

were practicing the proselytizing activities, which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the coordination and pooling of the resources of the Deccani states under Mughal supervision would check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger.

The Mughals 4

Jahangir

Emperor Jahangir strengthened the Mughal Empire in India after his father Akbar. Jahangir was born on 31st August, 1569 and was named Nuruddin Salim Jahangir. Nuruddin has been derived from Arabic which means "light of faith". Jahangir is a Persian word


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which means "world conqueror". Jahangir was an able administrator who had a penchant for the finer things in life. He was not a brutal warrior but a learned politician. Read this short biography to know the life history of Mughal Emperor Jehangir. Jahangir received the best education that was available at that time. His father Akbar was very particular that his son received the best education that was available in the kingdom. At the age of four he was taught Turkish, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Arithmetic, Geography, History, Sciences, etc. At a very young age, he was given the rank of a Mansabdar of ten thousand, which is the highest rank in military after the Emperor. At the mere age of twelve, he commanded a regiment independently in the Kabul campaign. Emperor Jahangir married many times and the girls were from very high-class noble families of the Mughals and Rajputs. A Rajput princess known as Jagat Gosain was his favorite and she gave birth to Shah Jahan, Jahangir's successor. He also married the famous Noor Jahan, who was the widow of Sher Afghan. Noor Jahan was supposed to be unparalleled in beauty and intelligence. This was the reason why Jahangir was attracted towards her. She proved to be the driving force behind Jahangir and made him strengthen the empire. Jahangir loved fine arts and encouraged the growth the poetry, paintings, dance, music, etc. He was also a good writer and loved nature. He penned down his life and his experiences in the form of an autobiography named Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. He was a collector of paintings and

many of them are still preserved in a museum. He was famous for his "Chain of Justice", which was a golden chain attached to some bells outside his palace. Anyone in despair could pull the chain and go in for a personal hearing from the emperor himself. Jahangir died in the year 1627 and was buried in a magnificent tomb at a place called Shahdra, located in present day Pakistan. Shah Jahan Shah Jahan was a man of greater mark, though less attractive than Jahangir, in spite of his obvious faults. Shah Jahan was a man of great executive ability, to which he added a love for the magnificent and a refined artistic sense, specially for architecture. Shah Jahan (1592-1666) was the fifth ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. He became ruler in 1628. At his succession he executed all the male Mughal collterals , the descendants of his brothers and uncles, although at that time they had little political significance. During his reign, the Mughals reached their golden age, with vaults crammed with treasures and with architecture in magnificent style. He was in a special sense the architectural director of the day and there seems to be little doubt that the great buildings of his reign, the Taj Mahal, the Delhi Fort, and Jama Masjid, and the reconstruction of the Agra Fort, would not have been what they are without his personal inspiration and direction. Shah Jahan is best remembered for the perfectly proportioned Taj Mahal, an immense tomb of white marble built for his wife in Agra, India. These and other


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buildings still stand as examples of Mughal glory. His romantic love for Mumtaz Mahal (his wife) did not hesitate to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of health so that she died at the age of 39 after giving birth to her fourteenth child. The dynasty began its decline because too much money was spent on luxuries and too much effort was wasted in war. Shah Jahan's reign was a troubled one, and one of his sons took his throne by force. Taj Mahal Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful and costly tombs in the world. The Indian ruler Shah Jahan ordered it built in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb stands near the city of Agra, in northern India, on the south bank of the Jumna River. About 20,000 workers were employed in its construction, completed after some 20 years by about 1650. According to tradition, the Taj Mahal was designed by a Turkish architect. It is made of white marble and rests on a platform of red sandstone. At each corner of the platform stands a slender minaret (prayer tower). Each tower is 40.5 metres high. The building itself is almost 57 metres square. A dome covers the centre of the building. It is over 21 metres in diameter and 36.5 metres high. Passages from the Muslim holy book, the Quran, decorate the outside along with inlaid floral patterns. A central room contains two cenotaphs (monuments). Visitors can see the monuments through a carved alabaster screen. The bodies of Shah Jahan and his wife lie in a vault below. The tomb stands in a garden.

