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MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries

December 2006

CINOP, partner in the MoVE-iT consortium

COLOFON

MoVE-iT: A comparative study on mobility

in IVET in 33 European countries

Authors CINOP:

Jittie Brandsma

Ceciel Bruin-Mosch

Supportive actions:

Annemiek Cox

Jenny van IJzendoorn

Project leader CINOP

Jannie Roemeling

CINOP, Centre for Innovation of Education and Training

in the Netherlands

P.O. Box 1585

5200 BP ‘s-Hertogenbosch

The Netherlands

Contact: [email protected]

Project leader PwC

Reinout van Brakel

P.O. Box 30715

2500 GS Den Haag

Contact: [email protected]

This CINOP survey is part of the larger MoVE-iT study, commissioned by the European Commission, DG Education and Culture. The MoVE-iT study is executed by a consortium of PricewaterhouseCoopers (project coordinator), CINOP and EVTA.

Foreword

The study on which we report here, has been part of the larger MoVE-iT project

that had the obstacles for transnational mobility in the context of initial vocational

education and training (IVET) as its core theme. Various research activities have

been undertaken in this project to realise its objectives, such as, a survey among

VET institutions, a survey among individual IVET participants, four sectoral studies

and the survey in 33 countries of which the results are presented in this report.

The study presented here was done in 2006 and covered 33 European countries:

the 25 Member States, the 3 EEA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway), 2

pre-accession countries (Bulgaria and Romania) and 2 candidate countries (Croatia

and Turkey). The study concerned on the one hand desk research, describing the

IVET systems in each of these countries. Next to this, a survey was carried out with

the aim to get a state-of-the-art overview of transnational mobility practices and

policies in initial vocational education and training in each of the participating

countries.

Collecting all the data we needed from 33 countries would not have been possible

without the help of many people. We want to express our thanks to them and let

them know how valuable their contribution has been in realising this study. First of

all our thanks to those ReferNet and Leonardo da Vinci contact persons and other

experts that have dedicated their time to filling out our questionnaire. Secondly, we

want to thank all those people who have contributed their time in order to help our

correspondents in finding the right information and answering their questions.

We would also like to thank our CINOP colleagues Jenny van IJzendoorn and

Annemiek Cox for their support during this study. Without their work in contacting

people in the various countries and monitoring the whole process of data

collection, we might easily have lost track.

Finally, we would like to thank our colleagues in the project team

(PricewaterhouseCoopers, CINOP, EVTA, Techne and DG Education and Culture

and the Steering Committee) for their valuable comments throughout the study,

which helped to improve its quality.

Synthesisreport

1

Content Synthesis report

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Transnational mobility in initial vocational education and training in 33 countries. . . . . 10

4 Stimulating mobility: policies and programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Stakeholders in IVET transnational mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6 Benefits of transnational mobility in IVET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

7 Obstacles to mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

8 Conclusions and reflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2 MoVE-iT Synthesis report

1 Introduction

The MoVE-iT project is a study into the obstacles for transnational mobility in the

context of initial vocational education and training (IVET). The MoVE-iT project tries

to get a better understanding of the obstacles for transnational mobility as well as

of how these obstacles can be overcome or solved. The more concrete objectives

of this project are:

� To foster the development of transnational mobility in IVET -leading to

qualifications- as an integral element of vocational training pathways at

European level.

� To identify all the obstacles to such development and to implement concrete

solutions for overcoming them.

� To analyse existing vocational training systems in Europe and existing mobility

practices in order to identify the obstacles to the more general uptake at

European level of transnational mobility, leading to qualifications as an integral

element of vocational training pathways and culminating in concrete proposals

for solutions to the obstacles identified.

To achieve these objectives, several studies and consultations have taken place as

part of the MoVE-iT project. The study of which the results are presented in this

report, formed one of these various activities undertaken in the project. This study

concerned, on the one hand, a description of the national IVET systems in the 33

countries included in the study1 and on the other hand, data collection by means of

a questionnaire, which was sent to the ReferNet representatives for each of these

countries or to the National Leonardo da Vinci Agencies in the case the country in

question did not (yet) dispose of a ReferNet coordinator/representative. The main

objectives of this part of the MoVE-iT study were:

� To analyse the basic features of separate IVET systems (e.g.:

strength/development of the IVET system as part of the upper secondary

education system; involvement of different stakeholders in developing IVET

policies and decision making; centralisation/decentralisation of policy making

processes) as a background for the interpretation of the data obtained through

the questionnaire and in order to be able to analyse the extent to which

systemic features of IVET influence the actual uptake of transnational mobility in

IVET in different countries.

� To provide a state-of-the-art overview of present IVET mobility practices,

including policies and programmes in 33 countries. This in particular concerns

national and/or regional or sectoral policies and programmes for stimulating

mobility, given that relatively little is know about such policies and programmes

(at least not from a comparative point of view) and about their impact. Such

policies and programmes might be highly complementary to European policies

and programmes.

3MoVE-iT Synthesis report

1 This concerns: 25 EU-Member States, 3 EEA countries (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein), 2 pre-accession countries (Bulgaria and Romania), 2candidate countries (Croatia and Turkey) and Switzerland.

� To identify the obstacles that are presently experienced with regard to IVET

transnantional mobility and the way in which those involved in this field try to

overcome these obstacles.

� To get a better understanding of the stakeholders that are involved in IVET

transnational mobility in different countries, the ways in which they are involved

and the benefits that (some of these) stakeholders might gain from transnational

mobility in IVET.

The structure of this report is as follows. Chapter 2 outlines the methodology applied

in this part of the MoVE-iT study. Chapter 3 describes the present uptake of

transnational mobility in IVET. In chapter 4, an overview is given of the national

policies and programmes to enhance IVET transnational mobility. In chapter 5 the

involvement of different types of stakeholders in IVET transnational mobility is

described and in chapter 6 the benefits some of these stakeholders could gain from

IVET transnational mobility. Chapter 7 describes the obstacles for IVET transnational

mobility and the way in which different countries try to handle these obstacles. In the

last chapter, overall conclusions and general reflections are presented.

Though part of the larger MoVE-iT project, this report presents the results of this

particular study into mobility in IVET in 33 countries. The study and the report had

a specific and concise focus within the context of the larger project; the report can

therefore be read independently from the other project outputs. This report,

however, is not the final report of the whole MoVE-iT project. It is a synthesis of the

main findings of this particular study and has been written as such.

Apart from this synthesis report, which presents the main findings of the study into

mobility in IVET in 33 countries, the study has also resulted in 33 country reports,

each outlining the main features of the IVET system in these countries and the

country specific information on IVET mobility obtained through the survey. Both the

synthesis report and the country reports can serve as a starting point for the

further development of policies and strategies on a national level to stimulate

mobility in IVET. Early November 2006 the results of the study have been

discussed with EUNEC (the European Network of Education Councils, see the

participants list in Annex II) ), which has resulted in a report and statements2 of the

conference that have been presented to the EC and that could form input for future

discussions on mobility of IVET participants in Europe. At the same time EUNEC

members have committed themselves to communicating these statements with

national and/or regional authorities within their own countries, thus putting mobility

in IVET on their policy agendas as well.


2 EUNEC Conference on MoVE-iT. A study on mobility obstacles in initial vocational education and training. Report of the EUNEC conference,Brussels, 9-10 November 2006. Brussels: EUNEC Secretariat.

This study is the first attempt to collect data on a truly European level with regard

to mobility in IVET in 33 countries. We have not only attempted to collect

quantitative data on actual numbers of participants involved in transnational

mobility in IVET (European programmes, but more particular beyond these

programmes), but also more qualitative data on IVET mobility policies and

programmes in each of the 33 countries involved, the stakeholders involved in this

area, and the benefits of as well as the obstacles to mobility in IVET. In

combination with an analysis of the IVET systems in each of the 33 countries, this

is the first attempt to provide a comprehensive insight into the reality of IVET

mobility and how this might be shaped by policies, strategies, stakeholder

involvement and influences.


2 Methodology

As said, this part of the MoVE-iT project concerned, on the one hand, a description

of the national IVET systems in the 33 countries included in the study and on the

other hand, data collection by means of a questionnaire, which was sent to the

ReferNet representatives for each of these countries or to the National Leonardo

da Vinci Agencies in the case the country in question did not (yet) dispose of a

ReferNet coordinator/representative.

For the analysis of the national IVET systems use has been made from various

(existing) sources such as:

� CEDEFOP monographs of VET systems as far as they were available for the

countries included in the study and were of a more or less recent date

(preferably not older than 2002);

� The descriptions of national educational systems included in the Eurydice data

base;

� System description or annotations provided by the European Training

Foundation (ETF) for the new member states, the accession countries and the

candidate countries;

� Thematic overviews and/or educational policy analyses provided by the OECD

(again, as far as available and of more or less recent date);

� Additional background and statistical information through websites of e.g.

national Ministries of Education, national Ministries of Labour and Social Affairs,

Federal Agencies, National Statistical Offices, etc.

On the basis of this document analysis, country reports have been developed for

all 33 countries included in the study, which encompass also a summary of the

results of the questionnaire for each of the countries concerned.

The questionnaire (see Annex III) sent out to either the ReferNet representatives or

the National Leonardo da Vinci Agencies, concerned not only questions about

obstacles experienced with regard to transnational mobility in IVET and the way in

which they had been solved, but also addressed issues of national and regional or

sectoral policies and programmes in IVET, the stakeholders involved in policy

making, decision making on and implementation of such policies and programmes,

the perceived benefits of transnational mobility for different groups of potential

beneficiaries and the developments in transnational mobility in IVET in terms of

numbers of participants (both outgoing and incoming).


The reason for primarily choosing for the ReferNet representatives as the contact

point for getting the questionnaire filled out, is that ReferNet establishes in principle

the main European network (for CEDEFOP) for collecting data on developments in

national VET systems and policies and that ReferNet in itself represents a network

in each of the countries where it is operational, not only including the central

national ReferNet staff, but also experts from Ministries involved in VET policy

making and other relevant bodies in the VET field. Given the qualitative and

descriptive nature of the questions, it was considered that the ReferNet staff could

either answer the questions on the basis of their own expertise with regard to IVET

or would be in the position to easily gather this information through consulting

other members of the national ReferNet network. As said, for countries where a

ReferNet network was not (yet) in place, the questionnaire was sent out to the

National Leonardo da Vinci Agencies or other experts.

The process of data collection has taken place through the following phases:

� A general announcement of the upcoming survey to the ReferNet coordinators

or NA Leonardo da Vinci contact persons, followed up by a telephone call from

members of the CINOP research team further explaining the issues of the

survey and discussing practicalities for the completion of the survey (time lines,

support structures);

� Sending out the actual questionnaire to each of the contact persons (second

half of April 2006);

� Several rounds of telephone and e-mail support (answering specific questions

for clarification) as well as several reminders to get in the data;

� Specific actions in the form of finding alternative experts for countries for which

no response had been obtained by September 2006.

In practice, the process of data collection has proved much more labour intensive

and time consuming then expected. In some countries, it proved very difficult to

find the right persons or institutions for filling out the questionnaire, while in other

countries it proved to be very difficult to find the relevant information for filling out

the questionnaire, given that little or no data were available. Where finding the right

persons or institutions is concerned, our assumptions with regard to ReferNet (and

its national network) did not always prove to be correct. ReferNet did not always

present the national expertise network that it should be.

Nevertheless, in nearly all countries included in the study various experts and

organisations have contributed to the completion of the questionnaire. In

complete, 161 experts and organisations have been involved in the data collection

throughout the 33 participating countries, of which about half are experts from the

world of VET and about a half are experts from the world of work (see annex 1).


For nearly all questions, respondents were encouraged to indicate whether

answers provided were based on existing ‘evidence’ (policy documents, research

reports or statistics) or on consulting relevant experts (e.g.: experts within

Ministries, employers organisations, trade unions, researchers who had done

earlier work in this particular field). In the case respondents consulted other

experts, they were asked to provide details concerning whom they consulted as

well as the position and affiliation of these experts. We hoped to ensure thus that

the data gathered would have a certain robustness, would be comparable to a

certain extent and not solely based on the opinions of one particular individual that

was completing the questionnaire. We considered this important, especially in the

case of questions for which it could be expected that their would be hardly any

‘strong’ research or evaluation-based evidence (e.g. the questions on the

involvement of stakeholders and on benefits of IVET transnational mobility

experienced by certain stakeholders).

Notwithstanding the different ‘quality guarding measures’ built into the

questionnaire, it has to be concluded that the data provided in the next chapters

have to be interpreted with the necessary caution. Even though we have attempted

to ensure as good a data quality as possible, data are often not very robust. Also,

data are quite often based on consultations or even estimations, though of

well-informed people. The main reason for this is that systematic research into

IVET transnational mobility is lacking; not only at a European level but also at the

national level.

