Motivation and EmotionMotivation and EmotionCh 13 notesCh 13 notes

TerminologyTerminology

Motive: stimulus that moves a Motive: stimulus that moves a person to behave in ways person to behave in ways designed to accomplish a designed to accomplish a specific goalspecific goal

Need: a condition in which we Need: a condition in which we require something we lackrequire something we lack– Both biological and psychologicalBoth biological and psychological

Drives: forces that motivate an Drives: forces that motivate an organism to take action (food organism to take action (food gives rise to the hunger drive)gives rise to the hunger drive)

Instinct TheoryInstinct Theory

Behavior patterns that are Behavior patterns that are genetically transmitted from genetically transmitted from generation to generation are generation to generation are instinctsinstincts

At one time psychologists believed At one time psychologists believed that human behavior, like that of that human behavior, like that of animals, is instinctiveanimals, is instinctive

Today, most psychologists do not Today, most psychologists do not believe that human behavior is believe that human behavior is primarily motivated by instinct primarily motivated by instinct because it would need to be found because it would need to be found throughout the speciesthroughout the species

Drive-Reduction TheoryDrive-Reduction Theory Based on learning as well as motivationBased on learning as well as motivation People and animals experience a drive People and animals experience a drive arising from a need as an unpleasant arising from a need as an unpleasant tensiontension

Learn to do whatever will reduce that Learn to do whatever will reduce that tension by reducing the drive (eat to tension by reducing the drive (eat to reduce hunger drive)reduce hunger drive)

Some drives are caused by biological Some drives are caused by biological needs, some are learned (need for $)needs, some are learned (need for $)

Do what we can to reduce the drive to Do what we can to reduce the drive to reach a balance: homeostasisreach a balance: homeostasis

Explains a lot but not all motivationExplains a lot but not all motivation

Humanistic TheoryHumanistic Theory

People are also motivated by the People are also motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth conscious desire for personal growth and artistic fulfillmentand artistic fulfillment– Sometimes our drive to fulfill such Sometimes our drive to fulfill such needs outweighs our drive to meet more needs outweighs our drive to meet more basic needsbasic needs

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsAbraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– People rise naturally through the People rise naturally through the levels as long as they do not encounter levels as long as they do not encounter overwhelming obstacles along the wayoverwhelming obstacles along the way

– Critics say it doesn’t apply to allCritics say it doesn’t apply to all

Sociocultural TheorySociocultural Theory

Even if basic drives such as Even if basic drives such as hunger are inborn, cultural hunger are inborn, cultural experiences and factors experiences and factors influence the behavior that influence the behavior that people use to satisfy those people use to satisfy those drivesdrives– Foods people eat and the way they Foods people eat and the way they eat those foods are shaped by eat those foods are shaped by cultureculture

Biological NeedsBiological Needs

Can be complex because they Can be complex because they involve psychological and involve psychological and physiological factorsphysiological factors

Ex: foodEx: food Hunger drive: regulated by both Hunger drive: regulated by both biological and psychological biological and psychological factorsfactors

Hunger DriveHunger Drive Mouth: chewing/swallowing help Mouth: chewing/swallowing help satisfy hunger drivesatisfy hunger drive

Stomach: hunger pangs felt in Stomach: hunger pangs felt in stomach play a role in hunger but stomach play a role in hunger but are not main factors involved in are not main factors involved in signaling hungersignaling hunger

Blood sugar level: when low, message Blood sugar level: when low, message carried to hypothalamuscarried to hypothalamus

Hypothalamus: sends “start eating” Hypothalamus: sends “start eating” message and “stop eating” messagemessage and “stop eating” message– If one or both don’t work properly, If one or both don’t work properly, eating patterns are effectedeating patterns are effected

Psychological Influences on Psychological Influences on HungerHunger

Learning certain amounts of Learning certain amounts of food/drink will produce feeling food/drink will produce feeling of well-being and relaxation of well-being and relaxation can cause people to eat/drink can cause people to eat/drink when they feel upsetwhen they feel upset– Should parents reward good Should parents reward good behavior with food?behavior with food?

