motivation = the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior
TRANSCRIPT
MotivationMotivation
= the process of arousing and sustaining = the process of arousing and sustaining
goal-directed behaviorgoal-directed behavior
THREE TYPES OF THREE TYPES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES
InternalInternal Focus on variables within individual that lead to Focus on variables within individual that lead to
motivation and behavior. motivation and behavior.
ProcessProcess Emphasize nature of interaction between individual Emphasize nature of interaction between individual
and environment. and environment.
ExternalExternal Focus on elements in the environment to explain Focus on elements in the environment to explain
motivation and behavior. motivation and behavior.
Early Motivational TheoristsEarly Motivational Theorists
Max WeberMax Weber
Protestant work ethicProtestant work ethic
Sigmund FreudSigmund Freudperson’s person’s organizational life organizational life founded on founded on compulsion to work compulsion to work and power of loveand power of love
Early Motivational TheoristsEarly Motivational TheoristsAdam SmithAdam Smith
people motivated by people motivated by self-interest for self-interest for economic gain to economic gain to provide necessities of provide necessities of life.life.
Frederick TaylorFrederick Taylorscientific management; scientific management; emphasized cooperation emphasized cooperation between management and between management and labor to increase profit.labor to increase profit.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Low
est t
o hi
ghes
t ord
er
Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y
A set A set of of assumptions of assumptions of how to manage how to manage individuals individuals who are who are motivated by motivated by lower order lower order needsneeds
A set of A set of assumptions of assumptions of how to manage how to manage individuals individuals who are who are motivated by motivated by higher order higher order needsneeds
McGregor’s Assumptions About People McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory XBased on Theory X
Naturally indolentNaturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and
prefer to be ledprefer to be led Inherently self-centered and indifferent to Inherently self-centered and indifferent to
organizational needsorganizational needs Naturally resistant to changeNaturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupesGullible, not bright, ready dupes
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y
Passive and resistant behaviors not Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational inherent; result of organizational experience experience
People possessPeople possess Motivation Motivation Development potential Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward Readiness to direct behavior toward
organizational goalsorganizational goals
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
McClelland’s TheoryMcClelland’s Theory
AchievementAchievement PowerPower AffiliationAffiliation
Three Categories of Needs
McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement
Need for AchievementNeed for Achievementa manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming goals, persistence, and overcoming difficultiesdifficulties
McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for PowerNeed for Power
Need for PowerNeed for Power
a manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need to make an impact on others, to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in events, and make a difference in lifelife
McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation
Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation
a manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with close, intimate relationships with other peopleother people
Need Theories of MotivationNeed Theories of Motivation
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factorHygiene factor Motivation factorMotivation factor
Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different
part of an employee’s experience
MotivationMotivation––Hygiene Theory of Hygiene Theory of MotivationMotivation
Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction
• Company policy and administration
• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth
• Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
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Critique of HerzbergCritique of Herzberg
A factor may not be exclusively A factor may not be exclusively motivation or hygiene (e.g., salary). motivation or hygiene (e.g., salary).
Does not account for individual Does not account for individual differences (age, sex, social status, differences (age, sex, social status, education). education).
Does not account for intrinsic job Does not account for intrinsic job factors. factors.
Supporting data comes from peculiar Supporting data comes from peculiar critical-incident technique.critical-incident technique.
New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, HopeNew Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope
Eustress Eustress healthy, normal stresshealthy, normal stress Encourages optimism, hope and health.Encourages optimism, hope and health. While things happen that are While things happen that are
out of our control, we can out of our control, we can control our response to them.control our response to them.
New Ideas : New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full EngagementPositive Energy and Full Engagement
Individuals are activated by their own physical, Individuals are activated by their own physical, emotional, mental and spiritual energy, not by emotional, mental and spiritual energy, not by unmet needs.unmet needs.
Stresses the role of energy recovery. Stresses the role of energy recovery.
A new study in England argues that motivational awards given to children, such as points, stickers, and treats, have little effect on performance.
May reduce “intrinsic motivation.” Rather than doing a task for its own sake, they do it just for the reward.
Does Motivation “Work”?Does Motivation “Work”?
Social Exchange & Equity TheorySocial Exchange & Equity Theory
Equity theoryEquity theory – – concerned with social concerned with social processes that influence processes that influence motivation and motivation and behavior. behavior.
IndividualIndividual––Organizational ExchangeOrganizational Exchange
Adam’s Theory of InequityAdam’s Theory of Inequity
People are motivated when they find themselves People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity or unfairness. in situations of inequity or unfairness.
To look for inequity, people consider their inputs To look for inequity, people consider their inputs and their outcomes. and their outcomes.
Equity and Inequity at WorkEquity and Inequity at Work
Strategies for Resolution Strategies for Resolution of Inequityof Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomesAlter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputsAlter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputsAlter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputsAlter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison otherChange who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequityRationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situationLeave the organizational situation
New Perspectives on Equity TheoryNew Perspectives on Equity Theory
Equity Sensitive Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other.
New Perspectives in Equity TheoryNew Perspectives in Equity Theory
BenevolentBenevolent
I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other.
New Perspectives on Equity TheoryNew Perspectives on Equity Theory
EntitledEntitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
explains motivation in terms of an explains motivation in terms of an
individual’s perception of the performance individual’s perception of the performance
process. process.
Two Basic Notions of Expectancy TheoryTwo Basic Notions of Expectancy Theory
People expect certain outcomes of People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance. behavior and performance.
People believe that the effort they put People believe that the effort they put forth is related to the performance they forth is related to the performance they achieve and the outcomes they receive. achieve and the outcomes they receive.
Key Constructs of Expectancy TheoryKey Constructs of Expectancy Theory
ValenceValence –– value or importance placed on a value or importance placed on a particular rewardparticular reward
ExpectancyExpectancy –– belief that effort leads to belief that effort leads to performanceperformance
InstrumentalityInstrumentality –– belief that performance is belief that performance is related to rewardsrelated to rewards
Expectancy Model of MotivationExpectancy Model of Motivation
3 Causes of Motivational Problems3 Causes of Motivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result in Belief that effort will not result in performanceperformance
Belief that performance will not result Belief that performance will not result in rewardsin rewards
The value a person places on, or the The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain preference a person has for, certain rewardsrewards
Moral MaturityMoral Maturity
the measure of a person’s cognitive the measure of a person’s cognitive
moral developmentmoral development
Moral Maturity and MotivationMoral Maturity and Motivation
Morally mature people behave and act based
on universal ethical principles.
Morally immature people behave and act
based on egocentric motivations.
Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences
Most motivation theories in use today have been developed by and about Americans.
These theories may not deal adequately with cultural differences.
Participants in the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing faced harsh conditions – 16 hour sessions, heatstroke, exposure to rain, and one session that lasted 51 hours. During the ceremony, some performers wore adult diapers so that they could perform for six hours.
There were, however, almost no complaints from the performers, most of whom agreed that such sacrifices were worth it for the good of the nation.
Now That’s Motivation!Now That’s Motivation!