motivation theories and relevant topics

26
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Motivation and Its Related Terms -Purav Sangani & Vidhi Kothari Meaning The word motivation comes from a Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move’. Motivation is a psychological feature that induces an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviours. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action. Motivation and related terms It may seem like a subtle distinction, but the worlds of motivation and inspiration are millions of miles apart. A lot of people use the words “motivated” and “inspired” interchangeably. But there is something different to be the case. When one tries to motivate oneself, nine times out of ten on is pushing me to do something he/she don’t really care about. Inspiration comes from a completely different place. The word inspiration means to be in spirit. When you’re tuned into your spirit, you are naturally drawn to do whatever feels best. You may do things that aren’t outwardly productive. Or you may write a book in 30 days. Either way, it’s all good because fulfilment is the end result. Motivation, on the other hand, usually has a lot to do with fake growth. You think you should be doing something (without thinking about why) and it often leads in the direction of something that doesn’t really matter. It’s what you’re “supposed” to be doing. It’s just a good idea, not a passionate, burning desire that emanates from the core of your being. So, motivation is about things that you think you should do or that you’re supposed to do. Inspiration is about being called to act because you’re in direct alignment with the magnetic, luminous marrow of potential that is you. 1

Post on 21-Oct-2014

36 views

Category:

Business


2 download

DESCRIPTION

The Word doc is baased on motivation, its theories and relevant topics. The PPT of this data is also uploaded by me so pls do have a look. I hope it helps.

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Motivation and Its Related Terms

-Purav Sangani & Vidhi Kothari

Meaning

The word motivation comes from a Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to move’. Motivation is a psychological feature that induces an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviours. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation is the purpose or psychological cause of an action.

Motivation and related terms

It may seem like a subtle distinction, but the worlds of motivation and inspiration are millions of miles apart. A lot of people use the words “motivated” and “inspired” interchangeably. But there is something different to be the case. When one tries to motivate oneself, nine times out of ten on is pushing me to do something he/she don’t really care about.

Inspiration comes from a completely different place. The word inspiration means to be in spirit. When you’re tuned into your spirit, you are naturally drawn to do whatever feels best. You may do things that aren’t outwardly productive. Or you may write a book in 30 days. Either way, it’s all good because fulfilment is the end result.

Motivation, on the other hand, usually has a lot to do with fake growth. You think you should be doing something (without thinking about why) and it often leads in the direction of something that doesn’t really matter. It’s what you’re “supposed” to be doing. It’s just a good idea, not a passionate, burning desire that emanates from the core of your being.

So, motivation is about things that you think you should do or that you’re supposed to do. Inspiration is about being called to act because you’re in direct alignment with the magnetic, luminous marrow of potential that is you.

When you’re inspired you know because…Life feels effortless.You have to hold yourself back from starting right now.Your passion burns steady, it doesn’t flat line.It occupies magnitudes of mental space, there’s no vacancy.You feel called to do this; the feeling comes from your core.You feel it in your bones.

Here are some responses that people gave when they were asked to define motivation and inspiration:

“Motivation is required when you’re not aligned with your highest values.”“Motivation is not always positive.”“Motivation is external, inspiration is internal”

1

Page 2: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

“Motivation is inner drive to fulfil goal. Inspiration is having a glimpse of who you really are.”“Motivation is the push. Inspiration is the pull.”It’s interesting how everyone sees inspiration and motivation differently.

Emotion is different from motivation in that there is not necessarily a goal orientation affiliated with it. Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between perception of environmental stimuli, hormonal responses to these perceptions and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings. Motivation is the inner stimulus that leads to an action that satisfies the need. Any idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action is motivation. Motivation is the force that energizes human behaviour. In other words, you have certain needs or wants and this causes you to do certain things which satisfy those needs and this can then change which needs/wants are primary and which ones are secondary.

Is motivation manipulation?

Motivation motivates someone into positive action from an input of enthusiastic support of the cause, whereas manipulation tricks someone into complying as a result of being manipulating coerced to follow the leader’s position not from being enthused, but more often from fear.

