MOTIVATION

THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS MODEL OF MOTIVATION• A managers job is to identify employees’ drives and needs and to channel

their behavior, to motivate them, toward task performance.

• Motivation has a direct relationship with Performance and employee’s Ability.

• Thus we can consider Potential Performance (P) as a product of Ability (A) and Motivation (M).

P = A * M.

• Results occur when motivated employees are provided with opportunity (Such as training) to perform and the Resources (such as Proper tools) to do so.

• The presence of goals and awareness of incentives to satisfy one’s needs are also powerful motivational factors leading to the release of effort.

• When an employee is productive and the organization takes note of it, Rewards will be distributed.

• It should be apparent, therefore, that an important starting point lies in understanding of employee needs.

• If those rewards are appropriate in nature, timing and distribution, the employee’s original needs and derives are satisfied. At that time new needs may emerge and the cycle will begin again.

• The above Model of Motivation attempts to help managers understand how employees internal needs affect their subsequent behaviors.

Needs anddrives

Tension Effort Performance Rewards

Goals andincentives

Ability

Need satisfaction

Environment Opportunity

MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES

• People tend to develop certain motivational drives as a product of cultural environment in which they live, and these drives effect the way people view their jobs and approach their lives.

• People’s motivational drives reflect elements of Culture in which they grow up – their family, school, religion and books.

• In most nations, one or two of the motivational patterns tend to be strong among the workers because they have grown up with similar backgrounds.

• McClelland's research focused on the following three drives

Achievement: A drive to accomplish objectives and get ahead

Affiliation : A drive to relate people effectively

Power : A drive to influence people and situations

Achievement Motivation• Achievement motivation is a drive some people have to pursue and

attain goals.

• An individual with this drive wishes to achieve objectives and advance up to ladder of success. Accomplishment is seen as important primarily for its own sake, not just for the rewards that accompany it.

• A number of Characteristics define Achievement-oriented employees. They work harder when they perceive that:

- When they will receive personal credit for their effort, - When there is only moderate risk of failure , - When drive for achievement: - Take responsibility for their actions and results, - Control their destiny, seek regular feedback, and

enjoy being part of a winning achievement through individual or collective effort.

Managers with strong need for Affiliation may have difficulty being effective managers

Affiliation Motivation• Affiliation motivation is a drive to relate to people on a social basis.

Comparisons of Achievement-motivated employees with Affiliation-motivated employees

– Achievement-oriented people work harder when their supervisors provide detailed evaluations of their work behavior. Whereas people with Affiliation motives work better when they are complemented for their favorable attitudes and cooperation.

– Achievement-motivated people select assistants who are technically capable, with little regard for personal feelings about them. Whereas Affiliation-motivated tend to select friends to surround them. They receive inner satisfactions from being with friends, and they want the job freedom to develop those relationship.

• Managers with strong needs for Affiliation may have difficulty being effective managers.

• Affiliation-oriented managers may have difficulty assigning challenging tasks, directing work activities, and monitoring work effectiveness.

Power Motivation• Power Motivation is a drive to influence people and change situations.

• Power motivated people wish to create and impact on their organizations and are willing to take risk to do so. Once this power is obtained, it may used either constructively or destructively.

• Power-motivated people make excellent Managers if their drives are for institutional power instead of personal power.

– Institutional power is the need to influence others behavior for the good of the whole organization. People seek power through legitimate means, rise to leadership positions through successful performance, and therefore are accepted by others.

– If an employee’s derives are toward Personal power, that person tends to be unsuccessful organizational Leader.

Managerial Application of the Drives

• Knowledge of the differences among the three Motivational Drives requires Managers to understand the work attitudes of each employee.

• Managers have to deal with employees differently according to their strongest Motivational Drives that they identify in each employee in order to communicates with each employee according to their particular personal needs.

HUMAN NEEDSThere are several ways to classify Human needs.

1. Basic Physical needs called primary needs,

Physical needs include food, water, sleep, air and reasonable comfortable temperatures.

Physical needs are, therefore, virtually universal, but they vary in intensity from one person to another. (e.g. a child needs much more sleep than an older person.

2. Social and Psychological needs, called secondary needs.

Secondary needs are more vague because they represent needs of the mind and spirit rather than of the physical body.

Many Secondary needs are developed as people mature. (e.g. self-esteem, sense of duty, competitiveness, self assertion and to given, belonging and receiving affection.

Secondary needs complicate the motivational efforts of Managers. Nearly any

action that management takes will affect secondary needs. Therefore, managerial planning should consider the effect of any proposed action

on the secondary needs of employees.