Aurangzeb Aurangzeb (1618-1707), was an emperor who ruled what is now India and Pakistan from 1658 until his death. During his reign as monarch of the Mughal Empire, he conquered several states in southern India. Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim, tried to make all his people follow the doctrines of Islam, the Muslim religion. He differed from Akbar in consciously tolerating Hindus rather than treating them as equals. He placed special taxes on Hindus and destroyed Hindu temples and images, such as the destruction of Kashi Vishwanath temple and erection of a mosque in its place. Aurangzeb also destroyed many works of art because he feared that they might be worshipped as idols. Aurangzeb was born in Dohad, near Ahmadabad. In a struggle for the throne, Aurangzeb murdered his three other brothers, including the crown prince Dara Shukoh, and deposed Shah Jahan, the reigning emperor, to seize the throne for himself. Shah Jahan died a prisoner in the fortress of Agra. Aurangzeb's reign was one of the longest in the history of the Mughal dynasty. His rebellion and acts of cruelty toward his family at first aroused public horror and dislike. Yet there was no law recognized in Islamic states to nominate a legal successor to the king. The succession was often settled by wars and by murders. The new emperor, Aurangzeb, was a strict Muslim. To begin with, he followed the policy of making peace with the non-


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Muslim peoples he conquered and bringing them into the imperial service. But the policy broke down, and in the latter part of his reign, Aurangzeb imposed a much stricter form of Islamic rule. In 1679, he reintroduced the jiziya, a poll tax on non-Muslims. Militarily, Aurangzeb set out to protect his northern borders and subdue the independent Muslim kingdoms in the Deccan and south India. By 1690, the whole of the Indian subcontinent lay within the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb won swift political and military success, through his abilities as a soldier and politician. But his conquests brought him great trouble toward the end of his reign. The wars were expensive and the military officers were rewarded for their service by the grant of new jagirs. The jagir-holders taxed the peasants mercilessly, causing many to flee from the villages. Much land was left uncultivated as a result. Aurangzeb's reign was troubled by developments in west and south India. As early as the 1660's, Shivaji, a Hindu chief of western India, had built up a strong private army and begun to raid Mughal towns and cities. He captured and sacked the great port of Surat. Shivaji's followers, known as the Marathas, were very good cavalry fighters. They took all the strong fortresses from the Mughal governors. Aurangzeb had to fight the Marathas, and many other local chiefs in the south, who were constantly rebelling against Mughal rule and trying to reestablish their independence.

The Last Mughals

The visible decline of the empire can be

dated from 1712, the year of the death

of Bahadur Shah 1. But it remained an

apparently imposing institution until the

I750s, and few thought its doom

inevitable before then. The first stage in

the process was succession wars which

left a puppet in the hands of

kingmakers. The kingmakers

overreached themselves when the third

choice proved a clever youth who

disposed of them in the course of two

Years.

This youth was Muhammad Shah, who

reigned for twenty-nine years until 1748.

The twenties saw the next stage when

the empire was virtually divided into two.

Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-mulk, baulked in his

reforming intentions as chief minister in

Delhi, went back to his Deccan

provinces and became the virtually

independent ruler of the southern half of

the Mughal empire with Hyderabad as

its capital.

The empire bad crushed the Sikhs in

1716, but it found itself helpless against

the Marathas. In 1738 the Marathas

plundered the suburbs of Delhi and

dictated a peace which divided the two

halves of the empire by the cession of

the province of Malwa. In 1739 came

the humiliation of the Persian King Nadir

Shah's invasion. Neglect, ineptitude,

divided counsels, and treachery led to

military debacle at Karnal, the

occupation of Delhi, massacre, and

wholesale plunder. Nevertheless, when

Nadir Shah's back was turned, with the


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Peacock Throne in his train, the empire

seemed to recover and even repelled

the first of the Afghan incursions in

1748. With Muhammad Shah's death

the collapse began. A civil war between

rival ministers left a headlong and

ruthless youth in power, who murdered

two emperors and called in the

Marathas before vanishing into

obscurity. The south was already the

Nizam's domain. Kabul was lost to Nadir

Shah in 1739. Sindh and fertile Gujarat

with Surat went in 1750, prosperous

Oudh in 1754, and the martial Punjab to

the Afghans in the same year. Bengal

still sent tribute but was virtually

independent.

