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Module title: Practice Based Enquiry
Module leader: Sue Walters
Route:
STEP Cohort 6
Term and year taken: Summer 2014
Karina HUSSEIN
DISSERTATION
THE POWER OF MUSIC: AN EXPLORATION INTO THE USE OF BACKGROUND MUSIC IN THE RELIGIOUS
EDUCATION CLASSROOM TO ENHANCE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
Word count: 21940
Master of Teaching (MTeach)
Institute of Education, University of London
Month and year of submission: 1st September 2014
This dissertation may be made available to the general public for borrowing, photocopying or consultation without the prior consent
of the author.
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Abstract
Background music has become a tool teachers use in the secular school
classroom for a multitude of reasons, which include managing the mood and
behaviors of students, improving the on-‐task performance of students, fostering
learning amongst students, among other uses. This study aimed to investigate
how the use of background music in the Religious Education (RE) classroom
can enhance the classroom environment and particularly focused on how
student engagement and behavior can be impacted with the introduction of
background music in the RE classroom. This action research project was
conducted in Toronto, Ontario, Canada with a group of grade 11 and 12 Shi’a
Imami Ismaili Muslim students (16-‐18 year olds). In this study, the use of
background music in the RE classroom had a positive impact on the classroom
environment. The on-‐task behaviors of students were improved, listening to
music increased student motivation to complete tasks on time and the use of
music enhanced student concentration and focus. Furthermore, listening to
music students were familiar with also had a positive impact on the memory
recall of students. Various genres of music were implemented throughout the
course of this study, but the effects of using different genres of music on student
behavior were inconclusive in this study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5
DEDICATION 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION & RATIONALE 7 INTRODUCTION 7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 10 CLASSROOM CONTEXT 10
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 13 INTRODUCTION 13 THE POWER OF MUSIC 14 BACKGROUND MUSIC IN THE CLASSROOM 16 BACKGROUND MUSIC, MOOD AND BEHAVIOR 17 BACKGROUND MUSIC, STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND LEARNING 21 CONCLUSION 26
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 28 ACTION RESEARCH 30
CHAPTER 4: DATA COLLECTION METHODS 32 INTRODUCTION 32 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 32 QUESTIONNAIRES 35 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION 38 TEACHER-‐RESEARCHER FIELD NOTES 40 RESEARCH DESIGN 43 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 46
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS 49 INTRODUCTION 49 MUSIC AND ENGAGEMENT 50 MUSIC PROMOTED ON-‐TASK BEHAVIORS 50 MUSIC AS A MOTIVATOR TO COMPLETE TASKS ON TIME 53 MUSIC CAN HELP STUDENTS TO FOCUS AND CONCENTRATE 56 MUSIC AND BEHAVIOR 58 STUDENTS ENJOYED MUSIC IN CLASS 58 MUSIC CAN IMPACT MOOD 61 MUSIC CAN HELP WITH MEMORY RECALL 63 THE SOUND OF MUSIC 68 STUDENTS ENJOY LISTENING TO CERTAIN GENRES OF MUSIC 68 SONG SELECTION IS IMPORTANT 70 CONCLUSION 73
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION 74
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INTRODUCTION 74 DOES INTRODUCING BACKGROUND MUSIC INTO THE REC CLASSROOM HAVE AN IMPACT ON STUDENT ENGAGEMENT? 74 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 75 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 77 DOES INTRODUCING BACKGROUND MUSIC INTO THE REC CLASSROOM HAVE AN IMPACT ON STUDENT BEHAVIOR? 79 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 81 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 83 WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT TYPES/GENRES OF MUSIC ON STUDENT BEHAVIOR IN THE REC CLASSROOM? 85 LITERATURE CONNECTIONS 86 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 88 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH CONDUCTED 89 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 92 CONCLUSION 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY 96
APPENDIX A – DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION SHEET 104
APPENDIX B – CONSENT FORM 105
APPENDIX C – ETHICS FORM 108
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Acknowledgements I would like to sincerely thank and acknowledge all those who have
helped, encouraged and supported me throughout both the research process
and my journey through the STEP program. I would like to begin by thanking
both of my IOE tutors, Katharine Vincent and Nicole Brown, for their guidance
and feedback throughout the MTeach coursework. I am also thankful to the Aga
Khan and the Institute of Ismaili Studies for providing me with the opportunity
to embark on both an educational and personal journey these last two years. I
would also like to thank the City of Toronto and ITREB Canada for hosting me
and the Toronto STEP team for welcoming and supporting me, to ensure my
success in the field. I would also like to thank my host teacher, who opened up
her classroom for me to conduct this study and who went above and beyond
what I could have expected.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. My mother, Shelina, who has
continuously made sacrifices for me and without whom I would not have been
able to live the life I am so blessed to live today. My sister, Safina, who has been
a source of constant support throughout my life and has always been by my
side. My aunt, Munira, who is always there to listen and has always encouraged
me to follow my dreams. I would also like to thank my best friend and love,
Nahid, whom I can always count on to be there for me and who has always
supported me in my decisions.
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Dedication This dissertation is dedicated in full to my late grandparents, Bahadur
and Zebun-‐Nissa, who have played a substantial role in shaping who I am today.
Their love, support and confidence in me have been significant to my success
and I know this would have been a proud moment for them.
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Chapter 1: Introduction & Rationale Introduction
Music is an integral part of our day-‐to-‐day life, whether you listen to it
on your iPod, while waiting at the doctor’s office, strolling through the mall, or
even at work. Bloustien and Peters (2011) claim that music “marks out our
spaces and our sense of who we are” (p. 84); thereby indicating that music
plays an important role in our lives. The influence of music has spread into the
secular school system in North America, and has become an integral part of the
state curriculum. Music programs in schools provide students the opportunity
to participate in weekly music classes where they are able to learn about music
theory as well as learn how to play a musical instrument. Afterschool programs
have also been implemented to allow students to showcase their musical
talents, such as their ability to play a musical instrument or sing in the choir, by
performing in concerts and theatrical programs. In Ontario, Canada (the
Province in which this study was conducted), music classes are introduced in
the first grade and can be continued until one graduates from High School. The
aim of the music curriculum in Ontario is “to help students develop an
understanding and appreciation of music, as well as the ability to create and
perform it, so that they will be able to find in music a lifelong source of
enjoyment and personal satisfaction” (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2009, p.
16).
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The use of music in secular schools has evolved, where music is not only
limited to the state curriculum, but has also been introduced as a tool within
the classroom. One way in which this has been done is through the introduction
of background music into the classroom. Studies have found that the use of
background music can have a positive impact on student behavior (Bloor, 2009;
Savan, 1999; Hallam & Price, 1998) as well as the mood of the students (Savan,
1998; Giles, 1991). Depending on the type of background music utilized, it can
be an effective strategy to both calm or energize students, which in turn can
positively impact the performance of students in class (Bloor, 2009; Savan,
1999; Davidson & Powell, 1986). Background music has also been found to help
students maintain focus and foster learning in the classroom (Allen & Wood,
2013; Davidson & Powell, 1986). Studies have found that background music can
have a significant impact on the productivity of students, whereby they are
engaged in on-‐task behaviors as a result of the introduction of background
music into the classroom (Hallam et al., 2002; Hallam and Price, 1998; Scott,
1970). Background music has also been found to help students recall content
related material (Molyneux, 2007) and perform better on recall examinations
(Kang & Williamson, 2013; Felix, 1993). The implications of these findings, if
applied in the Religious Education (RE) classroom would be paramount,
particularly if there is a positive impact on student behavior and engagement in
the classroom as well as retention of content. Furthermore, the use of music in
the classroom could create a positive impact on the classroom environment, as
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music is a significant part of a student’s life, not only on a personal level, but
also within the secular school system.
Research on the use of background music is a relatively new area of
exploration and has been studied more extensively in the recent decades, but
the impact of introducing background music in the faith-‐based RE classroom
has yet to be investigated. This dissertation provides an exploration into the
impact of introducing background music into the RE classroom, particularly
investigating how background music can enhance the classroom environment,
and the impact on student behavior and engagement. Although most studies
involving the use of background music have focused on using classical music,
this study uses a range of genres including R&B, Hip Hop, Rock, Spanish, Arabic
and Bollywood music in order to get a sense of how different genres of music
can impact student behavior. This study provides a glimpse into the challenges
and successes of introducing background music into the RE classroom, while
aiming to provide other educators insight and aspects to consider when
introducing music into the classroom.1
1 Please note that the theories and ideas presented in this section were previously submitted to the IOE in the following works and are being reused by the author, as they are applicable to this dissertation – Author: Karina Hussein Module: Research and Professional Practice Module (RPP) Module Leader: Sue Walters Date of Submission: 13th January, 2014
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Research Questions
How can a teacher in a Religious Education Centre (REC) classroom in Toronto,
Canada use background music to enhance the classroom environment?
Subsidiary Questions
• Does introducing background music into the REC classroom have an
impact on student engagement?
• Does introducing background music into the REC classroom have an
impact on student behavior?
• What are the effects of using different types/genres of music on student
behavior in the REC classroom?
Classroom Context
This study was performed in a faith-‐based RE classroom in Toronto,
Ontario with Grade 11 and 12 (16-‐18 Year Olds) students. All participants in
the study are a part of the Shi’a Imami Ismaili Muslim community. There had
been no previous contact between the participants and myself (the researcher)
prior to this study. I was paired with a host teacher, who was a graduate of the
STEP Programme, with whom I lesson planned and co-‐taught. The host teacher
provided me room to conduct the study, in terms of introducing music in the
classroom and allowing me to implement changes with the way in which music
was used in the classroom for the duration of the study. Given the option of
performing the study with the Saturday morning or afternoon class, after a
lengthy discussion with the host teacher, it was decided that the afternoon class
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would be best suited for this study due to the different energy levels of the
students who attended. The host teacher advised that some of the students who
would be participating in the study would arrive at the REC early in the
morning, and would have to wait a couple of hours for their class to begin.
During this time, these students would volunteer at the REC and would often
times play basketball in the gymnasium leaving these students either highly
energized or tired. Other students had commitments prior to arriving at the
REC, while some would wake up and arrive in time for the beginning of class, in
turn affecting the energy levels of these students as well. Due to these various
circumstances, my host teacher advised that the energy levels of the students
differed and therefore the afternoon class may be more conducive to look at
how the use of background music could impact student engagement and
behavior.
The classes spanned nine weeks and were held on Saturday’s for one
and a half hours. The students in the study did not attend classes every week
due to other commitments, which included extra-‐curricular activities, exams,
and work, among other commitments. The way in which classes were
scheduled in Toronto was also problematic in terms of continuity for the
students, as there were multiple breaks built into the schedule including a one-‐
week break in February and a three-‐week break in March which took place
during my study. This meant that students might not attend a class for multiple
weeks at a time, due to both personal reasons as well as due to the scheduling
of classes. Introducing music into the classroom provided an element the
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students were generally unfamiliar with in the RE context, and provided me an
opportunity to examine how the use of music could impact the classroom
environment, along with how the use of music may also aid in creating
connections between classes, which may not necessarily be held on a weekly
basis.
This study was undertaken to fulfill the requirements of the Master in
Teaching (MTeach) Degree at the Institute of Education, University of London.
The MTeach Degree is a requirement of the Secondary Teacher Education
Programme (STEP), a secondary teacher-‐training program for religious
education teachers.
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Chapter 2 – Literature Review
Introduction
Music is universal, lending itself to various cultures, languages, and
genres. We are typically exposed to music from an early stage in our lives, and
are continuously influenced by music in many ways such as linking our
memories and emotions to particular songs and lyrics (Juslin & Sloboda, 2001).
Our exposure to music begins while we are in the womb, during which the fetus
can both hear music and can begin learning music in this stage of life (Ilari,
2002; Woodward et al., 1992; Olds, 1986). This continues through infancy,
whereby parents sing lullabies and songs to infants, which has been found to
affect both the behavior and attention span of babies (Rock et al., 1999). It is
therefore by no accident that music has been formally introduced into secular
schools through the introduction of a music curriculum and informally through
the use of music in classrooms by teachers. Music in classrooms has been used
to help students learn mathematical concepts through rhythm (Eisenhower
Southwest Consortium, 1998), to learn economics through song lyrics (Tinari &
Khandke, 2000), and by linking themes found within the science curriculum to
music (Molyneux, 2007).
The use of background music in classrooms has recently become a point
of interest for researchers to investigate how background music can impact the
mood, behavior, task orientation, and learning of students, among other
researcher interests. This study aims at investigating how introducing
background music in the RE classroom can enhance the classroom
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environment, and in particular how student behavior and engagement are
impacted. Rauscher (1995) states that “music stimulates thought processes and
enhances spatial reasoning, which are essential for academic success” (p. 8),
thereby making the study of background music in the classroom a valuable
topic of interest. This study aims at using a familiar aspect of students lives, in
this case music, in an attempt to create a positive impact on the RE
environment. In order to understand the implications of this study, I will be
examining existing literature relating to this topic of research.
The Power of Music
The definition of ‘music’ is subjective, and varies between individuals,
groups of people, and cultures (Hallam, 2006). According to Radocy and Boyle
(1988), “if sounds are created or combined by a human being, recognized as
music by some group of people and serve some function which music has come
to serve for mankind, then those sounds are music” (p. 19). The Encyclopedia
Britannica on the other hand defines music as “art concerned with combining
vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or emotional expression,
usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and in most Western
music, harmony” (Epperson, 2014). This definition of music indicates that what
may be defined as music is quite subjective and can vary from culture to
culture. Due to the subjective nature of music, some may define music based on
their personal affinity for a particular genre. As Levitin (2006) put it: “To many,
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‘music’ can only mean the great masters – Beethoven, Debussy, and Motzart. To
others, ‘music’ is Busta Rhymes, Dr. Dre, and Moby” (p. 1).
People listen to music throughout the day, whether they are actively or
passively listening to music. Active listening requires the listener to focus on
aspects of the music such as the lyrics or beat, while passive listening does not
require the concentration of the listener (Hallam, 2006). With passive listening,
music is a part of the environment, as is the case with background music, which
is characterized as music that is meant to be heard but not actively listened to
(Musselman, 1974). Regardless of how one defines music, music can be found
across cultures and plays an integral part in ones life (Hallam, 2006).
Music is extremely powerful and can influence an individual’s behavior,
mood, energy levels, and emotional responses (Allen & Wood, 2013). When we
hear a song that we enjoy, we may often times find ourselves tapping our feet to
the beat of a song or dancing in our seats. Ferguson et al. (1994) found that this
is a ‘natural’ response to listening to stimulating music, while observing the
responses of children when upbeat music was playing during a karate drill.
