moral deficiencies in global governance by adam mostafa
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Running head: MORAL DEFICIENCIES IN GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 1
Moral Deficiencies in Global Governance
Adam Mostafa
National University
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MORAL DEFICIENCIES IN GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 2
Abstract
Global governance is a term used by many academics to describe the interwoven
relationships of banks, corporations, governments, media, and the global economy. Poverty, debt
and environmental abuse are all globally salient phenomenon. Defining the beneficiaries of the
global economic and media systems as leaders of the world, and defining the world as an
organization, this manuscript asks the question: Is global governance lacking morality and
ethics? This paper will seek to answer this question through the exploration and comparison of
the effects of their leadership with academic research and the moral and ethical leadership
principles set forth in both the Bible and the Qur’an.
Keywords: God, morality, ethics, organization, leadership, religion, economics,
environment, responsibility, debt, interest, power, wealth, poverty, inequality, disaster.
Chapter One
The world has evolved into a complex structure. A structure that has manifested itself as
an interconnectedness that has never, that we currently know of, been experienced throughout
history. Electronic and satellite communications, the internet, and a widespread increase of
means by which to travel have “opened up” the world. High-speed trains, cars, trucks, various
types of aircraft, both small and large, are available to anyone who has the currency to purchase
a ticket. Many people are no longer limited to reading the works of authors or hearing stories of
what were once far away, unreachable places, they can now observe for themselves. According
to Statista (2014), there were 1.04 billion tourist arrivals worldwide in 2012, and that number is
expected to almost double by 2030. Even without the ability or desire to travel, if someone has
an internet connection, they can see and read about those places without ever leaving their own
country, city or couch. The International Telecommunications Union (2015) estimates that in
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2015, a little less than half of the world’s population, 3.2 billion, has an internet connection. The
pages of the book that is the world are now available for many citizens of earth to read.
Leaders of the organization
The Business Dictionary defines a leader as “A person or thing that holds a dominant or
superior position within its field, and is able to exercise a high degree of control or influence
over others” (2015). An organization, depending on its structure, normally has a top, and it has a
bottom. In terms of the world, its structure has been organized in various ways and for various
purposes. But what is an organization? The Law Dictionary defines an organization as “A group
of people, structured in a specific way to achieve a series of shared goals” (What is
Organization?, n.d.). Now, one could honestly argue that within this world there are many
organizations, which have sub-divisions and that there are even smaller organizations below the
larger organizations. However, throughout this earthly structure in the human realm there is a
pervasive, overarching organizational structure.
Much research and media coverage has been focused on the so-called “1%,” coverage
which has undoubtedly stirred unrest and caused many citizens of various nations to express
frustration at their own governments. The latest data according to Shorrocks, Davies and
Lluberas (2015), however, shows that the “1%” has actually decreased to 0.7%, this smaller
percentage holding 45.2% of global wealth. For many people in the United States, this income
disparity was magnified by the Occupy Wall Street movement which began in 2011 amidst
unprecedented government bailouts of extremely wealthy bankers, with tax-payer money. In a
recent article from the online publication CounterPunch, Gupta (2015) described Occupy Wall
Street “As the first radical movement of the 21st century in the United States, Occupy revived
confrontational politics. . .” (para. 6). Protesters in New York took to the streets and occupied
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public property, expressing their concern and disdain for what they perceived to be an unfair and
unequal distribution of wealth. Some considered the movement a success, due to its widespread
media and social media coverage which allowed its grievances to enter into the consciences of
many United States and global citizens. Gupta (2015) states that from the initial Occupy Wall
Street movement, many other activists and concerned citizens were reminded that they could air
their grievances towards injustice through protest. Three years later, in 2014, the United States
witnessed a strong resurgence of similar and notable protests, albeit for different causes. Even so,
with the above statistic showing the global disparity in income being driven into the hands of an
even smaller group of people, some may wonder what success actually is.
It may be true that much of what people consider to be “wealth” is concentrated amongst
a small group of people, but simply knowing that does not in any way alleviate any issues that
are products of that phenomenon’s existence. Furthermore, expressing frustration at one’s own
government in certain forms (vandalism, rebellion and violence) can most definitely destroy a
community and also be utilized as a tool to destabilize an entire country, further empowering
whatever entity it is that seeks to maintain wealth, power, and control over the overarching
structure. This misdirected frustration further perpetuates the existence of the controlling entity
at the top of the human organizational structure.
