motivation theory
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Motivation Theory. 2.5 Business and Management. Motivation Theorists. In the past most management was about deciding how to get the job done most efficiently Nowadays managing people (human resources) is much more complex. People, need to be motivated to their job well - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Motivation Theory2.5 Business and Management
Motivation TheoristsIn the past most management was about
deciding how to get the job done most efficiently
Nowadays managing people (human resources) is much more complex. People, need to be motivated to their job well
a well-motivated workforce is considered a productive workforce
What makes them want to do a good job?. Theorists have studied this problem for a long time. These theorists are called motivation theorists.
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Needs
Who are the motivational theorists I must study?
Theory type TheoristContent theory Taylor
MaslowMcGregorHerzbergMayo McClelland
Process theory (expectancy) VroomProcess theory (equity) Adams
Content TheoryContent theories seek to explain the specific
factors that actually motivate people
WHAT motivates people?
Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) - Scientific Management
After years of various experiments to determine optimal work methods, Taylor proposed the following four methods of scientific management…
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT1. Methods should all be based on scientific study2. Scientifically select, train and develop each worker rather than
letting them “train themselves” passively – each worker should be adequately suited for the job (abilities, mind-set, etc.)
3. Monitor worker performance and provide instructions and supervision
4. Allocate the work between managers and workers so that the managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks efficiently.
Taylor’s principles of scientific management assumed that employees are primarily motivated by money.He believed that higher productivity could be accomplished by setting output and efficiency targets related to pay.
Taylor (continued)Positives and influence Taylor’s principles applied widely in factories,
increasing productivity up to 3X is some cases Henry Ford enthusiastically embraced Taylor’s ideas in
his automobile factories Families even began adopting a scientific approach to
planning household duties
Criticisms Industrial work became even more monotonous Very little core values such as autonomy, feedback,
variety, professional growth, etc. “Taylorism” began to be rejected by workers,
particularly the introduction of stopwatches – considered dehumanising
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) - Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow - hierarchyPeople aim to meet basic needs but also seek
to meet successively higher needsHuman actions directed towards goal
attainment (note that some actions could meet multiple needs or steps on the pyramid, such as going to eat in a restaurant with colleagues)
The four lower levels of the pyramid are considered physiological needs, while the top level is considered growth needs
The lower level needs must be satisfied before the higher level needs can influence behaviour
Maslow – Criticisms of the hierarchy Method – Maslow’s research was entirely qualitative
and subjective (looked at writings and biographies of 18 people)
His selections were subjective and almost entirely limited to white, highly educated males such as Aldous Huxley, Thomas Jefferson, Einstein, Lincoln, etc.
Very difficult to judge whether a need has been “met” adequately or not. How does one measure this? Difficult to do empirically.
If someone has lived in a life of poverty, does that mean he or she has not been “self-actualised?” (e.g. Rembrandt, van Gogh)
What about people risking their own safety for the rescue/benefit of others?
Douglas McGregor McGregor - Theory X and Theory Y (1960) represent the different
assumptions managers have about employees These beliefs directly influence their management style (therefore
not technically motivational theory)
Managers – X and Y Theory X Managers (MacGregor) are those who
believe that people are mainly motivated by material rewards and discipline – increases in pay, promotion, fringe benefits balanced by penalties for poor performance.
Theory Y Managers And there are those who believe that people are motivated by factors such as job satisfaction, the pursuit of excellence and the approval of their peers. McGregor’s ideas influenced by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, 1960
McGregor felt that managers ought to adopt a Theory Y approach
Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000)
Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s research focused on
sociological and psychological factors of work (composed primarily of interviews with accountants and engineers)
His research resulted in two categories of factors affecting levels of motivation in the workforce, Hygiene Factors and Motivators
Herzberg (continued)
Hygiene Factors: these cause job satisfaction if they below a level considered as being acceptable by the workforce. Hygiene factors such as pay increases do NOT motivate (in the long term), because workers come to expect them. The real motivating factors are…
Motivators: these factors (achievement, recognition, advancement, etc.) lead to psychological growth and increased worker satisfaction and should be the focus of businesses. Herzberg identified three key areas of motivation…
1. Job enlargement - giving workers more variety to make the work more interesting2. Job enrichment - Give workers more complex and challenging tasks3. Job empowerment - Delegate decision making to boost morale
Herzberg felt that the work itself could be rewarding, that workers were motivated by responsibility for their work
Two-Factor theory criticismdoes not apply to many
occupations - especially low-end, low-skilled
Some employees may not WANT enriched jobs with extra responsibility
Teamworking was not part of his research
Professor Elton Mayo (1880-1949)The Hawthorne Experiments – Western Electric
Company (Chicago, U.S.A.)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
W7RHjwmVGhs
The Hawthorne ExperimentsResults? The lighting and other changes had no
impact on the productivity of the workers
Mayo concluded that productivity COULD be improved by…
Better communication between managers and workers (workers were consulted over the experiments and gave feedback)
Greater manager involvement in employees working lives (Hawthorne workers responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving)
Working in groups or teams. ( Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly work in teams)
Professor Elton Mayo (1880-1949)Believed workers concerned with more
than money – desire for fulfillment of social (something that Taylor ignored).