Similarly, listening to slow and soft music has been found to be both calming
and relaxing (Allen & Wood, 2013). Ter Bogt et al. (2011) found that while the
number of hours participants in their study listened to music on a daily basis
varied, participants regardless of if they were high, medium or low involved
listeners, used music to manage their moods. Employers, advertisers and
retailers have taken advantage of this knowledge by introducing music into the
work place, incorporating music into advertisements, and selecting particular
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background music to play at restaurants and shops (Allen & Wood, 2013). The
results of this has been astonishing, whereby employees have been found to be
more productive with the presence of background music (Allen & Wood, 2013;
Newman et al., 1966), consumers are more likely to buy a product when they
enjoyed the background music in an advertisement (Gorn, 1982), and consumer
spending is influenced by the volume, tempo and genre of background music in
a restaurant or shop (North et al., 2003; Caldwell & Hibbert, 1999; North &
Hargreaves, 1998; Milliman, 1986; Milliman, 1982). Contrary to these findings,
studies have also reported that background music does not impact the
productivity of all employees (Lesiuk, 1992) and that the likeliness of
consumers to select a product is not influenced by background music (Kellaris
& Cox, 1989; Park & Young, 1986). Furthermore, the use of loud background
music has been found to have negative effects on consumer spending in
restaurants and shops (Milliman, 1986; Milliman, 1982). The impact music has
on people is undeniable, and therefore, the study of how background music can
be used in the classroom becomes an important area of study, particularly if it
can have a positive impact on the classroom environment.
Background Music in the Classroom
Background music has become a strategy teachers use in the classroom
to manage the behavior and mood of students, to foster learning among
students, and to increase student engagement, among other uses. Gardner
(1983) describes music as a multiple intelligence that can influence the way in
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which individuals organize their thoughts and retain information. He also
argues that music can aid in developing other areas such as mathematics,
language and spatial reasoning, and is therefore essential for the educational
success of children. While this may be the case, Bloor (2009) cautions that an
individuals experience with listening to music while learning needs to be taken
into consideration prior to implementing music, as the use of music with
learners unaccustomed to listening to music while learning could have
detrimental effects. Allen and Wood (2013) on the other hand support the use
of music in the classroom and believe that when “done correctly, background
music can be one of the most powerful tools a teacher can use to increase
learning” (p. 90). Several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of
background music in the classroom and the results have been quite varied.
Background Music, Mood and Behavior
One way in which background music can impact the classroom is that it
can affect the mood and behavior of the students. Jensen (1996) found music to
have an impact on ones body and mind, where music can help with ones
energy, emotions, focus and creativity. Music has also been found to be useful
both at the beginning of the morning when students were required to ‘settle
down’ and in the afternoon, when students were most likely to be ‘tired’ (Hall,
1952). Giles (1991) found that different types of background music can elicit
different types of emotions and reactions from students making them relaxed,
happier, less stressed and productive. This finding illustrates that the selection
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of music is important when implementing background music into the
classroom. Hallam and Price (1998) postulate that select frequencies and
combinations of sounds stimulate certain areas of the brain, in turn producing a
biochemical change that is responsible for affecting the moods of students. One
musical composer that has been widely used in several studies is Mozart, as it
has been found that there is a ‘Mozart effect’ that takes place, whereby
behavior, mood and academic ability can be impacted by listening to the
composition of Mozart in the classroom (Rauscher et al., 1993). One
explanation for this is that Mozart repeats melodic lines in his compositions,
leading to increased brain connectivity (Debeus, 2000). Contrary to this finding,
Thompson et al. (2001) concluded that the ‘effect’ taking place was not
attributed to listening to Mozart but rather the arousal and mood of individuals
while listening to music, which in turn impacted behavior and task
performance. Stough et al. (1994) also investigated the ‘Mozart effect’ with
students completing a Raven’s test, and found that listening to Mozart did not
have an impact on performance.
Several studies have found that listening to Mozart has a calming effect
on students (Scott, 1970). Hallam and Price (1998) found that listening to
Mozart produced calming effects on students who had emotional and
behavioral difficulties whereby students were more cooperative and displayed
reduced aggression. Dr. Anne Savan is one researcher who has conducted
several studies that examine the use of Mozart in the classroom. In 1996, Savan
found that there was a remarkable effect on student’s behavior when playing
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Mozart in a class of ten students with special education needs, who were prone
to angry and disruptive behavior in class. While Mozart was playing in class,
students exhibited calm behavior and physiological changes were noted, such
as changes in body temperature, blood pressure, pulse and breathing rates
among participants. In 1998, Savan played different classical compositions in
the classroom but found that a calming effect on students with special
education needs and emotional behavioral difficulties was found only when she
played the music of Mozart. Savan built upon her findings from 1996, and
conducted a study in a science classroom, with students who had special
education needs and emotional and behavior difficulties. This study also found
that student behavior was improved while listening to Mozart, and the study
concluded that improvement in behavior is attributed to “qualities present in
certain Mozart orchestral compositions, which evoke changes in the pupils that
directly affect the parameters of blood pressure, body temperature, and pulse
rate” (Savan, 1999, p. 143). Savan aimed at trying to ascertain what aspects of
the music were influencing students to display positive behaviors. She looked at
various aspects such as the frequency ranges, harmonic ranges and dynamics of
music and once again found that music has a positive effect on student behavior
in the science classroom (Savan, 2009). While many researchers have found
Mozart to have a positive impact on the mood of students in the classroom,
Giles (1991) found that Disney music was effective background music to calm
first and second grade students after a recess period and Barber and Barber
(2005) found jazz music to be effective in producing a calming effect amongst
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freshmen college students during orientation lectures. The use of Mozart has
not always yielded positive results. In a study conducted by Bloor (2009), he
found that over half of the students in his study displayed off-‐task behavior,
which was a result of playing background music composed by Mozart. McIntyre
et al. (1993) also found that the use of music in a classroom of behaviorally
disordered youths did not reduce aggressive behaviors amongst participants.
While there has been a tendency to use classical music in the classroom,
particularly Mozart, as his music is known to enhance arousal levels and mood
(Husain et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2001), there has been evidence to suggest
that the use of classical music in the classroom may not be relevant for youth
today (Adriano & DiPaola, 2010). North et al. (2000) conducted a study in
which they asked their participants to provide their musical preferences. The
study found that participants aged 13 or 14 strongly disliked classical, folk and
opera music, but preferred to listen to dance, pop, rap, rock and soul music.
This indicates that classical music may not be the best genre of music to use in
the classroom to manage mood and behavior. Furthermore, Chalmers et al.
(1999) suggests that “popular music may have a greater impact on appropriate
student behavior than classical music” (p. 45) and that educators should
incorporate different genres of music with different tempos, while ensuring
that the music is both “calming and enjoyable to students” (p. 45). Educators
are also encouraged to allow students to contribute to music selections, as
music that students are familiar with may be less distracting for students and in
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turn have a positive impact on behavior and mood (Allen & Wood, 2013;
Thompson et al., 2001; Chalmers et al., 1999).
Background Music, Student Engagement and Learning
On-‐Task Behaviors
Another area that has been rigorously examined is the use of
background music on student engagement, learning and recall. Student
engagement has typically been studied through examining on-‐task behaviors
and productivity of students. Scott (1970) found that student productivity
while completing arithmetic problems was increased through the introduction
of background music into a mathematics classroom. Hallam and Price (1998)
also reported that students with emotional and behavioral difficulties were
more on-‐task with the use of background music in the classroom, and students
“were more often talking while working rather than talking instead of working”
(p.90). In 2002, Hallam et al. conducted another study but in this case examined
how background music could impact more ‘typically behaved’ students. They
found that the use of music improved the rate at which students worked on
math problems in the classroom (Hallam et al., 2002). Davidson and Powell
(1986) reported similar results whereby the introduction of easy-‐listening
background music resulted in an increase in on-‐task behaviors of students in an
elementary classroom. Savan (1999) also found that “all pupils completed the
set tasks neatly and quietly” (p. 143) with the introduction of background
music in a classroom with special educational needs students. Contrary to these
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findings, McIntyre et al. (1993) concluded that there was a marginal increase in
on-‐task behaviors of students with the use of background music. One
explanation as to why background music can impact student engagement is
provided by Rickard et al. (2005). They suggest that autonomic and
neurochemical responses are elicited from music due to the way in which music
can impact the emotions of individuals as well as the rhythmic properties of
music. Rhythm also has the ability to catch ones attention and can spark ones
interest in music (Davies, 2000). These properties in turn, can result in
increasing student engagement and on-‐task behaviors (Rickard et al., 2005;
Davies, 2000). One of the potential results of on-‐task behavior and productivity
of students is that learning is optimized, potentially resulting in the
enhancement of academic achievement amongst students (Davidson & Powell,
1986).
Task Performance
Several studies have examined how background music can impact task
performance, recall and learning of students. One area of focus has been how
background music impacts reading comprehension tasks. Furnham and
Stephenson (2007) reported that listening to music has a positive impact on
performing reading comprehension tasks amongst children. Other studies
conducted have reported similar results, whereby background music
significantly improved student performance on reading comprehension tests
(Bloor, 2009; Hall, 1952). Contrary to these findings, Kampfe et al. (2011) and
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Fogelson (1973) found that listening to background music is detrimental while
completing reading comprehension tasks. This suggests that the success of
using background music while completing readings tasks may be dependent on
the way in which students respond to the selection of music. The selection of
music while completing tasks, including reading tasks, has been a topic of
debate. In the study conducted by Fogelson (1973), he found that the use of
popular instrumental music while students were completing a reading test had
an adverse affect on student performance. Kiger (1989) concluded that
listening to ‘low information load’ (i.e. slow, soft and repetitive) music while
performing reading comprehension tasks improved performance while ‘high
information load’ (i.e. fast, loud, complex) music was detrimental to the
performance of this task. Thompson et al. (2011) also reported that fast and
loud, instrumental background music interferes with reading comprehension.
Additional studies have looked at the impact of background music on
completing cognitive tasks, and have also found task performance to be
decreased while listening to high arousal music as compared to low arousal
music (Cassidy & MacDonald, 2007). Furnham et al. (1999) also found that
music with lyrics was found to be more distracting than instrumental music
while students’ age 17 and 18 were completing both comprehension and
cognitive tasks. One explanation offered for these findings is that “slow tempo
music may allow for continuous and spontaneous recovery from acoustic
interference, permitting simultaneous verbal comprehension even when music
is loud” (Thompson et al., 2011, p. 705). While this may be the case, Shlomo and
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Dorit (1998) found that when completing visual discrimination tasks,
“background music improved performance in the low-‐ and medium-‐difficulty
tasks and did not affect performance in the high-‐difficulty tasks” (p. 342).
Hallam and Price (1998) also claim that “the effects of the music were always
positive [and that] background music at no time had a detrimental effect on
performance” (p. 90) of students in their study.
Learning and Recall
Background music has also been found to have an impact on both the
learning and recall of students. Felix (1993) conducted a meta-‐analysis of
existing studies that examined how learning can be affected by the use of
background music. Felix reviewed studies that were conducted in both
classroom and laboratory settings as well as studies that utilized different types
of music. She concluded that that use of classical music played during learning
positively impacts performance, which suggests that background music has a
positive impact on learning. A study conducted by Kang and Williamson (2013)
partially supports this finding. The authors evaluated how music could
influence learning amongst students learning Chinese and Arabic and
concluded that students learning Mandarin Chinese were positively impacted
by the use of music while learning and performed significantly better on recall
examinations than those who learned without music. These same results were
not found amongst Arabic learners, and it was reported that music did not
impact those learning Arabic in the same way. While the researchers were
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unable to explain what produced the different outcomes in this study, these
findings suggest that educators must be careful when assessing the impact of
background music in the classroom, particularly if teaching a mixed class. De
Groot (2011) also reported varied results when utilizing background music in
her study. In this study the author examined how foreign language vocabulary
learning can be impacted by both silent conditions as well as through the use of
background music. De Groot found that during tests that were administered
one week from learning, participants who were exposed to a silent
environment and an environment with music equally forgot hard to learn
words. While this was the case, this study also reported that background music
did have a positive impact on learning both frequent and infrequent words, but
these results were not found across all participants who were exposed to music.
De Groot (2011) concludes that “individual difference in personality – and,
ultimately, individual differences in neurological thresholds of arousal in the
brain” (p. 495) are responsible for the variance in the effectiveness of music on
learning and recall. Furnham and Bradley (1997) support this by suggesting
that introverts and extraverts respond to background music in different ways
which in turn have an impact on the learning and cognitive performance of
learners. The ability to process music uses cognitive capacity, thereby
minimizing the cognitive systems capacity to perform tasks while listening to
music (Konecni, 1982). Taking this into consideration, it can be said that
different personality types respond to music in a diverse manner that could
have either a positive or negative impact on learning. Kang and Williamson
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(2013) suggest that the use of ‘low complex music’ may be better suited when
performing cognitive tasks as compared to fast and loud music, if music is to be
used while completing tasks. O’Hare (2011) also concluded that the type of
background music implemented in turn impact memory and recall.
“Instrumental music was seen to have a positive effect on memory recall”
(O'Hare, 2011, p. 8) while vocal music led to a significantly poorer performance
on memory recall. While there have been mixed findings relating to how music
can impact learning and recall, one study concluded that learning potential can
be increased by a minimum of five times using music (O'Donnell, 1999),
thereby making background music a potentially useful tool in the classroom if
used correctly.
Conclusion
The results of using background music in the classroom have been quite
varied which can be attributed to multiple variables. In order “to fully
understand the effects of music we must account for the interaction between
the listener, the music and the context within which the task is taking place”
(Cassidy & MacDonald, 2007, p. 518). Kampfe et al. (2011) assert that “there is
no uniform effect of background music: sometimes it has a beneficial,
sometimes a detrimental, and sometimes no effect on behavior, cognition and
emotion” (p. 440). Allen and Wood (2013) argue that this can be attributed to
the different environments in which studies are conducted and the fact that no
two studies are designed in the same way. For example many studies compare a
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control group who work on tasks in silence, and compare these results to a
group who has been exposed to background music. Allen and Wood (2013)
claim that these types of studies conducted in laboratory rooms do not
resemble conditions that would be present in a real classroom setting, as there
is always background noise in a classroom (such as a student tapping a pencil
on a desk or someone sharpening a pencil), and therefore the results are
impacted by this artificial setting. In contrast, “when the effect of background
music has been studied in conditions more closely resembling a classroom
setting, the effects of background music on performance have almost always
been found to be very positive” (Allen & Wood, 2013, p. 92).
