MorphologyMorphology

MorphologyMorphology

• Morph (form) + ology (science of)Morph (form) + ology (science of)• -- > Morphology (the science of -- > Morphology (the science of

word forms)word forms)• The study of the internal structure The study of the internal structure

of words, andof words, and• The rules by which words are The rules by which words are

formedformed

What is a word?What is a word?

A reliable definition of A reliable definition of wordswords is  is that they are that they are the smallest the smallest independent units of independent units of language.language.

They are independent in that they They are independent in that they do not depend on other words do not depend on other words which means that they can be which means that they can be separated from other units and separated from other units and can change position.can change position.

MorphemesMorphemes

• Look at the following wordsLook at the following words• LikelyLikely unlikely developedunlikely developed

undevelopedundeveloped• un- is a prefix means No.un- is a prefix means No.• -ly in ‘likely’ is a adverbial suffix. -ly in ‘likely’ is a adverbial suffix. • -ed in ‘developed’ is a suffix -ed in ‘developed’ is a suffix

morpheme.morpheme.

What is What is morpheme?morpheme?

What is morpheme?What is morpheme?• Dictionary:Dictionary:

• MorphemeMorpheme•   (môr(môr''fēm') fēm') • n.n. • A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of

a word, such as a word, such as man,man, or a word element, or a word element, such as such as -ed-ed in in walked,walked, that cannot be that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts.divided into smaller meaningful parts.

• morphemic morphemic mor·phem'icmor·phem'ic adj.adj.• morphemically morphemically mor·phem'i·cal·lymor·phem'i·cal·ly adv.adv.

http://www.answers.com/http://www.answers.com/topic/morphemetopic/morpheme

• Definitions:Definitions:

A morpheme is the minimal unit ofmeaning.

• Example:Example:            un+system+atic+al+lyun+system+atic+al+ly

• Note: morphemes ≠ words

What is morpheme?What is morpheme?

Examples of MorphemesExamples of Morphemes• One morpheme         One morpheme         boy  (one syllable) boy  (one syllable)

                                                                  desire, lady, water  (two desire, lady, water  (two syllables) syllables)                                                                   crocodile (three syllables) crocodile (three syllables)                                                                   salamander (four syllables), salamander (four syllables), or more or more syllables syllables

• Two morpheme        Two morpheme        boy + ish boy + ish                                                                     desire + able desire + able

• Three morpheme       Three morpheme       boy + ish + ness boy + ish + ness                                                                     desire + able + ity desire + able + ity

• Four morpheme         Four morpheme         gentle + man + li + ness gentle + man + li + ness                                                                     un + desire + able + ity un + desire + able + ity

• More than four          More than four           un + gentle + man + li + un + gentle + man + li + ness ness                                                                     anti + dis + establish + ment anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + + ari + an + ism an + ism

What is the What is the relationship relationship

between between morphemes and morphemes and

words?words?

• Humans can understand words thatHumans can understand words that

have never been heard beforehave never been heard before• Human can also create new wordsHuman can also create new words• For exampleFor example, , a writa writableable CD CD

a a rerewritwritableable CD CD

an an ununrerewritwritableable CD CD

What is the relationship What is the relationship between morphemes and between morphemes and

words?words?

How many types How many types of morphemes are of morphemes are

there?there?• Bound morphemesBound morphemes

• Free morphemesFree morphemes• Root morphemesRoot morphemes• Stem morphemesStem morphemes

• Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes• Inflectional morphemes Inflectional morphemes

• Affixes: prefixes and Affixes: prefixes and suffixessuffixes

• Grammatical morphemesGrammatical morphemes

Classification of some (Engli sh) morphemes

(English) Morphemes (English) Morphemes

BoundBound FreeFree

AffixAffix RootRoot Open Class Open Class Closed Class Closed Class

DerivationalDerivational InflectionalInflectional

PrefixPrefix SuffixSuffix SuffixSuffix gruntlegruntle Nouns ( Nouns (girlgirl)) Determiners ( Determiners (thethe,,a(n)a(n)))

prepre - - -ly-ly - -ing en- -ing en mitmit Verbs ( Verbs (kickkick)) Conjunctions ( Conjunctions (andand))

un-un- -ist-ist - -er est - -er est fer fer Adjectives ( Adjectives (happyhappy ) Prepositions ( ) Prepositions ( of of ,, in in ))

con-con--ment-ment -ed -ed Adverbs ( Adverbs (quicklyquickly))

Pronouns ( Pronouns (II,, he he,, you ) you )

Auxiliary Verbs ( Auxiliary Verbs (isis))

Bound morphemesBound morphemes

• Bound morphemesBound morphemes (affixes) must (affixes) must be attached to the word. be attached to the word.

