Chapter 6Motivational Needs, Processes, and ApplicationsCopyright 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

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Learning ObjectivesDefine the motivation process.Identify the primary and secondary needs.Discuss the major theories of work motivation.Present the motivational application of job design.Describe the motivational application of goal setting.

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The Basic Motivation ProcessMotivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.It consists of three interacting and interdependent elements:NeedsDrivesIncentives

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Primary MotivesCriteria for a motive to be included in the primary classification: It must be unlearned. It must be physiologically based.The most commonly recognized primary motives include hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, and maternal concern.

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Table 6.1 - Examples of Key Secondary NeedsSource: Adapted from Gary Yukl, Skills for Managers and Leaders, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1990, p 41. The examples of need for status were notcovered by Yukl.

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Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives Extrinsic motivators:Are tangible and visible to others.Include pay, benefits, and promotions.Include the drive to avoid punishment, such as termination or being transferred.Are usually contingency based.

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Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives (Continued)Are necessary to attract people into the organization and to keep them on the job.Are often used to inspire workers to achieve at higher levels or to reach new goals, as additional payoffs are contingent on improved performance.They do not explain every motivated effort made by an individual employee.

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Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motives (Continued) Intrinsic motivatorsAre internally generated.Include feelings of responsibility, achievement, and accomplishment.

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Figure 6.2 - The Theoretical Development of Work Motivation

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Figure 6.3 - Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsA Hierarchy of Work Motivation

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Table 6.2 - Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

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Critical Analysis of Herzbergs Theory Contributions:The job design technique of job enrichment.Extended Maslows needs hierarchy concept to make it more applicable to work motivation.Drew attention to the importance of job content factors in work motivation.

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Critical Analysis of Herzbergs Theory (Continued)Herzbergs theory oversimplifies the complexities of work motivation.Both the hygiene factors and satisfiers could be substantially different when comparing groups.

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Figure 6.5 - The Porter-Lawler Motivation Model

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The Porter-Lawler Expectancy Theory of Work Motivation Implications for practiceAttempts to be more applications oriented. Contributions to work motivationHelps overcome barriers such as ability, practicality, interdependence, and ambiguity.Helps determine reward values, define desired performance, achieve attainability, and link valued rewards to performance.

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Equity Theory of Work Motivation

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Equity Theory of Work Motivation (Continued) Equity as an explanation of work motivation Striving to restore equity Research support for equity in workplace Fairly supportive

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The Relationship between Equity Theory and Organizational JusticeThe equity theory serves as the foundation for the common thread of perceived fairness among the following dimensions of justice: Distributive justice; Procedural justice; Interactional justiceOrganizational justice can help explain why employees retaliate against both inequitable outcomes and inappropriate processes.

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Attribution TheoryAttribution refers to how people explain the cause of anothers or their own behavior.There are two general types of attributions that people make: dispositional attributions and situational attributions.Attribution theory is concerned with the relationship between personal social perception and interpersonal behavior.

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Attribution Theory (Continued)Using locus of control, work behavior may be explained by whether employees perceive their outcomes as controlled internally or externally.Attributions are related to organizational symbolism.This theory contributes a great deal to the better understanding of work motivation and organizational behavior.

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Figure 6.6 - Kelleys Model of Attribution

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Attribution Errors Fundamental attribution error Self-serving bias

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Other Work Motivation Theories: Control and AgencyControl theory: Degree that individuals perceive they are in control of their own lives, or are in control of their jobs.Agency theory: Interests of principals and agents diverge or may be in conflict with one another.Helps better understand the motivation of managers in todays organizations.Criticism: Strongly emphasizes the roles that various forms of extrinsic motives play in shaping behaviors.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design Job rotationInvolves moving employees from one relatively simple job to another after short time periods.Advantages include: reduced odds of injury, increased flexibility, greater awareness of operations.Disadvantage: each individual task eventually becomes as boring as the rest of the simple tasks.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design (Continued) Job enlargementInvolves increasing the number of tasks each employee performs.Reduces the efficiency with which tasks are completed.Does not necessarily result in improved employee satisfaction and commitment.

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Motivational Application Through Job Design (Continued)Job enrichmentIs concerned with designing jobs that include a greater variety of work content.Require a higher level of knowledge and skill.Give workers more autonomy and responsibility in terms of planning, directing, and controlling their own performance.Provide the opportunity for personal growth and a meaningful work experience.

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Figure 6.7 - The Hackman-Oldham jobCharacteristics Model of Work Motivation

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Figure 6.8 - Specific Guidelines for Redesigning Jobs for the More-Effective Practice of Human Resource Management

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Motivational Application Through Goal SettingGoal setting is the process of motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance targets.Goals provide a directional nature to peoples behavior and guide their thoughts and actions to one outcome rather than another.Goal setting can be used to create psychological contracts with employees.

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Figure 6.9 - Model for Relating Goals to Performance and SatisfactionSource: Adapted from Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation, American Psychologist, Vol. 57, No. 9, 2002, p. 714.

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Other Performance Management Application Techniques Associated with Goal Setting Learning goal orientation Performance goal orientation Benchmarking Stretch target Goal source

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Questions