All of the studies that have used background music in the classroom
have been conducted in a secular context and have not been tested in the RE
classroom. Therefore, this study will be looking particularly at the effect of
background music on student’s engagement, attitudes and behavior in the RE
classroom.2
2 Please note that the theories and ideas presented in this section were previously submitted to the IOE in the following works and are being reused by the author, as they are applicable to this dissertation – Author: Karina Hussein Module: Research and Professional Practice Module (RPP) Module Leader: Sue Walters Date of Submission: 13th January, 2014
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Chapter 3: Methodology Methodology is the manner in which a researcher approaches an inquiry
with the aim of seeking new knowledge (Punch, 2009). The approach of a
researcher has typically been either qualitative or quantitative, but with the
further development of educational research, some researchers began shifting
towards a mixed-‐methods approach, using both qualitative and quantitative
methods (Punch, 2009; Robson, 2002). Put simply a qualitative approach aims
“to describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event” (Kumar, 2011, p. 13)
while, a quantitative method aims to “quantify the variation in a phenomenon,
situation, problem or issue” (Kumar, 2011, p. 13). Qualitative research is
valuable as it allows researchers to understand and make meaning of a
particular phenomenon or situation, which are often identified by variables that
cannot be measured (Robson, 2002). Furthermore, qualitative data allows the
researcher “to understand, explain, explore, discover and clarify situations,
feelings, perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs and experiences of a group of
people” (Kumar, 2011, p. 104), which is achieved by talking directly with
participants. Quantitative methodology on the other hand aims to collect data
from a representative sample of a target population with the purpose of being
able to develop generalizations from the data collected and analyzed (Robson,
2002). This study will employ a mixed-‐methods approach, as both qualitative
and quantitative methods will be used to explore how introducing background
music into the RE classroom can enhance the classroom environment. Using a
mixed-‐methods approach will allow for a more holistic view of the data and in
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turn, the strengths and weaknesses of each method will be accounted and
compensated for (Punch, 2009).
There has been much debate surrounding the validity and reliability of
qualitative data versus quantitative data. Quantitative methods have often been
viewed as being more comprehensive than qualitative, as quantitative data can
undergo statistical analysis to ensure the validity of the data (Hopkins, 2008).
While this may be the case, a standard of error must be accounted for with
quantitative data (ibid.). Qualitative data has been criticized for its lack of
scientific methods in its analysis, and therefore has been considered to be less
valid (Punch, 2009). Contrary to this belief, Koshy (2005) argues “that
analyzing qualitative data is equally challenging as analyzing and presenting
quantitative evidence from large methods using statistical methods” (p. 109).
Furthermore, qualitative data is rich in content as it provides insight into the
feelings of participants as well as provides detail into why an action occurred
and its consequence (Koshy, 2005).
The main point of contention here is that qualitative methods are
viewed as being more subjective than quantitative methods. Ercikan and Roth
(2006) argue that subjectivity is involved with both qualitative and quantitative
methods, as both methods require the researcher to make judgments that could
be deemed as subjective. For example, a quantitative researcher may be
subjective when developing questions to be used in a questionnaire, while a
qualitative researcher may be subjective when taking field notes while
observing a particular phenomenon. In order to mitigate the concern relating to
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reliability, validity and subjectivity, this study has employed a mixed-‐methods
approach to allow for triangulation of the data collected. Triangulation is the
process of employing multiple data collection methods with the aim of
enhancing the validity and reliability of the data collected (Robson, 2002). It “is
used to interpret findings, test alternative ideas, identify negative cases and
point the analysis towards a clear conclusion based on the evidence collected”
(Anderson & Arsenault, 1998, p. 168). While every effort was made to maintain
objectivity throughout this study, this study would still be considered
subjective, as I believe it is nearly impossible for one to be completely objective,
eliminating all bias in the field of research.
Action Research
Action research is “an enquiry, undertaken with rigor and understanding
so as to constantly refine practice; the emerging evidence-‐based outcomes will
then contribute to the researching practitioner’s continuing professional
development” (Koshy, 2005, pp. 1-‐2). It is utilized by “professionals who want
to use research to improve their practices” (Denscombe, 2003, p. 43), whereby
the “practitioner must be participants” (Denscombe, 2003, p. 77). Using these
definitions, action research is viewed as practitioner research, where the
researcher takes on both the role of the teacher and researcher, with an aim of
implementing a planned change in practice, hopefully resulting in both personal
and professional development.
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This study utilizes an action research framework, whereby the
practitioner takes on a dual role within the classroom, as both the teacher and
researcher. This approach allowed me to be centrally involved in the study,
providing me the opportunity to gain a better understanding of how the use of
background music in the classroom can impact the classroom environment,
while also providing me the opportunity to improve my practice (Robson,
2002). Due to the nature of action research focusing on the improvement of an
individual practitioners practice, it has been criticized for its lack of
generalizability. This criticism was addressed by Bassey (1998) who believes
that ‘fuzzy generalizations’ can be derived from action research, particularly
when researchers provide the context, in which their research was conducted,
to allow for their research approach to be replicated in a similar context to
determine whether comparable results can be found. Furthermore, Koshy
(2005) also believes that findings derived through the process of action
research can be relevant for other practitioners in similar contexts, therefore
making action research a valuable framework for research.
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Chapter 4: Data Collection Methods
Introduction
There are many ways in which data can be collected, but “the choice of
the method depends upon the purpose of the study, the resources available and
the skills of the researcher” (Kumar, 2011, p. 140). This section will provide an
overview of the research design and data collection methods used in the
research process. The data collection methods chosen for the purpose of this
study were focus group interviews, questionnaires, participant observation and
teacher-‐researcher field notes. These methods were carefully selected to learn
about the way in which introducing background music in the RE classroom
could enhance the classroom environment and in particular the way in which
student behavior and engagement may be impacted.
Focus Group Interviews
Focus groups are typically used in qualitative research “to gather data,
usually in the forms of opinions, from a selected group of people on a particular
and pre-‐determined topic” (Neville, 2007, p. 22). One of the distinguishing
elements of the focus group is its social nature, which allows participants to
participate in an informal discussion whereby the researcher functions as a
facilitator more so than an interviewer (Punch, 2009). According to Anderson
and Arsenault (1998), focus groups allow participants to engage in a dialogue,
whereby one individuals ideas can lead to a chain reaction of thoughts and
ideas, potentially leading to rich and comprehensive data. Furthermore, the
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focus group can provide “a wide range of opinions, attitudes, feelings or
perceptions from a group of individuals who share some common experience
relative to the dimension under study” (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998, p. 212).
The use of focus groups as a data collection tool has the advantage of
exploring a large number of topics with participants, in a short period of time,
in turn producing rich and detailed data (Kumar, 2011). While other data
collection tools, such as interviews, can also produce similar results, the
spontaneity and social nature of focus groups could give rise to thoughts and
ideas that may not have arisen in individual interviews. Anderson and
Arsenault (1998) argue that deep and insightful discussions occur in focus
groups due to the synergy within a group, thereby yielding qualitative data that
would not have been obtained from using another method. Furthermore, the
group dynamics amongst participants becomes another form of data that can be
both discussed and analyzed (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). While this may be the
case, the views and opinions expressed by participants may be influenced by
these group dynamics, thereby impacting the reliability of the data collected
(Punch, 2009).
Due to the qualitative nature of the focus group, it has been criticized for
its lack of objectivity and validity (Punch, 2009). This can be attributed to
researcher bias, whereby bias is introduced in the way questions are framed
and responses are interpreted (Kumar, 2011) as well as participant bias which
can be caused by a dominant voice that overrides the opinions of others in the
group (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998). Furthermore, “because the interaction in
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each interview is unique, the quality of the responses obtained from different
interviews may vary significantly” (Kumar, 2011, p. 150), thereby making it
difficult for data collected from focus groups to be compared and generalized.
While focus groups provide the opportunity to gain the opinions of many, it is
often times difficult to explore the level of diversity of the opinions (Blaxter et
al., 2006). Despite these limitations, Chioncel et al. (2003) claim that “the
process in which meanings are assimilated to scientific data is in fact a process
of reconstruction [and] re-‐interpretation of reality” (p.500) and therefore the
analysis of focus groups can lead to the construction of new knowledge.
Focus groups can be categorized as homogenous or segmented. A group
is homogenous when participants are selected to be in a particular group due to
their shared backgrounds (Kitzinger, 1995) while a segmented group is
composed of participants that have been carefully selected to fit into certain
categories (Morgan, 1998). Two focus groups, each lasting twenty-‐five minutes,
were conducted as part of the study, both of which can be categorized as
segmented, based on gender. While it was not my aim to conduct segmented
focus groups, due to my difficulty in finding participants who were willing to
partake in a focus group, I was fortunate to organize two segmented focus
groups. The first focus group consisted of three males who were friends outside
of the RE classroom, while the second group consisted of three females who
were also friends outside of the RE classroom. Despite the groups being
segmented, the conversations that took place during the focus groups were free
flowing and in turn provided the opportunity to compare both the similarities
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and differences between the two groups (Morgan, 1998). Both focus group
interviews were audio recorded to allow me to focus on the conversations
taking place. Additional notes were taken relating to the discussions taking
place as well as non-‐verbal communication amongst the participants (Blaxter et
al., 2006). Audio recordings were transcribed later and corroborated with the
notes taken during the interviews. Video recording was not used to record the
focus groups, as participants felt more comfortable with the audio recording. I
had a list of questions to guide the conversations that took place in both focus
groups, but students were also able to steer the conversations, in turn
providing me an opportunity to ask further probing questions.
Questionnaires
The questionnaire is a data collection tool that can be used to collect
demographic information as well as views and opinions from participants, on a
particular theme or topic, in a systematic manner (Munn & Drever, 1990).
Developing a questionnaire requires the researcher to complete several steps,
which include: determining research objectives, choosing a questionnaire
design, selecting a sample population, designing the questionnaire, distributing
the questionnaire and lastly, collecting and analyzing data (Anderson &
Arsenault, 1998). Questionnaires can include two different types of questions:
open ended or closed-‐ended questions. Open-‐ended questions allow
respondents to write down their response to a question in their own words
whereas closed-‐ended questions are multiple-‐choice and the respondent must
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select an answer from a predetermined set of categories (Koshy, 2005). Open-‐
ended questions “provide respondents with the opportunity to express
themselves freely, resulting in a greater variety of information” (Kumar, 2011,
p. 153), but can result in the loss of information if respondents are unable to
express their thoughts and in turn provide partial responses. Closed-‐ended
questions are much easier to code and analyze than open-‐ended questions due
to the pre-‐determined categories, but can be viewed as lacking depth and
variety (Kumar, 2011). Regardless of if a question is open or closed-‐ended,
Munn and Drever (1990) caution that researchers must use simple and easy to
understand language when constructing questions, to avoid ambiguity and to
ensure respondents are clear on what they are being asked.
The use of questionnaires in research is favorable as it allows the
researcher to collect a plethora of data from multiple respondents over a short
period of time (Koshy, 2005). Researcher bias is reduced with the use of the
questionnaire, as all respondents are provided with a standardized set of
questions (Munn & Drever, 1990). The questionnaire also provides
respondents a sense of anonymity, which may be important, particularly in a
classroom-‐based research, where the participants are the students. In this case,
students may be more likely to express their views anonymously via
questionnaire rather than in an interview or group setting (Munn & Drever,
1990). The use of a questionnaire can be viewed as advantageous in
comparison to other methods, particularly during the data analysis stage, as
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responses to closed-‐ended questions can easily be tabulated and compared
(Anderson & Arsenault, 1998).
One of the criticisms of the questionnaire is that respondents typically
do not have the opportunity to clarify any confusion they may have with
questions. Therefore, “if different respondents interpret questions differently,
this will affect the quality of the information provided” (Punch, 2009, p. 149).
Another criticism of the questionnaire is that respondents often times read all
of the questions prior to completing the questionnaire and in turn, their
responses may be influenced by their knowledge of other questions (ibid).
Furthermore, respondents may select answers they feel would portray them in
a more favorable light rather than providing their real responses (Munn &
Drever, 1990). Bias in questionnaire responses can also result from
‘questionnaire fatigue’ whereby participants do not respond to questions
leading to a non-‐response bias (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998). One
disadvantage of solely using the questionnaire, as a research tool is that the
questionnaire does not provide the researcher an opportunity to gain a further
understanding of the responses received from participants (Robson, 2002).
Questionnaires were used in this study to gain vital information about
the participants, to get an understanding of the types of music students were
interested in as well as to measure the students feelings about the use of music
in the classroom. Questionnaires included both open and closed-‐ended
questions thereby yielding both qualitative and quantitative data. The
questions were carefully worded and sequenced to encourage responses from
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participants and they were peer-‐reviewed prior to distribution. There were two
questionnaires administered in this study: one at the beginning of the study to
obtain demographic information of participants as well as to gain an
understanding of the role of music in the participants lives and one during the
sixth session to understand student perceptions relating to the use of
background music in the classroom. Questionnaires were administered during
class time, and therefore I was able to clarify any confusion students had about
questions during this time. While the use of the questionnaire was valuable to
gain a surface-‐level understanding of students reactions to the use of music in
the classroom, the responses received often times lacked depth, and therefore,
the use of other research methods aided in gaining a better understanding of
the impact of using music in the classroom.
Participant Observation
Participant observation is where “you, as a researcher get involved in
the activities of the group, create rapport with group members and then, having
sought their consent, keenly observe the situation, interaction, site or
phenomenon” (Kumar, 2011, p. 129). The aim is for the researcher to
unobtrusively observe interactions in their natural setting, without disturbing
the existing dynamics in the setting (Kawulich, 2005). The greatest advantage
of participant observation is that it provides the researcher an opportunity to
gain a first hand experience in a particular setting, while attempting to
understand the phenomena taking place through taking notes, audio and video
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recordings as well as photography (Blaxter et al., 2006). Researchers attempt to
capture as much of the detail as possible through these methods and are able to
gain a better understanding of interactions taking place by watching and
listening to recordings and studying photos post-‐observation (Kawulich, 2005).
Observations can be recorded in either a descriptive format or systematically
through the use of predetermined categories or a scale (Kumar, 2011). The use
of both methods of recording observations can allow for the categorization of
observations, which can be useful when determining frequency of behaviors
observed while also allowing for additional descriptions (ibid).
One of the criticisms of participant observation is that the researcher
can introduce their own bias, particularly when recording observations. In this
case, if the observer is using pre-‐determined categories, they may miss out on
additional interactions taking place that do not fall within the selected
categories (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002). On the other hand, there is the risk of
missing out on interactions when making descriptive observation notes as well
as the possibility of bias in terms of what observations are recorded (ibid). Due
to the researcher being immersed into an environment with this method, there
is also the risk of the ‘Hawthorne Effect’ taking place, whereby participants
alter their behaviors due to their knowledge that they are being observed
(Kumar, 2011). In this case, what the researcher observes may not be the
normal behavior of the participants, in turn leading to biased conclusions
(Kawulich, 2005).
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In this study, I collected data using this method through both systematic
and descriptive observations as well as by audio recording certain discussions
and interactions taking place in the classroom. Systematic observations were
conducted through the use of a disruptive behavior sheet (Appendix A), which
included several pre-‐determined categories for the observation of student
behavior. Systematic observations were supplemented by additional notes
taken relating to the types of behaviors observed. Descriptive observations
were taken throughout the study, particularly at junctures where music was
used in the classroom, to record student reactions to the use of music. These
observations included notes about both the verbal reactions of students as well
as observations about body language and movements. I had not had exposure
to the class that I was conducting my research in prior to the beginning of my
study. The host teacher I was paired with had ensured that the students were
aware that I would be conducting research in the classroom prior to my arrival,
which made it easy for me to immerse myself in the setting. The use of
participant observation in this setting allowed me to gain a better
understanding of the classroom dynamics. The validity of this study was
enhanced through the use of participant observation along with the use of other
data collection methods (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002).