There is often said to be only a fine line between manipulating someone and motivating them. In both cases, you can get someone into action, in working for you, or following your cause. Manipulation exerts a powerful influence onto someone to try to get them to follow along with your direction. Usually a specific outcome or a particular response is being bullied out of someone in this way.

Manipulation then usually feels like being forced, pushed, or dragged along, whereas motivation is more about creating the energy in someone that they will then follow you with their own volition, by deciding to do so, as a result of the enthusiasm they might be now feeling for your cause. Enthusiasm can be caught by others when you are being over enthusiastic towards them, and in itself this might actually be seen by others as also being a form of manipulation, hence the thin line that exists between the two terms.

Four stages from motivation to de-motivation in an organization

1. Motivational ineffective: an employee is most motivated in this stage. He is motivated but because he is new in the environment, he does not know what to do, so he is ineffective.

2. Motivational effective: the employee has learned what to do and does it with drive and energy.

3. De-motivational effective: after some time the motivational level goes down and the employee starts learning the tricks of the trade.

4. De-motivational ineffective: employee is least motivated in this stage and also reduces performance.

Unfair criticism, public humiliation, rewarding the non-performer, failure or fear of failure, low self esteem, office politics are some other factors of de-motivation.

2

Page 3: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Techniques of Motivation

There are primarily two techniques of motivation

Financial motivation: Although some theorist believe that money is not a positive motivator, pay system are designed to motivate employees

Why is pay important?

It is an important cost for a business. Pay helps to satisfy many needs. It helps attract reliable employees with the skills the business needs for success. Pay also helps retain employees. For, most of the employees’ remuneration package is the most important part of job. Business includes an element of performance related reward in their pay structure. However it is important to remember that pay is only one element of motivation and will work best where management also gives attention to

Developing good management and supervision Providing feedback to staff about their performance Making effective arrangements for communication

When managers are asked to list motivators for employees the list looks like

Salary Bonuses Vacation Retirement Other benefit Interesting work Feedback Training Respect

It is interesting to note that managers rank money items as their employees’ top 5 motivators.

When employees are asked to rank their own motivators the list looks like this:

Interesting work Involved in decision Feedback Training Respect Salary Bonuses Vacation Retirement Other benefits

It is interesting to note that employees list is just the opposite to that of managers list.

3

Page 4: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Non- Financial motivation: financial motivators do not work forever to motivate people at work and employees. Employees do not always run after money. The following are the non financial incentives:

1. Competition: if there is a healthy competition among the individual employees or group of employees it will lead them to achieve their personal or group goals in a better way.

2. Praise: it satisfies ones ego needs. Sometimes, praise is more effective than any other incentives.

3. Opportunity for growth: if the employees are provided opportunities for their advancement and growth and to develop their personality, they feel very much satisfy and become more committed to the organizational goals.

4. Suggestion system: Many organizations which use the suggestion system make use of cash awards for useful suggestion. This motivates the employees to be in search for some thing which maybe of greater use to the organization.

MYTHS IN MOTIVATION

The topic of motivating employees is extremely important to managers and supervisors. Before looking at what management can do to support the motivation of employees, it is important first to clear up these common myths.

Myth #1: “The manager can motivate people”

Not really. Motivation is internal in nature. Employees have to motivate and empower themselves. However, the manager can set up an environment where they best motivate and empower themselves.

Myth #2: “money is a good motivator”

Money maybe one of the motivators to start up and this may be true for people especially in the junior management level. But after a certain stage money stops functioning as a motivator.

Myth #3 : “Fear is a good motivator”

Now we are in the knowledge era where individuals are expected to be a powerful courtesy in the knowledge base they possess. In such a scenario, fear maybe a great motivator for a very short time but it may trigger rebellious actions from the employees.

Myth #4 : “What motivates me is what motivates my employees”:

Different things motivate different people. It depends on personal and professional agendas of each and every employee and is distinct for each one of them.