Reality Controllers
One’s view of the world is absolutely shaped by the way the information one accepts
pertaining to the world is presented, and by who presents it. A map is one way that many people
become familiar with the geographical structure, or layout, of the world, along with the borders
that are drawn onto the map. As with many sources of information, maps are produced with the
interests of their producers in mind, and are most definitely vulnerable to changes. Changes that
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can be demanded from a variety of circumstances. Throughout documented history, many maps
existed that ultimately became obsolete due to wars, changes in power, unification (or dividing)
of territories, and even changes in scientific beliefs. Most importantly, however, is who authors
the map. Who gets to authoritatively define, to the rest of the world, the geographic landscape
and borders of the nations of the world? Jacob (1996) defines maps as “. . .carriers of an image of
the external reality of the world. . .” (p. 191). If this definition is correct, the implication is that
the makers of the maps influence the perceived reality of those who use their maps as a frame of
reference. Furthermore, if one can organize the earth itself onto a map, that alone inherently
depicts the world as an organization.
Maps, however, can be thought of as a metaphor for the ways in which reality can be
defined by those who exercise control over the flow of information to a given audience. In
today’s world, reality is defined in many ways, across many platforms. Whereas the flow of
information concerning the world used to be limited to only a select few senders and receivers,
the internet and television have increased the amount of both. Discussing this phenomenon,
Castell (2008) states that “New information and communication technologies, including rapid
long-distance transportation and computer networks, allow global networks to selectively
connect anyone and anything throughout the world” (p. 81). Quite some time before media and
technology were as widely accessible and pervasive as Castell (2008) describes, theorists were
questioning the effects that the media could have on a society. In 1972, McCombs and Shaw
began developing the theory of Agenda-Setting. Agenda-Setting Theory refers to the ways in
which the media can focus the attention of media viewers onto certain issues, making them more
prominent in their minds. In other words, the more attention the media gives a certain issue, the
less attention another issue may receive, all by conscious design on the part of the media content
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creators. McCombs and Shaw (1972) state that “In choosing and displaying news, editors,
newsroom staff, and broadcasters play an important part in shaping political reality” (p. 176). If
one were to apply this hypothesis to today’s technological world of non-stop media content
(news and “entertainment”), to the naked eye it would seem like trying to make sense out of an
enormous, multicolored paint splattering on a wall. On the contrary, however, there is a method
to the madness. Bishop (2015) states that 90% of American (United States) media outlets are
owned by six corporations. That figure is similar to the disparity in global wealth distribution, in
that the control belongs to a few. The vast reach of the media and its ability to influence the
beliefs and perspectives of such an enormous amount of people, by definition, qualifies the
collective media as a leader. Without doubt, the owners of these corporations, and the
corporations themselves, are also among the world’s wealthiest. Moreover, the mainstream
media corporations do not turn the public’s attention to many issues concerning the global
financial institutions discussed in this paper in ways that show their true impacts around the
world. These omissions by the mainstream media suggest that, according to McCombs and
Shaw’s (1972) theory of Agenda-Setting, they as leaders do not place great importance on setting
this agenda for their consumers to think about. So what consequences can arise as a result of this
behavior? Castells (2006) states that “Without an effective civil society capable of structuring
and channeling debates over diverse ideas and conflicting interests, the state drifts away from its
subjects” (p. 78).
Banks and Business
Thomas (2001) uses the term global governance in reference to the economic governance
and political power which the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank Group, and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), among others, oversee. Acknowledging this
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responsibility, Thomas (2001) states that “Global management assumes a common
understanding of a particular problem and an agreement about how it is to be addressed” (p.
170). But what exactly do these organizations do? Discussing the WTO, Jackson (2008) says that
it “. . .is often described as the most powerful international juridical institution in the world
today” (p. 437). Jackson (2008) traces the history of the WTO back to the formation of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), whose name explains, generally, what its
purpose was. It seems that as world trade began to increase, governments and businessmen
recognized their own need for some kind of codified framework, or law, to govern their disputes
amongst each other. Free from, or above, public input. As stated above by Jackson (2008), the
WTO is a legal organization, a court, and in relation to trading he states that it is arguably the
most powerful legal organization in the world. A legal organization that elevates certain business
disputes between participating countries (and their corporations) above their domestic legal
constraints and processes, and puts them before a stateless legal body whose framework has been
agreed on, to varying degrees, by all participating parties.
Feinberg (1988) states that originally, the IMF and World Bank were one entity known as
the Bretton Woods institutions. Feinberg (1988) also states that they only split to complement
one another’s ideological differences in approaching business (banking). Discussing the primary
difference between the IMF and the World Bank in 1941, Harry White (as cited in Feinberg,
1988) stated that “The Fund is designed chiefly to prevent disruption of foreign exchange and to
strengthen monetary and credit systems and to help in the restoration of foreign trade. . . “ (p.