Teacher-‐Researcher Field Notes
Anderson and Arsenault (1998) define field notes as “the researcher’s
detailed and descriptive record of the research experience, including
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observations, a reconstruction of dialogue, personal reflections, a physical
description of the setting, and decisions made that alter or direct the research
process” (p. 136). The use of field notes is an unobtrusive method that can be
employed to record both the behaviors and observations of participants in a
study either during or after an observed phenomenon (Kumar, 2011). Field
notes can also be used to reflect upon what is being observed as well as the
research process as a whole to make changes that affect the research outcomes.
In this case, researchers should record their “progress, feelings, thoughts,
insecurities and insights” (Blaxter et al., 2006, p.48) in order to allow readers to
understand the processes which led to changes in the research. Through this
reflective process, field notes can “contribute to the professional development
of the researcher” (Koshy, 2005, p. 97), which is one of primary aims of
conducting classroom based action research.
When using field notes as a data collection tool, the researcher must
ensure that if they are unable to write detailed notes during an observation,
they complete their notes in detail as soon as possible to ensure that data is not
lost (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998). This is imperative, as incomplete field notes,
can lead to bias in research findings. Critics of field notes claim that researcher
bias is characteristic for this method, as it is difficult for an observer to record
what is truly occurring (Hopkins, 2008). Furthermore, due to the researcher
being an ‘insider’ in the case of action research, objectivity can be an issue with
field notes, as the observer may be recording what they deem as being
important, thereby losing out on data of other interactions (Denscombe, 2003).
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Therefore, field notes provide only a partial and subjective view of what is
happening in an environment.
In this study, field notes were used to record observations that took
place in the classroom both prior to and during class time. These observations
included recording aspects of student behavior, student engagement with
music and discussions about music that took place organically, as well as
reactions to music introduced in the classroom. Successes and challenges of
each session were also recorded at the end of each class to ensure I was able to
write down my thoughts and feelings in the moment they occurred. The
advantage of working with a host teacher was that we set meetings to debrief
each class, and these discussions I had with my host teacher relating to my
study were recorded, providing me an opportunity to corroborate her thoughts
with my own notes I had taken. Furthermore, I was able to write down any
thoughts or ideas I had during the period of my study at any time, which aided
in forming ideas about my research. The process of reflecting and writing field
notes was especially important, as this process guided me in making changes
with the way in which I used music in the classroom throughout the study. Field
notes were used in conjunction with other research methods to ensure I was
able to get a full understanding of the students, the classroom context and the
impacts of using music in the RE classroom.
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Research Design
The study began with my observing the students for the first three
weeks to provide a sense of what the behavior and level of engagement of
students was like prior to the intervention of music. These observations were
primarily recorded as field notes, and additional notes were added upon
reflecting about student behavior and engagement with the host teacher.
Additionally, a disruptive behavior observation sheet (Appendix A) was used to
tally the types of disruptive behavior that occurred in the classroom, both
during teaching time as well as while students were completing tasks, and the
way in which they were addressed by the host teacher and I. Additional field
notes were also written on the disruptive behavior observation sheet to
provide further context to the behaviors of students as well as our responses.
Background music was introduced in the fourth session and was used in
two different ways. The first was the use of music while students were
completing an activity and the second was while watching a video, where the
video had words and images projected, and a song played in the background.
Music was not used in the fifth session due to a misunderstanding with the host
teacher. The host teacher and I had a conversation about this incident, which
we were able to resolve and in turn we also discussed additional ways in which
background music could be used, as I felt that I needed to do more with the
music than just observe student reactions. Music was reintroduced in the sixth
session at three different junctures in the class with the aim of using
background music as an instructional tool. Music was used on two occasions
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while students completed tasks, but in this case students were required to
complete the assigned task by the end of a selected song. Additionally, students
watched a video that provided a walkthrough of the Great Mosque of Cordoba,
while an instrumental song played in the background of the video. A
questionnaire was administered in the sixth session, to gain an understanding
of student responses to the use of music in the classroom. Due to a three-‐week
gap between the sixth and seventh sessions, students in the seventh session
were exposed to music from the sixth session in order to determine whether
this music would aid in ‘triggering’ their memory in relation to the content
covered in the sixth session. Additionally, background music was used as an
instructional tool while students were completing a task on one occasion in the
seventh session. Background music was also used while students were writing
poetry, but this time, students were not required to complete their poems by
the end of a selected song. Students also watched a video that provided a
walkthrough of Medinat Al Zahra with an instrumental song playing in the
background. The aim in session 8 was to exclude music from the lesson plan, in
order to observe student behavior while completing tasks. Despite this, music
was used as an instructional tool while students were completing a task due to
the off-‐task behaviors of students when completing the task without music.
Session 9 began with music used in session 8 as a way to ‘trigger’ student
memory, but music was not used further in this session, as the host teacher was
away due to illness, and a substitute teacher joined me to teach this week.
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The music selection used in this study included instrumental music as
well as popular music. Allen and Wood (2013) suggest that selecting music that
can be linked to content can enhance the learning experience for students.
Taking this into consideration, several of the songs selected for this study had a
Spanish sound to them, as we were teaching about Al-‐Andalus (Muslim Spain).
These musical pieces included a selection of instrumental Andalusian guitar
songs, popular songs, such as Santana’s ‘Maria Maria’, which is Spanish infused,
as well as Bollywood songs that also have a Spanish feel to them. Popular music
was also used in this study, which included Cold Play’s ‘Viva la Vida’ and
Drake’s ‘Just hold on we’re going home’. Allowing students to select music that
is played in the classroom can provide them a sense of ownership as well as
build a sense of community within the classroom (Allen & Wood, 2013).
Therefore, these songs were selected based on student responses to a
questionnaire that was administered at the beginning of this study.
Students were given a questionnaire at the beginning of the study
inquiring about their musical preferences and their views on the impacts of
music. A second questionnaire was administered in the sixth session, which
provided an understanding of student perceptions relating to the use of music
in the classroom. Two focus groups were conducted in the morning, prior to the
eighth session, and participants were chosen based on attendance of students
during the course of the study as well as the willingness of students to
participate in a focus group. An additional focus group was scheduled for the
last class, which would have been a class discussion in the ninth session. Due to
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the host teacher being absent, the attendance was extremely low, and the
students who were present had not attended enough sessions during the study
to be able to provide a complete description of their experiences with music in
the classroom.
Ethical Considerations
“Empirical research in education inevitably carries ethical issues,
because it involves collecting data from people, and about people” (Punch,
2009, p. 49). For this reason, careful consideration was given throughout the
research process to maintain the ethical integrity of this study. In order to
ensure transparency, all aims and pertinent details of the research were
disclosed to both the students and parents prior to the beginning of the study.
Anderson and Arsenault (1998) state that written informed consent is crucial
and should be obtained from research participants. The consent forms
(Appendix B) were distributed prior to my arrival, which included an
explanation of the research process and research being conducted. The consent
form also outlined the confidentiality and rights of the participants, including
the right to withdraw from the research at any point in time without
explanation, the data collection methods that were used to gather data as well
as my contact information in the event parents and participants had any further
questions about the research (Hopkins, 2008). Voluntary informed consent was
obtained from students and parents prior to beginning the study.
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Hopkins (2008) states that “the confidentiality of information supplied
by research subjects and the anonymity of respondents must be respected” (p.
201). This was achieved by ensuring that all data was kept confidential and
pseudonyms were used in all transcripts of audio recordings as well as
throughout this dissertation, to ensure anonymity. Additionally, the identity of
the host teacher, whose classroom this study was conducted in, has also been
kept anonymous and an attempt has been made to exclude information in this
dissertation that could reveal the identity of the host teacher. Furthermore, due
to my role as a teacher-‐researcher, private conversations that took place
between the students and I were not included so as to maintain confidentiality.
This was particularly important as a breach of confidentiality could result in in
the harm of research participants (Anderson & Arsenault, 1998).
During the course of the study, I was careful when selecting the
background music that was utilized. This was to ensure that music with
derogatory language, profanity, and negative messages were not used in the
classroom. This was particularly important due to the fact that this study was
conducted in a faith-‐based classroom with adolescent students. Music can also
have an impact on the mood of students and can sometimes elicit negative
emotions (Allen & Wood, 2013). Therefore, I was aware of student reactions to
the musical selections throughout the study, and ensured that if music had an
adverse effect on students, I had a discussion with students to determine how
they were feeling (Punch, 2009). Through this discussion, I would determine
what the appropriate course of action would be which could include changing
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the type of music utilized and if required, discontinuing the use of music in the
classroom.
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Chapter 5: Findings Introduction
During the data analysis process, qualitative data is frequently organized
into themes and patterns revealed through the research (Koshy, 2005). The
data in this study has been analyzed and categorized thematically using a
qualitative data analysis model developed by Braun and Clarke (2006). Braun
and Clarke (2006) suggest that qualitative data can be analyzed at a ‘semantic’
level whereby “themes are identified within the explicit or surface meanings of
the data” (p. 13) or a ‘latent’ level, which “goes beyond the semantic content of
the data, and starts to identify or examine the underlying ideas, assumptions
and conceptualizations” (p. 13). The data collected in this study was analyzed
using a ‘semantic’ approach and was further categorized using predetermined
themes, guided by the research questions (Kumar, 2011). Consequently, the
themes presented in this chapter will focus on student engagement, student
behavior and selection of music. Themes and patterns found in this study will
be supported through the direct quotation and paraphrasing of data collected
via questionnaires, focus groups, observations and field notes. Further analysis
using the ‘latent’ approach was also conducted, but will be presented in the
Discussion and Conclusion chapter.
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Music and Engagement Music promoted on-‐task behaviors Prior to the introduction of music into the classroom, observations were
conducted to determine the on-‐task behavior of students, using the disruptive
behavior sheet (Appendix A). The behavior sheet was also utilized to conduct
observations once music had been introduced into the classroom in order to
compare on-‐task behavior, both with and without music in the classroom. The
number of observed behavioral management incidents that took place while
students were completing tasks was higher prior to the intervention of music
(Table 1). Upon the introduction of music, the number of behavioral
management incidents that took place while students were completing tasks,
decreased significantly – 45 incidents in total without music, 21 incidents in
total with music (Table 2) – which implies that students were more on-‐task
with the introduction of background music into the classroom.
Table 1: Disruptive Behavior While Completing Tasks – Without Music
Method Used to Manage Behavior
Observation 1 – Jan 18th
Observation 2 – Jan 27th
Observation 3 – Feb 1st
Use of voice to create disapproval, sound warning
4 3 4
Use of eye contact 2 2 1 Facial expression indicating disapproval/warning
3 4 2
Deliberate ignoring of minor disruptive behavior
5 4 6
Use of praise or similar device to focus disruptive student more positively
1 0 1
Reminder of classroom rules 0 0 0 Straightforward direction/correction
2 1 0
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Issuing warnings before decisive action
0 0 0
Isolation from friends 0 0 0 Isolation from group 0 0 0 Use of body language/movement around the classroom
0 0 0
Total = 45 17 14 14
Table 2: Disruptive Behavior While Completing Tasks – With Music
Method Used to Manage Behavior
Observation 4 February 8th
Observation 6 – Mar 1st
Observation 7 – Mar 29th
Use of voice to create disapproval, sound warning
2 0 1
Use of eye contact 0 1 1 Facial expression indicating disapproval/warning
2 2 2
Deliberate ignoring of minor disruptive behavior
3 3 2
Use of praise or similar device to focus disruptive student more positively
0 0 0
Reminder of classroom rules 0 0 0 Straightforward direction/correction
1 0 1
Issuing warnings before decisive action
0 0 0
Isolation from friends 0 0 0 Isolation from group 0 0 0 Use of body language/movement around the classroom
0 0 0
Total = 21 8 6 7 This finding was further supported in session 8, when I had decided not
to use music in the class in order to observe on-‐task behaviors of students. This
is what resulted:
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Table 3: Observation Field Notes Date Comments April 5th We gave the class a task to work on (4 questions that the
students had to answer on a piece of paper). For the first 3 minutes, students weren’t doing anything and were just talking to one another. I then told the students that I am going to play a song for them…The students got quiet and actually were on-‐task. The classroom went from rowdy to minimal noise with conversations reverting to being ‘on topic’.
In this case, the off-‐task behavior that was being exhibited by students
was managed with the implementation of background music while students
were completing the task, resulting in on-‐task behavior.
Not all students initially engaged in activities with the music playing. In
session 4, I introduced music into the classroom for the first time, and observed
the following:
Table 4: Observation Field Notes Date Comments February 8th I turned on the music, but not all students are engaged in the
activity. There are only 5 or 6 students (out of 11) who are gluing things onto the timeline. The other students are sitting at their desks, just sitting there. A couple of them were talking and not taking part. The host teacher went and spoke to the students who weren’t engaging and told them to get up and take part in the activity. They finally got up and started to help out.
This indicates that music is not the only factor that can account for
student on-‐task behavior; in this case, motivation from the host teacher seemed
to be essential.
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Music as a motivator to complete tasks on time
In sessions 6 and 7, I implemented a strategy whereby students were
given a particular task to complete by the end of a song. In session 8, the off-‐
task behavior exhibited by students when given a task to complete, prompted
me to use this strategy. Observations suggest that students were highly
motivated with this strategy:
Table 5: Observation Field Notes Date Comments March 1st When I said that they would have to finish the task by the end of
the song, Girl 5 said: “Oh like Jeopardy?” and I replied “Yes like Jeopardy.” She looked at her group and said “Okay guys, let’s go!!” Once I started the song, a Boy 4 said: “Guys, the song is starting!! We need to read!” while Boy 3 said: “This is awesome. Let’s make sure we get this done guys.” When the song was close to ending, Girl 2 said: “Guys the song is almost over, lets hurry up!” while Boy 2 said: “It’s over. Thank god we’re done.” Girl 5 also said: “Go team! We actually finished!” and proceeded to give one of her group members a high-‐five.
March 29th Girl 5: “Oh we are doing this Jeopardy thing again? That was so awesome last time!” Boy 2: “I love working to this song.” Boy 1: “Are we actually going to finish this on time? The song is almost done.”
April 5th …I then told the students that I am going to play a song for them and they need to finish the task by the end of the song…At the end of the song, I asked the students if they were done the task and the majority of them were finished.
