motivation chapter six & seven. key elements 1.intensity: how hard a person tries 2.direction:...
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Motivation
Chapter SIX & SEVEN
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Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
What Is Motivation? What Is Motivation?
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Pyramid)Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Pyramid)
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs
Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization needs
Self
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
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Theory XManagers See Workers as…
Theory XManagers See Workers as…
Disliking WorkDisliking Work
Avoiding ResponsibilityAvoiding Responsibility
Having Little AmbitionHaving Little Ambition
Theory Y Managers See Workers as…
Theory Y Managers See Workers as…
Enjoying WorkEnjoying Work
Accepting ResponsibilityAccepting Responsibility
Self-DirectedSelf-Directed
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites of the same thing!
These are different!– Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic
and Related to Dissatisfaction
– Motivator Factors—Intrinsic and Related to
Satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
•Salary
•Work Conditions
•Company Policies
Hygiene Factors
•Salary
•Work Conditions
•Company Policies
Motivators
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
Motivators
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
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McClelland’s Theory of NeedsMcClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Bottom Line
Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas,
and those levels will drive their behavior.
Bottom Line
Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas,
and those levels will drive their behavior.
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Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting. Hint: For this theory,
think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
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Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
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What Is MBO?What Is MBO?
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
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Cascading of ObjectivesCascading of Objectives
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Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
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Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences
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Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities
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Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
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Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution)
“Who got what?”
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the process used to determine
the outcome (the final distribution)
“How was who gets what decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Equity and Justice Equity and Justice
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Ethical Values Ethical Values and Behaviors of and Behaviors of
LeadersLeaders
Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and• If they perform, they will be rewarded and• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
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Chapter 7Chapter 7
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Job Design and SchedulingJob Design and Scheduling
Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another (i.e., cross-train)
Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of jobs (e.g., sort the mail AND deliver it)
Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs – provides opportunity to plan, execute and evaluate your own work
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Alternative Work ArrangementsAlternative Work Arrangements
Flextime
Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.
Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job
Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their office.
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Performance = f(A x M x O)Performance = f(A x M x O)
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Variable Pay ProgramsVariable Pay Programs
Profit Sharing PlansOrganization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability
Gain SharingAn incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is allocated.
Piece Rate Pay PlansWorkers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.
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Skill-based Pay PlansSkill-based Pay Plans
Pay levels are based on how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do.
• Provides flexible staffing for managers
• Improves communication
• Reduces “protection of territory” mentality
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Flexible BenefitsFlexible Benefits
Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal need by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options.
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Employee Recognition ProgramsEmployee Recognition Programs Intrinsic rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation
– Personal attention given to employee
– Approval and appreciation for a job well done
– Growing in popularity and usage
Benefits of Programs
– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
– ***Inexpensive to implement***
– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors
Drawbacks of Programs
– Susceptible to manipulation by management
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Implications for ManagersImplications for Managers
In Order to Motivate Employees
– Recognize individual differences (however, always remember that motivation is NOT a personality trait)
– Use goals and feedback
– Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them
– Link rewards to performance
– Check the system for equity