The cause of this collapse is usually put

down to the effeteness of the emperors.

This was certainly one cause since

personality was one of the main imperial

pillars. But it was not the only cause or

necessarily the vital one. Another

important reason was Aurangzeb's

policy of treating the empire as a Muslim

state instead of an Indian state with

Islam as the state religion. Which

alienated Hindus to such an extent that

they had no desire of allowing Mughal

empire to continue. Martial groups like

the Sikhs and the Jats were encouraged

to open revolt. And the Marathas with

their invincibility and Guerrilla warfare

had all the capabilities to ruin the

Mughals and form another empire.

Nadir Shah

Aurangzeb's death had created a void in

the Mughal empire which none of his

successors were able to fill. Frequent

struggles for throne and betrayal of

ministers had resulted in the weakening

of the empire. Nadir Shah, who from

being a chief of dacoits had become the

king of Persia, saw the weak empire as

an opportunity.

In 1738, Nadir Shah proceeded to

invade India. The excuse for the

invasion being that the Mughal emperor

Muhammad Shah had insulted the

Persian envoy at the royal court of

Delhi. He overran the western frontiers

of Mughal empire capturing Ghazni,

Kabul and Lahore in 1739. When Nadir

Shah crossed Khyber pass the

Governor of Punjab requested the

Mughal empire to reinforce the defences

in Punjab, but the then Mughal emperor

Muhammad Shah turned a deaf ear

towards his genuine request.

Soon Nadir Shah stormed Punjab,

Muhammad Shah realizing the danger

asked Khan Dauran and Nizam-ul-Mulk

to lead the Mughal forces against Nadir

Shah. But the two declined, so

ultimately Muhammad Shah decided to

lead the forces himself. The two forces

met at Karnal, but soon the Mughal

forces were encircled and defeated. The

Nawab of Awadh Saadat Khan was

taken prisoner and Khan Dauran was

seriously wounded.

The defeat of the Mughal army created

confusion in their ranks. The Nizam


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played the role of mediator and

persuaded Nadir Shah to return to

Persia on receiving 20 million rupees.

Mughal emperor pleased with Nizam

conferred him the title of 'Amir-Ul-Umra'

and also appointed him the Prime

Minister. Jealous Saadat Khan

approached Nadir Khan and told him

that he should not get satisfied with

such a paltry sum which even a

provincial governor can give him. This

had an electrifying effect on the Persian

ruler and the grandeur of Delhi flashed

before his eyes.

Triumphant Nadir Shah entered Delhi

along with the humbled Mughal

Emperor. The keys of the Delhi fort and

treasure had already been surrendered.

An amount was also settled with Nadir

Shah as a condition for his return. But a

rumour spread that Nadir Shah has

been killed. Riots were sparked off in

Delhi in which few Persian soldiers were

killed. As Nadir Shah heard of this he

straightaway rode into the city, in the

city he saw the corpses of Persian

soldiers lying on the streets. Near the

Sunhari masjid of Roshnuddola, some

people hurled stones at him also a stray

bullet killed a Persian soldier. He was

enraged, he ordered a general

massacre at all those localities where

the bodies of Persian soldiers were

found. Consequently on 11th of march

1739 citizens of Delhi were plundered

and slaughtered, some historians say

that nearly 0.2 million people were

killed.

Nadir Shah on his return after

plundering and slaughtering Delhites for

57 days, took with him the famous

'Peacock throne' built by Shahjahan and

the legendary 'Koh-i-noor' along with

600 million rupees worth of jewellery,

gold worth 10 million rupees and coins

worth 6 million rupees. His total

collection of booty was worth 700 million

rupees and also took care to include in

his train 100 elephants, 7000 craftsmen,

100 stone-cutters and 200 carpenters.