The fact that data are often not based on empirical research (and certainly not on

comparative research across European countries), but on estimations, has also

consequences for the comparability of the data. In that sense, this survey was the

first attempt to undertake an European-wide comparative study into IVET

transnational mobility. Nevertheless, we have to acknowledge that the

comparability of the data collected is limited, due to the limited robustness of the

data, but also due to the fact that in providing answers, countries sometimes

appear to have dealt differently with the issue of what has been included as IVET

transnational mobility. For instance, only few countries included Interreg projects

as a source for stimulating transnational mobility, whereas other countries included

the Youth programme, which –strictly spoken- does not deal with either VET or

mobility in VET. Only few countries included programmes at a regional level that

aim at developing and stimulating IVET transnational mobility. There are indications

that more such programmes exist in different countries. However, the big problem

is that data with regard to this type of programmes and the numbers of IVET

students that participate in them are not available and not collected systematically

at a national level. This also holds for mobility, which is stimulated by sectoral or

branch organisations and mobility that takes place on individual initiative. The lack

of good quality data with regard to IVET transnational mobility has overall been the

main hindrance for performing this part of the MoVE-iT study.


Definitions For a good understanding of the scope and context of this study, it is necessary to

provide definitions of some of the key concepts, in particular ‘IVET participants’

and ‘mobility’. Concerning the latter concept a distinction has been made between

‘outgoing’ and ‘incoming mobility’.

‘IVET participants’ have been defined as those enrolled in vocational education

and training programmes at upper secondary level (in terms of the International

Standard Classification of Education, ISCED level 3). This is irrespective of whether

participants are enrolled in school-based vocational education or in work-based or

alternance pathways. On the one hand, this clearly delineates IVET from vocational

programmes in higher education (tertiary level); the MoVE-iT study was clearly

intended to focus on stimulating mobility in initial vocational education and training

and not higher education, which has its own mobility fostering programme. On the

other hand, by focusing on IVET participants, in principal all learners enrolled in

IVET are included in the study and not only a particular group, e.g. apprentices.

This is of particular importance, given that apprenticeship type IVET is highly

underdeveloped, or even hardly existent in most of the 33 countries included in the

study (see also next chapter). Though this definition of IVET participants does not

provide age boundaries, most of those enrolled in IVET as included in the

statistics, will be in the age range of 16 (typical age of transition from lower to

upper secondary) to 21 years old.

‘Outgoing mobility’ has been defined in terms of IVET participants taking up a work

placement abroad, that means a work placement in another country then the one

where IVET participants live and are enrolled in VET.

‘Incoming mobility’ has been defined in terms of IVET participants from other

countries taking up a work placement in the country for which the questionnaire

was filled out.


3 Transnational mobility in initial vocationaleducation and training in 33 countries

Introduction

Although one of the core objectives of the MoVE-iT project is to get a better

understanding of the obstacles that are experienced with regard to transnational

mobility in IVET and -even more important- the solutions that have either been found

or are being proposed to overcome these obstacles, it is also important to get an

understanding of the actual situation with regard to and development in IVET

transnational mobility. A state-of-the-art overview is important for at least two

reasons. Firstly, because data that are available on a European level, concern only

the European programmes and not the bi-lateral, national, regional or sectoral

initiatives that do exist in different countries, as became clear from the first stage of

the MoVE-iT project. Secondly, because such a state-of-the-art overview provides

an important context for the interpretation of the data that have been collected. This

does not only hold for the data collected through the Refernet survey (on which we

report here), but also for the data collected in other parts of the study.

An important issue to keep in mind when presenting figures with regard to IVET

transnational mobility, is the difference between educational systems in the 33

countries included in the study. As already outlined in the introduction, some

hypothetical thoughts were formulated concerning the way in which systemic

characteristics might influence the reality of IVET transnational mobility. One of the

basic characteristics appears to be the extent to which IVET as part of the upper

secondary education system is developed. On the basis of the so-called

‘Maastricht study’3, countries can be grouped according to two criteria:

� % of all upper secondary students enrolled in a vocational programme;

� the extent to which IVET is provided as school-based or a work-based pathway.

Concerning the first criterion, it is clear that in some countries VET is rather

important in the sense that a rather large share of young people that are enrolled in

upper secondary education (ISCED level 3) follow a track in VET (including

pre-vocational education), whereas in other countries only few youngsters enrol in

a VET track. Classifying European countries according to the proportion of young

people that are enrolled in VET at the upper secondary education level provides

the following picture:

� Low participation (less than 30% of all students enrolled in upper secondary

education): Cyprus, Lithuania, Portugal, Ireland;

� Medium participation (30-50% of all students enrolled in upper secondary

education): Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Malta, Spain, Latvia, Estonia, Iceland,

Sweden;


3 ‘Achieving the Lisbon goals: the contribution of VET’ (2004), European Commission

� High participation (more than 50% of all students enrolled in upper secondary

education): Italy, Poland, Romania, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France,

Germany, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Luxemburg, Denmark, Finland,

Netherlands, Norway, UK4.

The second criterion actually refers to the issue of what part of VET can be

characterised as being based on an apprenticeship model. Classifying countries

according to this dimension, the following picture emerges:

� Pre-dominantly work-based: Germany, Austria;

� Mixed-system (combining school-based and work-based learning): Denmark,

Netherlands, UK;

� Pre-dominantly school-based: all other countries including the new member

states (EU10) (important is to note here that the school-based VET provided in

Ireland, and Italy, is mainly pre-vocational education).

If we look more specifically at mobility, there is one attempt to classify countries on

the attribute of the importance of transnational placements within IVET. Kristensen5

(2004) proposes in his study on transnational placements in which 17 European

countries were involved, to cluster these countries in 4 groups depending on the

importance attributed to placements abroad within the VET system.

� First cluster: Placements abroad are integrated into the VET-system (or parts of

it), and an important issue in VET-policies and discussions. This group

comprises Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Germany.

� Second cluster: Placements abroad are an important issue in discussions on

VET-policies, but have not been integrated into the VET-system to any larger

extent (yet). This group comprises Austria, Finland, and France.

� Third cluster: Placements abroad are an issue in national discussions on

VET-policies, but not an important one. No national mobility programmes or

initiatives in the context of VET. This group comprises Norway, Greece, Ireland,

Luxembourg, Iceland, and Belgium.

� Fourth cluster: Placements abroad are largely absent as an issue from national

discussions on VET-policy, and any impetus comes from European politics and

programmes. This group comprises the UK, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.

Our study has collected data (both through desk research and through the

questionnaire) in order to see to what extent these classifications can be validated

and extended to the 33 countries included.


4 Croatia was at the time the Maastricht study was undertaken not yet a candidate country. Switzerland is not included in the Maastricht study sinceit is neither EU member, nor an EFTA country or a pre-accession or candidate country. We included Switzerland in this study, because it doesparticipate in Leonardo under own funding. Liechtenstein and Turkey were not included in this classification, due to a lack of statistical data.

5 Søren Kristensen (2004). Learning by leaving. Placements abroad as a pedagogical tool in the context of vocational education and training

Participation in transnational mobility

Total numbers of participantsin IVET transnational mobility

One of the issues addressed in the questionnaire concerned the total number of

(IVET) participants in transnational mobility over the last four years. As said,

participation numbers tend to be known for European programmes, but until now,

little has been known about participation in other national, regional or sectoral

programmes. Therefore countries were asked to provide participation numbers for

each of the different mobility programmes in place in their country. Table 3.1

provides an overview of the total number of participants in IVET mobility, whereas

table 3.2 gives a further breakdown of mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci

programme and mobility under other programmes6. It is doubtful whether these

figures provide the complete picture of transnational mobility in IVET. Various

countries report more programmes for stimulating transnational mobility in IVET

being in place, then for which they report participation numbers. Moreover there

are clear indications that sectoral programmes are run in some European

countries7. It has been attempted to get data on participation figures through

sectoral and employer organisations, however, such organisations could not

provide this data, due to a lack of monitoring.

Absolute participation numbers will of course be related to both the size of the

country (in terms of population) and to the (relative) size of the IVET system. From

that perspective, absolute participation numbers tell relatively little in comparing

countries. However, these time series are informative from a different point of view.

It shows the fluctuations (increase/decrease/stagnation) in participation numbers

for each of the countries (as far as data are available). Remarkable in this sense, is

the development in participation rates in the new Member States that joined the

EU in 2004. With the exception of the three Baltic States, where the development

is more modest (and in Estonia even stagnating), there has been a considerable

increase in the numbers of IVET participants that went of on a transnational

placement in 2004 and 2005 in all the other new Member States. This is in

particular the case for the Czech Republic and Poland. The explanations these

countries provide themselves for the development in the uptake of transnational

mobility is:

� “The accession of the country to the EU, but also the increased capability of

promoting organisations to prepare and manage the mobility projects as well as

an increased awareness of transnational mobility” (Czech Republic);

� “Freedom of movement within the EU, the wish to test one’s skills and

capabilities, the opportunity to take up a paid job, and the initiative

(encouragement ) on the part of those who have already left the country and are

working/studying abroad” (Poland).


6 All figures are based on the answers provided in the ReferNet questionnaires, unless indicated otherwise. Data for participation numbers in mobilityunder the Leonardo da Vinci programme are based on the annual report of the National Agencies. Data for participation numbers in otherprogrammes are based on annual reporting (in the case of other European programmes) or available statistical and/or research programmes (in thecase of other national or bilateral programmes).

7 Countries like France and the Czech Republic report such programmes in their questionnaire, but could not provide participation figures. See alsothe four sectoral studies that have been undertaken as part of the MoVE-iT project.

Overall, most of the countries show a slight but steady increase in the participation

numbers during the period 2002-2005, though in some countries there seems to

be a stagnation in participation numbers or even a slight decline (as said, Estonia,

but also Sweden, Romania, Switzerland). However, given that data are sometimes

provisional or that part of the data (especially where non-EU programmes are

concerned) were not yet available, precaution is needed with drawing conclusions.

Moreover, Sweden, Romania and Switzerland themselves, do not (yet) interpret the

development in participation numbers as stagnation or decline.

In some countries the increase in participation numbers is relatively high in

comparison with other countries. This seems in particular the case for Germany,

where participation has doubled in four years, Italy, with a high but also rather

fluctuating participation, the Netherlands, with a sharp increase between 2004 and

2005, the UK, with a rapidly growing participation since 2003 and Turkey, where

participation in 2005 was over five times more than in 2004.

Germany explains the increase in the participation rate as a consequence of

growing demand among IVET students, the fruit of years of public relations

actions, a globalising economy, the fact that 10 new Member States joined the EU

(new destinations and neighbours) and the changes in its own legislation, with

which a transnational placement is now officially recognised as part of the initial

training (as long as training is the purpose of the placement). This new

‘Berufsbildungsgesetz’ was enacted in 2005.

Table 3.1: Total number of participants (IVET) in transnational mobility (past four years)

2002 2003 2004 2005

BE1 528 554 698 962

CZ 973 905 2096 2061

DK - - 1530 1825

DE 4129 6389 8023 8319

EE 91 82 79 74

EL2 483 382 - -

ES3 2211 2199 2184 2797

FR4 1598 - - -

IE 1799 2135 3047 4188

IT 7792 8187 7499 8555

CY 40 53 169 199

LV 156 137 212 257

LT 142 155 287 263


2002 2003 2004 2005

LU 59 78 127 145

HU 371 745 861 1159

MT - 22 6 120

NL 973 1236 1388 2589

AT - 575 1000 1333

PL 1799 1885 5120 5657

PT 866 1051 945 1342

SI 323 364 525 724

SK 483 483 961 1094

FI 3680 4570 4080 4480

SE - - 1680 1439

UK - 2817 3417 4555

IS 55 22 64 70

LI - - 11 18

NO 490 738 671 376

BG 229 250 545 722

RO 326 311 356 330

HR - - - -

TR - - 281 1572

CH 125 133 167 138

1 Figures for Belgium are based on the filled out questionnaire for the Flemish speaking community and on statistical data obtained

via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency for the French speaking community.

2 Figures for Greece are based on statistical data obtained via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci agency (only VET

students; data for 2004 and 2005 not available).

3 Figures for Spain are based on a statistical publication obtained via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency.

4 France indicated that it could not provide participation figures. Figures for 2002 are based on newsletters published on the

website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency. The estimation for 2006 (based on granted requests) is 2282 participants.


The fluctuations in the participation rates in Italy, can apparently mainly be

contributed to the fluctuation in the participation in the Youth programme.

According to Italy, young people aged over 208 did not always find the proposed

activities stimulating and/or did not want to participate because of difficulties with

finding an appropriate place or because of negative experiences from other

students (e.g.: feeling isolated in rural areas). As indicated earlier, the Youth

programme does -strictly spoken- not deal with transnational mobility within the

IVET context. However, the participation figures in Leonardo transnational mobility

in Italy do also show a steady rise for Italy.

In the Netherlands the sharp increase in participation is mainly the result of

increased participation in Leonardo transnational mobility. Explanations that are

given are the following9:

� Budget increase for mobility in 2005;

� Consolidation of the programme, increased capacity of schools in managing

international placements;

� New possibility of larger cooperative projects of school networks.

The UK does not provide an explanation for the development in the participation

figures, but given that the figures provided concern only the participation in

Leonardo transnational mobility, it could well be that similar explanations as

provided by the Netherlands apply.

Turkey (in this case the Ministry of National Education that filled out the

questionnaire) explains the rapid growth in participation in transnational mobility as

follows: “Pupils in IVET are very eager to participate in the programme, successful

information programmes and government policies in order to increase the

attractiveness of vocational education.”

Transnational mobility in IVETunder the Leonardo da Vinciprogramme and under otherprogrammes

Table 3.2 gives an overview (for 2004 and 2005) of the total number of participants

in transnational mobility under respectively the Leonardo da Vinci programme and

under other programmes. This can be other European programmes (e.g. Socrates,

Interreg or Youth), but also national or bilateral programmes.