4

Page 5: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

BASIC PRINCIPLES:

These basic principles are MUST to be remembered.

M-Motivating employees start with motivating oneself. If one is doing good job of taking care of oneself.

U- Understanding what motivates each of them as each person is motivated by different things.

S- Supporting employee motivation is a process, and not a task.

T- To map and match the goals of the organization with goals of employees.

5

Page 6: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Four Drive Theory

- Jay Marvania

Motivation can be explained as an inner stimulus that arises out of a need or want and gives rise to an action that would satisfy that need or want. In simple words we can say that, any idea or need or emotion that makes a man do something or act in a particular way is called as motivation. It is a force or energy that drives the human actions or behavior. There are many theories proposed by different people on motivation. Theories may be Content theories (the ones which define motivation as need for satisfaction of different needs or wants) or Process theories (the ones which define motivation as a rational cognitive process)

Four drive theory can be stated as one of the content theories which focuses on the four basic needs that drive the human behavior into a certain course for its successful fulfillment. Many motivation experts may have abandoned the traditional theories of needs hierarchy or the ERG theory but they haven’t given up on the fact that these needs are important and somewhere inside, these needs are the factors that contribute the most to motivation in individuals. The Four Drive Theory was developed by Professor Paul Lawrence and Professor Nitin Nohria who teach at the Harvard Business School. They believe that every individual is driven into doing some action because of four basic factors which drive him.

The Four Drive Theory organizes the drives into four categories viz. bond, acquire, learn and defend. These drives are not something which is found in only few individuals. These are common all around the globe and hence universally applicable. The special characteristic of this theory is that these drives are independent i.e. each drive has its own uniqueness. So there is no dependency among the four drives. The following are the four drives:

1. Drives to Bond- Humans are social animals. Thus they cannot stay alone or bear loneliness for a long time which is why we all form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with each other. Anywhere in any corner of the world we won’t find someone who would not be having some bond with someone. It is because it is a human nature to share and communicate the feelings and thoughts with the ones around them. This drive to bond motivates people to cooperate and work together towards a common goal which is one the important factors for any organization’s success or development of the society at large.

2. Drive to Acquire- Every individual has some goals or some aims in his mind which he wants to achieve. This is the drive to seek, take control and retain objects and personal experiences. It is not limited to the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter but goes beyond that such as need for relative status and recognition in society. The drive to acquire gives rise to a healthy competition among different individuals having a common goal. We all know that human wants are insatiable i.e. they are never ending. Thus we can say that the drive to acquire is insatiable because the purpose of motivation is to achieve a higher goal or position than others or, in some cases, oneself.

6

Page 7: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

3. Drive to Learn- I believe that human brain is such that it becomes curious on the sight of something new. It is because it functions in such a way that it makes one clear the knowledge gap which prevails when one does not know something or sees something new. This drive is to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us. When observing something that is inconsistent with or beyond our current knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close that information gap. This drive is related to higher-order needs of growth and self-actualization described in the traditional theories of Needs hierarchy and others. The developments in science or our surroundings are a result of this drive which makes us learn new and better ways of doing the same thing.

4. Drive to Defend- This drive does not limit itself to the action of defending in the physical terms but also socially. Experts believe it to be the very first drive to develop which creates a fight-or-flight response in the face of danger. It is a drive that is triggered automatically in the presence of danger to oneself weather physically or socially. When compared to other drives, we can say that this drive is always reactive i.e. it comes up when one feels danger. However the other three drives are proactive i.e. we actively seek to improve our achievements, knowledge and relations.

The science behind these drives driving an individual is also explained to some extent by the experts. Experts believe that every bit of information we receive is quickly and unconsciously tagged with emotional markers that subsequently shape our logical analysis of the situation. Our motivation to act is a result of rational thinking influenced by these markers. From what I understand from the above analysis by experts, the emotions that prevail in humans determine in which areas the different drives would work. For example a kid watches someone dance and is attracted to it. His drive to learn will be activated because it is something out of his current knowledge. Later on when he has learned it, his drive to acquire will make him dance to gain appreciation in the society. Further his drive to bond will make him interact with people having similar interests. And finally if someone were to criticize the dance or the activity of dancing, he might feel offended and thus his drive to defend will make him angry for the unacceptance by someone. However this will not be a case if the kid would not have liked dancing in the first place. Thus the four innate drives determine our emotions in different situations.