546). The IMF and World Bank are both banks, their only difference being how and who they
provide services too, and when. This is proven by White’s (as cited in Feinberg, 1988)
description of the World Bank in contrast to the IMF, saying “. . .the Bank is chiefly designed to
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supply the volume of capital to the United Nations and Associated Nations that will be needed
for reconstruction, for relief, and for economic recovery” (p. 546). Both of these quotes were
taken from a man who Feinberg (1988) refers to as one of the “founding fathers” (p. 546) of the
IMF and the World Bank. In terms of the World Bank, White seemed to have a clear foresight of
impending disasters, both environmental and economic.
The island nation of Haiti provides an insightful and interesting example of how the IMF,
the World Bank, a transnational corporation, and a foreign power can interact with a smaller,
more economically and militarily vulnerable country, before and after a disaster. According to
Gimenez (2011), in 1991 the first democratically elected president of Haiti was removed in a
military coup supported by the United States. “As a condition for supporting his return, the U.S.,
IMF and World Bank required that he further open up the Haitian economy to foreign trade”
(Gimenez, 2011, para. 7). With the strength of a powerful military and government supporting
them, two banks were able to establish and negotiate the conditions upon which an ousted
president could return to office. An article in La Via Campesina (2010) states that after this, Haiti
was forced to depend on foreign imports of a crop (rice) that they previously grew in abundance
themselves. Furthermore, after an earthquake devastated Haiti in 2010, the transnational
corporation Monsanto “. . . announced that it had delivered 60 tons of hybrid seed maize and
vegetables to Haiti, and over 400 tons of its seed (worth $4 million). . .” (La Via Campesina,
2010, para. 3).
Controlling and managing the flow of business, media content, and money at the global
level is most definitely an enormous responsibility that qualifies one as a leader. Especially in
cases where this management is supported by threats of economic pressure and military force.
Keeping the map metaphor in mind, one has to contemplate the view of the world as seen by
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humans within organizations who are responsible for managing its wealth. A publication from
MIT called The Thistle (2000) states that “It is important to realize that the IMF and World Bank
are tools for powerful entities in society such as trans-national corporations and wealthy
investors” (para. 17). If the proposition put forth by The Thistle (2000) is true, which the
situations in Haiti clearly prove, then one could assume that the owners, operators, and
beneficiaries of large corporations and banks are the human leaders of the world. What other
powers could they possibly have to not be considered the leaders of the organization that is the
world?
Global Wealth and Poverty
According to the Population Reference Bureau (2011), in 2011 the global population
reached seven billion people on the planet earth. According to many sources, this has never
happened before. Regardless, seven billion people is a staggering number. The latest statistics
from the World Bank Group (2015), say that in 2011 2.2 billion people lived on less than $3.10
per day. Over 25% of the world's population lives on less than the cost of one gallon of gasoline
for an automobile in the United States. So, every gallon of gasoline pumped into a vehicle in the
United States is equivalent to the total daily available income of one of the unfortunate 2.2
billion people, who, according to some of the monetarily and materially wealthiest people in the
world (World Bank, 2015), will not be as poor as they are now, or as they used to be, in another
15 years. Furthermore, Shorrocks, Davies, & Lluberas (2015) report that less than one percent of
the world’s adult population hold almost half of the world’s wealth. The disparity of global
wealth is too great to overlook. Global wealth distribution is beyond unequal, and the
concentration of wealth among an extremely small percentage of people is not correlated, but is
the human cause of global poverty. If there were only twenty dollars and two people on the entire
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earth, and one person had 19 dollars and the other person had one, who of the two would be
responsible for the disparity in dollars?
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
Morality and ethics, although having tangible and visible applications and effects, are
themselves abstract ideas that could be derived from a number of sources or belief systems. With
this idea in mind, a literature review follows that explains the foundations of this paper’s moral,
ethical, and academic framework. Sources of statistical and definitional value are omitted from
this literature review.
Maps & Media
Jacob (1996) sought to address the cultural connections between maps and the conditions
of the societies they were created in as well as how maps can be used as what he called
instruments of power. To the extent that maps can, and are, used as instruments of power and
persuasion, cartography is not merely a novel field of research. Maps are used to plan and
execute wars. Jacob exhaustively examines numerous aspects of maps and how they can be
viewed. Even to someone unfamiliar with cartography, this article could provide valuable
perspectives and ignite an interest in that area of study.
McCombs and Shaw (1972) conducted a study of the opinions of media viewers in
relation to the topics that the news media put forth regarding political campaigns. What
McCombs and Shaw sought to illuminate was how the media was able to influence what media
viewers considered to be salient topics. McCombs and Shaw (1972) termed this phenomenon
“Agenda-Setting.” They postulate that media viewers are, in essence, told what to think about by
the media. For example, McCombs and Shaw (1972) state that “They apparently learn,
furthermore, in direct proportion to the emphasis placed on the campaign issues by the mass
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media” (p. 177). Since the inception of the Agenda-Setting Theory by McCombs and Shaw in
1972, much research has been done regarding its significance, prevalence, and its impact on
society.