Nadir Shah's invasion did a irreparable

damage to the Mughal empire. Mughal

provinces across the Indus were

seceded to the Persians. Later on

inspired by the antics of Nadir Shah his

successor Ahmad Shah Abdali too

invaded India several times between

1748 and 1767 and plundered Delhi.

The nawabs of Awadh

Nawab Saadat Khan (1722-1739)

The power of the shaikhzadas remained

paramount and unchallenged until

Saadat Khan stepped into Lucknow.

Being appointed Subedar in 1722

Saadat Khan laid the foundation of

Awadh dynasty of the Shia Nawabs of

Iranian lineage based first at Faizabad

and later at Lucknow. He died in 1739

A.D. in Delhi. Although he died a natural

death due to the chronic pain in his leg

caused by a tumor, which was probably

cancerous, yet his sudden death gave

rise to the calumny that he committed


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suicide by consuming poison because of

loss of credibility both with the victor and

the vanquished during the invasion of

India by Nadir Shah.

Nawab Safdar Jang (1739 – 1754)

Saadat Khan was succeeded by his

son-in-law, Safdar Jung who set up his

military head-quarters at Faizabad. His

rule of fifteen years (1739 – 1754)saw

no peace as he was constantly engaged

in struggle against the Bangash Nawabs

of Farrukhabad. Safdar Jung had to

leave the Delhi court due to

conspiracies. He returned to Awadh in

1753, but died within a year at Rupar

ghat, near Sultanpur in 1754. His

mausoleum, which is one of the finest

pieces of the architecture of the period,

is in New Delhi.

Nawab Shuja ud-Daula (1754-1775)

Safdar Jung was succeeded by his son,

Shuja – Ud – Daula, who stayed mostly

at Faizabad but was always eager to

extend his dominion up to Bihar. He

made several efforts to this end, by

supporting Shah Alam II, and

subsequently Mir Kasim but was

defeated in the battle by the English at

Buxar in 1764. The defeat compelled

him to enter into a treaty with the East

India Company. The agreement not only

paved the way for British advent on the

soils of Awadh but also their gradual

ascendancy to real power. The Nawab

first gave up the fort of Chunar, and then

ceded the Banaras region and the

revenues of Ghazipur in 1775.

Safdarjang was a restless, ambitious

and impulsive ruler who was engaged in

violent disturbances which brought

momentous vicissitudes for his reign (

1754 – 1775 ). Shuja-Ud-Daula died

early in January 1775 and was laid at

his mausoleum at Gulab-Bari, Faizabad.

Nawab Asaf ud-Daula (1775-1798)

The accession of Asaf-Ud-Daula, the

fourth Nawab, brought a great change in

Awadh politics. He moved the court of

Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow in

1775. When the court moved to

Lucknow, the kernel of the court, as if,

shed its old husk and acquired a new

one and the city largely grew in and

around the existing town to

accommodate the influx of the people.

There emerged a powerful Shia culture,

in constant interaction with Shia heart

lands of Iran and Iraq. The increasing

number of Shia emigrants from Iranian

cities veritably transformed Lucknow

into a great intellectual center.

The Nawab constructed Daulat Khana,

the large palace – garden complex as

residence for himself, the major

mosques like Asfi Masjid, enlarged the

Chowk and set up dozen major markets

to form the core of royal quarter of the

city. He built the gateway, Rumi

Darwaza and Bara Imambara to provide

succor to the victims of famine of 1784.

The arched roof of Imambara, built

without a single beam or pillar for

support, is one of the largest of its kind

in the World. The Bhul Bhulaiya at


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Imambara is a unique labyrinth of

intricate balconies and passages, with

489 identical doorways, which make one

feel being lost. Asaf- Ud-Daula also built

Bibiyapur Kothi and Chinhut Kothi.

Overwhelmed by the design of

Constantia built by Claude Martin he

purchased it, offering to give ten lakhs of

gold coins. However, before the

transaction could be completed, the

Nawab died in 1798 and was laid to rest

in the magnificent Imambara built by

him. The British absorbed Allahabad

and the adjoining region in the same

year.