For 14 out of 33 countries we have figures concerning the total numbers of

participants in transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci Programme and

in mobility under other programmes.

In some of these countries, transnational mobility in IVET under other programmes

is substantially higher than the number of IVET students participating in

transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme. This is in particular

the case for Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland. In the case

of Italy and Ireland, the other programmes mainly concern other European

programmes (Socrates, Youth), though in Ireland some national programmes are

run as well.


8 Strictly spoken, this group partly falls outside the scope of our definition of IVET participants and might consist of students in higher education.

9 International mobility in education in the Netherlands in 2005. The eight annual mobility monitor commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Education,Culture and Science (CINOP, Nuffic, European Platform for Dutch Education).

In the case of Denmark, Finland and Sweden, the other programmes mainly concern

national programmes and the Nordic NordPlus Junior programme, in which the

Nordic countries participate. In the Danish questionnaire it is indicated that:

“After a couple of years with stable figures, mobility in IVET is increasing again. The

explanation is: good funding programmes, and more awareness for mobility due to

the government’s internationalisation and globalisation strategies”.

Finland is the only country that also provides data for the numbers of IVET

participants that go on an international placement through own funding.

In Switzerland, mobility outside Leonardo mainly takes place under other

(European) initiatives that are funded by the cantons and mobility funded by

companies (often operating on a transnational level).

Table 3.2: Total number of participants in IVET transnational mobility under Leonardo and under other programmes

2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci Other programmes Leonardo da Vinci Other programmes

BE 698 962

CZ 1,419 677 1,567 494

DK 330 1074 513 1393

DE 5,854 2,274 6,255 2,118

EE 79 74

EL NA NA

ES 2,184 2,797

FR NA NA

IE 436 2,611 538 3,650

IT 2,144 5,355 2,733 5,822

CY 169 199

LV 212 257

LT 287 263

LU 127 145

HU 861 NA 850 309

MT 6 120

NL 1,175 213 2,464 125

AT 942 58 1277 56

PL 5120 5657


2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci Other programmes Leonardo da Vinci Other programmes

PT 945 1342

SI 525 724

SK 886 75 1,012 74

FI 632 3448 600 3880

SE 480 1,200 500 939

UK 3,417 4,555

IS 64 70

LI 11 18

NO 485 186 260 116

BG 545 722

RO 356 330

HR - -

TR 261 20 1337 235

CH 35 132 38 100

In the other countries, for which we have mobility figures outside the Leonardo

programme, the total numbers participating in mobility under other programmes

are more modest. This is the case for Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany,

Hungary, the Netherlands, the Slovak Republic, Norway and Turkey.

In Austria and the Czech Republic these other programmes concern both other

European programmes (Socrates, Interreg) as well as national, regional or sectoral

programmes. In both countries the total number of IVET participants going on a

transnational placement under the latter type of programmes is very modest and

declining. In Austria, for instance, the proportion of all IVET participants going on a

transnational placement under such national, regional or sectoral initiatives

dropped from 9% in 2004 to 3.2% in 2005. In the Czech Republic the proportion

was 0.2% for 2004 and 0.1% for 2005.

In Germany, though total numbers participating in mobility under the Leonardo

programme outweigh the total numbers participating under other mobility

programmes, the participation numbers under the latter programmes are quite

substantial. In this case it mainly concerns national (that is federal) and bilateral

exchange programmes (e.g. with the Netherlands).


Other programmes under which IVET participants go on a transnational placement

are:

� Hungary: national programme;

� Netherlands: bilateral programme;

� Slovak Republic Socrates and sectoral programmes (on a European level);

� Norway: national and Nordic programmes;

� Turkey: national programme (to stimulate IVET).

Overall, it can be stated that the extent to which countries stimulate transnational

mobility in IVET through other programmes, in particular national, bilateral or other

programmes, does increase the absolute numbers of participants in IVET

transnational mobility. In some countries, mobility under those other programmes

outweighs mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme, while in other

countries the reverse is the case.

Transnational placementsaccording to gender, sector ofeconomic activity andduration of the placement.

In the questionnaire respondents were asked to provide a further breakdown of the

total number of participants in IVET transnational mobility according to gender,

sector of economic activity and duration of the placement. These are breakdowns

that have to be provided for the annual reporting for the Leonardo da Vinci

programme (for the categorisation of sector and duration of placement, the

clustering as used in the Leonardo reports has therefore been applied).

It has appeared difficult to obtain more detailed data with regard to the gender of

IVET participants in transnational mobility. No information has been obtained from

the French speaking community in Belgium, from Denmark, Greece, Spain, France,

Ireland, Portugal, Slovenia, the UK and Liechtenstein.

For those countries that did provide a breakdown of the numbers according to

gender, figures mainly concern mobility under the Leonardo programme.

Therefore, the total numbers as provided in table 3.3, can differ from the numbers

in table 3.1.

In some countries figures for 2004 and/or 2005 are lacking, since the breakdowns

for gender (under the Leonardo programme) are not yet available.


Table 3.3: Total numbers in transnational mobility according to gender

BE1 CZ DK DE2 EE EL ES FR IE IT3 CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT SI

2002:- Male- Female

97110

313391

- 1,7602,369

5041

- - - - 2,1342,858

2119

8769

8458

3722

158213

- 360429

- 514645

- -

2003:- Male- Female

81130

296413

- 2,1582,666

4834

- - - - 2,1073,041

2528

6963

6887

4830

323422

168

514540

233285

615661

- -

2004:- Male- Female

70180

663754

- - 3544

- - - - - 9673

12488

173114

7354

412449

66

541634

396546

- - -

2005:- Male- Female

- 733834

- - 3274

- - - - - NANA

16493

112151

4838

391291

16080

- 447830

- - -

SK FI SE4 UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR CH

2002:- Male- Female

230176

181304

150278

- 2926

- 298192

117112

171155

- - 612

2003:- Male- Female

173249

234431

231285

- 712

- 370368

17684

149162

- - 720

2004:- Male- Female

- --

4971

- - - 336323

305240

167189

- 21150

230

2005:- Male- Female

589423

5401400

5070

- - - 175192

420302

162168

- 907430

1024

1 Data for Belgium only concern the Flemish speaking community.

2 For Germany, breakdowns according to gender for some of the larger national programmes are not available. Figures for 2002

and 2003 concern the breakdown for the Leonardo programme and some smaller bilateral programmes. A breakdown according

to gender for the Leonardo programme for 2004 and 2005 is not yet available.

3 Data for Italy concern both the Leonardo programme and the Youth programme for 2002 and 2003. Data for 2004 and 2005 are

not yet available.

4 The data for Sweden for 2002 and 2003 concern mobility under the Leonardo programme (not yet available for 2004 and 2005).

The data for 2004 and 2005 concern a smaller national programme (for cooperation with developing countries).

As was the case for the gender of participants in IVET transnational mobility, data

concerning a breakdown for the sector in which these transnational placements

are implemented, also appeared difficult to obtain. As far as data have been

provided, it mainly covers the placements under the Leonardo da Vinci

programme.

Data could not be obtained for the French speaking community in Belgium, for

Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Portugal, Slovenia, the United

Kingdom, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Turkey.

For part of the other countries a breakdown according to sector was not yet

available for 2004 and/or 2005.


Table 3.4: Total numbers in IVET transnational mobility according to sector

BE1 CZ DK DE EE EL ES FR IE IT2 CY LV3 LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT SI

2002:- Agriculture- Technique- Economics- Health & Welfare

0379367

132136304132

- - 19858

- - - - --

877-

010300

49--

12664816

1512300

9812406

- 3457918

- 1411283156

- -

2003- Agriculture- Technique- Economcis- Health & Welfare

0419377

50204347108

- - 112204

- - - - --

919-

00

530

10--6

057908

26132415

131121830

02200

4047

240226

4618723352

217834

60

- -


024

118118

139485639154

- - 26700

- - - - - 00

1690

244-8

121669415

4023568

51106180

0

0600

- 103349349141

- - -


- 156501752158

- - 29400

16

- - - - - 00

1990

481126

2872

12538

37354924

20712751318

20652312

- 192306536243

- - -

SK FI4 SE UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR CH


491639373

501117375

- - - - - 30129700

- - - 10

152


7814111755

41107117106

- - - - - 261367612

144454

199

- - 12

240


108356203167

353601376647

- - - 11---

- 14624014613

115060

235

- - 08

231


118237293121

148360237148

- - - ---

18

- 67424231

0

1125248

118

- - 14

290

1 Data for Belgium only concern the Flemish speaking community.

2 Italy only indicated in the questionnaire that 23% of the placements under the Leonardo programme concerns the economical

sector (secretarial, trade, commerce, tourism, etc.). Further figure have not been provided.

3 Figures for Latvia are very partial and cover only a small proportion of all IVET participants on a transnational placement (under

the Leonardo da Vinci programme).

4 Finland reports a breach in the data trend, due to a change in data collection between 2003 and 2004. The figures for 2002 and

2003 concern only placements under the Leonardo programme. The figures for 2004 and 2005 encompass both placements

under the Leonardo programme and other (national) programmes.


The last breakdown of the mobility figures concerns the duration of the

placements. Again, it has not been possible to obtain data for all countries. Data

are missing for the French speaking community in Belgium, Greece, France,

Ireland, Portugal, Slovenia, and Liechtenstein.

For the countries that did provide data on the duration of placements, figures

mainly concern placements under the Leonardo programme (with the exception of

Germany and Finland).

Overall, it can be concluded that there is an emphasis on short placements (less

than 6 weeks or 6 to 12 weeks), though there are differences between countries.

The Czech Republic, for instance, shows a steady growth in longer placements (3

to 6 months or even more than 6 months). In Germany longer placements also

seem to gain importance, which is mainly an effect of particular national or bilateral

programmes (German data for 2004 and 2005 do not include placements under

the Leonardo programme). A similar growth in longer placements can be seen in

Austria, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Finland.

In Denmark long placements (even of over 1 year) are in particular stimulated by

the national PIU programme, which accounts for the largest part of IVET

transnational mobility. Detailed data for 2005 are not yet available, but it is

expected that the pattern will be the same as for 2004 (about two thirds of IVET

participants going on a placement under the PIU programme taking a placement of

more than 6 months, which would be the case for about 900 participants).


Table 3.5: Total number of participants in IVET transnational mobility according to duration of the placement

BE1 CZ DK2 DE3 EE EL ES4 FR IE IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL5 AT PL PT SI

2002:< 6 weeks6-12 weeks3-6 months> 6 months

1484900

549608312

- 3183,502

3190

08290

- 2,211 - - 1,651120

2,01625

300

100

985800

1321000

05900

29041346

- -578

-210

- 1,134264298103

- -


1545700

567488381

- 3574,301

2541,565

225280

- 2,199 - - 1,816852

1,27452

48050

42473112

151400

07800

58881760

22000

-900

-134

399365731

980293490122

- -


1836700

1,142118157

0

434115115

1,155

602--

1,672

2934160

- 2,184 - - - 169000

1812470

2464100

0127

00

73759650

6000

- 66985

11375

- - -


- 1,254125188

0

42530250

455--

1,663

443960

- 2,797 - - - 199000

18944240

18645320

0145

00

6742206829

108000

- 83016619289

- - -

SK6 FI7 SE8 UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR CH


-252154

-

42243321

00

4280

- - - 379100129

299000

326000

- - 0576


-284138

-

53674670

00

5160

- - - 627917

13

250000

311000

- - 05

202


-592294

-

- 120000

- 3010184

- 539116

31

4856000

35600

- 2193660

03

1910


-693319

-

1,16555220612

120000

- - - - 6920

300

330000

- 1,22680310

06

208

1 Figures for Belgium only concern the Flemish speaking community.2 Figures for Denmark for 2004 include placements under Leonardo and under the PIU programme (note: 50% of the 2004 cohort

of the PIU programme went on a placement for more than one year). Figures for 2005 only include Leonardo placements andplacements under Socrates and the NordPlus Junior programme.

3 Figures for Germany for 2002 and 2003 concern both mobility under the Leonardo programme and mobility under the otherprogrammes. The figures for 2004 and 2005 only concern the other programmes; a breakdown for Leonardo is not yet available.

4 Data for Spain have been obtained from a statistical report on the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency. In thisreport only the average duration of placements is provided. This average duration increased from 6.4 weeks in 2002 to 8.4 weeksin 2005.

5 The Netherlands used a different categorisation for the duration of placements. The categories less than 6 weeks and 6-12 weekshave been taken together and also the categories 3-6 months or more than 6 months have been taken together.

6 The Slovak Republic has used a different categorisation for the duration of placements. A distinction is made betweenplacements of less than 12 weeks and placement of more than 12 weeks.

7 The data for Sweden for 2002 and 2003 concern mobility under the Leonardo programme (not yet available for 2004 and 2005).The data for 2004 and 2005 concern a smaller national programme (for cooperation with developing countries).

8 Finland reports a breach in the data trend, due to a change in data collection between 2003 and 2004. The figures for 2002 and2003 concern only placements under the Leonardo programme. The figures for 2005 encompass both placements under theLeonardo programme and other (national) programmes.