Global Governance
“The major beneficiaries of neoliberalism are large trans-national corporations and
wealthy investors” (The Thistle, 2000, para. 1). This article from MIT asserts that the two of the
largest financial institutions in the world, the IMF and World Bank, are merely tools of control
and financial oppression. The Thistle (2000) article begins by speaking about massive protests
that were taking place in Prague against these institutions. Around the same time in Seattle, a
well-documented and researched protest took place against the World Trade Organization
(WTO) as well. The Thistle (2000) article goes on to claim that neoliberalism coupled with the
seemingly unchecked reach of global financial organizations is extremely harmful to not only the
economies of both developing and developed countries, but to their environments as well. Gupta
(2015) uses a more recent example of similar protests that took place against the same
organizations, Occupy Wall Street in 2011. Gupta (2015) challenges the notion that the Occupy
Wall Street movement was a failure. On the contrary, Gupta (2015) does state the Occupy Wall
Street Movement had no clearly defined goals. Gupta (2015) then goes on to discuss in-depth
some of the protests that he says were birthed from the Occupy movement which were successful
in enabling change within the current system. Gupta (2015) ends his article with what seems to
be a challenge to activists, by asking “will they settle for reform when they came to have a
revolution” (para. 14).
In Feinberg’s (1988) article regarding the IMF and World Bank, the distinction between
the responsibilities of the two organizations is examined. Feinberg (1988) states that, at the time
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of his article, the distinction between the two was not clear enough for him, and that he needed to
clarify what their areas of interest were. Feinberg (1988) begins by introducing the roots of both
the IMF and World Bank and summarizing what some of the founders, at that time, insisted that
their individual responsibilities would be. Jackson (2008) focuses on the WTO, but specifically
dissects and exposes what he believes is the extraordinary power of the dispute resolution
processes of the WTO which are mandatory for all participating countries. Jackson (2008) states
that a country who has more power is most definitely favored in these processes. For example,
using a hypothetical dispute resolution process between two countries between which there is an
unequal balance of power, Jackson (2008) states that “Foreign aid, military manœuvres or
retaliatory import restrictions on other key goods would figure in the negotiation” (p. 439).
Castells (2008) discusses the intersection of modern communication and global
governance. From the very beginning of Castell’s (2008) article he builds, block by block, a well
structured argument. Castells (2008) defines the public sphere, civil society, global civil society,
global communication, and how they interact in an emerging world of global governance.
Castells (2006) believes that if the public is not included in communication processes of interest
to global (or national) governance, “the whole system of representation and decision making
comes to a stalemate” (p. 79). Focusing directly on global governance itself, Thomas (2001)
asserts that at the core of the global governance agenda should be what she terms human
security. Thomas (2001) argues that material sufficiency is the key to human security. Thomas
(2001) illustrates many shameful global statistics concerning poverty, education, and women’s
rights, and showcases who Thomas asserts are the leaders of the global governance agenda,
listing their names and locations. The World Bank, IMF, and the WTO are included in Thomas’
(2001) list.
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Haiti
In Gimenez’ (2010) Huffington Post article regarding the 7.0 earthquake that devastated
Haiti, Gimenez seems to be standing on the metaphorical fence between condemning foreign
economic and military intervention, and supporting what he believes would be beneficial foreign
agricultural support. The distinction, however, seems to be between who the potential aid and
support would come from. Gimenez (2010) believes that the IMF and World Bank may have
viewed the earthquake in Haiti as an investment opportunity. Gimenez (2010) also describes
how, prior to the earthquake, a rebellion against the unjust distribution of food occurred as a
result of conditions imposed on Haiti by the IMF and World Bank. Exploring further, an article
from the International Peasant’s Movement La Via Campesina (2010) discusses how a
transnational corporation, Monsanto, actually did seize the opportunity of Haiti’s earthquake to,
literally not metaphorically, plant their seed(s). La Via Campesina (2010) states that although
Monsanto donated the seeds as what appeared to be charitable relief in the aftermath of the
earthquake, Monsanto donated the seeds to the government in order to be sold to the Haitian
farmers. La Via Campesina (2010) provides extensive evidence pertaining to how in many other
countries, once the Monsanto seed was introduced it destroyed the native crops and increased
farmer’s dependence on Monsanto.
Environmental Concerns
Hiers (1996) exhaustively details and gently analyzes numerous Biblical Verses that,
either implicitly or explicitly, show that God ordained for mankind to treat animals with respect.