These observations were supported by student responses to questions
relating to how this strategy worked in the classroom:
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Interviewer: “Do you remember how I played songs while you were doing your reading task, and I asked you to finish the task by the end of the song?” Boy 2: “Yeah.” Boy 3: “Yeah. Yeah.” Interviewer: “Do you think playing the song helped so you knew how much time you had to finish the task?” Boy 1: “I don’t know if it was the song, rather than you just saying that we need to finish it by the end of this time.” Interviewer: “So it gave you a time frame?” Boy 2: “Yeah, I think like even when I have a due date, I’ll finish it by the due date, but like I’ll always leave it to the end sometimes. But if it’s like a 4-‐minute song, you’re going to do it right then, just to finish it by the end of the song. And if you have a time limit, you’re more likely to do it within that time limit, because it’s like a challenge and you like want to achieve the challenge.” Boy 1: “I also think that like when the teacher says about the time thing, and the teacher just says that the time has started, it kind of doesn’t trigger anything, and you’re just like okay whatever. But like, when you actually played the song, I guess it kind of set a reality that there actually is a time limit. And like, when you just say that there is a time limit, you can always tell the teacher, alright, no it hasn’t been the time or whatever. But when you actually started the song, it was like okay we only have until the end of the song. Like there’s no extending the song.” -‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th Interviewer: “As part of my research, I was playing songs for you during tasks and told you that you had until a song was done to finish a task. Did you find that to be helpful at all?” Girl 2: “I guess it was because it was like oh crap, I have to finish this quick or like I have time. And it helped to like know how much time there was to finish something.” Girl 1: “I guess there was like a timing right? So like since you like the song, so you worked through it, so it like helped you finish the task faster. And by the time the song was finished, you were finished as well and you actually enjoyed it.”
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Interviewer “What do you think?” [Question directed to girl 3] Girl 3: “Yeah I agree. Basically I liked the songs and so it helped me stay on task and basically I knew how much time I had to finish it by, so it helped me concentrate and make sure I got my work done on time.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
These findings suggest that the use of music in the classroom was useful
for students as a time keeping tool as well as a source of motivation for
students to not only complete tasks, but to complete tasks on time.
Not all students reacted to music in such a positive manner. For example
in session 6, I observed Boy 6 put one of his headphones into his ears during a
group task, suggesting that he may not have liked the musical selection. This did
not prevent him from participating in the group activity, and his group had
completed the task by the end of the song. In session 6, all groups had
completed the task by the end of the selected song, while in session 7 all but
one of the groups had completed the task given by the end of the song. In
session 8, the majority of groups had completed the task, but this was an
impromptu use of music, and therefore the song was selected on the spot. This
indicates that song selection is important when using music as a time keeping
tool, as the duration of a song has to be appropriate for the time required to
complete an activity.
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Music can help students to focus and concentrate In the second questionnaire that I administered in the study (N=13), I
asked students whether listening to music while completing reading tasks
helped them concentrate in class. Almost 70% of participants (9 of 13)
responded that they agreed that music did help them concentrate, while the
other 30% of respondents (4 of 13) neither agreed nor disagreed, with none of
the participants fully disagreeing with the statement. Students were also asked
whether they found listening to music while completing reading tasks to be
distracting. The results were the same, with 70% of students reporting that
they were not distracted by the music and 30% of students neither agreed nor
disagreed that music was a distraction. This indicates, that music may have
provided students a sense of concentration, which resulted in on-‐task behavior
in the classroom when music was playing. Contrary to these findings, in session
6, one student commented that the music was distracting him due to the
volume, but upon turning down the music, he said that it was no longer a
distraction for him.
Students who participated in the focus groups all found music to be a
source of concentration and focus:
Boy 2: “When you played the music it really helped me concentrate on what we were supposed to do, because I’m used to listening to music when doing stuff.” Boy 1: “Yeah I agree. Like the room got really quiet when you put the music on, and so that helped me concentrate because I could just hear the music in the background but like it didn’t bother me.” Interviewer: “What do you think?” [Question directed to boy 3]
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Boy 3: “I think it helped me focus too. Like it was just there, but like he said, everyone was actually quiet and so the music was the only noise and so I was able to get my work done.” -‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th Girl 2: “Yeah like the music made it less boring and like I could just do my work.” Girl 3: “Same here. I like wasn’t bothered by anyone else and could just focus.” Girl 1: “Yeah I agree.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
During the course of the study, I also used three YouTube clips that were
not narrated, but displayed words, images and videos with music playing in the
background. The songs that accompanied these clips produced various levels of
focus on the videos:
Table 6: Observation Field Notes
Date Comments February 8th Once the video began, the student’s eyes were glued to the
video. As I looked around the room, many of the students were singing along with the song [Coldplay – Viva La Vida] and their bodies were also moving along with the beat, but none of the students were talking to one another or looking away from the screen.
March 1st Once we put the Cordoba video on, the students were very quiet. Most of the students were looking at the screen, but Girl 4 was on her phone, while Boy 6 was looking out of the window. Overall, the students seemed to be attentive and interested.
March 29th As the video was playing, there were 2 students who were talking while the rest of the students were intently paying attention at first. Then, there was one student who was falling asleep and another who was staring off into space.
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After the February 8th session, my host teacher and I discussed the
impact of the music in the video on the student’s focus:
Table 7: Observation Field Notes
Date Comments February 8th [The host teacher] and I talked about how the Coldplay song in
the history video really helped keep the attention of the students. Even though they were all singing the song, they were actually paying attention to the video and we were able to have an insightful conversation about the video afterwards.
When asked about whether the music in the ‘Great Mosque of Cordoba’
video shown on March 1st helped students to keep their interest in the video,
77% of students (10 of 13) agreed that the music helped keep their interest,
while 2 respondents neither agreed or disagreed and 1 student responded that
the music in the video did not help keep their attention. The student who
disagreed is the student who was observed looking out of the window.
Music and Behavior Students Enjoyed Music in Class Almost 85% of students (11 of 13) who completed questionnaire 2
reported that they enjoyed listening to music while completing tasks in class.
Students also exemplified several behaviors in class as well as made several
comments that suggested that they enjoyed the music in class throughout the
study.
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Table 8: Observation Field Notes
Date Comments February 8th When I turned on the Arabic music for the timeline activity, one
student commented: “This is perfect!” while a couple of students were dancing to the beat of the Arabic song. Another student said: “I really like this song. I need to Shazam it!” When I turned on the ‘What is History’ video, students made several comments such as “Hey I love this song!” and “Can we play it again?” Most students were singing along with the song, and two students were tapping their pen on the desk to the beat of the song while boy 6 was playing ‘air drums’.
March 1st When I turned on Senorita while the students were completing their task, two students said: “I love this song!” One student was dancing in his seat while another student was clapping his hands to the beat of the song.
March 29th I turned on Drake – Hold on we’re going home while students were completing a group task. Several of the students were singing and dancing to the music while completing the task.
April 5th Students were given a task to read a story and create a tableau. I didn’t play music during this task and one student commented: “This is so boring. Maybe if you would play music that would make this more interesting”
Students further commented on how they enjoyed listening to music in
class:
Interviewer: “Do you enjoy listening to music in class?” Boy 3: “I love it.” Boy 1: “Me too. It’s so awesome.” Boy 3: “Yeah. Like the other day I was dancing to the song and it just pumped me up!” Boy 2: “Yeah I really like listening to the music in class too.” Interviewer: “Why do you enjoy it?” Boy 2: “It’s the kind of music that we listen to.” Boy 3: “Exactly.”
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-‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th Interviewer: “Have you enjoyed listening to music in class?” Girl 3: “Yeah.” Girl 1: “Yeah.” Interviewer: “Why have you enjoyed it?” Girl 2: “Because it made it less boring.” Girl 3: “Plus they are songs that we like listen to.” Girl 1: “Like the Arabic thing we don’t actually listen to. But it’s catchy.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
While several students indicated that they enjoyed the music, I recorded
a couple of incidents where one student demonstrated behaviors that indicated
that they were not enjoying the music. In session 4, when I played the Arabic
music during the timeline activity, Boy 6 put his own headphones into his ear
and was singing his own song out loud. In session 7, Boy 6 said to turn off the
music because he found it ‘annoying’. I asked him if it was because it was
distracting and he said, “no, it’s because I don’t like this song.” While this was
the case in these two incidents, when we watched the video with the Coldplay
song as background music, it was boy 6 who showed his enjoyment while
listening to that song, as he was playing ‘air drums’. This indicates that song
selection is important when evaluating enjoyment of music.
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Music can impact mood All participants in the study who completed questionnaire 1 reported
that they believe music has the power to change your mood. Students provided
further responses:
Boy 4: “Gets you sad, energized or mad.” Girl 4: “It can sooth you, excite you, etcetera.” Boy 5: “The tone, volume and lyrics of the music can affect your mood positively or negatively.” Boy 2: “If I’m sad and listen to happy music I usually get happy.” Boy 6: “It gives me power.” Boy 7: “It has different meanings so it can relate and change how you feel.” Boy 8: “Because it stimulates your emotions, enhances your imagination and helps to keep you relaxed or pump you up.” Girl 5: “Lyrics and memories from the songs have an affect on my mood.” Boy 10: “It depends on the type of music. Fast beat music is energizing while slow beat music is calming.” -‐ Questionnaire 1, January 25th
10 out of 12 participants also reported that they listen to music to help
them get through tough times. Students provided the following rationales:
Boy 5: “Many songs have relatable lyrics and music can take your mind off of things.” Boy 2: “Helps to change my mood.” Boy 6: “It makes me feel good.” Boy 8: “Because it changes my mood and cheers me up.”
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Boy 10: “Music helps me from getting away from the rough times and I use music to zone out negativity.” -‐ Questionnaire 1, January 25th
Observations were also recorded relating to student reactions while
listening to music:
Table 9: Observation Field Notes and Audio Recordings
Date Comments January 25th The student who had his iPhone plugged into the speakers
then said: “we need to listen to less depressing music” and changed the song to a techno song. He then said: “This is much better. This song always gets me into a good mood.”
February 8th While listening to Arabic music during the timeline activity, one student commented: “This song is so cheery! It’s cheering me up!” and another one said: “Me too! It’s like one of those songs that you don’t know but like it makes you happy.”
March 1st While listening to Bollywood music, students commented: “I love Indian music! Even though I have no idea what they’re saying it’s so fun because it’s all happy happy.” Another student said: “Yeah this song is awesome and can definitely make me happy, but like some Indian music is so depressing and you just get depressed listening to it.”
March 29th While listening to Drake – Hold on we’re going home, students commented: “This Drake song is more chill. Makes me feel all mellow. But like usually Drake pumps me up. His lyrics and beats are so boss.” Another student said: “Yeah this song is defs chill. But like I still love it. It keeps me going.” While listening to Spanish guitar music when writing poetry one student commented: “I don’t know this but like I can really jam to this music. It’s so chill and makes me feel all chill.”
Students also commented about how music can impact their mood in the
classroom:
Boy 2: “Like in a normal situation, a teacher would just tell you to work. But if you play the music, then it just like gets you in a different mood kind of thing. It changes your mood.”
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Boy 1: “Exactly.” -‐ Focus group 1, April 5th Girl 1: “Yeah. I think that like it helped us get pumped up.” Girl 3: “Yeah. Like if you had played more depressing songs then we would all probably get all depressed.” Girl 1: “Like slow songs would have made us probably fall asleep. But like you picked songs that were perfect because they kinda motivated us and like we just liked them.” Girl 2: “Yeah. Because we liked them, they actually got us into the mood to like work and stuff.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th Music can help with memory recall All students who completed questionnaire 2 agreed with the following
statement: “You can jog my memory of an event or situation if you remind me of
the song/music that was playing when the event or situation happened.” I
decided to implement a strategy to evaluate if this could work in the classroom.
On March 1st, I had played a Bollywood song called ‘Senorita’ while students
were completing a task. On March 29th, I played this song at the beginning of
class to try and help students remember the content we had covered on March
1st. This is what resulted:
Teacher-‐Researcher: “Okay, just listen to this and tell me if you remember.” [I play the Senorita song] “Remember this?” Student 1: “Oh yeah!!” Student 2: “I remember the music but I can’t remember what we did with it.”
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Student 3: “I remember the song but I can’t remember what we were dong.” Student 4: “We were looking at like different cultures and those pages in the book.” Multiple students: “Oh yeah!!” Student 3: “We were in different groups though and like each group had a different topic.” Student 5: “I totally remember the song.” Teacher-‐Researcher: “Of course you remember the song. You were jamming to it.” Student 5: “Oh, oh! I remember! The coexistence of the cultures in Cordoba.” Teacher-‐Researcher: “That’s right! Coexistence of the cultures in Cordoba.” Student 2: “Oh yeah! And then we talked about the architecture and all that stuff.” Teacher-‐Researcher: “Okay, let’s go back to the beginning.” Student 1: “We talked about the Mosque of Cordoba and how it became a church.” Student 6: “Oh yeah! And the people that came inside the thing, and they…” Student 1: “And they started praying. The Muslims started praying inside of the mosque.” Student 7: “I remember, I remember!” -‐ Audio Recording, March 29th
This conversation with the students continued, whereby the students
were able to recall all of the details from the class held on March 1st in extensive
detail. Students who participated in the focus groups provided further detail
regarding their views on this incident:
Interviewer: “So do you think using music in the classroom can be helpful?”
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Boy 2: “Yeah.” Interviewer: “Why or how?” Boy 3: “Well for example, like last week…” Boy 2: “That’s what I was going to say!” Boy 3: “You played that song from like 3 weeks ago or whatever, and it just sparked our memories, and helped us remember what we were doing in class.” Boy 2: “Yeah it was like a chain reaction.” Boy 3: “Yeah it just like puts us back into the setting of when we first heard the song when we were reading what we had to do and that just helped us remember.” Boy 1: “I think it also helps that if someone notices the song while the lesson is going on, then when you think back, you would be like ‘oh yeah, I noticed this about the song while we were doing this.’ So it’s not only noticing or like remembering the song after the fact, you have to remember the song during the actual lesson or like not the lesson, but like whatever activity you’re doing.” Interviewer: “So do you think it was the song that was important?” Boy 3: “Yeah like the song kinda just initiated it.” Boy 1: “The song helped to initiate it.” Boy 2: “Because someone said Spanish and then we were like ‘oh Cordoba!’” Boy 3: “Yeah that sparked the initial memory.” Boy 1: “Bur after that, it was like everyone adding onto each other.” Boy 3: “Yeah it initiated the original memory of Cordoba. Like it triggered the memory of Cordoba.” Boy 1: “And as soon as we remembered Cordoba, we remembered the mosque.” -‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th Girl 1: “Cause when you’re like, what did we do 3 weeks ago? No one like actually remembered. And then you played the song and then some people put in their input on what was playing then, then they’re like ‘oh yeah, now we remember.”
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Girl 3: “So the song helped us to remember that first memory, and then there was like a build up of conversation, because once you know when you listened to a song, you can give your input and be like ‘oh we did this, we did that.’ And that’s why we were all like ‘oh yeah’, because then we remembered what we were doing.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
This suggests that playing ‘Senorita’ may have helped some students
trigger an initial memory, which was then built upon through dialogue amongst
students in the classroom, allowing students to recollect what was taught to
them three weeks prior.