The seven key conclusions about Secondary needs. – They are strongly conditioned by experience– Vary in type and intensity among people – Are subject to change across time within any individual– Can not usually be isolated, but rather, work in combination and

influence one another– Are often hidden from conscious recognition – Are vague feelings as opposed to specific physical needs– Influence behavior

The theories of Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer each build on thedistinction between Primary and secondary needs. Also there aresome similarities as well as differences among the three approaches. Despite the limitations of these theories, they help create an important

basis for the more advanced Motivational Models.

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS• According to Maslow, human needs are not of equal

strength, and they emerge in a definite sequence.

• As the primary needs become reasonable well satisfied, a person places more emphasis on the secondary needs.

• Maslow`s hierarchy of needs focuses attention on five

levels. (Shown on the Table

Model of Maslow`s hierarchy of Needs.

5. Self-actualization and Fulfillment needs

4. Esteem and status needs

3. Belonging and Social needs.

2. Safety and Security needs.

1. Physiological needs.

LOWER ORDER NEEDS

HIGHER ORDER NEEDS

MOSLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Lower Order Needs (First two levels of Primary needs)• First level needs involve Basic Survival needs and include Physiological

needs for food, air, water and sleep.

• The second need level is Bodily safety (such as Freedom from a dangerous work environment) and Economic security (such as a no-layoff guarantee or a comfortable retirement plan).

Higher Order needs

• The third level in the hierarchy concerns love, belonging, and social involvement at work (friendships and compatible associates).

• The fourth level include those for esteem and status, including one's feelings of self-worth and of competence. The feeling of competence , which derives from the assurance of others, provides status.

• The Fifth level need is self-actualization, which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming, using one’s skills to the fullest, and stretching talent to the maximum.

Interpreting MOSLOW’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Need-hierarchy model essentially says that people have needsthey wish to satisfy and that gratified needs are not as strong motivating as unmet needs.

A fully satisfied need will not be a strong motivator.

• Employees are more enthusiastically motivated by what they are currently seeking then by receiving more of what they already have.

• Some useful ideas for helping Managers to think about motivating their employees.

- Identify and accept employees’ needs - Recognize that needs may differ among employees - Offer satisfaction for the particular needs currently unmet. - Realize that giving more of the same reward (especially one

which satisfies lower order needs) may have a diminishing impact on motivation.

Interpreting MOSLOW’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow Model has many limitations, and it has been sharply criticized.

- From a philosophical framework , it has been difficult to study and has

not been fully verified.

- From a practical perspective , it is not easy to provide opportunity for self-actualization to all employees.

- Research has not supported that presence of all five need levels as unique nor has the five-step progression from lowest to highest need levels been established.

There is some evidence that unless the two lower-order needs (i.e Physiological and Security needs) are basically satisfied, employees will not be greatly concerned with higher order needs.

HERZBER’S TWO-FACTOR MODELHerzberg developed the Motivation model by asking his subject to describe

- when they felt especially good about their jobs and a time when they felt especially bad about their jobs.

- Herzberg found that employees named different types of conditions that produced good and bad feelings.- That is if a feeling of achievement led to a good feeling, the lack of

achievement was rarely given as cause for bad feelings. Instead some other factor, such as company policy, was given was given as a bad feelings.

Hertzberg's two-factor model

StatusRelations with supervisorsPeer relationsRelations with subordinatesQuality of supervision

Company policy And administrationJob security

Working conditionsPay

Work itselfAchievementPossibility of growthResponsibility

AdvancementRecognition

Maintenance Factors

Motivational Factors

HERZBER’S TWO-FACTOR MODELMOTIVATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE FACTORS

Herzberg concluded that two separated sets of motivation factors influenced Motivation. Prior to Hertzberg people assumed that motivation and lack ofmotivation were merely opposites of one factor on a continuum.

Herzberg stated that certain job factors, such as “Job security” and Working Conditions” , dissatisfy employees primarily when the conditions are absent. However, the presence of the two factors generally brings employees only to a neutral state, since these factors are not strongly motivation. These potent dissatisfiers are called “Hygine Factors”

Other Job conditions known as “Motivational Factors” Motivators and Satisfiers operate primarily to build motivation and their absence rarely is strongly dissatisfying.

The idea of separating Motivational and Maintenance factors helped Managers solve their questions about their Custodial policies and wide array of fringe benefits. According to Herzberg, the Fringe benefits and personal policies were primarily Maintenance Factors not Motivational Factors.

