Motivation

What is Motivation?What do you think it

means?

Motivation

• Motivation—factors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time

• A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Motivation

• Activation – initiation or production behavior

• Persistence – continued effort to get something

• Intensity – greater vigor of responding

Theories

• Theories have proved weak over time, but we take a little from each and evolved

• Why people do what they do is a mystery!!

Theories of Motivation• Instinct—motives are innate• Drive—biological needs as

motivation• Incentive—extrinsic things push or

pull behavior• Arousal—people are motivated to

maintain optimum level of arousal• Humanistic—hierarchy of needs

Instinct Theories• Motivation is innate and due to

genetic programming• Instincts are rigidly patterned

throughout a species and is inborn instincts

Instinct Theories• Animals display instinctive

behavior patterns such as migration and mating behavior

• IE. Salmon returning to their birth place, birds migrating south for the winter

Instinct Motivation• Examples of Instincts

– Rivalry Submission– Sympathy Modesty– Fear Secretiveness– Shyness Repulsion– Cleanliness Jealousy– Food-Seeking Curiosity– Sociability Combativeness– Parental Love Hunting– Mating Constructiveness

Why Why does Jimmy get into a lot of fights?

Why is Sally so quiet and timid?

Why is Dave so overweight?

Why does Jane beat her children?

Why do people do the things that they do?(Instinct Theory)

• Why does Jimmy get into a lot of fights? Combativeness Instinct

• Why is Sally so quiet and timid? Shyness Instinct

• Dave is overweight and can’t stop eating because of his food-seeking instinct.

• Jane beats and neglects her children because she wasn’t born with a parental love instinct.

• By 1920’s and 1930’s instinct theory is out, but the idea that some human behaviors are innate and genetically programmed remained an important element in the overall understanding of motivation

So what is next????

Drives

• Create imbalances in the body• Prompts an organism to restore the

balance• typically reducing the drive• Part of drive-reduction theory

The Drive Reduction Theory

DRIVE – REDUCTION THEORY

• Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs

• A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

• Eating and drinking are examples of drive-reducing behaviors.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Motivation• Homeostasis = The body monitors

and maintains relatively constant levels of internal states, such as body temperature, fluid levels, and energy supplies

• If any of these levels deviates very far from the optimal level, the body initiates processes (motivation) to bring the condition back to normal

Why did Shawn steal that candy bar?

Why does Carrie wear sweatshirts, even in the summer?

Why do people do the things that they do?(Drive-Reduction Theory)

• Why did Shawn steal that candy bar? To satisfy his hunger and to maintain homeostasis. His body told him that he needed it.

• Carrie always wears long sleeve shirts, even in the summer. She must have an internal thermostat that drops very easily, and in order to maintain a certain internal body temperature, she always has to wear an extra layer of clothing.

Homeostasis• A tendency to maintain a balanced

or constant internal state• The regulation of any aspect of body

chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

• Any change in levels, up or down, results in being motivated to bring the level back to normal.

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Homeostatic Regulation

Problems• Drive theories inadequate due

to the fact many people strive to increase tension and physiological arousal

• I.e. running a marathon• Jumping out an airplane

Cognitive Explanations:

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Module 11: Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

• A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

• You do it because you love it

Extrinsic Motivation

• A desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment

• You do it cause you are paid to do so

Extrinsic Motivation

• Incentive Theory – Extrinsic Motivation• Behavior is motivated solely by the pull of

external rewards (reinforcement principal)

Why did Kevin kill Bill?

Why does Janet swim everyday, for many hours?

Why does Steve do nothing but homework?

Why do people do the things that they do?(Incentive Theory)

• Kevin committed murder because he was paid to do so.

• Jane swims everyday, before and after school, on weekends, etc. so that she can win an Olympic Gold medal.

• Steve is considered a geek because he does all of his homework so that he can get all “A’s”. If he does, he can have a television in his bedroom.

Intrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation is when you are motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation.

• Intrinsic motivation drives you to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good

or right thing to do.

• Why did Cassie become a nun?

• Why does Greg work at the homeless shelter on weekends, instead of playing baseball?

• Why does Karen spend so many hours working on her perfecting her swing?

• Why did Jessica serve on jury duty, even though she missed several days of work and an exam?

Why do people do the things that they do?(Intrinsic Motivation)

• Cassie became a nun because she felt that it was morally the right thing to do.

• Greg works at the homeless shelter because it makes him feel good to help other people in need.

• Karen practices her swing because she enjoys softball, and so that she can become a better softball player.

• Jessica was a jurier in the murder trial because putting away criminals is the right thing to do.

Humanistic Motivation

Motivation

• Humanistic Theory

• Internal motivation factors

• People are motivated to satisfy a progression of internal needs, beginning with the most basic and moving towards the realization of personal potential

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

• Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs

Humanistic Motivation

• Once the needs at a particular level are satisfied, an individual is motivated to satisfy the needs at the next level, and then steadily move upwards

• The ultimate goal is self-actualization, or the realization of a person’s potential, self-fulfillment, or the full use of one’s talents and capacities

Hierarchy of Needs

• Remember - Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied.