Nawab Wazir Ali (1798)

Wazir Ali became the Nawab of Awadh

after the death of Asaf – Ud – Daula. His

succession was disputed on his being

an illegitimate son of Asaf-ud-Daula,

whose brother Sadat Ali Khan made

overtures to the British who finally

deposed and imprisoned Wazir Ali at

Vellore as the latter did not toe their

lines and revolted against the British.

Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814)

Sadat Ali Khan was made Nawab on

21st January 1798 at a grand darbar

held at Bibiyapur kothi. As a mark of

gratitude, the Nawab formally ceded

lower Doab, Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand.

While Awadh shrank half in size, the

powers of British Resident grew in

inverse proportion. The resident

gradually arrogated to himself the right

to hold a darbar or court and assumed

the de-facto guardianship of wasiqadars

or pensioners against the Nawab

himself.

Sadat Ali Khan, though a miser, was

nevertheless an enthusiastic builder and

he commissioned many palaces,

including Dilkusha, Hayat Baksh Kothi,

Farhat Baksh Kothi as well as Lal

Baradari. He also constructed, Chhatar

Manzil, Kothi Dil Aram, Munawar Baksh,

Khursid Manzil and the Chaupar Stables

abandoning the Mughal style by

adopting European Innovations in

architecture.

In 1814, Sadat Ali Khan died and was

buried with his wife Khursheed Zadi in

the twin tombs of Qaiserbagh adjoining

the Begum Hazrat Mahal Park.

Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider (1814-1827)

Ghazi-ud-din Haider became Nawab in

1814. He broke the frayed ties between

the defunct Mughal empire and Awadh

and declared it an independent state in

1819. He was now called King, but for

all formal and ceremonial purposes, the

Resident was deemed his equal. The

Resident even had an edge over the

king; he could threaten and bully while

the King could only sulk and

occasionally protest.

He built two houses in Moti Mahal

complex, Mubarak Manzil and Shah

Manzil. He got built for his European

wife a house named Vilayati Bagh in

European style. Near it was constructed

Qadam Rasul which supposedly bears


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the foot prints of Muhammed on black

stone. Owing to his religious fervency,

he also constructed a holy mausoleum,

Najaf, the replica of Ali’s burial place at

Najaf in Iraq. He was buried there on his

death in 1827. Later, his three begums

were also buried at Shah Najaf

Imambara.

Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827-1837)

Ghazi-ud-din Haider’s son, Nasir-ud-din

Haider ascended the throne in 1827.

The administration of the kingdom was

left to hands of wazir Hakim Mahdi and

later to Raushan-ud-Daula. The king

kept himself busy in debaucheries and

inventing religious rites. He lived mostly

in womens quarters and even dressed

like a woman. He had a colourful court

and led a very lavish life.

His strong belief in astrology and

astronomy led him to set up an

observatory at Lucknow — Tarawali

Kothi. He added Darshan Vilas, a

European style Kothi to the Farhat

Baksh complex in 1832 and reproduced

a Karbala at Iradatnagar for his place of

burial.

In 1837, he was poisoned to death by

his own friends and favourites.

Nasiruddin Haider had died without any

offspring and his queen Badshah

Begum put forward Munna Jan as a

claimant to the throne though both

Ghaziuddin Haider and Nasir uddin

Haider had refused to acknowledge him

as belonging to royal lineage. Badshah

Begum forcibly enthroned Munna Jan at

the Lal Baradari. The British intervened

and exploited the situation to their

advantage. They arrested Munna Jan

and Badshah Begum and arranged for

the accession of Nasir-ud Din Haider,

the son of late Nawab Sadat Ali Khan,

who promised to pay a large sum of

money to the British for this.

Nawab Mohammad Ali Shah (1837-1842)

Muhammad Ali Shah was 63 years of

age when he ascended the throne. He

was an experienced man and had seen

the glorious days of his father. He

started to economise and set right the

administrative machinery. He built the

Husainabad (Chhota) Imambara in 1838

and created Hooseinabad Endowment

Fund to support it.