• They are prefixes, infixes, suffixes They are prefixes, infixes, suffixes and circumfixes.and circumfixes.

• Such as {clude} as in include, exclude, preclude) or they may be grammatical (such as {PLU} = plural as in boys, girls, and cats).

Free morphemesFree morphemes

• Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words.

• Example: Example:    girl, system, desire,    girl, system, desire, hope, act, phone, happyhope, act, phone, happy

Root morphemesRoot morphemes

• A A root root is a morphemes that cannot is a morphemes that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts.be analyzed into smaller parts.

• Example:Example: cran (as in cranberry), act, cran (as in cranberry), act, beauty, system, etc..  beauty, system, etc..  • Free Root  Morpheme: run, bottle, Free Root  Morpheme: run, bottle,

phone, etc.phone, etc.• Bound Root  Morpheme: receive, remit, Bound Root  Morpheme: receive, remit,

uncount, uncouth, nonchalant, etc.  uncount, uncouth, nonchalant, etc. 

• A A stem stem is formed when a root is formed when a root morphemes is combined with morphemes is combined with an affix.an affix.

• Other affixes can be added to a Other affixes can be added to a stem to form a more complex stem to form a more complex stem.  stem. 

Stem morphemesStem morphemes

Example of word Example of word formationformation

• Root      believe (verb) Root      believe (verb) • Stem    believe + able (verb + Stem    believe + able (verb +

suffix)suffix)• Word     un + believe + ableWord     un + believe + able

(prefix +verb + suffix)   (prefix +verb + suffix)  

Example of word Example of word formationformation

• RootRoot systemsystem• StemStem system + aticsystem + atic• StemStem un + system + aticun + system + atic• StemStem un + system + atic + alun + system + atic + al• WordWord un + system + atic + al + un + system + atic + al +

lyly

Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes

• Root + Derivational Morpheme --> a Root + Derivational Morpheme --> a new word with a new meaning. new word with a new meaning. (usually change grammatical class)(usually change grammatical class)

• N + Derivational Morpheme --> Adj. N + Derivational Morpheme --> Adj. Ex. Boy + ish, Ex. Boy + ish,

• Verb + Derivational Morpheme --> Verb + Derivational Morpheme --> Noun Ex. Acquitt + al, clear + Noun Ex. Acquitt + al, clear + anceance

• Adj. + Derivational Morpheme --> Adj. + Derivational Morpheme --> Adverb Ex. Exact + ly, quiet + lyAdverb Ex. Exact + ly, quiet + ly

Inflectional Inflectional morphemes morphemes

• Inflectional morphemes have Inflectional morphemes have grammatical meaning or function in grammatical meaning or function in the sentence.the sentence.

• They never change They never change part of speech.• For example,For example,• Bound Morpheme : Ex. ‘to’ in Bound Morpheme : Ex. ‘to’ in

connection with a verb (‘ an connection with a verb (‘ an infinitive with to’)infinitive with to’)

• Bound Morphemes: Ex. –s, -edBound Morphemes: Ex. –s, -ed• He sails the ocean blue.He sails the ocean blue.• He sailed the ocean blue.He sailed the ocean blue.

Eight English Inflectional Eight English Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes

• -s -s third-third-person singular person singular presentpresent

• --eded past tensepast tense• -ing progressive-ing progressive• -en-en past past

participleparticiple• -s-s pluralplural• -’s-’s possessivepossessive• --erer

comparativecomparative• -est-est superlativesuperlative

• She waitShe waitss at home.at home.• She waitShe waited ed at home.at home.• She is eatShe is eatinging the the

donuts.donuts.• Mary has eatMary has eatenen the the

donuts.donuts.• She ate the donutShe ate the donutss..• LisaLisa’s’s hair is short. hair is short.• LisaLisa has has short hair short hair

than Kate.than Kate.• Lisa has the shorLisa has the shortesttest

hair.hair.

The major differences The major differences between derivational and between derivational and inflectional morphologyinflectional morphology

  Derivational  Inflectional 

position closer to

stem 

further from stem 

addable on to? 

yes not in English

changes stem?

yes no

productive?

(often) no(usually)

yes

meaning?(often)

unpredictable

predictable

Affixes: prefixes and Affixes: prefixes and suffixessuffixes

• AffixAffix: a morpheme that comes at the : a morpheme that comes at the beginning (prefix) or the ending beginning (prefix) or the ending (suffix) of a base morpheme.  (suffix) of a base morpheme. 

• NoteNote: An affix usually is a morpheme : An affix usually is a morpheme that cannot stand alone.  that cannot stand alone. 