ObesityObesity

More than ½ of US adults are More than ½ of US adults are overweightoverweight– 18% are obese: weigh more than 30% 18% are obese: weigh more than 30% above recommended weightabove recommended weight

– Increasing problem in the USIncreasing problem in the US– Estimated that 300,000 people die Estimated that 300,000 people die each year because of health each year because of health problems related to excess weight problems related to excess weight and inactivityand inactivity

Losing WeightLosing Weight

Adolescents should be cautious because Adolescents should be cautious because they need a good deal of nourishmentthey need a good deal of nourishment

Sound diet is one that is sensible, Sound diet is one that is sensible, realistic, and well plannedrealistic, and well planned

Improve nutritional knowledge, Improve nutritional knowledge, decrease caloric intake, exercise, and decrease caloric intake, exercise, and substitute healthful foods for harmful substitute healthful foods for harmful foodsfoods

Dieting plus exercise is more Dieting plus exercise is more effective than dieting aloneeffective than dieting alone

Causes of ObesityCauses of Obesity

Biological and psychological factorsBiological and psychological factors Runs in the family, so is it inherited?Runs in the family, so is it inherited?

– Not necessarily because children learn what Not necessarily because children learn what they livethey live

Heredity does play a major role (adoptee study)Heredity does play a major role (adoptee study)– May not get messages from hypothalamus to stop May not get messages from hypothalamus to stop eatingeating

– Genes determine # of fat cells a person hasGenes determine # of fat cells a person has

Psychological FactorsPsychological Factors– Eat more under stress or negative emotionsEat more under stress or negative emotions– Circumstances/situations (parties, tv Circumstances/situations (parties, tv watching)watching)

NeedsNeeds Psychological & Biological NeedsPsychological & Biological Needs

– Some psychological needs motivate us to Some psychological needs motivate us to reduce tension/stimulationreduce tension/stimulation

– Others actually lead us to increase the Others actually lead us to increase the amount of stimulation we experienceamount of stimulation we experience

Stimulus motives: desires for Stimulus motives: desires for stimulationstimulation– Sensory stimulation, activity, Sensory stimulation, activity, exploration, manipulation of the exploration, manipulation of the environmentenvironment

– Some have clear survival value (envir.)Some have clear survival value (envir.)

Sensory DeprivationSensory Deprivation

Absence of stimulationAbsence of stimulation What happened to the people in the What happened to the people in the sensory deprivation experiment?sensory deprivation experiment?– Felt very uncomfortable, felt they Felt very uncomfortable, felt they went through a terrible ordeal, had went through a terrible ordeal, had trouble concentrating and readjusting trouble concentrating and readjusting to their environment after the to their environment after the experimentexperiment

Proves the importance of sensory Proves the importance of sensory stimulation to humansstimulation to humans

Sensation SeekerSensation Seeker

Someone who seeks out thrilling Someone who seeks out thrilling activitiesactivities

Why do some psychologists think Why do some psychologists think exploration and manipulation are exploration and manipulation are reinforcing in and of themselves?reinforcing in and of themselves?

Once a person feels comfortable Once a person feels comfortable with an environment, they seek with an environment, they seek novel stimulation (new novel stimulation (new experiences)experiences)– Ex: human infants and the “busy Ex: human infants and the “busy boxes”boxes”

High Achievement MotivationHigh Achievement Motivation

Driven to get aheadDriven to get ahead Tackle challenging situationsTackle challenging situations Driven to meet high personal Driven to meet high personal standards of successstandards of success

Performance v. Learning GoalsPerformance v. Learning Goals

PerformancePerformance– Specific goalsSpecific goals

Ex: gaining Ex: gaining admission to a admission to a college, earning college, earning parent/teacher parent/teacher approval, even approval, even just avoiding just avoiding criticismcriticism

Learning Learning – Learning for the Learning for the sake of learningsake of learning

Can be very Can be very powerfulpowerful

Extrinsic v. Intrinsic RewardsExtrinsic v. Intrinsic Rewards

ExtrinsicExtrinsic– External rewardsExternal rewards– Good gradesGood grades– Good incomeGood income– Most often how Most often how performance goals performance goals are rewardedare rewarded