Muhammad Ali Shah had resolved to

make Lucknow into veritable Babylon.

He started building in the

neighbourhood of the present Clock

Tower, an edifice similar to Babylon’s

minaret or floating garden and named it

Satkhanda, but it reached only its fifth

storey in 1842 when Muhammad Ali

Shah died.

Nawab Amjad Ali Shah (1842-1847)

After Muhammad Ali Shah, his son

Amjad Ali Shah ascended the throne.

He had received an excellent education

which made him a devout Muslim but

fell short of making him a capable ruler.


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He became a deeply religious,

circumspect and abstinent ruler of

Awadh. As a result, the system of

administration toned up by Muhammad

Ali Shah became completely

disorganised while the vicious officers

had their day. His ability to rule was

considerably undermined by the

competing power structure created by

the East India Company and its large

scale interference in the affairs of the

kingdom. The situation progressively

sapped the authority of the king.

Amjad Ali Shah died in 1848 due to

cancer and was buried at the Imambara

Sibtainabad in western part of

Hazratganj, a quarter which he had

himself established.

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856)

Wajid Ali Shah, the eldest son of Amjad

Ali Shah, became the king of Awadh in

1847. Wajid Ali Shah was himself a

great theatre genius and had set up a

Pari Khana for training artists. He was

also a great patron of artists, singers

and musicians. He lived in an

atmosphere of gaiety and merriment.

Wajid Ali Shah was completely given to

pleasure in the closing years of his

reign. He was devoted to his large

harem, his boon companions, his

columbary, and his large and impressive

menagerie.

Wajid Ali Shah was greatly interested in

architecture. He started building the

Qaiser Bagh palace complex as soon as

he came to power. The inner court yard

of Qaiser Bagh, with its lawns was

called Jilo Khana. In the center was a

Baradari flanked by two mermaid gates

(Lakhigate) on eastern and western

ends. On the right end was Chandwali

Baradari, which was paved with silver

and the Khas Muqam and Badshah

Manzil, which used to be special

residence of the king. The buildings at

Qaiser Bagh quadrangle were occupied

mainly by the ladies of his seraglio. To

the left of western Lakhi Gate was

Roshan-ud Daula Kothi built by the

Wazir of Nasiruddin Haider. Wajid Ali

Shah confiscated it and named it Qaiser

Pasand, where one of his wife Mushuq

Mahal used to live. He purchased

Chaulakhi Kothi from Azimulla Khan.

During the first war of independence,

Begum Hazrat Mahal held her court

from this Kothi.

The British were looking for an

opportunity to annex Awadh. About

Wajid Ali Shah, Lord Dalhousie once

wrote: “The king of Oudh seems

disposed to bumptious. I wish he would

be. To swallow him before I go, would

give me satisfaction”. He referred to

Awadh as the “luscious cherry” that will

drop into their mouth one day especially

if the British continued shaking the tree

to help it down.

They found an opportunity. Hindu –

Muslim rupture over Hanuman Garhi at

Ayodhya created so much tumult for the

secular-minded king that the British got

an excuse to annex Awadh on the self –

righteous ground that “British

Government would be guilty in the sight

of God and man, if it were any longer to


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aid in sustaining by its countenance an

administration with evil to millions.” The

British annexed Awadh on 11th

February 1856 deposing Wajid Ali Shah.

The Palas

Introduction

After the death of Harsha and up

to the rise of the Palas, the

history of Bengal is not clear.

During this time, West Bengal

was known as Gauda and East

Bengal as Vanga.

Bengal was subject to internal

disorder, which has been termed

as Matsyanyaya.

Rulers of Pala Dynasty

Gopala was the elected king by

the people in a revolution to end

the Matsyanyaya.

The history of Gopala’s early life

is not known.

Gopala introduced peace in the

kingdom and laid the foundation

for the Pala dynasty.

Dharmapala became ruler after

Gopala in about A.D. 780. He

undertakes the expansion of his

empire.