• ExamplesExamples: : -ful-ful, , -ly-ly, , -it-ity, y, -nes-ness. A few s. A few exceptions are exceptions are ableable, , likelike, and , and lessless. .

Affixes: prefixes and Affixes: prefixes and suffixessuffixes

• PrefixPrefix: an affix that comes before : an affix that comes before a base morpheme.  The a base morpheme.  The inin in the in the word word inspect inspect is a prefix.is a prefix.

• SuffixSuffix: an affix that comes after a : an affix that comes after a base morpheme.  The base morpheme.  The ss in in catscats is is a suffix. a suffix.

Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix and circumfix) are all and circumfix) are all bound morphemes. bound morphemes.

Prefixes Suffixes Infixes Circumfixes

Bound morphemes which occur only before other morphemes.

Examples: un- (uncover, undo) dis- (displeased, disconnect), pre- (predetermine, prejudge)

Bound morphemes which occur  following other morphemes.

Examples: -er (singer, performer) -ist (typist, pianist) -ly (manly, friendly)

Bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.

Example: Fikas

"strong"  fumikas "to be strong" 

(Bontoc Language)

Bound morphemes that are attached to a root or stem morpheme both initially and finally.

Example: chokma "he is good"  ik + chokm + o "he isn?t? good"                        

(Chickasaw Language)

Grammatical morphemesGrammatical morphemes

• What is the difference in meaning What is the difference in meaning between between appleapple and and applesapples? ?

• What is the difference in form? What is the difference in form? • What does this tell you about What does this tell you about

these two words?these two words?

Grammatical morphemesGrammatical morphemes

• Words can have an internal structure Words can have an internal structure much like the syntax of phrases.much like the syntax of phrases.

• Morphemes such as Morphemes such as thethe, , -s-s, and , and re-re- near near the grammatical end of the continuum the grammatical end of the continuum are called are called grammatical morphemesgrammatical morphemes..

• Note that grammatical morphemes Note that grammatical morphemes include forms that we can consider to be include forms that we can consider to be words like words like thethe, , aa, , andand, and , and ofof and others and others that make up parts of words like that make up parts of words like –s and -–s and -eded. .

• Examples. Examples. pencilpencilss walkwalkeded

What are the What are the differences differences

between each between each type type

of morphemes?of morphemes?

What is the What is the function of each function of each

type of type of morphemes?morphemes?

What is the What is the relationship relationship

among each type among each type of morphemes?of morphemes?

What is the difference What is the difference between between

content/lexical words content/lexical words and and

function/grammatical function/grammatical words?words?

Content WordsContent Words

• Content wordsContent words denote concepts denote concepts such as subjects, actions, and such as subjects, actions, and ideas ideas ((noun, verb, adjective, noun, verb, adjective, adverbadverb))

• Content wordsContent words are open class are open class words words ((new words can be addednew words can be added))

• Example of new words : Example of new words : Steganography Steganography ((the art of hiding the art of hiding information in electronic textinformation in electronic text))

Function WordsFunction Words

• Function wordsFunction words express Grammatical express Grammatical Functions Functions ((e.g., preposition, article, e.g., preposition, article, conjunctions, pronounsconjunctions, pronouns))

• Function wordsFunction words connect the content connect the content words to the larger grammatical words to the larger grammatical context.context.

• Functions wordsFunctions words are also called are also called ‘closed class’ words ‘closed class’ words ((no new words no new words assed to this class.assed to this class.))

ExerciseExercise

““I know you can do it”I know you can do it”

"First say to yourself "First say to yourself what you would be, what you would be, and then do what and then do what you have to do."you have to do."

How are English How are English words formed?words formed?

Different types of words Different types of words from different from different formations.formations.

• Derived wordsDerived words• Lexical gapsLexical gaps• Compounds: also how to Compounds: also how to

differentiate compounds from noun differentiate compounds from noun phrasesphrases

• AcronymsAcronyms• Back formationsBack formations• Abbreviations/Truncation/ClippingAbbreviations/Truncation/Clipping• EponymsEponyms• BlendsBlends

Derived wordsDerived words

= = new wordsnew words with with new meaningsnew meanings formed fromformed from

root + derivational morphemeroot + derivational morpheme

e.g. ir+regular = irrigulare.g. ir+regular = irrigular

Lexical GapsLexical Gaps

• Well-formed but nonexisting wordWell-formed but nonexisting word• Reason : a permissible sequence has Reason : a permissible sequence has

no meaning attached to it <like no meaning attached to it <like “blick” or “slarm” or “krobe”>“blick” or “slarm” or “krobe”>

• Possible comniations of morphemePossible comniations of morpheme never come into usenever come into use ( (Ex. Ex. “disobvious” ,“linguisticism”“disobvious” ,“linguisticism”))

• Word like *bnick is not a lexical gaps Word like *bnick is not a lexical gaps in English because English does not in English because English does not allow the sequence of ‘bn’allow the sequence of ‘bn’

CompoundsCompounds

• Word + word = compound word (meaning may or may not change)

• When the two word are in the same grammatical category, compound will be in this category.