Proportion of IVETparticipants in transnationalplacements

As indicated, absolute figures only provide a limited part of the picture. What is

also relevant to know is which proportion of the total number of IVET participants

in a country takes actually part in transnational mobility. Calculating proportions

eliminates the influence of the size of the country and of the size of the IVET

population as such ad makes data more comparable between countries. We have

therefore calculated the number of participants in IVET transnational mobility as a

percentage of all IVET students enrolled (upper secondary level). As indicated in

chapter 2, caution is needed here, given that for the figures provided by the

countries it is not always clear whether (and to what extent) the total number of

participants in IVET transnational mobility really concerns IVET participants. For

part of the countries the data provided for outgoing mobility – in particular under

the Leonardo da Vinci programme- for 2005 are still provisional. Actual mobility

figures and with that the percentage of IVET participants on transnational

placements in 2005 can be lower. In that sense the proportions presented in table

3.6 are to a certain extent indicative, but nevertheless telling. The chance that

proportions will change dramatically with more precise and definite data per

country are there, but can be considered relatively small.

What becomes very clear is that, notwithstanding the differences in the relative

“strength” of the IVET system (be it school-based or work-based) in comparison

with general upper secondary education, and the differences between countries in

the size of their (IVET) population, the proportion of IVET participants that actually

goes on a transnational placement is very small and –with three exceptions- does

not exceed 1%.

Given this, it cannot be concluded on the basis of this study that system

characteristics such as “strength” of the IVET system or the extent to which it is

work-based or school-based or other characteristics, influence transnational

mobility in IVET.


Table 3.6: Percentage of IVET students participating in transnational mobility

% of IVET students participating in transnational mobility

BE < 0.01

CZ 0.4

DK 1.0

DE 0.4

EE 0.2

EL < 0,01

ES1 0.2

FR2 0.2

IE3 0.02

IT < 0.01

CY 4.2

LV 0.5

LT 0.6

LU 0.5

HU 0.8

MT 0.03

NL 0.5

AT 0.3

PL 0.3

PT 0.4

SI < 0.01

SK 0.2

FI 3.3

SE 0.9

UK 0.4

IS 0.01

LI 0.02

NO 0.5

BG 0.3

RO 0.01

HR -

TR 0.2

CH < 0.01

1 For Spain the annual average of IVET transnational mobility participants over the period 2000-2005 has been used for the

calculation of the proportion.

2 For France the estimated number of IVET transnational mobility participants in 2006 has been the basis for the calculation of the

proportion.

3 Though Ireland hardly has any IVET within the educational system (see also the introduction to this chapter), people can and do

apply with FETAC (the national qualification authority) to have there qualifications assessed and accredited. The estimation is that

on an annual basis this concerns about 185,000 people. This figure has been used as the basis for the calculation.


The three exceptional countries (with participation rates in IVET transnational

mobility at 1% or well above 1%) are Denmark, Finland and Cyprus. Denmark has

a strong IVET system with a strong work-based component (about two thirds of

total curricular time). Finland is characterised by a relatively high participation rate

in IVET, but a weakly developed apprenticeship system. Cyprus has neither a high

participation rate in IVET (on the contrary: it is low with only about 14% of all upper

secondary students) nor a strong apprenticeship system.

The relatively high proportion of IVET participants going on a transnational

placement in Denmark, seems to a large extent to be due to the national PIU

programme, which is financed by the employers, through the ‘Employers’

Reimbursement Scheme for apprentices and people in IVET, and through which on

an annual basis about € 2,5 million is spent on mobility.

A possible explanation for the relatively high participation rate in IVET transnational

mobility in Finland, can be the combination of a rather active policy with regard to

transnational mobility (see also next chapter) and the fact that all (EU) mobility

programmes are organised and administered by one central organisation, called

CIMO. This means that there is a central drive for fostering mobility in IVET and in

education in general. Moreover, it means that there is one central organisation that

registers and monitors all mobility figures (at least at national level) and that

therefore, Finland is probably in the position to provide the most accurate figures.

At the same time, Finland has seen a ‘dip’ in participation numbers in 2003.

Finland’s own explanation for this development is as follows: “decrease explained

by the significant reduction of the government subsidy for international mobility for

2003. The government subsidy has been the most important instrument for

enhancement of international mobility in vocational education. At this moment

Leonardo is the biggest source. Changes in the number of institutions covered by

the statistics may also explain changes in the mobility numbers. The reduction in

the statistics is partly explained by grounds of different methodologies adopted”.

Where Cyprus is concerned a straightforward explanation for the high proportion

of IVET participants going on a transnational placement is less easy to provide.

One explanation could be that the budget available for Leonardo transnational

mobility has about tripled if 2005 is compared with 2003.


Where do IVET participants go on transnational mobility?

We asked the countries to indicate to which most of their IVET participants were

going when taking up a transnational work placement. More specifically we asked

for a top 5 of countries for the last four years, preferably supported by numbers

and if possible broken down for different mobility programmes (if applicable). A few

countries could not answer this question. Only three countries could provide a

partial break down of figures for different programmes, though not for all

programmes in place in their country. The rest of the countries could either provide

only figures for the last year for which definite participation figures were available

or could only provide a top-5, without supporting data. Again, this means that

caution is needed in interpreting the results. For interpreting the results we could

only count how often a country was included in the ‘top-5 list’, often not knowing

whether the way in which countries were ordered in the answers reflected their

relative ranking. With all these limitations of the data taken into account, we can

only present a tentative overview.

The countries most often mentioned as attracting the most IVET participants on a

transnational placement, the ‘top-5’, so to speak are:

� The United Kingdom (mentioned 27 times);

� Germany (mentioned 26 times);

� Italy (mentioned 18 times);

� France (mentioned 17 times), and

� Spain (mentioned 15 times).

Other countries mentioned more than once as being part of the ‘top-5’, are:

� Finland (8 times);

� Austria (also 8 times);

� Sweden (7 times);

� The Netherlands (also 7 times);

� Ireland (6 times);

� Belgium (3 times);

� Estonia (2 times);

� Poland (2 times).

Finally, four countries were mentioned once as being part of the ‘top-5’:

� Greece;

� Slovak Republic;

� Lithuania;

� Denmark.


The above does, of course, not mean that the other 15 countries of the 33

European countries included in this study do not receive IVET participants on a

transnational placement. First of all, we asked countries to mention the five

countries to which most IVET participants went on a transnational placement (over

the last four years) and not to list all countries receiving these IVET participants.

Given the problems countries now already encountered in answering this question,

asking them to list all countries, including numbers, appears -with hindsight- not to

have been a very realistic option.

Notwithstanding the limitations of the data obtained through this question, it is

clear that there are considerable differences between countries as with regard to

their ‘popularity’ as a destination for transnational work placements. Germany and

the United Kingdom are obviously the front-runners, even within the top-5, with

Italy, France and Spain following at a considerable distance. The distance between

this top-5 and the (front-runners of the) sub-top, so to speak, is also substantial.

The question, of course is, whether there is an explanation for such mobility

patterns. Clear-cut explanations can not be given. For some explanations both

supporting and rejecting evidence can be found:

� Influence of bi-lateral programmes or programmes incorporating a particular

group of countries. One could say that the fact that Germany and France

include each other in their top 5 listing, could be an indication for the impact of

bi-lateral programmes. At the same time, Germany and the Netherlands have a

bi-lateral programme as well. The Netherlands lists Germany among their top 5

receiving countries, but vice versa this is not the case. A similar example

concerns the Nordic countries with their NordPlus Junior Programme. Whereas

Denmark mentions Sweden and Norway as important recipients of IVET

participants on transnational mobility and Iceland does so for all Nordic

countries, Finland only mentions Sweden as an important recipient, and Norway

and Sweden do not mention any of the other Nordic countries among their 5

most important recipients (see also the national reports).

� Regional proximity/neighbouring countries. Another assumption could be that

IVET participants tend to choose for neighbouring countries for their

transnational work placement. Again, this does not seem to be corroborated by

the data. Though most countries, with the exception of most of the CEE

countries, include one of their neighbouring countries in their top-5 list, there

appears not to be a tendency to ‘favour’ neighbouring countries more than

other countries. However, once again we have to caution, since data with

regard to regional mobility initiatives (in particular those in regional border areas)

could not be provided by the experts in the 33 countries.

Whether or not, and to what extent, the preferences of IVET participants for

particular ‘destination countries’ is anticipated by project promoters in forming

their alliances with partners in the most ‘popular’ countries, is difficult to conclude

on the basis of this study. Nevertheless, it seems that stimulating and increasing

transnational mobility in IVET can benefit from stimulating mobility partnerships

between countries that are now predominantly or only on the sending end of

mobility projects. This, however, without neglecting the cooperation relationships

between countries and partners that have been built over the last decade or so.


Incoming mobility in IVET

The previous sections all concerned outgoing mobility. Countries were also asked

to provide data on incoming mobility. Only ten countries did provide data on

incoming mobility (see also section 3.6 on monitoring mobility). The other countries

indicated that they could not provide data on incoming mobility, since it is not (or

only partially) monitored.

In Germany, incoming mobility has grown substantially after 2002. It concerns

incoming mobility under two national (bilateral) programmes. In Finland and Italy

incoming mobility figures are also relatively high. For Italy it concerns incoming

mobility under the Youth programme. Finland did not provide a further

differentiation of the programmes that cover the incoming mobility. In the other

countries it concerns incoming mobility under the Leonardo programme as such

(Hungary, Luxembourg) or in combination with other programmes (Malta, Norway,

Slovak Republic and Switzerland).

Table 3.7: Total numbers for incoming mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

DE 164 1,171 1,077 1,168

HU 356 276 69 77

IT 3,597 2,965 3,306 2,983

LU - 9 4 56

MT - 28 49 147

SK 98 112 152 167

SE - - 450 450

FI 1,500 2,200 1,847 1,838

NO 93 242 199 161

CH 113 140 172 166

Five countries (Germany, Finland, Hungary, Luxembourg, and Malta) also provided a

‘top 5’ list of the countries from which most IVET participants on a transnational

placement come to their country. Based on this data, the following ranking appears:

� France, Spain and Germany (each mentioned 4 x);

� United Kingdom (mentioned 3 x);

� Italy, Sweden and Denmark (each mentioned 2 x);

� Estonia, Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Finland (each mentioned 1 x).

Germany also listed the USA among the 5 countries from which most IVET

participants come on a transnational placement. Sweden also listed Tanzania

(under a programme for cooperation with developing countries).


Monitoring of transnational mobility in IVET

Countries were asked whether (and to what extent) both outgoing and incoming

transnational mobility in IVET is monitored. Only five countries (Italy, Hungary,

Malta, the Slovak Republic and Finland) indicate that they do monitor incoming

mobility (even though in some cases only partially, mainly concerning incoming

mobility under the Leonardo programme). Some other countries indicate that they

do not monitor incoming mobility on a systematic basis, or do so only partially, but

they nevertheless provide some (indicative) data on incoming mobility. This is the

case for Germany, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland (with the

exception of the Netherlands that states to monitor incoming mobility on a partial

basis, but does not provide data in incoming mobility). All other countries indicate

that they cannot provide figures on incoming mobility, since this is not monitored.

Outgoing mobility is monitored in nearly all countries (sometimes this question has

been left unanswered), but often -as some countries indicate explicitly- this

monitoring is restricted to the programmes for which such monitoring is a formal

request for funding reasons, as is the case with the Leonardo programme. For

more than half of the countries, this means that figures provided on outgoing

mobility are restricted to the number of IVET participants that go on a transnational

placement under the Leonardo programme.

Given this and the fact that figures with regard to IVET transnational mobility under

regional and sectoral programmes could often not be provided by the experts in 33

countries, this can mean that we have only a partial picture of the total

transnational mobility in IVET. This conclusion holds even more if we take into

account that data on transnational mobility on an individual initiative (e.g. IVET

participants themselves taking the initiative, or on the initiative of enterprises where

they take their practical training) are even less available.

On the basis of the presently available monitoring data on IVET transnational

mobility it is impossible to say or even estimate, which part of this mobility we are

missing in the statistical data. A lot needs to be improved in the monitoring of

mobility in IVET if we want to get a full understanding of its magnitude and its

development and to provide policy makers (both at the European level and the

national, regional and sectoral level) with a well-informed basis for further

developing policies and strategies to stimulate mobility in IVET.


Conclusions

Overall, most of the countries show a slight but steady increase in the participation

numbers during the period 2002-2005, though in some countries there seems to

be a stagnation in participation numbers or even a slight decline (Estonia, Sweden,

Romania, Switzerland). However, given that data are sometimes provisional or that

part of the data (especially where non-EU programmes are concerned) were not

yet available, precaution is needed with drawing conclusions.

What becomes clear is that, notwithstanding the differences in the relative

“strength” of the IVET system (be it school or work-based) in comparison with

general upper secondary education, and the differences between countries in the

size of their (IVET) population, the proportion of IVET participants that actually goes

on a transnational placement is very small and -with the exception of three

countries- does not exceed 1%.

Nevertheless, if the figures collected with this survey are compared with figures

from the European Commission of May 200610, it appears that in 2005 IVET

transnational mobility as measured in our survey has about 20,000 more

participants than according to the figures for IVET transnational mobility under the

Leonardo da Vinci programme only. From the point of view of a target of annually

150,000 participants in IVET transnational mobility in 2013, this can be seen as

encouraging, though still a lot remains to be done if that target has to be realised.