Whether during sacrifice or even giving animals a break from working and sharing harvests with
them, Hiers (1996) clearly details what he believes is the Biblical proof of this Divine obligation
on mankind as inhabitants of God’s earth. Hiers’ conviction emanates from his writing, a
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conviction which is fortified by extensive research and knowledge of the Scriptures. One could
argue with Hiers that, with the amount of animal sacrifices documented in the just the first five
Books of the Bible, at that time the general outlook on animals was much different. And Hiers
could reply that the amount of animal sacrifices during that time period were minimal in
comparison to the amount of animals that are now slaughtered worldwide strictly for human
consumption. Hiers (1996) also discusses the ways in which the Bible details how people should
treat the land, refraining from polluting or “defiling” the earth.
Gill (1999) also approaches the environment from a religious perspective, and although
he is Christian and believes in the Bible, his article is inclusive of quite a few religious traditions.
Gill (1999) believes that all human beings who have a reverence for the sacredness of life,
should extend that reverence to the earth as well. Gill (1999) does cite his own research that says
people who go to church are more likely to be altruistic, which is a questionable conclusion.
Questionable only because of the small scope of data many researchers are realistically able to
collect. Gill (1999) acknowledges this by saying that “A concern for other people is certainly not
a monopoly of churchgoers, but it does appear to be more common amongst them” (p. 414). Gill
(1999) does seem to be compassionate in his writing, and it shows in his willingness to
acknowledge other faiths and find a common thread between them all regarding life.
Morality and Ethics
In an extensive discussion and analysis of morality, Gert (2011) first divides morality into
two definitional categories: normative and descriptive (2011). It is interesting that Gert (2011)
asserts that some who adopt a normative sense of morality, do so free from religion. Gert (2011)
divides religious morality and non-religious (descriptive and normative) morality into those who
wish to do no harm as their sense of morality, and those who may or may not wish to do any
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harm but also adhere to a religious code of morals. He does not specify a specific religion or set
of beliefs within a religion to make this distinction, however. Furthermore, he does not specify if
the people who have done harm in the name of their religion, of which he gives examples, and
considered it moral were properly following the religion. In any case, his exploration of morality
is in depth and otherwise takes into account many points of views. Examining ethics, Fieser
(2015) states that “Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject
areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics” (para. 1). Fieser proposes that from these
three angles one can view the past, the present and the future of ethics (morals), respectively.
Fieser then expands each category into living and abstract examples, citing various philosophers
and contexts.
Religious Texts
“The Qur’an is the concrete tangible Word of God. The Qur’an identifies itself to us and
tells us that God is its Author, as God tells us in Surah 55 verses 1 and 2: ‘God the Merciful has
taught the Qur’an’” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. ix). Ahmad and Dina Zidan provide readers with
what may be the most outstanding translation of the Qur’an ever produced in the English
language. This may be due to the fact that Ahmad is a native speaker of Arabic, the original
language of the Qur’an, and Dina, his wife, is a native speaker of British English. The
combination of their linguistic comprehension of both Arabic and English shines through in the
text of the Qur’an in ways that other translations just do not do. Furthermore Zidan and Zidan
(1996) state that “We notice that many previous translations of the meaning of the Qur’an into
English have contained grievous errors and some non-Muslim translators have intentionally
distorted its meaning” (p. ix)
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The translation of the Hebrew Bible by the Jewish Publication Society (JPS), referred to
as the Tanakh, “was made directly from the traditional Hebrew text into the idiom of modern
English” (1999, p. xv). According to the JPS (1999), this version of the Tanakh was the
culmination of decades of work which began at the end of World War II and ended in 1982. The
current JPS edition from 1999 is a revised edition of the previous work. The Tanakh consists of
the Books of Genesis through II Chronicles. Similar to the Qur’an by Zidan and Zidan, the
Jewish Publication Society puts forth a most excellent translation of the Hebrew Bible. However,
this version of the Tanakh is mostly laid out in a book format, and not separated verse by verse,
which can frustrate those with short memories seeking to quickly revisit certain passages.
Prophets
Emmet (1956) attempts to describe “the kinds of people we call prophets…” (p. 13).
Emmet does not specifically seek to legitimize the people who have been called Prophets, rather,
she explores the different characteristics of these people. Interestingly, Emmet also uses, though
not quite negatively, a borrowed definition of the role of a “criminal” in a society as a parallel
example to the way in which a Prophet may be received or looked upon by their own society.
Emmet (1956) uses examples from a wide and interesting variety of cultures, including the
Abrahamic Religion. Concentrating solely on the Abrahamic Faith, Waterman (1945) describes
how a number of Biblical Prophets delivered a certain message or criticism so clearly that there
was no room for unintentional misinterpretation. Waterman quotes the Prophets directly and uses
the actual contexts in which they made their statements as the proof of the clarity and directness
of their Messages. One of his most striking analyses is that of the Prophet Amos. Waterman
(1945) describes how Amos vigorously denounced the sacrificial killing of animals as a means to
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please God. Waterman also refutes other literature which he believed misinterpreted, or softened,
the Message of Amos.