IntrinsicIntrinsic– Internal rewardsInternal rewards– Self-satisfactionSelf-satisfaction– Usually how Usually how learning goals learning goals are rewardedare rewarded

Parents’ RoleParents’ Role Crucial importanceCrucial importance

– Need to encourage children to be persistent Need to encourage children to be persistent and find own solutions to problemsand find own solutions to problems

– Create opportunities to expose children to Create opportunities to expose children to new and stimulating experiences (learning new and stimulating experiences (learning goals)goals)

– Reward kids with toys for good grades, Reward kids with toys for good grades, punishment for bad grades (performance)punishment for bad grades (performance)

– Overall, tend to be generous with praise to Overall, tend to be generous with praise to do well and less critical when their do well and less critical when their children do poorlychildren do poorly

Cognitive Consistence TheoryCognitive Consistence Theory

People behave in ways expected People behave in ways expected of themof them

Primarily motivated by the Primarily motivated by the beliefs we hold about how beliefs we hold about how others view usothers view us

Most people prefer that the Most people prefer that the “pieces” of their lives fit “pieces” of their lives fit togethertogether

Balance TheoryBalance Theory

People need to organize their People need to organize their perceptions, opinions, and perceptions, opinions, and beliefs in a harmonious mannerbeliefs in a harmonious manner

Do this to maintain a cognitive Do this to maintain a cognitive balance by holding consistent balance by holding consistent views and by being with people views and by being with people who share their beliefs and who share their beliefs and valuesvalues

What causes imbalance?What causes imbalance?– A major area of disagreement A major area of disagreement between 2 people who have strong between 2 people who have strong feelings for each otherfeelings for each otherTends to upset peopleTends to upset people

What causes a state of What causes a state of nonbalance?nonbalance?– Not having feelings toward someoneNot having feelings toward someone

Leaves people feeling indifferentLeaves people feeling indifferent

According to the cognitive-dissonance theory, According to the cognitive-dissonance theory, why do people behave the way that they do?why do people behave the way that they do?– Most people want their thoughts and Most people want their thoughts and attitudes (cognitions) to be consistent attitudes (cognitions) to be consistent with their actionswith their actions

When we become aware that there is an When we become aware that there is an inconsistency (dissonance) we feel inconsistency (dissonance) we feel unpleasant which causes inner tension unpleasant which causes inner tension that can be uncomfortablethat can be uncomfortable

Why do people desire affiliation with others?Why do people desire affiliation with others?– Humans are social beings and need to be Humans are social beings and need to be with otherswith others

– During adolescence, this need is VERY During adolescence, this need is VERY strongstrong

What happens when we experience What happens when we experience strong emotions?strong emotions?

Activity in autonomic nervous system Activity in autonomic nervous system – anxiety for example triggers – anxiety for example triggers activity of sympathetic division of activity of sympathetic division of autonomic nervous systemautonomic nervous system

How do emotions have biological, How do emotions have biological, cognitive, and behavior components?cognitive, and behavior components?– Anxiety makes heart race, breathe Anxiety makes heart race, breathe rapidly, sweat, muscles tense (bio)rapidly, sweat, muscles tense (bio)

– Anxiety: idea that something bad might Anxiety: idea that something bad might happen (cognitive)happen (cognitive)

– Anxiety might lead a person to try to Anxiety might lead a person to try to escape from a situation (behavioral)escape from a situation (behavioral)

Our Emotional State Effects Our Our Emotional State Effects Our Perceptions of Our SurroundingsPerceptions of Our Surroundings

Happier people usually think the Happier people usually think the world is a happier, safer placeworld is a happier, safer place– Tend to make decisions more readily and Tend to make decisions more readily and are more satisfied with their livesare more satisfied with their lives

Unhappy people tend to feel like Unhappy people tend to feel like gloom is settling in over everything gloom is settling in over everything in their livesin their lives

Shows that happiness and unhappiness Shows that happiness and unhappiness create their own momentumcreate their own momentum

Happier we are, the more likely we Happier we are, the more likely we are to help othersare to help others