This knowledge is very useful in workplace as different people will act differently base on their drives. Experts say that, our conscious analysis of competing demands from the four drives generates needs that energize us to act in ways acceptable to society and our own moral compass. This explains how are needs are based in inner innate drives, how emotions are generated from those drives in the context of a specific situation, and how personal experience and cultural values influence the intensity, persistence, and direction of effort. However this model is new and requires much more work to clarify the role of skill sets in goal-directed choice and efforts.

7

Page 8: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

The developers of this theory provide a main recommendation that the organization must ensure that the individual jobs and workplaces provide balanced opportunities to fulfill the drives to bond, acquire, learn and defend. They give two recommendations when talking about application of the four drive theory in organizations. The first one says that all the drives must be regularly fulfilled. The theory says that we are constantly seeking fulfillment of our innate drives. Thus the best workplace for motivation and morale provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, social interactions and so forth for all the employees. The second one is that these drives must be kept in a balance. The organization must avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive. The reason for this is that the four drives counterbalance each other. For example, an organization that energizes the drive to acquire without the drive to bond may eventually suffer from organizational politics and conflicts. Change and novelty in workplace will aid the drive to learn but too much of it will trigger the drive to defend so that the employees become territorial and resistant to change.

Thus these are the four innate drives in practical application and the recommendations by its developers which will eventually be helpful to the managers or the higher level management people who need to manage a certain number of employees. The Four Drive Theory is somewhat related or similar to David McClelland’s Theory of learned needs.

8

Page 9: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Theory Of Learned Needs

- Bhavin Soni

Introduction:

Managing a group of people with different personalities is never easy. But if you're managing or leading a team, it's essential to know what motivates your people, how they respond to feedback and praise, and what tasks fit them well.

Psychologist David McClelland's Human Motivation Theory gives you a way of identifying people's motivating drivers. This can then help you to give praise and feedback effectively, assign them suitable tasks, and keep them motivated.

Need for Achievement

People with a strong need for achievement want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort. They prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose task with a moderate degree of risk i.e. neither too easy nor too hard to complete. High need for achievement people also desire unambiguous feedback and recognition of their success. Money is a weak motivator, except when it provided feedback and recognition. People motivated by achievement need challenging, but not impossible, projects. They thrive on overcoming difficult problems or situations, so make sure you keep them engaged this way. People motivated by achievement work very effectively either alone or with other high achievers. In contrast, employees with such a low need for achievement perform their work better when money is used as an incentive. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high need for achievement, possibly because they establish challenging goals for themselves and thrive on competition. When providing feedback, give achievers a fair and balanced appraisal. They want to know what they're doing right – and wrong – so that they can improve.

Need for Affiliation:

Need for affiliation refers to a desire to seek approval from others, confirm to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontations. People with strong need for affiliation try to project a favourable image of them. They tend to actively support others and try to smooth out workplace conflicts. High need for affiliation employees generally work well in co-ordinating roles to mediate conflicts, and in sales positions where the main task is cultivating long term relations. However, they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict. People in decision-making positions must have a relatively low need for affiliation so that their choices and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval.

People motivated by affiliation work best in a group environment, so try to integrate them with a team (versus working alone) whenever possible. They also don't like uncertainty and risk. When providing feedback to these people, be personal. It's still important to give balanced feedback, but if you start your appraisal by emphasizing their good working relationship and your trust in them,

9

Page 10: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

they'll likely be more open to what you say. Remember that these people often don't want to stand out, so it might be best to praise them in private rather than in front of others.