God chose Mohamed to be a Prophet as well, and delivered His Revelations to him
through the angel Gabriel, who taught Mohamed the Qur’an by recitation. That is why the Book
sent to Mohamed is called the Qur’an, which in English means recitation, or to recite. Many texts
outside of the Qur’an seek to illuminate who Prophet Mohamed was, and how he lived his life.
However, one need not look further than the Qur’an to learn these things. Throughout the Qur’an
God is speaking to Mohamed through the angel Gabriel about all aspects of his life, and
especially about matters of Faith. For example, in Qur’an 94:1-8, God says to Prophet Mohamed:
“Have we not comforted your chest for you; And relieved you of your burden; Which weighed
down your back? And raised your renown? Surely with hardship comes ease: Most surely, with
hardship comes ease. . .” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 596).
“On the prophets rested the hope of the future” (Geikie, 1883, p. 243). Geikie’s
enthusiasm cannot be ignored; it resonates strongly through his words describing the account of
the Prophet Elijah. It seems that what Geikie is doing is showing a deep reverence for the
courage and strength of Elijah, a courage that in his mind, was unmatched at its time. So much
so, that during Elijah’s time, he was able to deliver his Message against odds that many people of
today would cower before. Geikie discusses the little known historical origins of Elijah, his
physical characteristics and abilities, and the lasting impact his actions and words left on many
people.
Financial Considerations
Bonner (2005) examines Qur’anic Verses which discuss the obligation of all those who
submit to the will of God to practice various types of charity, called Zakat. Bonner also briefly
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contrasts various texts outside of the Qur’an which do not place as much importance on Zakat,
texts which are widely perpetuated as accurate sources of historical fact and guidance. The
article concisely illustrates how the idea of Zakat can keep a community, as a whole, on a level
financial playing field by sharing with those in need on a consistent basis. Bonner concludes that
the Qur’an places poor people at the center of the “economic universe” of its adherents (2005).
Benthall (1999) also concisely examines the Qur’anic obligation of giving Zakat. Benthall
(1999) relies on firsthand knowledge gained from traveling to countries where Zakat is
considered obligatory and has been implemented as a social responsibility, discussions with
locals, and also on the literature of various figures who have put forth their own interpretations
of what Zakat is, or should be. Benthall also briefly contrasts this obligation with Biblical beliefs,
from both the New and Old Testament.
“The Hebrew Bible contains a thrice repeated prohibition against the taking of interest on
loans” (Meislin & Cohen, 1964, p. 250). After providing the Biblical Verses to support this
statement, Meislin and Cohen then explore the various ways in which each Verse has been
interpreted and the ways in which the varying interpretations have transformed into actual
economic practices. Investigating further, Meislin and Cohen examine pre-Exilic civilizations
such as Mesopotamia and Sumeria, which they believe could possibly be pre-cursors to the
manifestation of the Biblical prohibition on loan interest. In a scholarly discussion regarding
Islamic financial alternatives, a quote from Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer (2001) can be extracted
which is: “. . .the Qur’an categorically bans every form of interest, regardless of context. . .” (p.
28). This quote has purposely been taken out of context for this review. In the context of the
article, Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer state that this idea has been widely debated. However, in the
Qur’an itself, God makes very clear the repercussions of charging interest. Aside from this, the
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article discusses specific financial transactions in the world and local business markets and how
they coincide, or conflict, with Qur’anic morals and values.
Chapter Three
Some people believe in God, some do not, and some believe there are multiple gods. This
paper is not a representation of the beliefs of every human on earth. It is also not a refutation of
the beliefs of those who do not believe in God or who believe that there are multiple gods.
People have free will to believe whatever they choose, free from any human consequences. With
respect for one another and respect for the beliefs that each follows, regardless if they contradict
one another, people should aspire to behave in a way that is the most representative of the
highest moral standard of their chosen belief system, if it has one.
The Books of Wisdom
The Scriptures and the Qur’an are Books that were revealed by God to His chosen
Messengers during times of great corruption and oppression. The Words of God were sent down
as guidance to people who needed help, who had lost their way, and as a warning to those among
them who were perpetrating heinous acts against the people and against themselves. The
Scriptures and the Qur’an are filled with accounts of people who, inspired by God, had to stand
up for what was right. For example, Geikie (1883) discusses the Prophet Elijah, saying ”He
shows how one man, strong in the support of God and the right, can by fearless courage and
absorbing zeal change the whole course of history in his time” (p. 243). Emmet (1956) further
illuminates the characteristics of these people, stating that “Prophets can of course be studied
historically and biographically as exceptional individuals, as critics, rebels, or reformers of their
societies” (p. 13).