During the focus groups, I also asked students to recall a video that they
had watched in class on February 8th. This is what resulted:
Interviewer: “So a few weeks ago, we watched a video in class, it was called ‘What is history?’ Do you guys remember that video at all?” Boy 1: “I don’t remember that video.” Boy 3: “No I don’t think I remember.” Boy 2: “No I don’t think I remember either.” Interviewer: “Do you guys remember the video that had the Coldplay Song in it? Boy 2: “Yes!” Boy 3: “Oh yes!” Boy 1: “Yeah!!” Interviewer: “Do you remember what the video was about?” Boy 2: “It was similar to the Big Bang Theory video. Like the aspect of it.” Boy 3: “Yeah it just went through like the different time periods.”
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Boy 1: “Yeah it went through the different time periods and showed all of the history up until now.” Boy 3: “There was also a quote at the end that went something along the lines of ‘History is not only the past but it is the future.’” Boy 1: “That’s so cool.” Interviewer: “What is so cool?” Boy 1: “That the song totally helped us remember it.” Boy 2: “Yeah totally.” -‐Focus Group 1, April 5th Interviewer: “Do you remember the video we watched in class a few weeks ago called ‘What is History?’” Girl 2: “What is history? Umm…” Girl 1: “Umm…I can’t really remember.” Girl 3: “Uhh…What was it about?” Interviewer: “You don’t remember it?” Girl 1/2/3: “No.” Interviewer: “Do you remember, it had the Coldplay song in the background.” Girl 1: “Oh yeah!!! That Coldplay song!” [hums song] Girl 2: “Oh yeah!!” Girl 3: “Yeah that video! I remember!” Interviewer: “Do you remember what the video was about?” Girl 2: “It was about 9/11 and like random stuff?” Girl 3: “All the past events that happened.” Girl 2: “Yeah all the past events, like important people were on it and important events from the world were shown.”
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Girl 1: “Yeah there were important events and people on it, like presidents and like pyramids and statues and stuff. A lot of figures.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
These incidents illustrate that music can be a powerful tool in helping
students remember content from the classroom when prompted by a song
which they know.
The Sound of Music Students enjoy listening to certain genres of music Students were asked about their musical preferences in questionnaire 1.
While respondents were provided 12 genres of music to select from in the
questionnaire, all respondents ‘favorite’ genre of music was divided between
four categories, with Hip Hop music being the most popular amongst students
(Figure 1). When asked about their least favorite genre of music, Heavy Metal
music was selected as being least popular among students (Figure 2).
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Figure 1
Figure 2
When asked about why they do not like particular genres of music,
students responded:
Boy 4: “I don’t like the way it sounds.”
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Pop Hip Hop Rock R&B
Student's Favorite Genre of Music
Number of Respondents
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Hip Hop Jazz Rock Heavy Metal
Country
Student's Least Preferred Genre of Music
Number of Respondents
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Boy 3: “It hurts my ears when I listen to it.” Boy 2: “I do not like [country music] because it sounds very annoying.” Boy 6: “Because it sounds bad.” Girl 5: “I don’t like screaming, gives me a headache.” -‐ Questionnaire 1, January 25th
In a conversation that I observed take place before class began, students
had a debate over musical preference:
Boy 6: “I hate rap music.” Girl 4: “What? Why?” Boy 6: “I don’t consider rap music to be music. It sounds bad.” Girl 4: “Are you serious? I like love rap music. If anything, country music sounds bad.” -‐ Observation 5, February 22nd
These findings indicate that the way music sounds to participants is
important when making musical selections.
Song selection is important When students were asked whether they felt using music in the RE
classroom could enhance their learning, student responses implied that the
selection of music is important:
Girl 4: “Could be hard because not everyone enjoys the same type of music.” Girl 1: “Depends on the lyrics and the sound and beat.” Boy 2: “If you use the right song, it could help teach lessons.”
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Boy 6: “If you don’t use proper music then it will be distracting.” Boy 8: “As long as the music and the lyrics relate.” Boy 10: “The music has to be related to what we’re learning.” -‐ Questionnaire 1, January 25th
Based on these responses, students had concerns over the use of music
in the RE classroom, as there are multiple factors that need to be taken into
consideration such as lyrics, beat, and relevance of selected music. These
concerns were elaborated upon in the focus groups:
Boy 1: “The reason I like rap is for the lyrics.” Boy 3: “And singing it.” Boy 1: “So when I listen to rap songs I need to listen to the lyrics. So then I start thinking of the lyrics and then I start singing along. When I listen to a song like Burn or something, then I can listen to the beat and just listen to the song and then I can actually focus. It’s like background music. With rap, I can’t do that.” Boy 2: [Speaking about how ‘Senorita’ aided in remembering the March 1st class content] “I feel like the only reason it worked though was because you played Spanish music while we were doing a Spanish themed lesson.” Boy 3: “Yeah it should be related.” Boy 2: “So like if you had played rap in the middle of the lesson, it would not have gone over that well.” Boy 1: “Yeah it wouldn’t have gone over so well because we would have just started singing the song, and it would have been like, what are we even doing here? But because you played that Spanish song, and I was like ‘oh it’s a Spanish song!’” Boy 2: “But see, if it was something like Eminem playing, like we would have said ‘oh weird, Eminem.’” Boy 1: “Unless Eminem had something to do with the class.”
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Boy 2: “Unless there was like a line or something, nobody would have remembered. But since it was Spanish it started that.” Boy 1: “But building on that, say there was a line in a song and then you specifically said ‘oh listen to this line of the song’, then everyone would remember why you showed us the line of the song and that would bring back memories.” -‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th Girl 3: “Like the beat is important you know.” Girl 1: “Like when most people listen to music it’s more about the beat than it is the lyrics. Like when you played the Drake song, everyone loves Drake so that was really good because it wasn’t distracting. And then the Senorita song was good because it’s a cultural place, and we like to listen to Indian music and stuff. So that was good.” Girl 2: “And like, Senorita is like Spanish sounding, so it was cool how we were learning about Spain and you brought in an Indian song that sounded Spanish and I think it was even filmed in Spain.” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
These accounts indicate that music selection is important, both in terms
of creating an environment where students can focus as well in terms of the
relevance of the music to the lesson plan. Furthermore, students who
participated in the focus groups felt that knowing the music that was selected
was important as well, particularly for memory recall:
Boy 1: “We all knew the Spanish song, so that’s why it was in our memory.” Boy 3: “Yeah I think it worked a lot better because we knew the song.” Boy 2: “Yeah if we didn’t know the song, then we probably wouldn’t have remembered.” -‐ Focus Group 1, April 5th
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Girl 3: “Because we all knew that Indian song, we could recognize it when you played it because it wasn’t just some random song. So like that helped with remembering.” Girl 1: “I totally agree. I like love that song, so for me, when I heard it again I was like ‘oh yeah!’” -‐ Focus Group 2, April 5th
While knowing the song may be important for memory recall, whether
or not students knew the song that was playing while completing a task did not
necessarily impact on-‐task behaviors. In session 6, only 15% of students knew
Santana’s ‘Maria Maria’, yet most students agreed that the music in session 6
helped them concentrate on reading tasks. Students were also unfamiliar with
the instrumental Arabic music and Spanish Guitar music used in this study, but
based on observations, this did not prevent students from being engaged.
Conclusion The findings indicate that students for the most part enjoy listening to
background music in the classroom, but that the selection of music is important.
Background music can promote on-‐task behaviors, can aid students with
completing tasks on time and enhance focus and concentration in class.
Background music can also impact the mood of students and in this study had a
profound impact on students when remembering content. The following
section will explore the significance of these findings and whether or not these
findings support conclusions found in related literature.
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Chapter 6: Discussion & Conclusion
Introduction
The following chapter will discuss the significance of the findings, which
have been thematically organized based on the research questions of this study.
The discussion will focus on how the findings may be relevant to, as well as
build upon existing literature in the field. The discussion has been organized
into sections, which include the research questions, connections to existing
literature, classroom implications, and recommendations for future research.
Does introducing background music into the REC classroom have an impact
on student engagement?
Background music seemed to have a positive impact on most students,
in terms of on-‐task behavior. The reduced number of behavioral management
incidents that took place with the introduction of music while students were
completing tasks supports this. When music was not utilized in class, students
exhibited off-‐task behaviors, which were corrected upon the implementation of
background music.
Music also served as a source of motivation for students to complete
tasks on time. This was evidenced by students following instructions to
complete their assigned tasks by the end of a selected song. Students also
commented that this strategy was useful for them to keep track of the time they
had to complete a task. Furthermore, students seemed to have a sense of
urgency to complete tasks on time with music on, as indicated by their
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interactions with their peers. Some students also found music to be a source of
motivation for them while completing tasks because they enjoyed the music
selection. Not all students felt this way. One student exhibited behaviors, such
as listening to music on his own headphones, which suggests that he did not
like the music selected. Despite this, on all three occasions this strategy was
implemented in the study, the majority of groups, when given a task to
complete by the end of a song had accomplished their task on time.
Most students reported that listening to music while completing reading
tasks in class provided them with a sense of concentration. None of the students
reported music as being distracting for them while completing reading tasks.
When asked whether students listen to music while studying on questionnaire
1, 75% of students reported that they listen to music while they study. This
suggests that the use of music in the classroom while completing tasks may not
be a distraction, but rather can create an environment students are familiar
with. Students who participated in the focus groups reported that music
created an environment in which they could focus and concentrate on their
work. The positive response to music in the class may account for the on-‐task
behaviors exhibited by students.
Literature Connections
The benefits of using background music in the classroom to promote on-‐
task behaviors in this study are consistent with a number of other studies.
Davidson and Powell (1986) conducted a study in a science classroom with 26
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elementary students and found that on-‐task behaviors of students were
increased with the introduction of background music. White (2007) conducted
a study with 10 students who were mostly from low socioeconomic families,
and found that the introduction of background music positively impacted the
on-‐task performance of students in the study and student productivity was
increased. Savan (1999) also conducted a study with 10 boys aged 11 and 12
years old with emotional and behavioral difficulties, and found that listening to
Mozart aided in improving the on-‐task behaviors of students. Hallam et al.
(2002) also found that ‘typically behaved’ students listening to background
music in their study completed more mathematical problems than those
students who did not listen to background music. Additional studies have also
found that background music can effect task performance in science and
mathematic classrooms (Hallam & Price, 1998; Savan, 1998; Scott, 1970). This
indicates that background music may impact students’ ability to both focus and
concentrate.
Allen and Wood (2013) suggest that the use of background music in the
classroom helps students focus on tasks, as it covers up sounds from the
environment such as a student tapping a pencil or noise from the hallway. In
this case, students do not get distracted by the sounds from the environment,
and are able to stay on task and concentrate with background music playing.
This provides one plausible explanation for the on-‐task behavior of students in
this study as well as the self-‐reports from students that music helped them
concentrate on reading tasks. Furthermore, Patton et al. (1983) found that
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students listen to music while completing mathematics at home and that
students found music to be beneficial while they were studying. In this study,
introducing background music into the RE classroom may have created an
environment that students felt was conducive for them to concentrate and
complete tasks, as it was an environment they create for themselves at home.
The use of music as a timekeeping tool in the classroom is an example of
controlled motivation, whereby students are motivated to complete a task by
the end of a song due to the time pressure as well as the possible reward of
completing the task (Baeten et al., 2013). It has been found that individuals who
experience self-‐determined motivation, whereby they complete tasks based on
their own accord and for their own enjoyment, creates a more positive
environment (Black & Deci, 2000) and that this can lead to a higher degree of
happiness (Nix et al., 1999). While this may be the case, in this study, using
music as a timekeeping tool to increase motivation of students did not seem to
have a detrimental effect. This tool would have to be implemented for an
extended period of time to determine the long-‐term effects of motivation using
this strategy.
Implications and Recommendations
The use of background music as a way to promote on-‐task behaviors
from students can have a tremendous impact on the RE classroom. In this
study, the number of behavioral management incidents that took place was
decreased with the use of background music, which suggests that music can be
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an effective classroom management tool. This means that the teacher is
spending less time dealing with behavioral issues, and is therefore able to focus
their attention on students who may need their assistance while completing
tasks. Additionally, the on-‐task behaviors of students could lead to a positive
impact on student learning, as students are spending more time completing
tasks and learning information.
The fact that background music motivated students to finish tasks on
time also has implications for the classroom. RE teachers have a limited number
of hours with their students per week (typically two to three hours), and time is
often wasted due to tardiness of students, school assemblies, and classroom
announcements, among other reasons. Using background music could be a
strategy teachers use to keep their lesson plans on track by ensuring they keep
to the timings they set out in their lesson plans for particular tasks.
While background music had a positive impact on the on-‐task behaviors
of students in this study, it would be insightful to investigate the on-‐task
behaviors of RE students ages 12 to 14. Student attendance is typically higher
for this age range, and therefore, utilizing music to increase engagement could
be extremely impactful on this demographic. Furthermore, teenagers have been
found to listen to approximately three hours of music per day (Hallam et al.,
2002), suggesting that music is an integral part of their daily lives. Therefore, it
would be interesting to conduct a study to determine whether students ages 12
to 14 would find the same level of concentration from listening to background
music, as the participants did in this study. Additionally, it would be worth
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investigating whether music as a source of motivation to complete tasks on
time is sustainable. It would be valuable to examine whether the on-‐task
behavior and motivation to complete tasks on time found in this study was due
to music being a novelty in the classroom and whether this strategy continues
to work once the novelty wears off. This is particularly important to investigate,
as music was not typically utilized in the classroom in which this study was
undertaken, prior to my conducting this research. Therefore, the findings of this
study may have been influenced by the novelty of music, which could account
for students generally responding positively to the use of music in the
classroom.
Does introducing background music into the REC classroom have an impact
on student behavior?
Most students reported that they enjoyed listening to music in class.
They exhibited behaviors such as singing, dancing, clapping, and moving their
bodies, as well as made remarks that suggests that they enjoyed the music in
class. Not all students enjoyed all of the music that was utilized in this study.
This was exhibited by one student who listened to music on his headphones in
one class and making a negative remark towards music selection in another
class.
Students believe that music has the power to impact ones mood. They
reported that music can have a positive or negative effect on mood and that
music has the ability to make them sad, happy, calm and energized, among
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other emotions. Particular songs can also have an impact on students’ moods.
Some students reported that listening to ‘slow songs’ (i.e. songs with a slow
beat and tempo) in class would result in students being less energized, while
‘upbeat’ songs would lead to students being more energized. Student behaviors
such as dancing and clapping suggest that the background music in this study
may have helped students with becoming energized. While this was the case,
limited data was collected relating to how music changed students moods
through the course of this study.
Music played a crucial role in aiding students with remembering
content covered in class. All students who completed questionnaire 2 believed
that hearing a particular song could help them remember an event or situation
that occurred while they were listening to that song. This was successfully
tested in this study, while utilizing songs that the students were familiar with.