Need for Power:

People with a high need for power want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintaining leadership positions. They frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more suggestions in the meetings and tend to publicly evaluate situations more frequently. David McClelland pointed out that there are two types of need for power. Those who enjoy their power for their own sake use it to advance personal interest and wear their power as a status symbol have personalized power. Others mainly have a high need for socialized power because they desire power as a means to help others. McClelland asserted that leaders are more effective when they have a high need for socialized rather than personalized power. They should have a high degree of altruism and social responsibility and must be concerned about the consequences of their own actions on others.

Those with a high need for power work best when they're in charge. Because they enjoy competition, they do well with goal-oriented projects or tasks. They may also be very effective in negotiations or in situations in which another party must be convinced of an idea or goal. When providing feedback, be direct with these team members. And keep them motivated by helping them further their career goals.

Let's look at the 2 steps for using McClelland's theory:

Step 1: Identify Drivers

Examine your team to determine which of the three motivators is dominant for each person. You can probably identify drivers based on personality and past actions.

For instance, perhaps one of your team members always takes charge of the group when you assign a project. He speaks up in meetings to persuade people, and he delegates responsibilities to others to meet the goals of the group. He likes to be in control of the final deliverables. This team member is likely primarily driven by the power.

You might have another team member who never speaks during meetings. She always agrees with the group, works hard to manage conflict when it occurs, and visibly becomes uncomfortable when you talk about doing high-risk, high-reward projects. This person is likely to have a strong need for affiliation.

Step 2: Structure Your Approach

Based on the driving motivators of your workers, structure your leadership style and project assignments around each individual team member. This will help ensure that they all stay engaged , motivated, and happy with the work they're doing.

10

Page 11: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Expectancy Theory

- Pooja Gada & Harsh Mehta

Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management."This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients."Victor H. Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence. In 1964, Vroom developed the Expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision making. His theory is relevant to the study of management. Currently, Vroom is a John G. Searle Professor of Organization and Management at the Yale University School of Management.

Key elementsThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the end they value. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), .over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

1. Expectancy: Effort → Performance (E→P)2. Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)3. Valence- V(R)

11

Page 12: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Expectancy: Effort → Performance (E→P)Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. It is usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self-efficacy) and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. This will affect how the individual's decision making process because they will ultimately chose behaviors that will insure their desired goals. There are 3 components associated with the individual's Expectancy perception. They are self-efficacy, goal difficulty, and perceived control.

1. Self-efficacy- the person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieved their goals.

2. Goal difficulty- when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are unattainable.

3. Perceived Control- is one's belief in their control over their performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. If an individual does not believe they have any control over the outcome the motivation to increase effort will be low.

Some examples of expectancy include-If I study tonight for an exam it will improve my grade tomorrowif I practice my swing in the batting cages I will perform better in the game

Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies. If individuals trust their superiors, they are more likely to believe their leaders promises. When there is a lack of trust in leadership, people often attempt to control the reward system. When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are distributed, Instrumentality tends to increase. Formalized written policies impact the individuals' instrumentality perceptions. Instrumentality is increased when formalized policies associate rewards to performance.

Valence V(R)Valence: the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one's values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome. Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome.The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 →0→ +1-1= avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome +1 = welcomes the outcome

12

Page 13: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. The Expectancy Theory of motivation can help managers understand how individuals make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives, and why they pursue these decisions. Valence is one behavioral alternative, where the decision is measured on the value of the reward. If management understands the desired outcomes from their employees, the can design and build a reward system that is satisfactory. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized:Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x ValenceWhen deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions), whereas valence is rooted in an individual’s value system.Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest result and effectiveness out of the work place accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given.

Expectancy Theory-In Practice

Expectancy theory has some important implications for motivating employees. The theory provides guidelines for enhancing employee motivation by altering the individual’s effort-to-performance expectancy, performance-to-reward expectancy, and reward valences. Several practical implications of expectancy theory are

Increasing Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

Leaders should try to increase the belief that employees are capable of performing the job successfully. Ways of doing this include: select people with the required skills and knowledge; provide the required training and clarify job requirements; provide sufficient time and resources; assign progressively more difficult tasks based on training; eliminate problems that may disturb effective performance; provide examples of employees who have mastered the task; and provide coaching to employees who lack self-confidence. Good leaders not only make it clear to employees what is expected of them but also help them attain that level of performance.