However, a few cautions are needed here. On the one hand, as indicated, our

figures might be slightly “polluted”. For some countries it holds that participation

figures have been included that seem to concern also students from higher

education or that concerns programmes that actually do not deal with

transnational mobility in a VET context (e.g. the Youth programme). On the other

hand, data, certainly for 2005 as far as Leonardo concerns, are mainly provisional

data and the actually realised transnational placements can be lower.

At the same time, this study has -at least for some countries- included data for

national non-EU programmes. Even so, the picture provided in this chapter

probably only shows part of the actual mobility in IVET, since data for some

national programmes are not monitored and thus not included. Data for regional or

sectoral programmes or transnational mobility on individual initiative are not

available. This can mean that the actual transnational mobility in IVET might be

higher and (much) closer to the 2013 target then known. Form that perspective it

seems urgent to take initiatives to improve the measurement of transnational

mobility, to improve the quality of the data collected and to increase the

comparability of these data.


10 Leonardo da Vinci Programme: Performance and Impact, May 2006

It was concluded that this study does not provide evidence that IVET system

characteristics such as strength of the system or the extent to which IVET is

school-based or work-based or other system characteristics, influence

transnational mobility in IVET. Given that we still have rather insufficient insight in

what is actually taking place with regard to IVET transnational mobility, this is also

a conclusion that has to be treated with caution. As will become clear from the

next chapter, countries do differ where the development of policies and

programmes to enhance and stimulate IVET transnational mobility is concerned. It

was indicated that in some countries, IVET transnational mobility taking place

under national or bilateral programmes, exceeded mobility taking place under

European programmes, especially Leonardo. However, in other countries with

similar ‘national programmes’, this was not the case. Overall, participation in IVET

transnational mobility remains in most countries well below 1% of the total IVET

population. Whether or not a more active policy does make a difference can

therefore not yet be concluded. Countries do in that respect not really differ with

regard to the ‘dependent variable’ (being participation in IVET transnational

mobility).


4 Stimulating mobility: policies andprogrammes

Policies with regard to mobility

As indicated in the introduction, the European Union is not the only source for

stimulating transnational mobility. During the first phase of the project various

examples of policies developed by European countries in order to stimulate

transnational mobility in IVET were identified. In order to get an up-to-date picture

of policies developed in this area in different European countries, the respondents

were asked which national and/or regional policies exist or did exist in their country

aimed at stimulating transnational mobility. This could concern both policies from

public authorities and policies based on private initiatives.

In the majority of the countries policies are developed in order to stimulate

transnational mobility, although it is not always clear whether these are really

aimed at IVET or have a more general nature (e.g. stimulating labour mobility in the

context of the Lisbon goals, the employment strategy and the national reform

plans). Eight countries state more or less explicit that there are no policies with

regard to stimulating transnational mobility in IVET. This concerns Croatia, Estonia,

Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and the United Kingdom, though the

UK does indicate that there are two initiatives that do promote exchange (Global

Gateway and Town Twinning). These initiatives are more widely targeted, though it

is assumed that these initiatives can include IVET learners. In the case of

Luxembourg a national policy is mentioned, but this concerns higher education

(the establishment of a Luxembourg university).

In all other countries one or more policies with regard to supporting and stimulating

transnational mobility in IVET are in place. A large part of these policies are

initiated and implemented at the national level, and part of the policies mentioned

by the countries fall together with European programmes like the Leonardo da

Vinci programme or the Youth programme.


Table 4.1: Number of policies and programmes in place for IVET transnational mobility

Policies Programmes

BE - -

CZ 5 3

DK 4 5

DE 2 16

EE 0 2

EL - -

ES 1 5

FR 2 11

IE 5 11

IT 9 21

CY 1 1

LV 0 1

LT 0 2

LU 1 1

HU 0 2

MT 4 2

NL 5 4

AT 1 2

PL 5 6

PT - 2

SI 1 1

SK 7 14

FI 6 5

SE 6 3

UK 0-2 9

IS 0 1

LI 1 1

NO 5 5

BG 4 2

RO 0 1

HR 0 0

TR - 3

CH 2 5


The same holds for the specific programmes supporting and stimulating IVET

transnational mobility. All countries mentioned at least the Leonardo da Vinci

Programme as one of the programmes in place in their country. Part of the

countries included also Socrates and/or the Youth programme in their answers or

the Interreg Programme (e.g. the Czech Republic). As becomes clear from table

4.1, the variation between countries is substantial with regard to the number of

programmes that are operational at this moment, ranging from only one

programme (typically Leonardo; Cyprus, Latvia, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Iceland,

Liechtenstein, Romania) up to over 20 programmes (Italy). To a certain extent, this

variation seems to be due to differences in interpretation with regard to the

question what can be considered a programme that directly or indirectly support

and stimulates IVET transnational mobility. If the adjective ‘indirectly’ is interpreted

widely enough, programmes such as EURES and programmes more targeted

towards the mobility of (young) workers as well as initiatives aimed at providing

better and more comparable information on education systems and qualifications

gained (National Reference Points, implementation of the National Europass

Centres) can be included as well. In some cases, programmes that have been

included seem to focus on higher education instead of IVET.

Involvement of different Ministries

In nearly all countries the Ministry of Education is the main responsible body for

transnational mobility in IVET, though this responsibility is often shared with other

Ministries or national bodies. The exceptions are Estonia and Iceland, where

governmental involvement in this area is considered to be very low or hardly

existent (which is in line with the lacking of a national policy in this area), and

Portugal and Hungary where respectively the Ministry of Labour and Social

Solidarity and the newly created Ministry of Employment and Labour Market Policy

have the lead.

In part of those countries in which the Ministry of Education is involved in policy

making with regard to IVET transnational mobility, it is the only ministry involved in

this area (Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Swedem, UK, Liechtenstein, Norway,

Bulgaria). In the other countries (Czech Republic, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy,

Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Slovenia, the

Slowak Republic, Finland, Romania, Turkey and Switzerland), the responsibility for

policy making with regard to IVET transnational mobility is shared with one or more

other Ministries (or other state bodies), which often is the Ministry of Labour and/or

Social Affairs (or an equivalent type of Ministry). Ministries of Economic Affairs

appear to be not involved in policy making with regard to IVET transnational

mobility, with the exception of the Netherlands where this Ministry has very

recently launched a new programme for stimulating international entrepreneurship,

and Ireland where the Department of Enterprise Trade and Labour is involved.

Other Ministries that are involved in policy making with regard to IVET transnational

mobility are (among others): Ministries of Agriculture, Ministries of Tourism,

Ministries of Commerce, Ministries of Finance (budget allocation), or specific

Ministries for Youth policies.


Recommendations with regard to the new Lifelong Learning Programme

Countries were given the possibility to provide suggestions for the new Lifelong

Learning Programme, in particular with regard to transnational mobility in IVET. Not

all countries provided such suggestions and of those who did, some countries

were more elaborate in their remarks then others. Nevertheless, common issues

emerge from the suggestions made. (See for full list Annex IV).

A first issue concerns the procedures around mobility projects. Not only

application procedures should be simplified (preferably limiting application forms

to about 4 pages), but also procedures for reporting, accounting and evaluation

need simplification. Reporting requirements, such as under the Leonardo da Vinci

programme, are considered to be superfluous and repetitive. In this context Ireland

suggested to introduce e-reporting and e-evaluation.

A second related issue, concerns the introduction of ‘small projects’ (say up to a

maximum of € 20,000) with a simplified administration throughout the lifecycle of

the project (application, assessment of operational and financial capacity, contract,

reports). This could make participation in such projects also more attractive for

SMEs. At the same time, some countries indicated the need for the introduction of

possibilities for longer running mobility projects, that is to introduce the possibility

to apply for grants for a period of e.g. four years. On the one hand, this might

improve the planning of organisations that until now have had to apply for funding

each year and might also help shift the responsibility for transnational mobility

within IVET institutions from individuals (as is now often the case) towards the

management. In the longer run this might help IVET institutions to develop more

long-term mobility strategies. Germany introduced in this context, the concept of

‘accreditation’ of promoters, that is, accrediting promoters for a four-year period

for running mobility projects. Such an accreditation should however, have

implications in terms of the use of additional quality criteria, such as: impact on the

institution, sustainability, qualifications of teachers, language learning, quality

management, PR-activities, etc.

Quality or quality assurance of transnational placements, is an issue that,

according to some other countries as well, has to remain a key issue for mobility

under the new Lifelong Learning Programme.

Some countries indicated that the maximum grant per beneficiary has to be

increased and that these grants have to take into account both the costs of living

in the hosting country and the inflation in different countries. Another suggestion

was to introduce the possibility of individual mobility applications or funding

possibilities for individuals (not through school or enterprise), since a need for such

individual possibilities is detected. Various countries also stated that preparatory

activities (partner meetings, visits) should be included as eligible costs, since this

might enhance the quality of placements as well as follow-up activities.

Another issue raised by a couple of countries, concerned an increased flexibility for

the periods of placements, on the one hand allowing for a shorter minimum


duration of e.g. 2 weeks and on the other hand allowing for splitting up (longer)

placement periods, so that IVET participants are enabled to return home in

between ‘placement blocks’.

Different countries also mentioned the need to increase the participation of SMEs

in mobility projects. Simplification of procedures was seen as one means to

achieve this. Other suggestions concerned the development of customised,

regional support structures close to the enterprises, with intermediaries for

handling the formal applications and administration and/or regional

decentralisation of procedures. Some countries also mentioned the need for

transparency and for the recognition of skills and competences acquired during

transnational placements. It was suggested that the presently being implemented

EUROPASS frame could be used for strengthening this.

Conclusions

There are substantial differences between countries with regard to policy making in

the area of IVET transnational mobility. Eight countries indicate that there are no

policies with regard to stimulating transnational mobility in IVET. For the other

countries the number of (active) policies (still in place) to promote and stimulate

IVET transnational mobility varies from 1 to 9 different policy programmes. The

same holds for the number of specific programmes that should stimulate

transnational mobility in IVET. Some countries mention only 1 or 2 such

programmes (notably Leonardo da Vinci), whereas other countries mention various

programmes (14, 16 or even 21). The lack of a national policy in the area of

transnational mobility in IVET, does not imply a lack of programmes for stimulating

this mobility, though in those countries where a national policy is lacking, the

number of stimulating programmes is typically limited (1 or 2 programmes).

Likewise, does a more active policy making in terms of more different policy

programmes, not automatically lead to more stimulating programmes in place,

though Italy and the Slovak Republic seem to be exceptions here.

We cannot conclude on the basis of this study whether a more active policy

making in the area of transnational mobility in IVET influences this mobility. In none

of the countries included in this study (with the exception of Denmark, Finland and

Cyprus) does participation in IVET transnational mobility exceeds 1% of the total

IVET population in that country. Countries with a more activating and stimulating

policy approach and with more specific programmes in place, do in this respect

not differ from countries with a less or no activating approach.

Most countries provided suggestions for transnational mobility in IVET under the

new Lifelong Learning Approach. The most important suggestion concerned the

reduction of bureaucracy and the simplification of forms and procedures under the

new programme.

Other suggestions concerned the introduction of new possibilities such as longer

running projects, individual mobility applications and small projects with reduced

administrative burden.


5 Stakeholders in IVET transnationalmobility

Introduction

National ministries and the European Union are not the only stakeholders involved

in transnational mobility in IVET. In this area, various stakeholders can be

distinguished who can hold different influential positions and perform different

roles where mobility in IVET is at stake. In developing the questionnaire for this part

of the MoVE-iT project, it was hypothesised that the role and influence of different

stakeholders, and in particular of the social partners, might be of influence on the

actual transnational mobility in IVET as well as on the obstacles experienced and

the solutions developed to overcome these obstacles. Not in the least, since VET

systems do differ with regard to the different types of stakeholders involved in

developing VET policies and in decision making. At the same time, however, there

seems to be a certain tendency towards convergence. For instance, where the

social partners are concerned one can say that in general all EU-Member States

are either characterised by a so-called ‘social partner model’ for VET or are

targeting towards such a model. In the earlier mentioned ‘Maastricht study’ a

question on the model countries strived for in 2010 with regard to VET policies and

decisions, was included in the questionnaire that was distributed among the

Directorates General for Vocational Training in the Member States, the EEA

countries, the accession countries and the candidate countries. The question was

phrased in terms of two opposite statements: a ‘social partner model’ versus a

model in which single players (such as the state or employers) were dominating

VET policies and decisions (the answer could be provided at a five point scale).

Nearly all countries included in the study tended towards a ‘social partner model’,

with the exception of Austria, the UK, Liechtenstein and Portugal, which took more

a middle position in this.

The answers to this particular question -how informative they might have been- did

not provide a picture of the actual involvement. On the one hand, Austria, for

instance, is one of the few countries with legal regulations with regard to the

involvement of social partners (a legal regulation concerning advisory committees

at school level). On the other hand, several countries, in particular the former

CEE-countries, but also Cyprus and Greece, reported difficulties with the

involvement of the social partner in the VET. In particular Latvia, Hungary and

Slovenia mentioned the involvement of the social partners and the development of

a social dialogue with regard to VET as one of the major challenges for their VET

system.


Involvement of different stakeholders

In order to get insight in which stakeholders might be involved in mobility in IVET

and in which countries, the question was asked to indicate for a list of possible

stakeholders whether or not they are involved in IVET mobility and to what degree.

Subsequently the question was asked in which way each of these stakeholders is

involved in mobility in IVET (ranging from policy making, through activating and

stimulating to coaching of participants).