According to students, playing a song while completing a task and hearing the
song at a later date in the classroom helped to trigger their memory, and put
them back into the setting of when they first heard the song. This produced a
chain reaction, whereby students were able to build upon each other’s thoughts
to reconstruct a memory of what they had done in a previous class in terms of
activities as well as content covered. In this case, the song most likely did not
trigger the memory of each student in the class, but the contributions to a
discussion by those students who remembered the song aided in reconstructing
the memory. This theory was further tested in the focus group, whereby all
students who participated in the focus groups on April 5th were able to recall a
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video which was shown in class on February 8th, when I gave them the name of
the artist whose song was playing in the background of the video.
Literature Connections
Students exhibited behaviors such as dancing, clapping and moving their
bodies, which suggested that they found the music used in this study to be
energizing. Allen and Wood (2013) advise that hearing ‘feel-‐good’ songs
produces “a rush of dopamine in the pleasure/reward centers of our brains”
(p.23) which is responsible for the energizing feeling we get when we hear
music that we enjoy. Furthermore, music can have a physiological impact on
individuals, thereby eliciting a calming effect (Lock & Press, 2006). This
provides one explanation for why students exhibited certain behaviors when
music was played in class. Furthermore, this can also be applied to the task
performance of students in this study. Hallam et al. (2002) found that “the
effects of music on task performance are mediated through its effects on
arousal and mood” (p. 119). Taking this into consideration, while I was unable
to collect conclusive data about the way in which music affected the mood of
students, on-‐task behaviors in this study could be attributed to the way in
which background music impacted student mood. Several studies have found
background music to impact student mood and in turn the productivity of
students in the classroom. Giles (1991) found that the music made students feel
more relaxed and happier, and in turn the productivity of students in class was
positively impacted. Jensen (1996) also reported that music can boost one’s
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energy levels and impact the focus of individuals. Simpson (1976) also found
that background music can have an impact on the hyperactivity of students
with brain injuries, and can positively impact the on-‐task behaviors of students.
These findings suggest that music can impact mood, which in turn can impact
on-‐task behaviors and focus.
The impact of background music on learning and recall reported in this
study are consistent with a number of other studies that examined this
phenomenon. Students learning Mandarin Chinese were also able to perform
better on recall examinations if they were listening to music while they learned
(Kang & Williamson, 2013). Anderson et al. (2000) also found that the memory
recall of students was enhanced through listening to instrumental music in the
classroom. Upon examining multiple studies that examined the use of
background music in the classroom, Felix (1993) concluded that the learning of
students was positively impacted through the use of music, which in turn
impacted recall and performance. One reason that Felix suggested produced
this effect was the phenomenon of ‘context-‐dependent’ memory (CDM),
whereby “retention is best when music is played during both learning and
testing” (de Groot, 2006, p. 468). This finding was corroborated by Smith
(1985) who evaluated the use of background music as impacting CDM and
concluded that the phenomenon of CDM was relevant when using background
music while learning. For the purpose of this study, listening to music while
completing tasks or watching the video would be considered ‘learning’ and the
use of music to trigger student memories would be the ‘testing’ (Allen & Wood,
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2013). The conversations that took place amongst students during the ‘testing’
aided students in reconstructing a comprehensive memory of their learning
from previous classes (Wagner, et al., 1998).
Implications and Recommendations
The implications of these findings relating to the way in which music can
impact the mood of students are significant for the classroom. If music can help
students feel more calm, relaxed and focused, then this could create a positive
learning environment for the students. If a teacher is able to determine the
impact that different types of music have on the students’ moods, teachers
could then strategically use music at different junctures of the class, depending
on if they would like the students to be more calm or energized. As indicated in
this study, music can foster a positive learning environment, whereby students
are motivated to be on-‐task. While it is inconclusive as to the impact of music
on the mood of students from this study, literature suggests that music can
impact student mood and in turn their productivity.
Utilizing music as a way to help students recall what they learned in
previous classes is a tool that can also be used in the classroom. In the RE
context, teachers typically do not administer formal examinations and graded
assessments but rather formative assessments are used to gauge student
understanding. Oftentimes students have a difficult time remembering
activities completed or content from previous weeks. This finding is significant,
as there was a three-‐week gap between content learned and a memory trigger
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taking place in the first occurrence and an eight-‐week gap between content
viewed and a memory trigger taking place in the second occurrence. The
phenomenon of CDM, paired with background music, could become a strategy
teachers utilize on a regular basis to help students recall lessons. Selecting
music that is aligned with the content being taught could further enhance this
strategy. For example, Spanish music was used in this study as I was teaching
about Spain in my class. To take this strategy one step further, I could have
taken the music I had chosen, for example, Senorita, to teach about material
culture and cultural encounters that took place in Al-‐Andalus and how music
today is impacted by different cultures. With this approach, the use of music
becomes multidimensional in the classroom.
While the phenomenon of CDM seemed to garner success in this study,
this could have been attributed to the fact that students were familiar with the
song selections. An area of further research would be to examine whether the
CDM phenomena in the RE classroom can be found using music that students
are unfamiliar with. It would also be imperative to study the sustainability of
this strategy over the course of multiple weeks, to evaluate whether this
strategy can have long-‐term impacts on the learning and recall of students.
Furthermore, a study examining whether the multidimensional use of music in
the classroom, as I outlined above, could be significant.
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What are the effects of using different types/genres of music on student
behavior in the REC classroom?
Most students in this study prefer listening to Hip Hop and R&B music
and dislike listening to country and heavy metal music. The way students
perceive how music sounds seemed to be an important factor for whether
students liked or disliked a particular genre of music. Students also believed
that song selection is important if music was to be used in the classroom to
enhance their learning. Aspects such as lyrics, beat, and relevance of selected
music were identified as being important to consider when selecting music to
be used in the classroom.
Several genres of music including Arabic music, R&B, Hip Hop,
Bollywood and Spanish guitar music were utilized while students were
completing tasks during the course of this study. Students did not have to be
familiar with the background music in order to exhibit on-‐task behaviors.
Familiarity with songs was not required for students to report background
music as a source of concentration while completing reading tasks.
In this study, both Bollywood music (Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara –
Senorita) and Rock music (Coldplay – Viva la Vida) were effective in triggering
student memory relating to content they had learned in previous weeks.
Students identified relevance of music to be one factor as to why music was
successful in helping them remember what they had learned three weeks prior.
Another reason that these songs may have been effective is that students were
familiar with the songs.
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While various genres of music were implemented throughout the study,
this study was unable to determine the particular effects of different genres of
music on student behaviors. Further studies are required to be undertaken to
identify behavioral responses of students to particular genres of music.
Literature Connections
The way music sounded seemed to be an important factor for whether
students preferred a particular genre of music. Griffin (2006) argues, “people
don’t respond to genre, they respond to tempo, modality, texture, melodic
direction, pitch, harmony, timbre and dynamic control” (p. 33). Allen and Wood
(2013) also stress the importance of lyrics, tempo, volume, beat, and pitch, and
suggest that most people enjoy music of their own culture because they have
expectations as to how music is ‘supposed’ to sound. According to Furnham and
Allass (1999), genre may not be the best way to describe music, as genres can
be diverse, and in turn depending on the song, it can be stimulating or
distracting. These findings are congruent with the views students had about the
use of music in the classroom.
While studies suggest that adolescents least prefer classical music as a
genre (Kotsopoulou & Hallam, 2010), several studies have found the use of
classical music, and particularly the music of Mozart, to have a positive impact
in the classroom (Husain et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2001; Hallam & Price,
1998; Savan, 1996). In this study, classical music was not utilized, but rather a
combination of popular music, which was familiar to students, as well as
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instrumental Arabic, and Spanish guitar music that was unfamiliar to students
was used. Several authors argue that the use of familiar music can have a
positive impact on the behavior and mood of students and cause less
distractions in the classroom (Allen & Wood, 2013; Thompson et al., 2001;
Chalmers et al., 1999). Overall, the selection of music in this classroom seemed
to have a positive effect, as exhibited by the on-‐task behavior, motivation to
complete tasks, the physical responses to music observed of students and
memory recall.
This study utilized a combination of both instrumental and music with
lyrics. Studies have found that task performance, learning and recall can be
negatively impacted while listening to music with lyrics (O’Hare, 2011;
Furnham et al., 1999) and that the use of instrumental music has a positive
impact on learning and recall (Kang & Williamson, 2013; O'Hare, 2011; de
Groot, 2006). The findings of this study are not congruent with previous
literature. In this study, the use of both instrumental music and songs with
lyrics, for the most part, positively impacted student engagement. Furthermore,
student recall was not impacted with the use of music with lyrics. This may be
attributed to the research conditions as well as the research parameters, as in
several studies, learning and recall were evaluated based on student
performance on examinations, while the evaluation in this study was formative
(Allen & Wood, 2013).
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Implications and Recommendations
Music is an important part of students every day lives, and therefore, if
we as educators can utilize music to enhance the classroom environment, it
could be a creative strategy to implement. Identifying the types of music that
students enjoy would be important, as the way music sounds to students is
central when evaluating their enjoyment. In this case, teachers should ensure
that the music is enjoyable to students. One way this can be achieved is by
allowing students to provide their suggestions regarding the type of music they
would like to listen to in class. The teacher can then utilize a student-‐selected
song each week, which would most likely have a positive impact on the
classroom community, and would ensure that all students will enjoy the music
played at some juncture.
While the use of music with lyrics did not seem to have a detrimental
effect on the on-‐task behaviors of students, it would be worth investigating this
further, to evaluate the long term effects of using music with lyrics, as well as
evaluating how student learning in the RE classroom is impacted with the use
of this type of music. This would be important to evaluate, as in this study,
music was used to help trigger the student memory to recall content that was
learned, but it was not an indicator of whether this learning could be
remembered outside of the RE context and also did not provide an in depth
examination into student understanding of content.
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Evaluation of Research Conducted
This study was conducted as a requirement of the Secondary Teacher
Education Programme (STEP) and provided me with an opportunity to explore
my interest in the use of music in the classroom. I was posed with the challenge
of taking on the role of a teacher-‐researcher, while being immersed into an
unfamiliar RE classroom with new students. This was my first encounter
teaching a class that had familiarity with the STEP curriculum, and I was lucky
to be paired with an experienced STEP teacher. My host teacher graciously
allowed me to conduct my research in her classroom, and made me feel at ease
upon entering the classroom. Working with an experienced teacher reduced my
anxieties with taking on the teacher-‐researcher role, and my host teacher
provided me with support and guidance throughout the research process.
The biggest challenges I faced while conducting this study were a result
of the realities in the field. I was placed in a classroom that had a combination of
grade 11 and 12 students. My host teacher enjoyed creating discussion-‐based
lesson plans versus activity-‐based lesson plans due to the age group of the
students. The host teacher and I had to be flexible when creating lesson plans
together, whereby both individual and group activities had to be incorporated
to allow for the intervention of music. This was often times difficult, and in
turn, adjustments were made to the way in which background music was used
in the classroom. One example of this was the use of YouTube clips that solely
had background music with no narration, to observe both student engagement
and behaviors while students watched the video. The execution of lesson plans
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was also a challenge, as often times we would not have adequate time to
complete a lesson plan, and in turn, junctures at which music should have been
used in the classroom to allow for data collection were not implemented.
Additionally, I had planned to play music as students were walking into the
classroom, prior to the beginning of class, to set the mood. Due to the way in
which classes were scheduled, some students arrived into the classroom early
and they typically had their own music playing on the speakers. In this case, I
did not want to interfere, but rather, observed the behaviors and interactions of
students, while they listened to their own selection of music prior to the
beginning of class. These experiences helped me realize that one must be
flexible when conducting research, and you need to adapt to your
circumstances. While I was faced with challenges in the field, I received
consistent participation and support from everyone who was involved in the
study.
While this was a small-‐scale study, I have learned a significant amount
about myself as both a researcher and a teacher. As a researcher, I have
learned about the importance of having adequate knowledge about the
research process as well as developing research tools that are both feasible in
their implementation and have the potential to yield rich data. While I had
initially planned to use individual student interviews as part of my data
collection methods, circumstances beyond my control prevented this, and in
turn, I conducted focus groups as part of this study. While I had initially found
this to be a challenge, the focus groups conducted were both a primary source
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of data and a rich source of data, as students were able to build upon the
thoughts of one another, generating valuable data. Questionnaires became a
source through which I was able to get further insight into individual student
views and opinions, as they included multiple-‐choice questions with the
opportunity for students to elaborate upon some answers. The method I had
the most difficulty with was participant observation, as it was often times
difficult to write down observations while I was teaching. While audio
recording was used as part of the methods in certain classes, the additional use
of video recording as well as a more consistent use of audio recording may have
aided with collecting data on both the engagement and behavior of students in
the classroom.
Prior to conducting this study, I had consistently used background music
in the classroom without being able to determine the effects of using music on
students. As a teacher, this study provided me with the opportunity to
systematically implement music in the classroom while giving me the chance to
learn about my practices. Conducting this study helped me realize that the use
of music in the classroom has different effects on students. I feel that I had
underestimated the power of music in the classroom prior to conducting this
study, and did not realize how music can impact student behavior, mood,
engagement, and even their memory of information learned. The fact that music
promoted on-‐task behaviors in this study is a learning I will take into my
classroom, and I will tinker with this strategy as necessary. Using music, as a
potential source to help students remember what they have learned in previous
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classes, is another strategy I aim to utilize in my classroom, with the hopes of
having success. One aspect that I will continue to experiment with is the use of
different genres in the classroom. This study was unable to provide any
definitive answers regarding the impact of different genres of music on
students, but I also feel that every class would most likely respond differently to
diverse genres of music. While I have learned a significant amount through
conducting this study, there were several challenges and limitations
encountered throughout the process.
Limitations of the Study
One limitation of this study is that it was a small-‐scale research project,
limited in both its length and scope. This study was performed with a small
sample size over the course of nine weeks, which was not enough time to get a
comprehensive understanding of how background music can impact the RE
classroom environment. Student attendance was also a limitation in this study.
Due to several factors such as the scheduling of classes in Toronto, which
included a three-‐week break while this study was conducted, extra-‐curricular
activities of students as well as other personal commitments, students were
unable to attend classes regularly during the course of this study. Due to
transportation issues I faced in the field, I had limited contact and access to
students outside of available class time.
Classes were scheduled to run for one and a half hours each week, but
due to the tardiness of students, class time was often times reduced to only one
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hour. This was a limitation as it reduced the amount of time I had to implement
music in the classroom and collect data. As a result, changes were required to
be made to the lesson plans to compensate for this.
As this was my first major research project, a great deal was learned in
the field about the importance of a well thought out research design and well
developed data collection methods. My inexperience with these processes, led
to several challenges that I faced in the field, which I was required to overcome
throughout the research process.
Lastly, my presence in the classroom may have produced the
‘Hawthorne Effect’, whereby student behaviors were altered due to their
knowledge that they are taking part in a study, and that their actions and
behaviors are being recorded (Kumar, 2011). This effect may have led to
skewed results, particularly when examining the engagement and behavior of
students in this study.