E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual’s belief that he or she can successfully complete the task. Some companies increase this can do attitude by assuring employees that they have the necessary competencies, clear role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of performance. Matching employees to job based on their abilities and clearly communicating the tasks required for the job is an important part of this process. Similarly, E-to-P expectancies are learnt, so behavioural modelling and supportive feedback typically strengthen the individuals belief that he or she is able to perform the task.

13

Page 14: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Increasing Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy

Leaders should try to increase the belief that good performance will result in valued rewards. Ways of doing so include: measure job performance accurately; describe clearly the rewards that will result from successful performance; describe how the employee’s rewards were based on past performance; provide examples of other employees whose good performance has resulted in higher rewards. Leaders should link directly the specific performance they desire to the rewards desired by employees. Compensation mechanisms can be a powerful incentive in linking performance to rewards. Compensation systems that reward people directly based on how well they perform their jobs are known as pay-for-performance plans. These may take such forms as “commission plans” used for sales personnel, “piece-rate systems” used for factory workers and field hands, and “incentive stock option (ISO) plans” for executive. However, rewards linked to performance need not be monetary. Symbolic and verbal forms of recognition for good performance can be very effective as well.

P-to-O expectancies are perception, so employees should believe that higher performance will result in higher rewards. Having a performance base reward system is important but this fact must be communicated. When rewards are distributed, employees should understand how their rewards have been based on past performance. More generally, companies need to regularly communicate the existence of a performance based reward system through examples, anecdotes and public ceremonies.

Increasing Valences of Outcome

Leaders should try to increase the expected value of rewards resulting from desired performance. Ways of doing this include: distribute rewards that employees value. With a demographically diverse workforce, it is misleading to believe that all employees desire the same rewards. Some employees may value a promotion or a pay raise, whereas others may prefer additional vacation days, improved insurance benefits, day care, or elder-care facilities. Many companies have introduced cafeteria-style benefit plans—incentive systems that allow employees to select their fringe benefits from a menu of available alternatives. Another issue that may surface with expectancy theory is the need for leaders to minimize the presence of counter valent rewards i.e. performance rewards that have negative valences. For example, group norms may cause some employees to perform their jobs at minimum levels even though formal rewards and the job itself would otherwise motivate them to perform at higher levels.

Does Expectancy Theory Fit Reality?

Expectancy theory remains one of the better theories for predicting work effort and motivation. In particular it plays the valuable role by detailing a person’s thinking process when translating the competing demands of the four drives into specific efforts. Expectancy theory has been applied to a wide variety of students such as predicting student motivation to participate in teaching evaluations, using a decision support system, leaving the organization, and engaging in organization citizenship behaviours. Research also indicates that expectancy theory predicts employee motivation in different cultures.

14

Page 15: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

One limitation is that expectancy theory seems to ignore the central role of emotion in employee effort and behaviour. As we learned in today’s workshop emotions serve as an adaptive function that demands our attention and energizes us to take action. The Valence element of expectancy theory captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally. Thus, theorists probably need to redesign the expectancy theory model in light of new information about the importance of emotions in motivation and behaviour.

15

Page 16: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Goal setting as a means of Motivation

- Jainam Delivala

Walk in almost any call centre and you will notice that performance is judged on several metrics such as average pickup time (time to answer the call), length of time per call, and abandon rates(customers who hang up before the call is handled by a customer service representative).for example one recent survey reported that the average pick up time for call centers in the united is 35 seconds, the average talk time Is 11 minutes for government and 6.5 minutes for private call centers, and average time on hold is 33 seconds .some call centers have large electronics boards showing how many customers are waiting and average time they have been waiting .Employees some time receive feedback on their computers ,such as the average length of time for each call at their work station associated with these numbers are specific goals ,and supervisors conduct goal setting sessions with each employee to help them understand and achieve those objectives

Call centers rely on goal setting and feed back to motivate employees and achieve superior performance goal setting is the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perception by establishing performance objectives. It is potentially improves employee’s performance in two ways: (1) by stretching the intensity and persistence of effort and (2) by giving employees clearer role perception so that their effort is channelled towards behaviours that will improve work performance.