With regard to the actual degree of involvement, a distinction was made between

no involvement, low involvement, medium involvement and high involvement. The

overall picture is quite diverse. This can be explained by the fact that particular

types of stakeholders (e.g. a National Education Council, national qualification

authorities or a national council of VET institutions) do not exist in all countries

Overall, the national governments seem to have a relatively strong involvement in

IVET mobility. In total their involvement is ranked high in eleven countries

(Germany, Italy, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, the Slovak Republic,

Sweden, Norway, Bulgaria, and Turkey) and medium in another nine countries

(France, Cyprus, Latvia, the Netherlands, Austria, Finland, the UK, Liechtenstein,

and Switzerland). Only in Estonia, Romania and the Czech Republic is the

involvement of the national government ranked as being low, whereas in Iceland

and Croatia the national government appears to have no involvement with IVET

mobility at all. This also holds for Ireland, where the National Qualification authority

of Ireland and the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) are

identified as the only stakeholders involved in IVET mobility (with respectively a

high and a medium involvement).

Less or little involvement of the national government is not offset by a greater

involvement of lower levels of public authority. Only in Germany, France, Italy and

Switzerland is the involvement of the regional government ranked as being high (in

the case of Switzerland depending on the canton at stake) and in Poland, the

Slovak Republic and the UK as medium. The relatively strong involvement of

regional authorities in IVET transnational mobility can on the one hand be

explained by the federal structure of the states, with substantial responsibilities for

IVET residing with the regional authorities (the governments of the different states)

or by the (more or less recent) devolvement of governing responsibilities for IVET to

the regional (or even local) level (as is the case for France, Italy, Poland).

Involvement of local authorities (municipal governments) in IVET mobility is in

general low or non-existent, with the exception of Italy, Poland, the Slovak

Republic, and Sweden, where substantial governing responsibilities have been

devolved to this administrative level.


Table 5.1: Involvement of stakeholders

Stakeholders: BE CZ DK DE EE EL ES FR IE IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT SI

European Union - 3 - - 3 - - - - - 3 3 - 3 - 2 3 3 3 0

National government - 1 - 3 1 - - 2 3 2 2 3 - 3 - 2 2 3 1 3

Regional government - 1 0 3 0 - - 3 3 - - 0 - 0 - 1 - 2 - 0

Municipalgovernment

- - 0 1 0 - - 1 3 0 1 0 - 1 - 0 1 2 9 0

National educationcouncil

- 9 1 3 0 - - - - - - 0 - 0 - 3 - - 9 3

National qualificationauthority

- - 2 - 1 - - - 2-3* - - 0 0 - 0 - 0-3 - - 9 3

National council ofVET institutions

- 0 1 - 0 - - - - - 1 1 - 2 - 2 - - 9 3

Employersorganisations

- 1 2 2 0 - - 3 1 0 2 1 - 2 - 1 - 1-3 1 3

Employers (publicand private)

- 1 1 1 1 - - - 1 0 2 1 - 2 - 1 - 1-3 9 0

Branch organisations - 0 2 - 0 - - 3 1 - 1 0 - 1 - 1 - 1-3 9 0

Trade unions - 0 2 3 0 - - - 1 0 2 0 - 2 - 1 - 1 1 2

Chambers ofcommerce

- 1 0 3 0 - - 3 9 0 2 2 - 2 - 9 1 1-3 9 3

VET institutions - 3 2 2 3 - - - 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 2 2 1-3 1 3

Student associations - 0 0 - 0 - - - 3 0 1 0 - 1 - 1 - 1-3 9 2

* Ireland indicates that only the Irish National Qualification Council and the National Awarding Authority (FETAC) are involved as

stakeholders in IVET transnational mobility

Stakeholders: SK FI SE UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR CH

European Union - 3 3 - - - - 3 - - 3 -

National government 3 2 3 2 0 2 3 3 1 0 3 2

Regional government 2 1 1 2 0 - 1 1 - - - 0-3

Municipalgovernment

2 2 2 - 0 - 0 1 - - 0 0

National educationcouncil

0 1 - - 1 - 2 - - - 0 9

National qualificationauthority

0 2 - 0 1 3 3 2 - - 0 9

National council ofVET institutions

0 1 - - 1 - - - - - 0 9

Employersorganisations

1 1 1 0 1 0 2 - 0 0 1 0

Employers (publicand private)

1 1 1 - 1 - 2 2 0 - 1 0-3

Branch organisations 1 1 2 - 0 1 2 2 0 - 3 9

Trade unions 1 1 2 0 0 - 2 1 0 - 2 0

Chambers ofcommerce(and/or other typesof chambers)

1 1 1 0 0 - 0 2 0 0 1 9

VET institutions 3 2 3 2 1 - 2 3 3 - 3 0-1

Student associations 2 2 1 1 1 - 1 - 0 - 1 0

Legenda:

0 = no involvement; 1 = low involvement; 2 = intermediate involvement;

3 = high involvement; 9 = unknown; - = not applicable/no answer


What becomes clear from table 5.1 is that the demand side of the labour market,

that is: employers, employers organisations and/or branch organisations, are not

that strongly involved in IVET transnational mobility as could have been expected

on the basis of the fact that most countries strive towards implementing a ‘social

partner model’11. Strong involvement of employers organisations is only mentioned

by France, Slovenia, and Poland to a certain extent (where the involvement

appears to differ between sectors of economic activity). Medium involvement of

employers organisations is mentioned by Denmark, Germany, Latvia, Hungary, and

Norway. For Germany and Denmark this seems to be only ‘natural’ given the long

standing tradition of social partner involvement in VET policy development and

decision making. For Latvia and Hungary this involvement is less self evident given

that some years ago these countries considered developing social dialogue and

increased involvement of the social partners as one of the challenges for their VET

system. Surprising is that in other countries where the influence of the social

partners, but in particular of employers on VET policy development and decision

making has been strong and well established (e.g. the Netherlands with its

consultative structures or the UK with a strongly employer-led VET system) the

influence of employers organisations (and employers for that), is ranked as rather

insignificant or even non-existent.

The involvement of (individual) employers seems to be even less. No single country

ranks their involvement straightforward as being high (Poland and Switzerland

indicate that involvement can be high depending on the particular employer) and

only four countries rate their involvement as medium (Latvia, Hungary, Norway and

Bulgaria). In the other countries the involvement of employers is low or

non-existent. For branch organisations the same picture emerges; their

involvement is high in France and Turkey, medium in Denmark Bulgaria, Norway

and Sweden, and varying in Poland, but low or non-existent in the other countries.

This rather ‘marginal’ involvement also holds for the trade unions. Only in

Germany, where the position of the unions with regard to VET has traditionally

been very strong, is their involvement in IVET transnational mobility ranked high,

whereas in Denmark, Latvia, Hungary, Slovenia, Sweden, Norway and Turkey their

involvement is considered to be medium.

Involvement of the chambers of commerce (or trade or agriculture) in IVET

transnational mobility, appears to be strong in those countries where the chambers

have a task in the examinations in IVET and/or in developing and stimulating regional

IVET as is the case in Germany, France and Slovenia. In France there are also

examples of ‘regional’ mobility programmes initiated by the chambers. A medium

involvement of the chambers is reported for Latvia, Hungary and Bulgaria, where the

chambers bear responsibilities for the apprenticeship training within IVET.


11 Achieving the Lisbon goals: the contribution of VET (2004), European Commission.

The stakeholder with apparently the biggest involvement in IVET mobility is the

individual VET institution, though again there are differences between countries.

On the one hand, fourteen countries (the Czech Republic, Estonia, Italy, Cyprus,

Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Hungary, Slovenia, the Slovak Republic, Sweden,

Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey) rank their involvement as being high, and seven

countries (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Finland, the UK and

Norway) state that VET institutions have a medium involvement in IVET

transnational mobility. Poland indicates that their involvement can be high, but will

differ from institution to institution. An additional four countries stated that the

involvement of VET institutions is medium. Even though decentralisation and the

devolution of the locus of control in education to lower administrative levels (which

are not necessarily the VET institutions themselves) is a general trend throughout

Europe, VET institutions will not have the same discretionary powers in the

countries that indicated their involvement being high or medium. In the new

Member States, for example, decentralisation and devolution is a much more

recent process than in the Nordic Countries, the Netherlands and the UK, where

VET institutions have been granted substantial autonomy over the last decade.

Nevertheless, where the involvement in IVET transnational mobility is concerned,

VET institutions constitute an important group of stakeholders.

Conclusions

Disregarding the differences between countries, it becomes clear that the two

stakeholders with overall the biggest involvement in IVET transnational mobility are

the national governments (mostly the Ministry of Education) and the individual VET

institutions.

Less or little involvement of the national government is in general not offset by a

greater involvement of lower levels of public authority, though there are exceptions

(countries with a federal structure or countries where substantial discretionary

power has been devolved to the regional level). The extent of decentralisation and

devolution does not seem to impact the extent to which VET institutions are

involved in IVET transnational mobility. Irrespective of when and the extent to

which discretionary powers have been devolved to the level of VET institutions, the

individual VET institutions remain overall an important stakeholder in terms of their

level of involvement.

Overall, the involvement of the demand side of the labour market (employers

organisations, employers, trade unions, and branch organisations) is not as strong

as it might have been expected. With the exception of three countries, the

involvement of, for instance, employers organisations is not ranked higher than

medium and in 21 countries even as low or non-existent. This relatively low

involvement of employers organisations, holds also for countries with a relatively

strong tradition of involvement of social partners or employers (organisations) in

the development of VET policies (such as Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and

the UK).


The involvement of individual employers, trade unions and branch organisations is

considered as being even more marginal in the countries included in this study,

though again there are differences between countries. Involvement of the

chambers of commerce (or trade or agriculture) exists only in those countries

where these chambers have a specific task within the IVET system (examinations,

developing and stimulating regional IVET or responsibility for the apprenticeship

system).

Given the differences between countries with regard to the involvement of different

stakeholders, it becomes clear that where stimulating IVET transnational mobility

and increasing its ‘backing’ are concerned, simple European blueprints will not be

sufficient. Measures will have to be adopted to the specific situation within a

country. Nevertheless, it seems that European wide, increasing the involvement of

stakeholders at the demand side of the labour market (employers organisations,

branch organisations, individual employers) forms an important point of attention.


6 Benefits of transnational mobility in IVET

Introduction

Transnational mobility has been part of European programmes for as long as

European programmes for IVET have existed. The reasons for this are the high

expectations with regard to the benefits (or ‘value added’) at EU level (e.g.

improving language and professional skills, enhancing the employability of workers

and the movement of workers in Europe). However, the knowledge with regard to

the actual benefits of transnational mobility for those directly involved (schools,

IVET participants, employers) seems to be limited.

Therefore a question was included in the questionnaire with regard to the

(perceived) benefits for different groups of potential beneficiaries: VET institutions,

employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement,

employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience, IVET

participants and branch organisations. Benefits could be ranked as high (score 3),

intermediate (score 2), low (score 1) or non-existent (score 0).

Who benefits to what extent?

Even though there are variations between countries, some clear indications

emerge from the answers to this question (see table 6.1). On the one hand, the

impression that relatively little is known about the benefits of transnantional

mobility in IVET appears to be confirmed (certainly if the non-response to this

question is taken into account and considered as an indication for lack of

information and data). This is in particular the case for the wider economic

environment of IVET (i.e. the labour market and the employers). On the other hand,

there are two groups of (potential) beneficiaries that stand out in the sense that

most countries attribute them as benefiting highly or at least intermediate from

participation in transnational mobility. These are the IVET participants and the VET

institutions sending their participants on transnational placements. It is quite likely

that, even though the indications in general are that research into the benefits of

transnational placements in IVET is lacking, these are the two groups for which

more, though anecdotal, evidence concerning the benefits is available12.

Nevertheless, if this question was answered for employers or branch organisations,

their benefits were mainly ranked as intermediate or low.


12 “Student stories” of IVET students going on a transnational placement; information from meetings with promotors, etc.

Table 6.1: Benefits for different groups of beneficiaries

Beneficiaries BE CZ DK DE EE EL ES FR IE IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT SI

VET institutions that sent theirparticipants on transnational placements

- 3 2 2 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3 3 - 2 3 2 3 1-3 3 3

Employers receiving IVET participants ona transnational mobility placement

- 2 2 2 1 - 2 - 2 9 2 1 1 - 1 3 1 2 0-3 3 3

Employers hiring employees withtransnational mobility experience

- 9 3* 9 1 - 2 - - 9 9 2 2 - 1 9 1 3 1-3 3 9

IVET participants going on transnationalplacements

- 3 3 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 3 3 1-3 3 3

Branch organisations - 1 9 2 9 - 2 - - 9 - 1 9 - 0 9 1 2 1-3 3 3

* Denmark indicates here that it only concerns benefits for employers that sent their apprentices on a transnational placement.

Beneficiaries SK FI SE UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR CH

VET institutions that sent theirparticipants on transnational placements

3 3 2 3 - 3 3 3 3 - - 2-3

Employers receiving IVET participants ona transnational mobility placement

2 1 3 2 - - 2 2 9 - - -

Employers hiring employees withtransnational mobility experience

9 1 2 1 - - - 2 9 - - -

IVET participants going on transnationalplacements

3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 3 - - 2-3

Branch organisations 9 2 1 - - - 2 2 9 - - -

Legenda:

0 = no benefits; 1 = little benefits; 2 = intermediate benefits;

3 = high benefits; 9 = unknown - = no answer provided

Where the IVET participants are concerned, all countries that answered this

question indicate that they benefit highly from participation in transnational

mobility, with the exception of Poland that indicates that it can vary depending on

the particular benefit to be reaped from transnational mobility (e.g.: ranging from

improved foreign language skills (high) to future job opportunities (small)).