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In a modern world of ambiguity and blurring of lines, it may not be easy to see the
greater reality, the bigger picture that clearly shows the state of affairs and the foresight to
imagine their consequences. To those who believe in the guidance God has sent down, it is God
and only God who can bestow this vision upon whoever He chooses. Waterman (1945), referring
to Prophets, calls this vision ethical clarity. Waterman (1945) uses the Messenger Amos as an
example of a man who, contrary to the beliefs of the leaders and many people of his time,
denounced animal sacrifices and economic injustice. “Amos thus proclaimed an ethical God so
clearly that only ethical relations between men could assure divine favor; and nothing in his
words indicates that he recognized any other approach to God” (Waterman, 1945, p. 300).
Still, the Books are not merely inspirational stories. In a historical context, these Books
are historical lessons. In a modern context, when God’s principles are properly applied, these
Books have guided billions of people away from many detrimental habits and to a better way of
life, and kept others almost entirely away from what many consider to be a bad way of life. Some
scholars of morality and ethics would love to argue what good and bad is, that good and bad is
subjective or contextual, and that wrong and right is situational. Gert (2015) discusses this,
saying “. . .many anthropologists used to claim that morality, like law, applies only within a
society” (para. 5). That argument is the antithesis of a universal code of ethics or morality,
which Gert does acknowledge. Those scholars must not believe in a universal code of ethics,
they must believe that depending on where they are, and who is around, some things would be
permissible that would otherwise be intolerable, in their own opinion. On the topic of normative
ethics, Fieser (2015) postulates that ethical behavior “. . .may involve articulating the good habits
that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on
others” (para. 1). The Scriptures and the Qur’an have for ages fulfilled every requirement, and
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more, of Fieser’s definition of ethical behavior in the context of normative ethics. Aside from
some modern scholars perpetuating contextual morality, who at their oldest were born in the
1900’s, the world had Divine Scriptures and Revelations sent down long before them that are
still followed (correctly and incorrectly) by billions of people.
Contrasting Values
Proverbs 29:7 of the Bible says that “A righteous man knows the rights of the poor; a
wicked man does not understand such knowledge” (Smith, 2015). As one walks or drives
through the world, they may notice something: a man or woman holding a sign, asking for
money. Any number of circumstances, be they self-inflicted or not, could have persuaded that
human being to have the courage to stand outside and ask strangers for money. They could be a
war veteran, or someone who had an unloving childhood so they turned to drugs or alcohol, a
victim of abuse, or even a runaway teenager. Furthermore, according to the US Human Rights
Network UPR Housing Working Group, “In no U.S. jurisdiction can a person working full time
at the federal minimum wage afford a one-bedroom apartment” (2014, p. 3). In any case, as one
passes by them they know none of these things, all they know is that that human being needs
something that they have. They may need food, water, or money. Maybe hundreds of people pass
them by, a few give them some change or a kind word. This happens every day, all around the
world. One has to ask their self, at what point (and how) did human beings become so
desensitized and insensitive to the needs of their fellow human beings? What is missing within
one’s self to manifest this absence of empathy? What are the spiritual effects of neglecting those
who need help? The Bible says to not understand the rights of the poor is wicked. One form of
charity that is mandated as obligatory by God in the Qur’an is Zakat. Bonner (1999) states that
“Zakat derives from the word zaka, which means to purify (also with the connotation of growth
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or increase)” (p. 29). Maybe the only way to purify one’s self from the wickedness of ignoring
the poor as described in the Biblical Proverbs is to help those who need help.
The Qur’an and Bible
Qur’an, 34:39 - “Say, ‘My Lord extends and straitens His Bounty to whom He pleases of His
servants, and whatever you shall expend, He will replenish it and He is the Best of Providers’”
(Zidan & Zidan, 1996).
Proverbs, 28:6 - “Better is a poor man who walks in his integrity than a rich man who is crooked
in his ways” (Smith, 2015).
Exodus, 22:24 - “If you lend money to My people, to the poor among you, do not act toward
them as a creditor; exact no interest from them” (JPS, 1999).
Qur’an, 90:11-16 - “Yet he has not attempted the ascent; And how would you know what the
ascent is? It is the freeing of a slave, Or the feeding on a day of hunger. Of an orphan near of kin,
Or a needy one down in the dust.” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).
Proverbs, 21:13 - “Whoever closes his ear to the cry of the poor will himself call out and not be
answered” (Smith, 2015).
Exodus, 23:6 - “You shall not subvert the rights of your needy in their disputes” (JPS, 1999).
Quran, 102:1-3 - “Rivalry for worldly gain distracts you, Until you visit the graves, No indeed,
you shall know.” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).
Proverbs, 19-17 - “Whoever is generous to the poor lends to the Lord, and he will repay him for
his deed” (Smith, 2015).
Deuteronomy, 15:11 - “For there will never cease to be needy ones in your land, which is why I
command you: open your hand to the poor and needy kinsman in your land” (JPS, 1999).