Conclusion
While the use of background music has been studied extensively, there
have been limited studies which evaluate the impact background music can
have on the RE environment. This study has shown that the use of background
music in the classroom can have a positive impact on the on-‐task behavior of
students. Furthermore, background music can serve as a timekeeping tool that
helps motivate students to finish tasks on time. Music was also found to have a
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positive impact on student concentration and focus, and was not found to be
distracting for students while they were completing reading tasks.
Students seemed to enjoy listening to music in class, which was
exhibited by the physical responses of music by the students such as singing,
dancing and clapping. While I was unable to conclude how music can impact
mood in the classroom, literature suggests that on-‐task behaviors are impacted
by the way in which music effects student arousal and mood. Therefore, while
the influence of background music on mood is inconclusive in this study, it is
possible that the on-‐task behaviors are a result of way in which the music
affected student moods in this study.
The use of background music that was familiar to the students also had a
positive impact on the memory recall of students. This is particularly impactful,
as there were long gaps between when content was learned or viewed, and a
memory trigger taking place. This has a significant impact in the RE context, as
students are typically not formally assessed in their learning, and therefore
students often times do not remember content.
The effects of using different types of genres in the classroom to impact
student behaviors was inconclusive in this study. This was due to both
limitations in the field, my inexperience with conducting a major research
project prior to this endeavor, as well as my ambition to evaluate several
aspects in which background music could impact the classroom environment.
While this was the case, I feel that this study can contribute to the
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understanding of how background music can effect the classroom environment,
and particularly student engagement and student memory.
Music is prevalent in students’ lives. Therefore, introducing music into
the classroom serves as a tool that teachers can use to their advantage. There
are benefits such as the increasing the level of engagement of students, as well
as making the class fun and energized. Allowing students make musical
selections could also have a positive impact the classroom community. Overall, I
believe that the use of music in the classroom can make a positive impact on the
classroom environment and can positively impact the learning of the students.
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Hallam, S. (2006). Music Psychology in Education. London: Institute of Education. Hallam, S., & Price, J. (1998). Can the use of Background Music Improve the Behaviour and Academic Performance of Children with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties? British Journal of Special Education , 25 (2), 88-‐91. Hallam, S., Price, J., & Katsarou, G. (2002). The Effects of Background Music on Primary School Pupils' Task Performance. Educational Studies , 28 (2), 111-‐122. Hopkins, D. (2008). A Teacher's Guide to Classroom Research 4th Edition. Berkshire: Open University Press. Husain, G., Thompson, W. F., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2002). Effects of Musical Tempo and Mode on Arousal, Mood and Spatial Abilities. Music PErception , 20, 151-‐171. Ilari, B. (2002). Music and Babies: A Review of Research with Implications for Music Educators. Applications of Research in Music Education , 21 (2), 17-‐26. Jensen, E. (1996). Brain Based Learning. Del-‐Mar: Turning Point Publishing. Juslin, P. N., & Sloboda, J. A. (2001). Music and Emotion: Introduction. In P. N. Juslin, & J. A. Sloboda, Music and Emotion: Theory and Research (pp. 3-‐20). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kampfe, J., Sedlmeier, P., & Renkewitz, F. (2011). The Impact of Background Music on Adult Listeners: A Meta-‐Analysis. Psychology of Music , 39 (4), 424-‐448. Kang, H., & Williamson, V. J. (2013). Background Music Can Aid Second Language Learning. Psychology of Music , 1-‐20. Kawulich, B. B. (2005). Participant Observation as a Data Collection Method. Retrieved June 10, 2014, from Forum: Qualitative Social Research: http://www.qualitative-‐research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/466/996 Kellaris, J. J., & Cox, A. D. (1989). The Effects of Background Music in Advertising: A Reassessment. Journal of Consumer Research , 16, 113-‐118. Kiger, D. (1989). Effects of Music Information Load on a Reading Comprehension Task. Perceptual and Motor Skills , 69, 531-‐534. Kitzinger, J. (1995). Introducing Focus Groups. BMJ , 311, 299-‐302.
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Appendix A – Disruptive Behavior Observation Sheet
Adopted from Institute of Education – The STEP Programme: Student Handbook for State School Placements 2012/2013
Method Used to Manage Behavior Tally Use of voice to create disapproval, sound warning Use of eye contact Facial expression indicating disapproval/warning Deliberate ignoring of minor disruptive behavior Use of praise or similar device to focus disruptive student more positively
Reminder of classroom rules Straightforward direction/correction Issuing warnings before decisive action Isolation from friends Isolation from group Use of body language/movement around the classroom Other? (Specify)
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Appendix B – Consent Form
STUDENT CONSENT FORM Research Topic: The Effects of Using Background Music in the Religious Education Classroom Researcher: Karina Hussein Email: [email protected]
Please Initial Box
1. I confirm that I have been oriented with the purpose of the above study and have had the opportunity to ask questions.
2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving reason.
3. I agree to take part in the above study.
Please Tick Box
4. I agree to the interview being audio recorded.
5. I agree to the use of anonymized quotes in publications.
6. I agree that the data gathered in this study may be used for future research.
_________________________ ___________________ __________________
Name of Participant Date Signature _________________________ ___________________ __________________
Name of Participant Date Signature
Yes No
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CONSENT FORM: Master of Teaching (MTeach)
I have read the parent information letter concerning the practicum research project. I am aware that my child’s classroom research will be on the following topic: The Effects of using Background Music in the Religious Education Classroom. This study will be looking particularly at the effect of background music on student’s engagement, attitudes and behavior in the Religious education classroom as well as student responses to the implementation of different types of music in the classroom. Students will be asked to complete pre and post questionnaires as part of the study as well as participate in individual interviews. The researcher will also be doing in-‐class observations in order to analyze student responses to the use of background music in the classroom, which will be video/audio recorded. This study will be conducted by Karina Hussein of the Department of Graduate Studies at the Institute of Ismaili Studies and of the Institute of Education, University of London.
I have had the opportunity to ask any questions-‐ and receive any additional details I wanted about the project.
I acknowledge that all information gathered on this project including photographs, video materials, and/or interview recordings will be used for research purposes only and for developing the final MTeach Dissertation. The information will be considered confidential. I am aware that permission may be withdrawn at any time without penalty by advising the STEP teacher researchers.
I realize that this project has been reviewed by, and has received ethics clearance through the Department of Graduate Studies (STEP Program) at the Institute of Ismaili Studies and the Institute of Education, University of London and that I may contact these offices, or the STEP teacher field researcher if I have any comments or concerns about my son's or daughter's involvement in this study.
Contacts: STEP Teacher Researcher: Karina Hussein ([email protected]) ITREB Canada, Regional Academic Lead (RAL): Anar Hasham ([email protected]) Institute of Ismaili Studies, Graduate Program Director: Laila Halani ([email protected])
Child's Name: _____________________________________
Child's BUI Centre and Grade _________________________
Permission Decision:
____ Yes -‐ I would like my child to participate in the STEP MA/ MTeach practicum research project
____ No -‐ I would not like my child to participate in the STEP MA/ MTeach practicum research project, but understand that they will continue to participate in the BUI Encounters classes.
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Signature of Parent or Guardian: __________________________________ Date: __________________________ Contact Number: _________________
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Appendix C – Ethics Form
Masters and Diploma Students’ Ethics Review Form
Outline of proposed research to be submitted for ethical approval PLEASE NOTE: Before completing this form you will need to discuss your proposal fully with your Supervisor/s. Please ensure that all necessary letters and other documents are attached. This Ethics Review Form needs to be completed before starting data collection for your PBE or RPBE module.
• For participants taking PBE, please complete a final version of this form in consultation with your supervisor. Please submit it to your supervisor for clearance before you begin your enquiry.
• For participants taking RPBE, the form should be submitted during the Spring Term at your face to face taught session.
Department
Culture, Communication and Media (CCM)
Name(s):
Karina Hussein
Supervisor(s):
Katharine Vincent
How may you be contacted? (address, telephone and email)
A50C Opal 4 Student Residences Tufnell Park Huddleston Road London N7 0EG [email protected]
Into which category does your research fall?
MTeach
To be completed by the Research Administrator Date received:
Our Ref:
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Title of your course: Research & Practice Based Enquiry (RPBE)
Provisional Title of Project:
The Effects of Background Music in a Toronto, Canada Religious Education Classroom
PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS giving full details where necessary: 1. Project design:
a) What are the aims of your project and/or your research questions? My research aims to look at the effects of using background music in a Toronto, Ontario Religious Education classroom. This research will look particularly at the effect of background music on student’s engagement, attitudes and behaviour in the religious education classroom as well as student responses to the implementation of different types of music in the classroom.
b) What is the design of your project?
I will be conducting a classroom-‐based action research in Toronto, Ontario, Canada with the purpose of evaluating my own teaching practices. This will be a 10-‐week study with the aim of introducing background music into the Religious Education classroom, and looking at the effects of this.
c) What data collection methods will be employed? My data collection methods will include pre and post questionnaires, individual student interviews with 5 participants and classroom observations.
(If you have already drafted a questionnaire or a format for structured interviews/unstructured interviews, please attach it).
2. Will your research involve human participants? If Yes(if no, go to
question 3)
a) Who are the participants (i.e. what sorts of people will be involved)?
The participants in the study will be one class of secondary school students between the ages of 11 and 14
b) How will they be recruited?
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The students in this study are already attending the local religious education centre in Toronto, Ontario. The STEP teacher I will be paired with will be determined by my Academic Director who is based out of Vancouver, Canada, based on the interest shown by existing STEP teachers in the field. I will conduct the study with the students of the STEP teacher that I am paired with.
c) If participants are under the responsibility of others (such as parents, teachers or medical staff) how do you intend to obtain permission for the participants to take part in the study? (Attach letter or details of permission procedures.)
My role will be as both the teacher and researcher in this study. Due to the students in the study being minors, I will be obtaining the permission from each student’s parents, along with the consent of the student, to participate in the study, to allow me to take video and audio footage of my in-‐class observations, complete questionnaires, as well as to participate in video and/or audio recorded interviews. Permission will be granted by way of signed consent in the form of an information sheet with pertinent information relating to the study and a subsidiary consent form.
d) How will you obtain the consent of participants?
Students and their parents will have given their consent by way of consent forms prior to my arrival. The information sheet and consent form will mention that participation is voluntary and that students are able to withdraw from the study at any point in time. Each participant will be provided a form to opt-‐in for all interviews, questionnaires and classroom observations.
e) Describe the process by which you will inform participants about what you are doing: The information sheets and consent forms will be distributed prior to my arrival in Canada, and will inform participants that they are part of a study. The STEP teacher, administration, students and parents will be informed in detail of my research and methods on the first day of class. I will also be available for any further questions pertaining to my research after the first class.
f) Might participants experience discomfort or embarrassment as a
result of your study?
If YES what steps will you take to explain and minimise this?
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In an effort to try and minimize discomfort during interviews, I will try to be very approachable and will attempt to create a relationship prior to the interviews. I will explain to the students that I am interested in understanding their opinions and that I am not there to judge them in any way. I will also assure the participants that their data will be kept confidential and protected at all times. In the event that students feel embarrassed or discomfort, I will stop the intervention and will ensure that students are aware that they are able to withdraw from the study and are able to do so at that time.
If NOT, explain how you can be sure that no discomfort or embarrassment will arise?
g) How will it be made clear to participants that they may withdraw consent to participate at any time? Students and parents will be given a written form that will explain that they have the option to withdraw from the study at any time, and consent will be acquired before implementing each method. I will also reiterate this point on the first day of class while I explain my research to the participants.
h) Will you provide participants with information about the findings of your study? (This could be a brief summary of your findings in general; it is not the same as an individual debriefing.) Yes
If YES, what form will this take? I will provide a brief summary of the findings to both students and the STEP teacher involved in the study.
If NO, why not?
i) How will information obtained from or about participants be protected? (Please read the Main Principles of the Data Protection Act.)
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Personal data of participants will be processed fairly and lawfully and personal data will only be obtained for research purposes. All data will be locked away at the ITREB office and pseudonyms will be used when discussing participants in the study.
j) What steps will you take to ensure the secure storage of personal
data? All data will be stored directly in a central document on my laptop, which will be in my possession and password protected at all times. Any files and notes will also remain completely private and will be locked away at the ITREB office. All documents will be destroyed after the coursework has been graded and marks received. I will also ensure that all student names are not identified and remain completely anonymous whilst discussing participants in the study.
3. Are there particular features of the proposed work which may raise ethical concerns or add to the complexity of ethical decision making? If so, please outline how you will deal with these. No.
4. Outline any other information you feel relevant to this submission, using
a separate sheet if necessary. N/A
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Notes and references: Robson, C (2002) Real world research: a resource for social scientists and practitioner researchers (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell. Has a helpful section on ethical considerations -‐ – pp 65-‐71 (NB page references are for the 2002 second edition) You should read and understand the BERA ethics guidelines: BERA (2011) Ethical Guidelines: http://mteachvle.ioe.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=3866 If you are conducting research with children and young people, P Alderson & V Morrow (2004) Ethics, social research and consulting with children and young people, Barnardo’s, Barkingside, has useful suggestions. If you are planning to carry out any research which will bring you into face-‐to-‐face contact with children or young people (under the age of 18) in the United Kingdom, you will need to have a Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) check before you start. If you do not already hold a current CRB check, you will need to obtain one. The relevant forms can be obtained from the ITE section of Registry, to whom they should be returned with the fee; obtaining a CRB check will take about a month. If you are an overseas student, the procedure is different; full details can be found in the helpful booklet available from the ITE section of Registry; you will need a ‘Certificate of Good Behaviour’ which can be obtained from your embassy or other appropriate organisation.
I confirm that the information given above is correct and I endorse the following statement: "I confirm that I have attended the ethics session on an appropriate course, and that I will seek further advice and support if and when unanticipated dilemmas arise. I have also read and understand the following set of guidelines, which I will abide by in my research: BERA”
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Masters student ethics review To be completed by the student Student’s name: Karina Hussein Student’s Department: Culture, Communication and Media (CCM) Course: MTeach Project title: The Effects of Background Music in a Toronto, Canada Religious Education Classroom To be completed by the supervisor/first reviewer Do you foresee any ethical difficulties with this research?
Signature of supervisor/first reviewer:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . To be completed by second reviewer Do you foresee any ethical difficulties with this research?
Signature of second reviewer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . Decision on behalf of Reviewers
Authorised Authorised subject to the following additional measures Not authorised for the reasons given below Referred to Faculty Research Ethics Committee (FREC)
Points to be noted by other reviewers and in report to FREC:
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Comments from reviewers, for the applicant: (The form will be returned to you and will outlining any issues you should think about. The completed form is kept on file in the MTeach Admin office)
If the proposal is not authorised the applicant should seek a meeting with their supervisor or ethics reviewer.