For the VET institutions the picture is slightly more varied. Nineteen countries

indicate that the benefits are high for VET institutions, whereas six countries state

the benefits for VET institutions are intermediate (with Switzerland indicating that it

can vary between intermediate and high). Again Poland indicates that whether

benefits are high or low, depends on the particular benefit to be expected (e.g.:

high: improved prestige and status among other VET providers and clients – low:

establishing new institutional and personal contacts). However, none of the

countries that answered this question considers the benefits of IVET transnantional

mobility less than intermediate for the VET institutions.

Where the other potential beneficiaries are concerned (employers either receiving

IVET mobility participants or hiring former participants and branch organisations), the

picture is less clear and less positive. First of all, various countries indicated that they

did not know what the benefits for these categories might be or they did not have

any information on this. This means that only a limited number of countries have

actually answered this question, which means that these outcomes have to be taken

with even more caution then the outcomes in general (see also chapter 2).


Concerning employers who receive participants on a transnational placement, out

of 21 countries providing an answer to this question, only three countries (Malta,

Portugal and Slovenia) state straightforward that the benefits of mobility will be

high for these employers. Poland differentiates its answer depending on the type of

benefits (e.g.: high: attracting new staff that will strengthen the company’s existing

potential – low: increased profitability of the company) and that it is possible that

these employers do not gain any benefits at all from transnational mobility. The

other countries indicate either that these employers gain intermediate benefits

(Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus, Austria, UK, Norway and

Bulgaria) or only small benefits (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Netherlands,

and Finland).

Employers that hire employees with transnational mobility experiences are

considered to benefit even less. Only Portugal indicates that these employers will

benefit highly. Poland again indicates that the extent to which employers will gain

something from transnational mobility, will depend on the type of benefit (e.g.:

high: opportunities to start cooperation in the future – low: levelling differences in

the qualifications of staff). Another five countries (Spain, Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden

and Bulgaria) think that employers who hire former participants in transnational

mobility will reap intermediate benefits, whereas also five countries (Estonia,

Hungary, the Netherlands, Finland and the UK) think that these employers will

benefit little from the transnational experiences of their employees. At the same

time, it is important to note that none of the countries answering this question

indicate that this group of employers does not benefit at all from transnational

mobility.

For the branch organisations the picture is even more scattered. Quite a number of

countries did not answer this question or indicated that (reliable) information with

regard to the potential benefits for these organisations is not available. In the

previous chapter it was already indicated that the involvement of branch

organisations in IVET transnational mobility is overall small and insignificant. This

seems to corroborate the fact that only two countries (Portugal and Slovenia)

consider the (potential) benefits for branch organisations to be high, whereas six

countries (Germany, Spain, Austria, Finland, Norway and Bulgaria) consider these

benefits to be intermediate. Hungary indicates that branch organisations will have

no benefit from transnational mobility and the Czech Republic, Latvia, the

Netherlands and Sweden indicate that the benefits will be small. Once more,

Poland indicates that benefits will depend (e.g. high: promotion of own sector on

the international scene – low: establishing new business contacts).


Types of benefits

Apart from ranking the extent to which the different groups of potential

beneficiaries are considered to benefit in practice, countries were also asked to

explicate what these benefits entail, starting with the benefits considered most

important. This section provides examples of such benefits for each of the group

of beneficiaries.

VET institutions that sent theirparticipants on transnationalplacements

Examples of benefits mentioned are:

� Students that participate will better meet the educational standards;

� Chances to exploit foreign know-how and experience;

� Greater openness of the school towards the professional environment, including

the international labour market;

� Exchange of ideas and experiences in different European programmes;

� An increase of the personal competences of young people;

� Encouragement of personal and professional development;

� Improvement of the recruitment for those study areas in which foreign

placements are offered;

� Adaptation of curricula to the needs of the global labour market;

� Internationalisation (school and curriculum);

� Increased awareness of the management of the importance of international

cooperation;

� Enrichment of training programmes;

� Improved professional skills of IVET students.

Part of the benefits attributed to VET institutions actually concern benefits for their

participants.

IVET participants going oninternational placements

Examples of benefits for the participants in transnational mobility are:

� Improved language competences;

� Improved self-confidence;

� Personal development;

� Enhancing/improving professional skills (in relation to their study);

� Get to know how to live and work in a foreign country;

� Improvement of practical knowledge;

� Improved ability to work autonomously;

� Key skills;

� Improved opportunities on both the domestic and the international labour

market;

� International experience.


Employers receiving IVETparticipants on a transnationalmobility placement

Benefits that this group employers might have are:

� Use of qualified workforce;

� Acquisition of valuable multi-cultural experiences with a potentially further

internationalising labour force;

� Value added to the daily work;

� Get an international touch into the company;

� New impulses, ideas and knowledge of markets;

� Improved language attainment level of staff;

� Increased EU-dimension and international cooperation within the firm;

� Possibility of students bringing in new approaches and new (working) methods;

� Enhancement of the profile of the employer.

A particular ‘benefit’ that was mentioned a few times concerned the possibility of

using the international apprentices as ‘cheap labour’; it was indicated that the

hosting (or employing) company might be highly motivated to receive IVET

participants on a transnational placement, because of the cheap labour they can

provide. This is an issue for quality control both from the side of the sending VET

provider and from the side of the hosting employer or the related branch

organisation.

Employers hiring employeeswith transnational mobilityexperiences

Potential benefits mentioned for this group of employers concerned:

� Bringing in international experience;

� Better skilled workers with practical experience;

� Better language competencies of staff;

� More diverse professional skills;

� Being better able to meet the wishes of international customers;

� Experienced and competent workers.

Branch organisations The last group of potential beneficiaries of IVET transnational mobility concerns

branch organisations. Benefits mentioned for these organisation are:

� Chance to exploit foreign know-how and experiences;

� Exchange of good practices;

� Networking;

� Improved recruitment to the sector/branch/trade;

� International project experience;

� Improved competitiveness due to international competences;

� Being able to send well experienced staff to companies since being partner in

international projects.


Conclusions

The assumption that rather little is known about the benefits of IVET transnational

mobility for different groups of stakeholders, seems to be corroborated by our

study. Quite often countries indicated, in particular for employers and branch

organisations, that they could not answer the question due to lack of information.

In general, VET institutions that sent their participants on a transnational placement

and IVET participants going on a transnational placement, are considered to be the

main beneficiaries of such placements. It could be, on the one hand, that slightly

more, albeit anecdotal information about their benefits is available. On the other

hand, countries that did indicate the benefits for employers and branch

organisations, mainly ranked these benefits as being intermediate or low.

The particular benefits that were mentioned, range for each of the target groups.

For the VET institutions, the benefits seem to be mainly in the area of exchange of

experiences, internationalisation of school and curriculum, being able to profit from

knowledge and expertise from elsewhere, impact on staff development and impact

on the profile and prestige of the school. For IVET students the benefits are

predominantly personal: skills and competence development, improvement of

language skills, self development, increased self-confidence and international

experience.

For employers, the benefits seem to concern: internationalisation, increase of

international experience of their own staff (including language skills) and new

impulses from outside. For branch organisation the benefits seem to deal with

exchange of good practices, networking and international (project) experiences.

The fact that there is relatively little (‘hard’, research-based) evidence about the

benefits of transnational mobility in IVET, pleads for more research in this area;

even among IVET participants and VET institutions, since the available ‘evidence’

on the benefits for these groups is often of an anecdotal nature. However, certainly

for stakeholders as employers and branch organisations it seems to be important

to collect more and better evidence on the benefits they might gain from

transnational mobility in IVET. This is all the more important if we want to increase

their involvement in IVET transnational mobility, not in the least since they might be

more and more an important source for (co-)funding of this mobility.


7 Obstacles to mobility

Introduction

A key question in the ReferNet questionnaire concerns the obstacles to IVET

transnational mobility. One of the key issues in the MoVE-iT project was to get a

better understanding of the obstacles to transnational mobility in the context of

IVET. This chapter first describes the obstacles the 33 countries experience with

regard to transnational mobility in IVET. Next to that the solutions that have already

been implemented as well as additional solutions proposed by countries to

overcome the obstacles are described.

Specific obstacles to mobility

Twenty five obstacles tomobility

The questionnaire contained 25 predefined obstacles to IVET transnational

mobility. Respondents were asked to indicate to which extent each of these items

really does form an obstacles for transnational mobility in their country (ranging

form no relevance = 0, low relevance = 1, medium relevance = 2 to high relevance

= 3). Were applicable, countries was asked to add additional obstacles not

included in the list. For each of the obstacles considered relevant (independent of

the magnitude of relevance) countries were asked whether solutions were found to

overcome these obstacles or whether any solutions were proposed to tackle the

specific obstacles. In addition countries were asked if there were any other

proposals for enhancing mobility.

Countries differ substantially in the extent to which they experience obstacles. If

the ranking of obstacles is split, with obstacles ranked as either of high or medium

relevance being taken as more or less serious obstacles and with obstacles ranked

as either of low or no relevance as minor or non-existent obstacles, the variation

between countries becomes all the more evident (see table 7.1). Some countries

experience hardly any obstacles, with Finland and Norway being the ‘most

extreme’ examples. None of the listed obstacles has for them a high or medium

relevance. Other countries (e.g.: Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary,

Sweden, Slovenia, the Slovak Republic) only rank a few obstacles as being of high

or medium relevance. On the other side of the spectrum are countries that rank a

substantial number of obstacles being of high or medium relevance, with here

Portugal and Poland being the ‘extreme’ cases (each 22 obstacles), followed by

the Netherlands (18 obstacles) and Turkey and the UK (each 17 obstacles). Given

the substantial variation between countries in the extent to which they appear to

experience obstacles as being serious hindrances to IVET transnational mobility, it

is difficult to detect patterns and draw conclusions. Nevertheless, some

remarkable issues emerge:


� The fact that there is no national policy with regard to IVET transnational

mobility seems not to influence the extent to which more or less obstacles are

experienced. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are among the countries that

indicated that such a policy is lacking, which as such is perceived as an

obstacle. At the same time they are among the countries that experience

relatively little obstacles as being of more than an intermediate relevance.

� An active transnational mobility policy –as, for instance, reflected in the number

of (bilateral) mobility programmes in place- can help remove obstacles, but

does not necessarily do so. On the one hand, the fact that Finland, Sweden and

Norway seem to experience no or little obstacles could be explained by the

relatively active mobility policy in these countries. Finland also provides the

example were the organisation and implementation of all mobility programmes

is the responsibility of one specialised organisation. On the other hand, the

Netherlands are an example of a country with a relatively active mobility policy

(at least until a couple of years ago). At the same time, the Netherlands is also

one of the countries that mentions a substantial number of obstacles being

medium to highly relevant.

� New Member States do not experience more obstacles for IVET transnational

mobility than the “old Member States”. The reverse seems to be more the case.

There is no straightforward explanation for this fact.

Of course, obstacles are not necessarily of the same weight. Nevertheless, it

seems that more experience with IVET transnational mobility does not

automatically lead to less obstacles, at least to less experienced obstacles.