HERZBER’S TWO-FACTOR MODELJOB CONTENT AND CONTEXTMotivational Factors such as Achievement and Responsibility are related, for the most part, directly to the Job itself, the Employee’s performance , and the personal recognition and growth that employees experience.

Motivators are Job-centered; they relate to “Job Content”.

On the other hand Maintenance factors are mainly related to “Job Context” because they are more related to the environment surrounding the job.

Thee difference between the Job Content and the Job Context shows that employees are motivated primarily by what they do for themselves. When they take responsibility or gain recognition through their own behavior,they are strongly motivated.

HERZBER’S TWO-FACTOR MODEL

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS.

The difference between Job Content and Job Context is similar to the differencebetween the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators in psychology.

Intrinsic Motivators are internal rewards that a person feels when pperforming a job, so there is a direct and often immediate connection between work and rewards. An employee in this situation is self motivated .

Extrinsic Motivators are external rewards that occur apart from the nature of work, providing no direct satisfaction at the time the work is performed. E.g. Retirement plans, health insurance and vacations. Although employees value these items, they are not effective motivators.

Interpreting HERZBERG’S ModelHerzber’s Model provides a useful distinction between Maintenance Factors,which are necessary but not sufficient, and Motivational factors, which havethe potential for improving employees effort.

Herzber’s Model broadens Managers’ perspectives by showing the potentialpowerful role of Intrinsic rewards that evolve from the work itself. This conclusion ties in with a number of other important Behavioral developments,such as Job Enrichment, Empowerment, Self-leadership, and Quality of worklife.

Managers should be aware that they cannot neglect a wide range of factorsthat create at least a natural work environment. In addition, unless Hygienefactors are reasonable addresses, their absence will serve as significantdistractions to workers.

Interpreting HERZBERG’S ModelHerzber’s Model has also been widely criticized for::

- Universally not applicable, because it was based on and applies best to managerial, professional, and upper-level white-collar employees.

- Model appears to reduce the motivational importance of pay, status, and relations with others, since these are Maintenance factors.

- The Model also seems to be method-bound, meaning that only Herzber’s approach produces the two-factor model. There may be an appearance of two factors but in reality there is one factor.

ALDERFER`S E-R-G MODEL

Alderfer’s proposed a Modified Need Hierarchy model (The E-R-G Model)which was built upon earlier Need Models (primarily Maslow’s) and seeking to overcome some of their weaknesses.

The E-R-G Model has just three levels of needs.

Growth needs

Relatedness need

Existence needs

ALDERFER`S E-R-G MODELAlderfer’s Model He suggested that Employees are initially interested in satisfying their Existence Needs, which combine Physiological and Securityfactors. Pay, Physical working conditions, Job security, and Fringe benefitscan all address these needs.

Relatedness Needs are at the next level, and these involve beingunderstood and accepted by people above, below, and around the employeeat work and away from it.

Growth needs are in the third category; these involve the desire for both Self-esteem and Self-actualization.

In addition to condensing Maslow’s five Need levels into three thee, the Model differs from Maslow’s model in other ways.

(For example the E-R-G Model does not assume as rigorous a progression fromlevel to level. Instead, it accepts the likelihood that all Three levels might be active.It also suggest that a person frustrated at either of the two Higher levels may return to concentrate on a Lower level and then progress again. Also it suggests that the Growth needs not only are unlimited but are actually furtherawakened each time some satisfaction is attained.)

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATIONThe three Models of Motivation that have been discussed up to this point are known as Content Theories Of Motivation, since they focus on the Content (Nature) of items that may motivate a person.

The major difficulty with Content Models is that the Needs people haveare not subject to observation by Managers or to precise measurement for monitoring purposes.

As a result, there has been considerable interest in motivational modelsthat rely more heavily on intended results, careful measurement, andsystematic application of incentives.

Organizational Behavior Modification, (OB) Mod, is the application inorganizations of the principles of behavior modification.

OB Mod and several other Models are “Process Theories of Motivation” Since they provide perspectives on the dynamics by which employees canBe motivated.

LAW OF EFFECTOB Mod relies heavily on the Law Of Effect, which states that a person tends to

repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences.

Two conditions are required for successful application of OB Mod:

- The Manager must be able to identify some powerful consequences (as perceived by the employees)

- Manager must be able to administer them in such a way that the employee will see the connection between the behavior to be affected and the consequences

The Law Of Effect comes from Learning Theory, which suggest that we learn best under pleasant surroundings.

The Advantage of OB Mod is that it places a greater degree of control, and responsibility, in the hand of the manager.