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Qur’an, 3:134 - “Those who spend (in charity) whether in prosperity or in adversity, who restrain
anger, and pardon people, and God loves the charitable” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).
Discussion
Many people absentmindedly approach every issue or problem with the notion that
humans control even the smallest things. The Qur’an say that not even a leaf falls from a tree that
God does not know about (Zidan & Zidan, 1996). Humans are only responsible for their own
individual behavior. This behavior may be directed towards another human being, but ultimately
the result of that directed behavior reflects back onto the director. In terms of poverty and
charity, both the Qur’an and the Bible provide guidance on how to conduct one’s self in a
righteous way. For example, Bonner (2005) puts forth that “The Qur’an provides a blueprint for
a new order in society, in which the poor will be treated more fair than before” (p. 391). It is
difficult to imagine one Prophet, Messenger or righteous leader of any society or organization
who would perpetuate the neglect of the poor and needy during times of extreme wealth and
consumption. And without one inkling of a doubt, in all texts of the Abrahamic Religion, God
Commands all people to help those in need who live with less. Regarding the poor, God
Commands Moses in Deuteronomy 15:10 to tell his people, “Give to him readily and have no
regrets when you do so, for in return the Lord your God will bless you in all your efforts and in
all your undertakings” (JPS, 1999). King Solomon, in Proverbs 31:8-9 says, “Open your mouth
for the mute, for the rights of all who are destitute. Open your mouth, judge righteously, defend
the rights of the poor and needy” (Smith, 2015).
Along with extreme wealth and consumption, people and countries of the world are
burdened with extreme debt that accrues substantial interest. Once again, King Solomon says in
Proverbs 22:7, “The rich rules over the poor, and the borrower is the slave of the lender” (Smith,
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2015). Meislin and Cohen (1964) stated concisely and clearly that God strictly prohibited loan
interest in the Bible. Some would argue that this prohibition only applies to certain people, but if
all people are descendants of Adam, who does that not include? Furthermore, in the Qur’an God
says that whatever anyone puts out seeking an increased return from the people, increases them
nothing with God (Zidan & Zidan, 1996). Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer (2001) say that many have
argued over whether the Qur’an categorically prohibits profiting from interest on loans, but from
reading the Qur’an and its principles it seems extremely clear. “O you who believe! Fear God
and relinquish whatever remains from usury if you are believers” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 47).
How can one truthfully argue that? McCarthy (2015), citing a 2015 study by the Mckinsey and
Global Institute, writes that “Since 2007, global debt levels have increased by $57 trillion,
reaching $200 trillion in total by the second quarter of 2014” (para. 1). God cautions those who
do not relinquish and forgive what they hold in interest against the people by saying, “But if you
do not, then be warned of a war from God and His Messenger, yet if you repent you shall have
your capital fairly” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 47).
Hiers (1996) says that “. . .major Biblical covenants leave no doubt that God was
understood to be concerned for the well-being of all life forms, not only for that of humans” (p.
131). If human beings are failing to maintain compassion and charity amongst themselves, than
the environment and its resources will most definitely suffer along with them. Discussing the
intersection of religion and environmentalism, Gill (1999) states that “Land is to be preserved
unharmed for the sake of life yet unborn - for generations upon generations upon generations” (p.
413). Gill (1999) refers to this human responsibility of environmental preservation as
“trusteeship” (p. 413). The Qur’an repeatedly informs us that God is truly the only Trustee, but
all of the Abrahamic Books teach that God created the heavens and earth in perfect harmony,
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without any imperfections. Gill (1999) gracefully makes this point by stating that “For Jews,
Christians and Muslims God created the universe in love and brings order to what would
otherwise be chaos” (p. 413). But even if a human being decides to consider themselves a trustee
over the land that God created, why would they destroy the land that God subjected to them and
created perfectly? The Qur’an answers this question first by telling human beings that God has
power over all things, even corruption and disaster. Furthermore, God states in Qur’an 30:41 that
“Corruption has overtaken in land and sea, for what the hands of the people have earned, that He
may let them taste some of what they have done, in order that they may return” (Zidan & Zidan,
1996).
It may be that many people in the world do not want to believe in God anymore, and
maybe the life of this world has made many people forget about God. Or maybe the humans who
God has allowed to be in charge of the world’s wealth know that God has prescribed an
economic and environmental protocol for earth’s citizens to comply with, and have internally
accepted that they are going to be punished for disobeying, and have chosen to live in a way
contrary to God’s teachings, dragging many others into their delusion by various means.
Regardless, we all have a choice at the most personal level and in the smallest ways to help
ourselves by helping others, we can never help enough. “’Because of the groans of the plundered
poor and needy, I will now act,’ says the Lord. ‘I will give help. . .’” (JPS, 1999, p. 1119).
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