MotivationChapter 11

William G. Huitt

Last revised: May 2005

Summary

• A human being is inherently– biological

– conditioned by the environment– able to gather data about the world through the

senses and organize that data– emotional– intelligent (adapt to, modify, and select environments)– able to create and use knowledge– able to form concepts, think rationally– able to use language– social

Defining Motivation• Internal state or condition

– activates behavior – gives it direction

• Desire or want – energizes – directs goal-oriented behavior

Defining Motivation• Influence of needs and desires

– intensity – direction of behavior

• Process that – initiates– directs– sustains behavior – to satisfy physiological or psychological needs or

wants

Defining Motivation

• Why is the concept of motivation necessary?– Achievement = Aptitude * Opportunity *

Effort– Motivation explains activation, direction, and

persistence of effort

• Extrinsic motivation– The desire to perform an act to meet

external demands or requirements• Classical conditioning—associated stimuli• Operant conditioning—consequences• Social learning—models and imitation• Social cognition—influence of others on

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Defining Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation– The desire to perform an act because it is

satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself– Satisfies internal need or desire

• Biology• Cognition• Emotion• Volition• Spiritual• Moral

Defining Motivation

Instinct Theories of Motivation

• The notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate patterns of action that are activated in response to stimuli

• Not the same as genetic tendencies• Most psychologists today reject instinct theory

– human behavior is too richly diverse– often too unpredictable

Drive-reduction Theory

• A theory of motivation suggesting that a need creates an unpleasant state of arousal or tension called a drive, which impels the organism to engage in behavior that will satisfy the need and reduce the tension

• Popularized by Clark Hull– Believed that all living organisms have certain

biological needs that must be met if they are to survive

Drive-reduction Theory• Drive-reduction theory is derived largely from

the biological concept of homeostasis• Homeostasis

– The tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state with regard to oxygen level, body temperature, blood sugar, water balance, and so forth

– Everything required for physical existence must be maintained in a state of equilibrium, or balance

• When this state is disturbed, a drive is created to restore the balance

• Cognitive dissonance derived from this theory

• In the Navajo religion and culture, there is an emphasis on how you relate to everything around you. Everything has to be measured, weighed, and harmonious. We call it nizhoni—walking in beauty.– American Indigenous Religions, Lori Cupp (Navajo)

Drive-reduction Theory

Primary Drives

• A state of tension or arousal arising from a biological need; one not based on learning– Oxygen – Thirst– Hunger– Sleep– Sex– Comfort

Primary Drives

• Internal and external hunger cues– Hypothalamus

• Of central importance in regulating eating behavior and thus affect the hunger drive

– Other internal hunger and satiety signals• Some of the substances secreted by the gastrointestinal

tract during digestion act as satiety signals• Changes in blood sugar level and the hormones that

regulate it also contribute to sensations of hunger

– External signals• Sensory cues, such as the taste, smell, and appearance of

food, stimulate the appetite

Primary Drives

• Eating disorders– Anorexia nervosa

• An eating disorder characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of being fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss

– Bulimia nervosa• An eating disorder characterized by repeated and

uncontrolled episodes of binge eating, usually followed by purging, which is self-induced vomiting and/or the use of large quantities of laxatives and diuretics

Arousal Theory

• A theory suggesting that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal

• Arousal– A state of alertness and mental and physical

activation– When arousal is too low, animals and humans seek

to increase stimulation– When arousal is too high, animals and humans

seek to decrease stimulation

• Yerkes-Dodson law– Performance on tasks is best

when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task

• higher arousal for simple tasks

• moderate arousal for tasks of moderate difficulty

• lower arousal for complex tasks

– Performance suffers when arousal level is either too high or too low for the task

Arousal Theory

• Abraham Maslow– Attempted to develop a theory of motivation that

would synthesize multiple theories– Proposed two sets of needs

• Deficiency needs• Growth needs

– Growth needs develop after deficiency needs are met

– Lowest unmet need will receive attention– Believed that these motivational processes were

central to the human personality

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Social Motives• Motives acquired through experience and

interaction with others (McClelland, Murray)– Need for achievement (n Ach)

• The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence

– Need for affiliation • The need to have harmonious relationships with other

people and to be accepted by others

– Need for power • Personal – want to direct others• Institutional – want to organize efforts of others to meet the

needs of the institution

Need for Achievement• Characteristics of achievers

– High n Ach • pursue goals that are challenging, yet attainable

through hard work, ability, determination, and persistence

• see their success as a result of their own talents, abilities, persistence, and hard work

– Low n Ach • not willing to take chances when it comes to

testing their own skills and abilities• when fail, usually give up quickly

• Parents can foster n Ach – give children responsibilities– teach them to think and act independently

from the time they are very young– stress excellence, persistence, and

independence– praise them sincerely for their

accomplishments

Need for Achievement

Expectancy Theory

• Motivation to engage in a given activity is determined by:– Expectancy – a person’s belief that more effort will

result in success– Instrumentality – the person’s belief that there is a

connection between activity and goal– Valence – the degree to which a person values the

results of success

• Motivation = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valance

Work Motivation

• The conditions and processes responsible for the arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort one puts forth in one’s job

• Two of the most effective ways to improve– reinforcement – goal setting

• Examples of reinforcement in the workplace include:– Recognition awards– Praise– Posting of individual performance– Time off– Better offices– More impressive titles– Promotions– Bonuses

Work Motivation

• Goal setting– Have employees participate in the goal setting– Make goals specific, attractive, difficult, and

attainable– Provide feedback on performance– Reward employees for attaining the goals

Work Motivation