AngerAnger

Response to insult or attackResponse to insult or attack Assertive reaction vs. hostile Assertive reaction vs. hostile reactionreaction– Can go and speak with the person who made Can go and speak with the person who made them angry about whatever it was that made them angry about whatever it was that made them angry rather than getting revengethem angry rather than getting revenge

Assertiveness is more effective Assertiveness is more effective because it allows a person to approach because it allows a person to approach his/her feelings and reduce them while his/her feelings and reduce them while not causing harm to themselves or not causing harm to themselves or othersothers

Facial ExpressionsFacial Expressions

Probably inbornProbably inborn– The ways that specific emotions The ways that specific emotions are expressed appear to be the are expressed appear to be the same around the worldsame around the world

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

Opponent-Process TheoryOpponent-Process Theory Commonsense ApproachCommonsense Approach James-Lange TheoryJames-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard TheoryCannon-Bard Theory Theory of Cognitive AppraisalTheory of Cognitive Appraisal

Opponent-Process TheoryOpponent-Process Theory

Emotions come in parts with one Emotions come in parts with one followed by its oppositefollowed by its opposite

Eventually restores a balanceEventually restores a balance

Commonsense ApproachCommonsense Approach

When something happens to a person When something happens to a person in a certain situation, the person in a certain situation, the person quickly interprets the situationquickly interprets the situation

Interpretations trigger body Interpretations trigger body sensations that signal a feeling sensations that signal a feeling or emotionor emotion

Emotions trigger a behaviorEmotions trigger a behavior This approach (broad view) has This approach (broad view) has influenced the next 3 theoriesinfluenced the next 3 theories

James-Lange TheoryJames-Lange Theory

People’s emotions follow, rather than People’s emotions follow, rather than cause, their behavioral reactions to cause, their behavioral reactions to situationssituations

People act first then react People act first then react emotionally according to the way they emotionally according to the way they actedacted

Certain situations trigger reactions – Certain situations trigger reactions – instinctive bodily response patterns instinctive bodily response patterns that include specific feelings and that include specific feelings and behaviorsbehaviors

Suggests people can change their Suggests people can change their feelings by changing their environmentfeelings by changing their environment

Problems with James-Lange Problems with James-Lange TheoryTheory

Cognition has little role in Cognition has little role in determining behaviordetermining behavior

Minimizes the role of personal Minimizes the role of personal values and choice as factors in values and choice as factors in human behaviorhuman behavior

Cannon-Bard TheoryCannon-Bard Theory Emotions accompany bodily responses Emotions accompany bodily responses that are aroused by external stimulithat are aroused by external stimuli

Situation triggers external stimulus Situation triggers external stimulus that is processed by the brain, that is processed by the brain, brain stimulates bodily changes and brain stimulates bodily changes and cognitive activity (experience of cognitive activity (experience of the emotion) happens simultaneouslythe emotion) happens simultaneously

Emotions are not produced by bodily Emotions are not produced by bodily responsesresponses

A 2 stage reaction is involved: A 2 stage reaction is involved: bodily response followed by an bodily response followed by an emotional reactionemotional reaction

Theory of Cognitive AppraisalTheory of Cognitive Appraisal

Argues that all emotions have basically Argues that all emotions have basically similar bodily response patternssimilar bodily response patterns– Body reacts in physically similar ways with Body reacts in physically similar ways with different emotions it experiencesdifferent emotions it experiences

Maintains that the way people label an Maintains that the way people label an emotion depends on their cognitive emotion depends on their cognitive appraisal of the situationappraisal of the situation

Cognitive appraisal that occurs is Cognitive appraisal that occurs is based on many factors: analysis of based on many factors: analysis of situation and ways other are reacting situation and ways other are reacting in same situationin same situation

Criticism of Cognitive AppraisalCriticism of Cognitive Appraisal

Studies designed to support the Studies designed to support the theory often yield different theory often yield different results when repeated results when repeated – Lacking test-retest reliabilityLacking test-retest reliability

So, are any of the theories correct?So, are any of the theories correct?

NoNo None are perfectNone are perfect People are very complexPeople are very complex Emotions then are also complexEmotions then are also complex