Introduced the Human Relation School Managers took more of an interest in
the workers, treating them as people who have worthwhile opinions
Realised that workers enjoy interacting together – the workplace was a social system
Hawthorne Effect
David McClelland (1917-1998) – Theory of Needs
McClelland identified 3 key needs that must be satisfied to keep workers motivated and morale high
Employers should identify which of the needs are most influential for each individual, though all will be present
This information will enable employers to make the best placement for positions and tasks
Need for AchievementPeople are inspired by the need to
complete tasks successfullyThey like responsibility, but don’t
like being frustrated by failureFrom this such people need to be
given achievable but challenging tasks
These people reflect on performance to identify ways of improving
Need for AffiliationThese are the people who like a
good social and communal feel. They enjoy team work and group
work. favours collaboration over
competition
Need for PowerThese people like to influence others.
There are two types powerpersonal power, which comes from
experience and confidence. They want to pass on their experience to others.
Institutional power comes from position within the organisation. They use their authority to challenge staff to work for the corporate objectives
“Power” people enjoy status and recognition
Implications – How can employers use this information?
Meet the needs of employees – design the workplace to meet these needs
Pay enough so that basic needs can be met
Ask employees what their needs areInvolve and empower employees and
facilitate a team dynamic where appropriate
Don’t assume that what is motivating to one employee is motivating to another
Process TheoryExamine why people behave in a
certain way and how motivation can be maintained and stimulated
Two important theorists…Victor Vroom – Expectancy
TheoryJohn Stacey Adams – Equity
Theory
Victor Vroom (1932-Present) – EXPECTANCY THEORY Currently a professor of Business at Yale
behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
an employee's performance is based on factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities
although individuals have different goals, all can be motivated if they believe that…
Process TheoriesVroom: Expectancy Theory (cont.)
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance – “my contribution and effort matter”
Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward
The reward will satisfy an important need
The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile
Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes [rewards].
Expectancy means employees have different expectations and levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing. Managers must find out and try to develop.
Instrumentality is the perception of employees as to whether they will actually get what they desire even if it has been promised by a manager.
Process TheoriesJohn Stacey Adams: Equity Theory
Process TheoriesJohn Stacey Adams: Equity Theory fair balance between an employee's inputs (hard
work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm, and so on) and an employee's outputs (salary, benefits, intangibles such as recognition and so on)
finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and productive relationship is achieved – Result? contented, motivated employees.
Inequality exists if those who give more effort are paid a lower salary
These workers will reduce their efforts (input) If this continues workers will become disgruntled
– may lead to absenteeism
Process TheoriesJohn Stacey Adams: Equity Theory
Inputs typically include:
EffortLoyalty
Hard workCommitment
Skill Ability
Adaptability FlexibilityTolerance
DeterminationEnthusiasm
Trust in superiors Support of colleagues
Personal sacrifice
Outputs typically include:
Financial rewards (such as salary, benefits, perks)
Intangibles RecognitionReputationResponsibilitySense of achievementPraiseStimulusSense of advancement/growthJob security
Process TheoriesJohn Stacey Adams: Equity Theory
Problems and Criticisms
If the balance lies too far in favor of the employer, some employees may work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on their own, by asking for more compensation or recognition. Others will be demotivated, and still others will seek alternative employment.
Demographic an psychological variables affect people’s perceptions of fairness
If an employee doesn’t feel the compensation as a whole is fair, then the model is not applicable, even if there IS equal compensation
People might be misinformed about inputs and outputs