OB Mod places greater emphasis on the use of Rewards and AlternativeConsequences to sustain Behaviors

ALTERNATIVE CONSEQUENCESOB Mod places greater emphasis on the use of Rewards and Alternative Before using OB Mod, however, managers must decide whether they wish to increase the probability of a person continued behavior or to decrease it.

Once Managers decide on their objectives , they have two further choices to make which determine the type of consequence to be applied:

- First, should they use Positive or negative consequence? - Second , should they apply it or withhold it?

The answers to those questions results in four unique alternatives as shown in the diagram.

– Positive Reinforcement provides a favorable consequence that encourages repetition of a behavior.

– Shaping is a systematic and progressive application of positive reinforcement.

– Negative Reinforcement occurs when behavior is accompanied by removal of an unfavorable consequence.

– Punishment is the administration of an unfavorable consequence that discourages a certain behavior.

– Extinction is the withholding of significant positive consequences that were previously provided for a desirable behavior.

punishmentPositive

reinforcement

Negative reinforcement Extinction

Application

Manager's use

Withdrawal

Negative Positive

NATURE OF CONSEQUENCE

OB Mod uses four alternative consequences

Schedules of Reinforcement

The frequency of the behavior creates a baseline, or standard, against

which improvements can be compared. Then the manager can select a

Reinforcement Schedule.

Reinforcement may be either Continuous or Partial. - Continuous Reinforcement occurs when a reinforcer accompanies

each correct behavior by an employee. This encourages quick learning (e.g. of Continuous Reinforcement is payment of employees for each acceptable item that they produce.

Partial Reinforcement occurs when only some of the correct behaviors are

reinforced. Learning is slower with this reinforcement.

Interpreting Behavior ModificationThe major benefit of Behavior Modification is that it makes the Managers become conscious motivators. It encourages Managers to analyze behavior, explore why it occurs and how often , and identify specific consequences that will help change it when these consequences are applied systematically.

The General Guidelines for Applying Behavior Modification

• Identify the exact behavior to be modified.• Make sure the expected behavior is within the employee's capabilities.• Determine not only the rewards that employees value but also the

magnitude that would effect their behavior.• Clarify the connection between desired behavior and rewards.• Use positive reinforcement whenever possible.• Use punishment only in unusual circumstances and for specific behaviors.• Ignore minor undesirable behavior to allow its extinction.• Use shaping procedures to develop correct complex behavior.• Minimize the time between the correct response and reinforcement.• Provide reinforcement frequently and on some chosen schedule.

Interpreting Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification has been criticized on several grounds including its

Philosophy , methods, and practicality.

- Because of the strong power of desired consequences, Behavior

Modification may effectively force people to change their behavior.

- Some critics also fear Behavior Modification gives too much power to the managers, and they raise the question of “Who will control the Controllers?

- Some other critics say that this model insults people's intelligence.

- This Model has limited applicability to complex jobs (e.g. it is difficult to identify specific behaviors in the job of Corporate Lawyers, Software Developers or CEO job behaviors and reinforce them.

GOAL SETTINGS• Goal are target and objectives for future performance. They help

focus employees’ attention on items of greater importance to the organization, encourage better planning for allocating of critical resources, and stimulate the preparation of Action Plans for Goal attainment.

• Goals setting are useful After the desired Behavior as Managers compare employee results with their aims and explore reasons for any differences.

• Meeting Goals also help satisfy a person’s achievement drive, contributes to feelings

• Goal Setting works as a Motivational Process because its creates a discrepancy between current and expected performance.

• A major factor in the success of Goal Setting is self-efficacy. Employees with high self-efficiency tend to set higher personal goals under the

belief that they are attainable

Elements of Goal Setting

• Goal Acceptance – Effective Goals need to be understood and accepted

• Specificity- Goals need to be specific and measurable as possible so that employees will know when a goal is reached.

• Challenge – Most employees work harder when they have difficult goals to accomplish rather than easy ones. Hard Goals however be achievable.

• Performance monitoring and feedback- Provides at least subtle cues to employees that their tasks are important, their effort is needed, and their contributions are valued.

Simple monitoring may not be enough since many employees want to know how well the are performing.

Performance feedbacks tend to encourage better Job Performance, and Self-generated feedback is an especially powerful motivational tool.

THE EXPECTANCY MODEL A widely accepted approach to Motivation is the Expectancy model also

known as Expectancy Theory. This Model considers the motivation as the product of three factors: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

• Valance - Refers to the strength of a persons preference for receiving a reward. It is an expression of the amount of one's desire to reach a goal. Valance can be positive or negative preferences

• Expectancy - is the strength of belief that one's work-related effort will result in completion of a task. Expectancies are stated as probability of connection between Effort

and Performance. One contributing factor to Effort-Performance Expectancies is the Self-efficacy. High self-efficacy creates

a high Expectancy assessment. In contrast some employees suffer from Imposter Phenomenon. Imposters believe that they are not really as capable as they appear to be and, consequently fear that their incompetence will be revealed to others.