Humanistic Motivation• Physiological Needs:

– the need to breathe – the need to drink and eat – the need to dispose of bodily waste

material – the need for sleep– the need to regulate the bodily

temperature – the need to seek shelter– the need to reproduce

Humanistic MotivationPhysiological Needs

• Physiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, etc. When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc.

• These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may then think about other things.

• When the physiological needs are met, the need for safety will emerge.

Humanistic Motivation• Safety Needs:

–Security of employment –Security of revenues and resources –Physical Security - violence,

delinquency, aggressions –Moral and physiological security –Familial security –Security of health

Humanistic Motivation Safety Needs• Safety needs have to do with establishing

stability and consistency in a chaotic world. • IE. We need the security of a home and

family. If a family is dysfunctional, a child cannot move to the next level because they are constantly concerned for their safety.

• Love and belongingness (Step 3) have to wait until they are no longer cringing in fear.

Examples

• Many in our society cry out for law and order because they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood.

• Many people, particularly those in the inner cities, unfortunately, are stuck at this level.

Examples• In addition, safety needs

sometimes motivate people to be religious.

• Religions comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.

Next Step

• After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are based on the needs for belongingness and love.

Humanistic Motivation

• Belongingness and Love Needs:

–emotionally-based relationships:• friendship, sexual relationship, or having a family.

• Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc.

• We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others.

• We need to be needed.

Humanistic Motivation Belongingness and Love Needs

– People have a constant desire to feel needed.

–In the absence of these elements, people become increasingly susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression.

• Once the needs of Stages 1 thru 3 have been met, humans can concentrate on fulfilling esteem needs.

There are 2 types of esteem needs. • First is self-esteem which results

from competence or mastery of a task. Respecting yourself!

• Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others.

– Imbalances at this level can result in a low self-esteem and inferiority complexes

–on the other hand in an inflated sense of self and snobbishness.

• Only if the needs of Stages 1 thru 4 have been met can a person move on the Stage 5. Most people spend the majority of their lives striving to achieve and maintain the goals set forth in Stages 1 thru 4, and

may never reach Stage 5, • self-actualization.

Self-Actualization

• At the top of Maslow’s pyramid• According to Maslow, the need to

live up to one’s fullest and unique potential

• The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming."

- Maslow

Self Actualization

• A musician must make music, the artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization.

Humanistic Motivation• Characteristics of Self-Actualized People:

– They embrace the facts and realities of the world (including themselves) rather than denying or avoiding them.

– They are spontaneous and creative in their ideas and actions.

– They are interested in solving problems; this often includes the problems of others. Solving these problems is often a key focus in their lives.

– They feel a closeness to other people, and generally appreciate life.

– They have a system of morality that is fully internalized and independent of external authority.

– They judge others without prejudice, in a way that can be termed objective.

Specific Motivations

•Hunger•Achievement

Hunger

• What physiological factors cause us to feel hungry?

• What psychological factors cause us to feel hungry?

Hunger DriveOther stimuli that act on the brain to

increase or decrease hunger include–satiety signals from the stomach (CCK)–signals indicating the amount of food

molecules in the blood (insulin)– leptin, a hormone indicating the amount

of fat in the body–internals vs. externals

Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting

• No consistent personality trait differences found between obese and non-obese people (e.g., willpower, anxiety)

• Dieters and obese are more likely to eat in response to stress than non-dieters

• Family environment of little importance in determining body weight; genetics plays a large role

• Number of fat-storage cells is a major determinant of body weight

Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting

• Fat cells are determined by genetics and food intake• They increase with weight gain, but merely shrink with

weight loss; may stimulate hunger • Weight loss causes a decline in basal metabolism

Fat cells

Normal

diet

High-fat

diet

Return to

normal diet

Effects of Culture and Habits on Body Weight

• Baseline body weight—cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range

• Weight can be affected by factors like diet, exercise, and daily habits (e.g., stairs instead of elevator)

Basal Metabolic Rate• The rate at which the body uses energy

for vital functions while at rest• Factors that influence BMR

– Age– Sex– Size– Genetics– Food intake

Excess Weight and Obesity

• Obesity—condition characterized by excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0

• Overweight—condition characterized by BMI between 25.0 and 29.9

Factors Contributing to Being Overweight

• Highly palatable food—we eat because it tastes so good

• SuperSize It—food portions are larger than necessary or health

• Cafeteria Diet Effect—more food and more variety leads us to eat more

• Snacking—does not cause us to eat less at dinner

• BMR—changes through the lifespan• Sedentary lifestyles

Factors in Obesity• Genetic susceptibility—some

people are more likely to be predisposed to obesity

• Weight cycling—repeated dieting, weight loss and weight gain tends to result in higher weight and reduced BMR.