Dharmapala defeated

Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj

and installed his nominee

Chakrayudha to the throne of

Kanauj.

Dharmapala held a grand darbar

at Kanauj, which was attended

by several kings. However, he

could not consolidate his

position.

Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva

defeated Dharmapala near

Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle.

Meanwhile Nagabhatta II,

Pratihara king became more

powerful.

After Dharmapala, his son

Devapala became the ruler. He

was the mightiest Pala king. He

conquered –Pragjotishpur

(Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).

The kings Palas dynasty ruled

over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of

Orissa and Assam with many

ups and downs for over four

centuries.

Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies

their power. He calls the Pala

kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma),

short for Dharmapala,


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Sulaiman mentioned that the

Pala rulers were at war with their

neighbors – the Pratiharas and

the Rashtrakutas, but his troops

were more in number than his

adversaries.

Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala king to be

accompanied by a force of

50,000 elephants.’

The Tibetan chronicles also

provide detailed information

about the Palas dynasties.

According to Tibetan historians,

Pala rulers were great patrons of

Buddhist learning and religion.

Dharmapala founded the famous

Buddhist monastery at

Vikramashila. It became eminent

as Nalanda (in fame).

During Pala reign, Nalanda

University became famous all

over the world.

During this period, Nalanda had

more than 10,000 students and

teachers coming not only from

different parts of India, but also

from central Asia, China, South

East Asia, and Sri Lanka.

Nalanda University was

considered as one of the biggest

educational institutions of its

time.

It imparted education in various

branches of knowledge.

Dharmapala donated the royal

income from two hundred

surrounding villages to meet the

expenses of Nalanda University.

Devapala also donated income

from five villages.

The king of Suvarnadvipa

(modern Malaya Peninsula, Java

and Sumatra), Maharaja

Balaputradeva erected a

monastery in Nalanda and

requested Devapala to donate

five villages for the maintenance

of that monastery.

The Pala kings patronized

Hinduism as well.

Vinayakapala built one thousand

temples in honor of the Lord

Saiva. They also gave donations

to Brahmans to settle in their

country and run gurukuls.

The powerful Sailendra dynasty

of South East Asia sent many

embassies to the Pala kings.

They ruled over Malaya, Java,

Sumatra, and neighboring

islands.


Uppcsnotes.in

The Palas had close trade

contacts and cultural links with

South East Asia and China.

The trade with South East Asia

and China was very profitable

and added greatly to the

prosperity of the Pala Empire.

Great Revolt of 1857

The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian rebellion of 1857, the Great uprising of 1857, the Great rebellion, Indian Sepoy mutiny) is regarded as India’s First War of Independence against the British rule. It was the most remarkable single event in the history of India after the establishment of British rule. It was the result of the century-old British rule in India. In comparison to the previous uprisings of the Indians, the Great Revolt of 1857 was of a greater dimension and it assumed almost an all-India character with participation of people from different sections of the society. This Revolt was initiated by the sepoys of the company. So it has been commonly termed as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. But it was not simply a revolt of the sepoys.

Causes

The causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 and Sepoy Mutiny may be studied in the following heads:

Political cause: Major political cause for the outbreak of the Revolt was the policy of annexation followed by Dalhousie. On application of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of mis-governance he annexed states after states deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur, Nagpur, etc. fill victim in his aggressive policy. All these states came under British rule. In 1856, he captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the ruling house, but also the employees and other dependent families were deprived of their livings for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment towards the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II hurt the sentiment of the Muslim community. Discontinuation of the pension of the Peshwa Nana Sahib shocked the Marathas. This discontent of royal families, army men and common people jointly exposed in the Great Revolt of 1857.

Economic cause: The Great Revolt of 1857 was also an outburst of grievances due to the economic exploitation of the company. India’s traditional economy collapsed as a result of the British ‘investment’ policies and revenue administration. The company’s trade policy destroyed Indian handicrafts. Huge numbers of Indians were thrown out of employment. The British, opened a new avenue of exploitation on the peasants By introducing permanent settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave rise 10 landless laborers who became restless by and by. Thus out of discontent the artisans and peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the mutiny.


