modules 1-4 - summer work ap psychology mr. cruikshank
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Modules 1-4 - Summer WorkAP PsychologyMr. Cruikshank
- The science of behavior and mental processes- Behavior: Observable actions of a person or
an animal- Mental processes: thoughts, feelings,
sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences
Psychology – What is it?
•Is Psychology a science??▫Science
An objective way to answer questions Based on observable facts/data and well
described methods•YES!
Psychology – What is it?
•A set of questions about mental functioning▫ trace back to philosophy▫ Aristotle asked about memory, personality, emotions,
etc.
•A set of theories and procedures for asking and answering questions▫ the scientific method▫ evolved over centuries, first in physics
•A product of history▫ philosophy asked many of the basic questions▫ physiology used similar methods
Psychology – What is it??
•Major question asked by many philosophers:▫How are the mind and the body related??
•Many different theories•Dualism – Mind and body are two separate
entities, however they are interrelated▫origins in medieval religion ▫soul is seat of intellectual function and will▫mind is product of the soul
mind not subject to scientific inquiry▫to challenge this was punishable by death
Developments from Philosophy
•Dualism – Mind and body are separate•Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) came up
with a theory of modified dualism▫since animals have no soul, much behavior
does not require soul▫the body can therefore control much
behavior led him to study reflexes
▫the soul’s main function is thought, a uniquely human attribute
Developments from Philosophy
• Other theories developed about the relationship between the mind and the body
• Materialism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) ▫mind is a product of the brain▫soul is not involved in human behavior
• Empiricism: ▫knowledge and intellect are acquired, comes from
experience▫science flourishes through observation/experiment ▫sensory experiences produce elementary ideas▫elementary ideas become associated into complex
thought and ideas
Developments from Philosophy
• Another MAJOR question asked by early philosophers was: Where do our ideas come from?
• Empiricism vs. Nativism• Nativism: elementary ideas are innate• Empiricism: our minds are a blank slate, to be
filled by our experiences• If nativism is true…
▫What is the purpose of education?▫Can intellect be changed by experience
• NATURE VS. NURTURE
Developments from Philosophy
Developments from Philosophy
•Charles Darwin (1809-1882)•Theory of natural selection
(1859)▫ physical characteristics evolve
through natural selection▫ behavioral patterns also influence
selection▫ inborn knowledge and behavioral
tendencies with survival value are passed on
•Human beings are part of nature and can be understood through the methods of science
Foundations of Modern Psychology
Foundations of Modern Psychology
•Darwin’s theory encouraged scientific inquiry•19th century developments in physiology
demonstrated the approach to use ▫ based on scientific methods, controlled laboratory
experiments▫ influential beliefs from early physiology
reflexology - all human behaviors occur through reflexes localization of function - specific structures of the brain serve
specific functions in the control of mental experiences and
behavior •Separated from philosophy in 19th century
▫ influences from physiology remain
•Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)▫ First psychology lab in Leipzig,
Germany▫ wrote the first psychology
textbook▫ applied laboratory techniques to
study of the mind
▫Used introspection – self-examination of one’s own emotional states and mental processes No longer in use – too
unreliable/subjective
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Edward Titchener▫Was an English student of
Wundt▫Set up a psych lab at
Cornell in 1892.▫Established a school of
thought known as structuralism
• Structuralism – Consciousness can be broken down into basic parts using introspection techniques
Foundations of Modern Psychology
•William James▫American Harvard
Professor▫Wrote a well-respected
textbook Principles of Psychology (1890).
▫Founded school of thought known as functionalism Stressed looking at the
function/purpose of behavior and tried to apply findings to practical situations.
No longer in use but gave rise to behaviorism
Foundations of Modern Psychology
•G. Stanley Hall (American)▫Established the first psych lab in the US at Johns
Hopkins (1883)▫Established the first psych journal in the US▫Founded the American Psychological Association
(APA) in 1892 and was its first president•Mary Whiton Calkins
▫Completed Ph.D. in Psych under James at Harvard but not granted degree because she was a woman
▫Received a lesser degree from Radcliffe. ▫First woman president of the APA in 1905
Foundations of Modern Psychology
Foundations of Modern Psychology
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
John B. Watson•Founder of Behaviorism•Studied only observable and objectively described acts•Emphasized objective and scientific methodology
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
•Behaviorist•Russian Physiologist•Studied learning
through associations in animals
•Emphasized the study of observable behaviors
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
•Behaviorist
•American psychologist at Harvard
•Focused on learning through rewards and observation
•studied learning and effect of reinforcement
B.F. Skinner
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
•Austrian physician that focused on illness
•Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective
•Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts
Freud’s Influence
• Influence on “pop culture”▫Freudian slips▫Anal-retentive
• Influence on psychology▫Psychodynamic theory▫Unconscious thoughts▫Significance of childhood experiences
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970)
•Helped to create Humanistic Psychology•Stressed the study of conscious experience and
an individual’s free will•Healthy individuals strive to reach their
potential.
Wolfgang Kohler
•Created Gestalt Psychology
•The whole is different from the sum of its parts.
•Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
Wolfgang Kohler
(1865-1965)
What do you see?
You See the whole picture first rather than the individual dots that make it up. – Gestalt Psychology
• Margaret Floy Washburn▫First woman to earn a PhD in psychology▫2nd woman president of the APA
• Francis Cecil Sumner (US) ▫First African American Ph.D. in psychology▫Clark University▫Started Psych department at Howard University
• Kenneth Clark (US)▫Documented the harmful effect of school
segregation on Black children.▫First African-American APA president (1971)
Foundations of Modern Psychology
•Basic Research▫Aim is to increase our scientific knowledge
base.▫Study is conducted to satisfy curiosity and
answer questions we have about behavior or mental processes.