• Instrumentality represents the employees belief that reward will be received once the task is accomplished. This is based on subjective judgment about probability that organization that organization values the employee’s performance and will administrate reward on a contingent basis. (Perfotmance --- Reward Probability)

INTERPRETING THE EXPECTANCY MODEL

ADVANTAGES –

- The Expectancy Model helps the Managers think about the mental processes through which motivation occurs. Expectancy Model forces managers to think individuals whose beliefs, perceptions, and probability estimates powerfully influence their behaviors. The Model reflects

Theory Y Assumptions about people as capable individuals and values human dignity.

- Encourages Managers to design a motivational climate that will stimulate appropriate employee behavior.

LIMITATIONS

- It needs further testing to build a broad base of research evident for support

- Reliable measurers of Valence, Expectancy, and Instrumentality need to be developed.

- The Model need to be made more complete while still remaining practical enough for managers to use.

INTERPRETING THE EXPECTANCY MODELReliable measurers of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality need to be

developed.

There is a special need to develop measurers that managers can use in

actual work settings. When possible mangers, need to learn both what

employees perceive and why they hold those valance, expectancy and

instrumentality beliefs.

This model also need to be made more complete while still remaining

practical enough for managers to use.

THE EQUITY MODEL

The Equity theory states that employees tend to judge fairness by comparing the outcomes they receive with their relevant inputs and also by comparing this ratio (not always the absolute level of rewards) with the ratios of other people as this formula shows:

One's own outcomes ? Others` outcomes = One's own inputs Other` inputs

Inputs includes all elements employees believe they bring or contribution to the job:(i.e. education, seniority, prior work experiences, loyalty and commitment, time and effort, creativity, and job, performance.

Outcomes include direct pay, bonuses, fringe benefits, job security, social rewards, and psychological rewards.

THE EQUITY MODEL

Employees analyze the fairness of their own outcome/input “Contract” and

then compare their contract with contracts of other workers in similar jobs

and even with those outside of their job.

Fairness of Rewards (Equality) may even be judged in comparison with

relatively arbitrary criteria like age.

The Key Factors in Equity Assessment

One’s Input One’s Output

Job effort Actual pay and Benefits Education Social Rewards

Seniority Psychological Rewards

Performance

Job difficulties

Other inputs

THE EQUITY MODEL

If employees perceive Equity, they will continue to contribute at about the same level.

Otherwise under inequity they will experience tension that will create the motivation

to reduce the inequity.

If employee feels over-rewarded Equity theory predicts that they will feel an

imbalance in their relationship with their employees and seek to restore that balance

be either working harder or try to convince the other employees to ask for more

rewards etc…

Workers who feel they have been under-rewarded seek to reduce their feelings of

inequity through the same types of strategies , but some of their specific actions are

now reversed. Such as Lower productivity, bargain for more , possible qui the job

etc..

INTERPRETYING THE EQUITY MODELAn understanding of Equity should remind Managers that employees work within severalSocial Systems. Employees may select a number of reference groups both inside andoutside the organization for comparison.

Employees are also inclined to shift the basis for comparisons to the standard that isMost favorable to them. Such as Educated employees often inflate the value of theireducation, while employees with longer service emphasize seniority as the dominantcriterion.

Many employees have strong egos and high opinions of themselves. Consequently all these factors make the task of predicting when inequality will occur somewhat complex.

Equity Theory has generated extensive research, with many of the results beingsupportive.

In particular, under-reward seems to produce motivational tension with negative consequences; less consistent results are found for over-reward condition.

Perception plays a key role in this model , suggesting how valuable it is for a Manager to gather information from employees instead of trying to impose Perceptions onto them.

The major challenges for a Manager using Equity Model, lie in measuring employees assessments of their inputs and outcomes, identifying their choice of references, and evaluating EmployeePerceptions of inputs and outcomes.

INTERPRETYING MOTIVATIONAL MODELSeveral different Models have been studied . All of these Models have strength and

weaknesses, advocates and critics.

No Model is perfect, but all of them add something to our understanding of Motivational

Process.

Therefore, the Motivational Model used must be adapted to the situation as well as

blended with other Motivational models.

Managers are encouraged to combine the perspectives of several Motivational Models to

create a complete Motivational environment for their employees..