Uppcsnotes.in

Military cause: The sepoys of the company regiment had been feeling dissatisfied with the English for various reasons.

1. Thus was a great disparity in salaries between the Indian and European soldiers.

2. The Indian sepoys were treated with contempt by their European officers.

3. The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the empire, but were not paid any extra allowance.

4. Indian sepoys were refused promotion in service as like their European counterparts. Out of such discontent the Indian sepoys led to a mutiny.

Social cause: The English could not establish any social relationship with the Indians. The racial arrogance of the British created a difference between the rulers and the ruled.

Enactment of some Acts greatly offended the sentiment of the people. Some of these acts were taken as deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, custom and right of inheritance.

Direct cause: At that time, Enfield rifles were introduced in the army. The bullets of these rifles were covered by paper with grease like thing. The Sepoys were to cut the cover by teeth before using it. The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to cut the covers. They protested against this and were arrested. That ignited the fire.

Under the leadership of Mangal Pandey the agony of the Sepoys exposed at Barrackpore in Calcutta (March, 1857

A.D.). But the planned revolt started at Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it spread from Punjab in the north to Narmada in south, from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As the revolt was started by the Indian sepoys in the British army, the revolt became known as Sepoy mutiny. When the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi there was huge upsurge. They declared old Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Badshah of India. He was accepted as the symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity. With the outbreak of mutiny among Sepoys common men joined the revolt. Farmers and artisans put further force behind the mutiny. The second reason for this mass revolt was the unity among the Hindus and Muslims. On observing this historians thought that, up to this period there was no communal feelings among the masses.

End of the Revolt

The British government came out with all the powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought the battle with their limited strength for four months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the fight up to April, 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in the battleground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad lost their lives one after the other. By the end of 1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in troubled areas.

Reason of failure of the revolt


Uppcsnotes.in

There were several reasons behind the failure of this revolt.

1. There was no central organization of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no one had acceptance as a real leader. They had different goals and times again they had contradictions.

2. The British had a huge number of forces. New groups of soldiers were sent to India after the end of Crimean war. Fresh army men came from Singapore. As a result of these, in the middle of the revolt the strength of the British force was doubled. The chance of a win became remote.

3. The sepoys had no improved arms with them. On the other hand, the British force had huge and improved armory. They could not match improved guns and ri-fles with their old model musket, spears and sword. So the defeat was almost certain.

4. Further the leaders of this revolt could not get the support of several native states like Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and kings. They supported the British. Educated middle-class people also were behind the British power.

Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857

There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys.

On the other hand, some historians believe that it was more than just a

sepoy mutiny as it had a large mass base. Though in the beginning it was like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be a real mass upsurge.

Karl Marx in his several essays described this revolt as nationalist fight for independence. Marxist writers looked at this event as uprising of peasants against feudal system of exploitation. V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, described this revolt as the first struggle for independence. M.N. Roy said that it was the reaction of the feudal against capitalism.

On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out in support of the sepoys but they were local landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his opinion it was nothing better than feudalistic reaction of the revolt.

But many historians are of opinion that the Great movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In the Ajamgarh declaration a call was given to people of all classes of mass to unite against the British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea about national government, but nationalism was there. So it can be called a national movement.

Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of 1857


Uppcsnotes.in

It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D. was a failure, but was not fruitless.

1. United Effort: From this revolt, we can have a picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights. There were several revolts before this, but there was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of different sections of people.

2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants joined this revolt which was out and out against the British. This was unique.

3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to make India free from British rule was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do not consider any historical event on the basis of its success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s freedom struggle.

4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this great revolt was the end of company’s rule in India. By a new act introduced in the British Parliament British government took the charge to rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a representative of British King ruled India.

5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 A.D. Government service was promised irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of merit only. Ill framed

“doctrine of lapse” of Lord Dalhousie was cancelled. New recruitment policy of the army men was announced to see that they could not organize any revolt. In the important positions of the government no native people (Indian) was given any chance.

module 1a: uttar pradesh history

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