• Ex. Home(n. ) + Work(n.) = homework (noun) Pick (v. ) + pocket (n.) = pickpocket (noun)

• Compounds can be more than two words:

• Two-word compounds are the most common in English.

• Three – word compounds: three-time loser

• Four– word compounds: four-dimensional space-time

Compounds have internal Compounds have internal structurestructure

N.N.

N.N. N.N.

Adj.Adj. N.N.rackrack

toptop hathat

N.N.

Adj.Adj. N.N.

toptop N.N.N.N.

hathat rackrack

• RackRack• top hattop hat

• Hat rackHat rack• toptop

Meaning of compoundsMeaning of compounds• Same meaning as the parts : a

boathouse = (a house for boats)

• New meaning but relate to the meaning of the individual parts :

• a blackboard (can be in other colors, not just black)

• a Redcoat (slang for British soldier during American Revolutionary War)

ForFor example example

black bir black birdd

( turdus merula)

blackbirblackbirdd

ForFor example example

hot dog hotdog

ForFor example example

red wood

( Giant Sequoia)

redwood

Back formationsBack formations• A new word may entry theA new word may entry the

languagelanguage because of an incorrect because of an incorrect morphological analysis.morphological analysis.

• Example,Example, peddlepeddle was derived was derived from from peddlerpeddler on the mistaken on the mistaken assumption thatassumption that the – er was suffix.the – er was suffix.• stoke --> stokerstoke --> stoker• edit --> editoredit --> editor

AbbreviationsAbbreviations

• Abbreviations of longer words or phrases can become lexicalized

• Fax <facsimile>• Telly (The British word for

‘television’)

• Eponyms are word form proper names.

• Example: sandwich, robot, jumbo

EponymsEponyms

BlendsBlends

• Similar to compounds but parts of the words that are combined are deleted.

• Example: smog <from ‘smok + fog’>, motel <from ‘motor + hotel’>

The hierarchical structure of The hierarchical structure of words represented by the words represented by the

tree diagramtree diagram

• A word is not a simple sequence A word is not a simple sequence of morphemes.of morphemes.

• It has an internal structure as It has an internal structure as shown in the following tree shown in the following tree diagram:diagram:

TT ree diagrams ree diagrams

N.N.

Adj.Adj. nessness

unun Adj.Adj.

happyhappy

Morphological Morphological RulesRules

1. un + happy --> 1. un + happy --> Adj.Adj.

2. adj. + ness --> 2. adj. + ness --> N.N.

Other terms according to Other terms according to word formation:word formation:

• Rule productivityRule productivity• Universality of compoundingUniversality of compounding

• Suppletive ExceptionSuppletive Exception• ExpletiveExpletive

• AllomorphsAllomorphs• Default/elsewhereDefault/elsewhere

• Homophonous morphemesHomophonous morphemes• ReduplicationReduplication

Rule productivityRule productivity

• Morphological Rules are Productive Morphological Rules are Productive because:because:

• They can be used freely to form new They can be used freely to form new words from the list of free and bound words from the list of free and bound morpheme.morpheme.

• Some morphemes are more Some morphemes are more productive than others.productive than others.

• Productive morphemes: Ex. -able or -Productive morphemes: Ex. -able or -erer

• Not Productive morphemes:Not Productive morphemes: Ex. –let Ex. –let (piglet)(piglet)

Universality of Universality of compoundingcompounding

• Universality compoundingUniversality compounding is a is a common and frequent process for common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of all enlarging the vocabulary of all language.language.

• ExEx.. In Thai, the word ‘cat’ is m In Thai, the word ‘cat’ is mєєєєw, w, ‘watch’ is fân, and ‘house’ is bâan. ‘watch’ is fân, and ‘house’ is bâan. The word for ‘watch cat’ is the The word for ‘watch cat’ is the compound mcompound mєєєєwfânbâan – literally, wfânbâan – literally, ‘catwatchhouse’ ‘catwatchhouse’

Suppletive ExceptionSuppletive Exception

• SuppletiveSuppletive are treated separately are treated separately in the grammar, that cannot use in the grammar, that cannot use the regular rules of inflectional the regular rules of inflectional morphology to add affixes to word morphology to add affixes to word the exception.the exception.

• Ex.Ex. child --> childrenwoman --> women