Short time frame, such as reduce scrap rate by 7 percent over the next six months” Specific goal communicate precise performance expectation so employees can direct their effort more efficiently and reliably.

Relevant goal s must also be relevant to the individual’s job and within his or her control. For example, a goal to reduce waste materials would have little value if employees don’t have much control over waste in the production process.

Characteristics of effective goals

Goal setting is more complex than simply telling someone to “do your best” instead it requires six conditions to maximise task effort and performance: specific goal, relevant goal, challenging goals, goal commitment, participation in goal formation (sometimes) and goal fed back.

Specific goalsEmployees put more effort in to task when they work towards specific goal rather than “do your best” targets. Specific goal have measurable levels of change over a specific and relatively short time frame.

Relevant goalsGoals must also be relevant to the individual’s job and within his or her control. For example: A Goal to reduce waste materials would have little value if employees don’t have much control over waste in the production process.

16

Page 17: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Challenging goalsChallenging goals (rather than easy ones) cause people to raise the intensity and persistence of their work effort and to think through information more actively. They also fulfil a person’s need for achievement or self actualization needs when the goal is achieved. General Electric, Goldman Sachs, and many other organizations emphasize stretch goal. These goals don’t just stretch your abilities and motivation: they are goals that you don’t know how to reach, so you need to be creative to achieve them.

Goal commitment Although goal should be challenging, employees also need to be committed to accomplishing goals. Thus we need to find an optimal level of goal difficulty where goal are challenging. Yet employees are still motivated to achieve them. This is the same as the e to p expectancy that the goal can been accomplished, the less committed (motivated) the employee is to the goal.

Goal participationGoal setting is usually (but not always) more effective when employees participate in setting goals. Employees identify more with goal they are involved in setting than goal assigned by supervisor. In fact today work force increasingly expects to be involved in goal setting and other decisions that affect them. Participation may also improve goal quality because employees have valuable information and knowledge that may not be known to managers who develop these goals alone. This participation ensures that employees buy into the goals and have the competencies and resources necessary to accomplish them.

Goal Feedback Feed back is another necessary condition for effective goal setting. Feedback is any information that people receive about the consequences of their behaviour. Feedback let us know whether we have achieved a goal or are properly directing our effort towards it. Fed back is also essential ingredient in motivation because our growth needs can’t be satisfied unless we receive information about goal accomplishment. Fed back is central to goal setting that we will look more closely at it next.

CASE STUDY: “Stretch goals send speedera staff to the beach”Near the end of a recent financial quarter, speedera network 120 employees in Bangalore, India received an enticiting challenge from founder and CEO Ajit Gupta.”If we pull together to achieve our business targets {for the next quarter} then we will all be on a beach in May.”Employees at the internet Applications Company (now merged with Akmai) even voted on the preferred destination. Speedera would cover employee expenses as well as 50% of a spouse’s or family member’s expenses for four days. Everyone worked feverishly towards the company’s goal, which included a hefty increase in revenue. Their motivation was further fuelled with constant reminders of the Hawaiian trip. “The offices were transformed to look like tropical islands” says Gupta. Staff also received postcards and brouchers with tempting images of the resort and its attractions. Much to everyone delight the company achieved its goals and Speedera staff from both countries had a memorable bonding experience on Hawaiian beaches

17

Page 18: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Motivation Through Feedback

- Kanan Karwat

Characteristics of effective feedback:-

Feedback is a key ingredient in goal setting and employee performance. It communicates what behaviour is appropriate or necessary in a particular situation and improves ability by frequently providing information to correct performance problems. Information identifies a gap between actual and ideal performance is known as corrective feedback because it raises awareness of performance errors and identifies ways to correct that errors.