Hunger – Physiological Factors• Set-Point Theory – the

hypothalamus decides what signal to send based on a genetic metabolic rate (how quickly the body uses energy)

Hunger – Psychological Factors

• Our eating habits (when we eat, what we eat, how much we eat, etc.) is not only controlled by internal signals of hunger or fullness, but also by external factors related to taste preferences, culture, media influences, convenience, moods, religion, etc.

Hunger – Psychological Factors• Some people have a preferences for hot

and spicy foods, while others enjoy sweets or salty foods.

• In some cultures or time periods heaviness indicated wealth, so eating was/is encouraged.

• Eastern cultures often enjoy dog, rat, and horse meat. In some Middle Eastern cultures the eye of a camel is considered a delicacy.

• Hindus avoid eating beef because Hindus believe that all living things contain a part of the divine spirit.

Hunger – Psychological Factors• When you are happy you may eat certain

foods, but when you are sad you may indulge in other foods.

• If there is an abundance or lack of grocery stores, fast-food drive-thru, and restaurant, eating habits may differ.

• Media images influence eating behaviors as well. If the Hollywood standard is thin, if models are “heroin chic”, then eating habits may change, especially with regards to young women.

Hunger – Psychological Factors• The Garcia Effect – Simply thinking about

a certain food and its pairing with an unpleasant episode will curb your desire for that food– IE. At the movies, your friend vomits popcorn

all over the seat and your shoes. Popcorn no longer has an appeal to you.

– Similar to a taste aversion but it does not follow the rules of classical conditioning

Hunger – Psychological Factors

• Eating Disorders– Anorexia Nervosa – an eating disorder in

which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet still feeling fat, continues to starve

– Bulimia Nervosa – an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, followed by vomiting, laxative use, or excessive exercise

Eating Disorders cont.• Binge-eating—disorder characterized by

recurring episodes of binge eating without purging.

Weight Loss Trends

• In 2003:• 65% of U.S. citizens indicated they tried

some form of weight loss or weight control • 49% attempted to lose at least five pounds • 16% attempted to maintain their weight • Only 20% however, were "very" or

"extremely" successful

• Research suggests that about one percent (1%) of female adolescents have anorexia. That means that about one out of every one hundred young women between ten and twenty are starving themselves, sometimes to death.

• Research suggests that about four percent (4%), or four out of one hundred, college-aged women have bulimia. About 50% of people who have been anorexic develop bulimia or bulimic patterns. Because people with bulimia are secretive, it is difficult to know how many older people are affected.

• Only about 10% of people with anorexia and bulimia are male.

• Without treatment, up to twenty percent (20%) of people with serious eating disorders die. With treatment, that number falls to two to three percent (2-3%).

• With treatment, about sixty percent (60%) of people with eating disorders recover. In spite of treatment, about twenty percent (20%) of people with eating disorders make only partial recoveries. The remaining twenty percent (20%) do not improve, even with treatment.

Interesting stuff• Average woman

– 5’4” 145 lbs. Size 11-14 36/37-29/31-

40/42• Barbie

– 6’ 101 lbs. Size 4 39-19-33

• Store Mannequin– 6’ N/A Size 6 34-23-34

Overweight

• Studies suggest that about sixty percent of adult Americans, both male and female, are overweight. About one third (34%) are obese, meaning that they are 20% or more above normal, healthy weight. Many of these people have binge eating disorder.

• In addition, about 31 percent of American teenage girls and 28 percent of boys are somewhat overweight. An additional 15 percent of American teen girls and nearly 14 percent of teen boys are obese. (Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, January 2004) Causes include fast food, snacks with high sugar and fat content, little physical activity including use of automobiles, increased time spent in front of TV sets and computers, and a generally more sedentary lifestyles than slimmer peers.

Overweight• Who to Blame?

– Genetics– Population Trends– Lifestyle– High-Carb Diets– Decline in Smoking– Less Demanding Workplace– Television– Social Class

Achievement Motivation

• A desire for significant accomplishment

• A desire for the mastery of things, people, or ideas

• A desire for attaining a high standard

Achievement

• Characteristics and Factors related to one’s “need to achieve”:– Job Satisfaction– Employee Engagement– Harness Your Strengths– Set Goals– Choosing An Appropriate Leadership Style

Achievement

• Characteristics and Factors related to one’s “need to achieve”:– A persistence and eagerness for realistic

challenges– Ambition– Energetic– Self-disciplined– Preparation– Practice

Achievement

• Characteristics and Factors related to one’s “need to achieve”:– Disciplined Motivation– Continuously Productive– Positive Mood– Leadership – Organization and Goal Focus– Mediating Conflict

Developing Self Motivation

• Associate your high achievement with positive emotions

• Connect your achievement with your efforts

• Raise your expectations

Motivating Others• Cultivate intrinsic motivation• Attend to individual motives• Set specific, challenging goals• Choose an appropriate leadership

style–Task leadership–Social leadership