•Applied Research/Psychology▫Aim is to solve practical problems▫Looks for ways that research psychology
can be made useful and helpful
Psychology’s Subfields
Distribution of Fields:
Subfields in Psychology
Clinical 36%
Other Psychology
15%
Biological and
Experimental
16%
Industrial/Organizational 3%
Social/Personality 8%
Educational 3%
Developmental 6%
Counseling 10%
School 3%
• Colleges and universities
• Clinical settings• Elementary and
secondary schools• Business• Government
Professional Work Settings
PrivatePractice
Government
Universities &College
Business& Industry
School
Employment Settings of Psychologists
Psychology Careers
• Clinical Psychologists▫Largest group of practitioners▫Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders▫Duties include psychological testing,
interviewing and therapy• Psychiatrist
▫Medical doctor dealing with psychological disorders
▫Provide medical treatments as well as psychological treatment
▫Only one who can prescribe medicine!
Psychology Careers• Counseling Psychologists
▫Often work with clients whose problems are of a moderate degree
▫Many specialize in marital or family counseling• School Psychologists
▫Concerned with social, intellectual, and emotional development of students
▫Often test students for special programs• Educational Psychologists
▫Involved in teacher training, curriculum design and other related educational processes
Psychology Careers• Industrial/Organizational Psychologists
▫Work in business and industry▫Attempt to improve productivity▫May develop employee selection programs, work
with advertisers, study consumer behavior, etc.• Social Psychologists
▫Experimental psychologists who study social situations
▫Study topics such as conformity, obedience, leadership style
• Developmental Psychologists▫Research behavior changes occurring across the life
span that are due to maturation and development.
Psychology Careers
• Health Psychologist▫Factors in prevention and treatment of illness▫Relationships between doctor/patient/family
• Forensic Psychologists▫Study topics include criminal behavior,
eyewitnesses, victims, jury selection• Sport Psychologist
▫Maximize athletic performance▫Benefits of exercise
• Human Factors Psychologist▫Making technology user friendly▫Works with companies who create new technology
Psychological Perspectives
•Method of classifying a collection of ideas
•Also called “schools of thought”•Also called “psychological
approaches”•To view behavior from a particular
perspective
Perspectives
•Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena
•Psychology has multiple perspectives▫Neuroscience▫Psychoanalytic▫Behavioral▫Humanistic▫Cognitive▫Social-Cultural▫Evolutionary▫Behavior Genetics
•Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior
•Looks at the physical causes of behavior▫Brain Chemistry/Anatomy▫Genetics▫Hormones
•Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences
Neuroscience Perspective
•Focuses on environmental causes•Behavior comes from learning
▫Rewards and Punishment, Observational Learning
•Observable behavior is very important•Not interested in internal world
Behavioral Perspective
•How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior ?
•Focuses on internal sentences, thinking/rationality and processing information
•Behavior is shaped by our way of thinking/interpreting information▫How do we process what is happening
around us?
Cognitive Perspective
•Humanistic approach▫developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers▫behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ ▫focus on conscious forces and self
perception• All humans are good• Approach stresses interpersonal relations• Important concepts: self-esteem, free will, choice,
self-direction – Our behavior is motivated by our desire to fulfill our needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)
Humanistic Perspective
• both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
• behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
• drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior▫ Traumatic experience in childhood was repressed
to the unconscious and is shaping our behavior today
• Early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations
• Also looks at parental relationships
Psychoanalytic Perspective
• The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups
• How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?
• Looks at group roles/expectations, along with family traditions
• Gender Roles/socioeconomic class• Peer Pressure/Family Pressure/Media Influences
Socio-cultural
•Goes back to Darwin’s theory of natural selection
•Genes predispose us to act•Our motive is survival and to pass on
genes•All behavior is driven by survival of
species▫A behavior that we do today was helpful for
our ancestors to survive
Evolutionary Perspective
Behavior Genetics
• Focus: How behavior is affected by genes and the environment
• Combines biology and behaviorism• Emphasis on the importance of both
genetic and environmental factors on behavior
Perspectives Timeline
The Scientific Method of Research
• Definition: Assumptions, attitudes and procedures that guide researchers in generating questions to investigate, in generating evidence and in drawing conclusions▫Assume behavior follows consistent patterns with
cause and effect▫Attitude of open mindedness and critical thinking▫Procedure of steps to follow in order to arrive at
the truth.• Empirical Evidence – data that is the result of
objective observation, measurement, and experimentation
• Pseudoscience – a FAKE or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence
Problems that can occur:• Hindsight bias – the tendency to believe after learning
the outcome, that one would have foreseen it. ▫ Common Sense is often wrong!
• Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than we do
• Rule of Falsifiability – to scientifically test a claim there must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim false.
• We must have critical thinking when doing research. Do not blindly accept arguments/conclusions.▫ Instead, examine the evidence and look for alternative
solutions/explanations
Problems that can occur:• Barnum Effect
▫“There’s a sucker born every minute”▫Statements can gull people into thinking they have
been accurately assessed by the speaker or test when in fact the outcome could apply to anyone.
▫ Individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people
▫Provide partial explanations for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, and some types of personality tests
Other Biases
• Confirmation Bias – our tendency to search for information that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that don’t
• Researcher Bias – the tendency to notice evidence which
supports one particular point of view or hypothesis • Volunteer Bias – People who volunteer to participate in a
survey are different from those who do not
• Participant Bias – Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed.▫ Do you act the same way in the classroom that you do at home?▫ Also known as Hawthorne Effect