Under some circumstances, feedback also motivates employees. This is particularly true when feedback is positive, such as the peer-to-peer recognition activities described in the opening vignette to this chapter. These recognition programs communicate feedback as rewards, so they have the double benefit of informing employees about their performance and fulfilling their needs. Constructive feedback can also be motivating when employees have a strong “can-do” attitude towards the task and a learning orientation.

Many of the characteristic of goal setting also apply to the effective feedback .first, feedback should be specific. The information provided should be connected to the details of the goal, rather than subjective and general phrases such as “your sales are going well.” Second, feedback must be relevant, it must relate to the individual’s behaviour rather than to conditions beyond the individual’s control. This ensures that the feedback is not distorted by situational factors. Third, feedback should be timely; it should be available as soon as possible after the behaviour or results. Timeliness helps employees see a clear association between their behaviour and its consequences. The forth, characteristic of effective feedback is that it should be credible. Employees are more likely to accept the feedback from trustworthy and credible sources.

Finally, feedback should be sufficiently frequent. How frequent is “sufficiently”? The answer depends on at least two things. One consideration is the employee’s knowledge and experience with the task. Feedback is a form of reinforcement, so employees working on new task should receive more frequent corrective feedback because they require more behaviour guidance and reinforcement. Employees who are repeating familiar tasks can receive less frequent feedback. The second factor is how long it takes to complete the task. Feedback is necessarily less frequent in jobs with a long cycle time (executives and scientist) than in jobs with a short cycle time. (grocery store cashiers).

Sources of feedback:-

Feedback can originate from non social or social sources. Non social provides the feedback without communicating that information. The opening paragraph to this section mentioned that call centres have various forms of non social feedback such as electronic displays showing how many callers are waiting and the average time they have been waiting. Many employees see the results of their work effort while making a product or providing a service where good and poor performance is fairly obvious.

18

Page 19: Motivation theories and relevant topics

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Social sources of feedback include supervisors, clients, co-workers and anyone else who communicates information about the employee’s behaviour or results. Supervisors in some call centres meet with each employee a few times each month to review monitored calls and discuss ways to improve these events. In most other organizations employees receive formal feedback maybe once or twice each year, but informal feedback occurs more often.

Multisource feedback:-

According to some estimates, managers at almost all 500 firms receive feedback about their job performance from a full circle of people, including direct reports, bosses, vendors, customers and partners. Most plans also give employees complete freedom to choose who will rate them. The multisource feedback tends to provide most complete and accurate information that feedback from a supervisor alone. It is particularly useful when the supervisor is unable to observe the employees behaviour or performance throughout the year. Lower level employees also feel a greater sense of fairness and open communication when they are able to provide upward feedback about their boss’s performance.

However multisource feedback also creates challenges. Having several people review so many workers can be expensive and time consuming. With multiple opinions, the 360 degree process can also produce ambiguous and conflicting feedback, so employees may require guidance to interpret the results. A third concern is that peers may provide inflated rather than accurate feedback to avoid conflicts over the forthcoming year. A final concern is that critical feedback from many people can create emotional reactions than if the critical judgment originates from just one person.

Choosing feedback sources:-

With so many sources of feedback – executive coaching, multisource feedback, executive dashboards, customer surveys, equipment gauges, nonverbal communication from your boss, and so on-which one works best under which conditions? The preferred feedback source depends on the purpose of the information. To learn about their progress toward goal accomplishment, employees usually prefer non-social feedback sources, such as computer printouts or feedback directly from the job. This is because information from the non-social sources is considered more accurate than information from social sources. Corrective feedback from non-social sources is also less damaging to self esteem. This is probably just as well because social sources tend to delay negative information, leave some of it out, and distort the bad news in a positive way. When employees want to improve their self image they seek out positive feedback from social sources. It feels better to have co-workers say that you are performing the job well than to discover this from a computer printout.

19