Table 7.1: Obstacles and their rating per country

Obstacles BE1 CZ DK DE EE EL ES FR IE IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT SI

1. Problems of legal nature (permits, visa, socialsecurity rights and taxes)

0 1 0 2 0 - - 1 1 3 0 2 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 2

2. Problems with international coverage ofinsurances

0 1 1 9 0 - 0 0 1 3 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 1 0

3. Lack of information about finding workplacements, financing and handling procedures

1 2 - 1 2 - 1 3 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 3 1

4. Lack of networks for exchange of knowledgeand experience with mobility

3 3 2 3 1 - 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 3 2

5. Mobility is not a priority of national VET policy 1 3 0 0 3 - 1 2 0 3 0 0 3 3 2 3 2 9 3 3 0

6. Lack of cooperation between Ministries 9 3 0 9 3 - 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 1 1 2 9 2 2 0

7. Little emphasis on language learning in IVET 0 3 0 3 2 - 0 2 3 3 0 2 2 0 2 1 3 2 3 2 0

8. Lack of recognition of qualifications obtainedin another country

0 1 0 3 2 - 0 3 0 3 0 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 2 3 2

9. Lack of promotion or support of transnationalmobility by branch organisations

1 3 0 2 9 - 2 2 1 9 0 2 3 3 2 - 3 2 3 3 0

10. Lack of interest and stimulation oftransnational mobility by social partners

1 3 0 0 2 - 1 9 9 9 0 1 2 3 2 0 3 2 3 3 3

11. Employers do not see the benefits oftransnational mobility

0 3 3 2 1 - 0 2 0 2 0 3 0 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3

12. Employers do not know how to handle atransnational placement

9 3 2 0 1 - 1 2 2 3 0 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 3

13. VET institutions do not have a strategy orpolicy on transnational mobility

2 2 3 2 2 - 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 0 2 9 3 3 0

14. Lack of autonomy of VET institutions tomake decisions on transnational mobility

0 0 0 0 0 - 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 9 3 2 0

15. VET institutions lack capacity on managingtransnational projects

2 2 2 3 3 - 1 2 2 0 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 0

16. VET institutions don’t know what can belearned from transnational mobility

1 1 1 0 1 - 0 1 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 2 3 2 2 0

17. A placement abroad does not fit in thehome school curriculum

2 0 0 2 2 - 0 3 3 0 0 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 0

18. Lack of quality placements 0 1 2 1 2 - 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 0 1 1 2 3 2 0

19. VET institutions meet too much bureaucracyin handling procedures

3 2 2 3 1 - 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 2

20. IVET participants do not see the benefits oftransnational mobility

1 0 1 0 0 - 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 0 1 3 1 1 1 0

21. IVET participants lack the courage forplacements abroad

1 1 1 0 0 - 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 0

22. A general lack of interest among IVETparticipants

1 0 2 0 0 - 0 2 0 1 0 1 2 3 0 1 1 1 2 2 0

23. IVET participants do not have enoughlanguage skills

0 3 1 1 1 - 2 3 2 2 0 3 2 0 3 1 3 2 2 3 0

24. IVET participants lack finances for aplacement abroad

0 3 1 2 1 - 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 2

25. IVET participants are restricted byobligations at home (jobs, family, friendships

2 0 1 0 2 - 0 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 0

Total obstacles high priority 6 10 8 5 3 - 4 7 10 10 2 2 2 13 1 12 18 8 22 22 3

Total obstacles low priority 17 4 16 6 8 - 20 10 13 6 2 9 9 6 8 12 7 11 3 3 5

1 Data only concern the Flemish speaking community; no data were obtained from the French speaking community


Table 7.1: Obstacles and their rating per country (continued)

Obstacles SK FI SE UK IS LI NO BG RO HR TR SW Tot.3

Tot.2

Tot.1

Tot.0

1. Problems of legal nature (permits, visa, socialsecurity rights and taxes)

1 1 1 3 0 0 0 3 1 1 3 2 3 6 9 7

2. Problems with international coverage ofinsurances

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 9 - 0 2 1 2 10 13

3. Lack of information about finding workplacements, financing and handling procedures

2 1 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 - 2 3 5 8 13 1

4. Lack of networks for exchange of knowledgeand experience with mobility

2 1 2 2 2 2 0 3 3 - 2 3 12 10 6 1

5. Mobility is not a priority of national VET policy 3 2 2 3 3 0 0 2 3 3 2 2 13 8 2 8

6. Lack of cooperation between Ministries 1 2 0 0 3 0 0 2 3 - 2 0 5 6 6 11

7. Little emphasis on language learning in IVET 2 0 2 3 9 1 1 0 0 - 3 1 8 9 4 9

8. Lack of recognition of qualifications obtained inanother country

2 0 2 1 2 0 0 3 3 - 2 9 7 9 6 8

9. Lack of promotion or support of transnationalmobility by branch organisations

3 2 2 2 3 2 0 0 3 - 1 3 10 10 3 5

10. Lack of interest and stimulation of transnationalmobility by social partners

0 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 3 3 3 3 10 9 3 7

11. Employers do not see the benefits oftransnational mobility

2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 9 3 2 2 7 15 4 2

12. Employers do not know how to handle atransnational placement

3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 9 - 2 2 5 12 8 2

13. VET institutions do not have a strategy orpolicy on transnational mobility

2 1 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 - 3 3 12 10 6 2

14. Lack of autonomy of VET institutions to makedecisions on transnational mobility

0 1 1 0 9 0 2 3 0 - 3 9 2 3 5 16

15. VET institutions lack capacity on managingtransnational projects

3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 1 - 2 NA 6 16 3 4

16. VET institutions don’t know what can belearned from transnational mobility

0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 - 2 NA 1 7 12 9

17. A placement abroad does not fit in the homeschool curriculum

1 0 2 0 3 3 1 - 1 - 1 9 4 10 6 8

18. Lack of quality placements 2 1 2 2 2 2 0 2 9 - 3 0 2 13 9 5

19. VET institutions meet too much bureaucracy inhandling procedures

2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 - 3 NA 16 10 3 1

20. IVET participants do not see the benefits oftransnational mobility

0 1 2 3 1 1 1 0 1 - 0 - 3 1 15 11

21. IVET participants lack the courage forplacements abroad

1 1 2 3 2 3 1 0 9 - 1 - 3 8 13 4

22. A general lack of interest among IVETparticipants

0 1 1 3 1 2 2 0 1 - 1 - 2 7 11 10

23. IVET participants do not have enough languageskills

2 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 3 - 8 11 7 5

24. IVET participants lack finances for a placementabroad

2 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 - 10 12 8 1

25. IVET participants are restricted by obligationsat home (jobs, family, friendships

1 1 2 3 3 2 2 0 1 - 1 - 6 10 8 5

Total obstacles high priority 4 0 2 17 7 3 0 5 8 4 17 5

Total obstacles low priority 10 9 17 8 10 8 7 7 0 1 8 5

Legenda: 0 = no relevance; 1 = low relevance; 2 = medium relevance; 3 = high relevance; 9 = don’t know

Notes:

Switzerland states with regard to obstacles 3 and 4, that this obstacle is of high relevance where the Swiss apprenticeship system is

concerned, but only of low relevance for participation in Leonardo da Vinci. It regards obstacles 15, 16 and 19 not applicable to the

Swiss situation. Concerning obstacles 20-25 it is stated that IVET participants could not be consulted in the context of filling out this

questionnaire (there is no existing research in this area). As far as other stakeholders have been consulted (companies and apprentice

coordinators) the picture seems to be unclear and is not considered representative.


Although there are differences between countries with regard to the amount of

obstacles experienced, there are to a certain extent similarities with regard to the

obstacles that matter most. Taking all obstacles into consideration, the following

ranking emerges based on the number of times an obstacle was ranked as either

of high relevance or of medium relevance (obstacles within each group also

ordered according to their relative ranking).

High scoring obstacles (mentioned 15 times or more as highly/intermediate

relevant)

� VET institutions meet too much bureaucracy in handling procedures

� VET institutions do not have a strategy or policy on transnational mobility

� Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge and experiences with mobility

� VET institutions lack capacity on managing transnational projects

� Employers do not see the benefits of transnational mobility

� IVET participants lack the finances for a placement abroad

� Mobility is not a priority of national VET policy

� Lack of promotion or support of transnational mobility by branch organisations

� IVET participants do not have enough language skills

� Lack of interest and stimulation of transnational mobility by social partners

� Little emphasis on language learning in IVET

� Employers do not know how to handle a transnational placement.

� Lack of recognition of qualifications obtained in another country

� IVET participants are restricted by obligations at home (jobs, family, friends)

� Lack of quality placements.

Medium scoring (mentioned 9-14 times as highly/intermediate relevant)

� A placement does not fit in the home school curriculum

� Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling

procedures

� Lack of cooperation between ministries

� IVET participants lack the courage for placements abroad

� A general lack of interest among IVET participants

� Problems of legal nature (permits, visa, social security rights)

Low scoring (mentioned less than 9 times as highly/intermediate relevant)

� VET institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility

� Lack of autonomy of VET institutions to make decisions on transnational mobility

� IVET participants do not see the benefits of transnational mobility

� Problems with international coverage of insurances.

Looking at the “highest scoring” obstacles, one could say that there are four types

or clusters of obstacles, although they are related and cannot be completely

separated:

� Policy related obstacles;

� Obstacles related to the wider environment of IVET;

� Obstacles related to the VET institutions, and

� Obstacles at the individual level.


The first group of obstacles (the policy related ones) contains obstacles like the

lack of a national policy for IVET transnational mobility (or at least a lack of priority

in national policy); little emphasis on language learning in IVET; lack of recognition

of qualifications obtained in other countries and the (European) bureaucracy with

which VET institutions are confronted if they want to apply for transnational

mobility projects. The latter is in line with the fact that one of the most important

suggestions for transnational mobility in IVET under the new Lifelong Learning

Programme also concerned the reduction of bureaucracy and the simplification of

application and reporting procedures. To a certain extent a lack of quality

placements can be grouped under this heading as well, though this obstacle is

also related to the second group of obstacles, those related to the wider

environment of IVET.

Obstacles in this second group concern the lack of interest, support, promotion

and stimulation from the side of the branch organisations and the social partners

and the fact that employers do not see the benefits of transnational placements

and do not seem to know how to handle transnational placements. One could say

that to a certain extent, social partners in general, but employers and their

organisations in particular, at least partially bear the responsibility for quality

placements and the recognition of qualifications obtained abroad. That the

‘demand side’ of the labour market is placed so prominently among the obstacles

for transnational mobility in IVET, actually strengthens the earlier findings with

regard to their rather restricted involvement in IVET transnational mobility. Whether

this is due to the fact that they are too little aware of the benefits of transnational

mobility (of which little is known in general as indicated in the previous chapter) or

to other factor as well cannot be concluded on the basis of this investigation.

However, in general it is known that employers, in particular the SMEs do

encounter difficulties with either sending their staff off on training (whether

transnational or not), due to organisational hindrances such as staff replacement

during absence, or with providing the necessary guidance and supervision while

training apprentices themselves. The latter of course, also influences the quality of

(transnational) work placements.

The third group of obstacles pertains to the VET institutions, and encompasses

obstacles like the lack of strategies or policies with regard to transnational mobility

and/or the lack of capacity in managing international projects. Up to a certain level,

one can hold VET institutions themselves responsible for the lack of networks for

exchanging knowledge and experiences with transnational mobility. As

professional institutions, they should be capable of organising this. At the same

time however, lack of managerial support for transnational projects as well as the

day-to-day obligations stemming from their primary tasks and from legislation and

regulation can further impinge such professional capacity.

The fourth group of obstacles resides on the individual level and concerns the lack

of finances for placements abroad, the lack of language skills and the restrictions

stemming from the home situation (jobs, family, friends). Even though situated on

the individual level, these obstacles are clearly related to the policy level (with the

exception of the restrictions experienced due to jobs, family and friends).


What becomes clear, is that the obstacles for mobility do not lie so much in the

formal sphere. Problems of a legal nature or problems with the coverage of

international insurance are relatively little mentioned as being a serious hindrance

for transnational mobility. Only Turkey, Bulgaria and (surprisingly) the UK, Italy and

Luxembourg see problems of a legal nature as an obstacle of high relevance.

Problems with the coverage of international insurances is even less seen as an

obstacle of high relevance.

Other obstacles to mobility The question with regard to transnational mobility in IVET on which we reported in

the previous sub-section, concerned a closed, pre-coded question; specific

obstacles were mentioned with the request to countries to indicate how relevant

the particular obstacles were for them (and how they solved or proposed to solve

these obstacles; see next section). In addition to this, countries were asked to

mention any other obstacles encountered. To a certain extent, the additional

obstacles reported have a country-specific character, but at the same time, part of

the obstacles mentioned exceed the specificities of country boundaries. Table 7.2

provides a summary of the additional obstacles mentioned per country.

Table 7.2: Other obstacles mentioned by countries included in the study

Czech Republic

� Lack of support of promoters by their founders (regional authorities)

� Weak dissemination of best practices

Germany

� Allowing time off for mobility for apprentices in the dual system by their learning companies (especially in

economic hard times);

� Bureaucracy around proposals (Leonardo da Vinci)

� Lack of possibilities to set aside time for mobility (holds for enterprises and schools);

� Failing support in writing applications (including the existing support structure);

� Too little emphasis on individual mobility (Leonardo da Vinci);

� Too little attention for network building (e.g. preparatory visits)

� Allowances for daily and material costs are too small (Leonardo da Vinci)

Particular obstacles (or disadvantages) for companies sending their apprentices on transnational mobility

(especially within the dual system)e.g.:

� Loss of man power during the transnational placements

� Disruption of working processes

� Costs

Particular obstacles (or disadvantages) for companies that receive transnational mobility participants, e.g.:

� Guidance and counselling effort needed;

� Costs

� Disruption of working processes

France

� No replacement (of employees of on training/transnational work placements)

� Not enough employees in the company


Ireland

� A promoter has found that in certain countries employers fear unpaid student placements such as in Milan

where Trade Unions need assurances that jobs for paid workers are not being endangered. Host partner has to

complete documents and give details of students to be received.

� Students on certain healthcare and childcare placements were required to have Garda / Police Clearance prior

to commencement of the placement (is the case in more countries, e.g. Wales);

� Participants felt they were not adequately informed about procedures relating to reporting prior to departure;

� Participants felt they were not adequately briefed about procedures relating to work placements prior to

departure;

� All participants who were in host countries requiring the use of a second language felt that additional language

tuition was necessary prior to departure on placement. Emphasis should also be placed on teaching

participants vocationally specific applied language skills and vocabulary.

� A small number of students encountered difficulties with host employers which would have been prevented had

the employer been informed of procedures specific to transnational placements;

� Reporting Processes are too detailed, with duplication of evidence required. Also time frames for deadlines are

often too short.

� Participants felt that too much reporting was expected but during and post – placement. Many thought that

there was duplication in reporting also;

� All participants felt that additional language tuition was necessary prior to departure. All cited a need for

vocationally specific applied language skills and vocabulary.

Italy

� The period of volunteering is not recognised as a credit in education

� The length of the work placement is too long

� The age limit reduces participation

� Problems in finding lodgings – isolation.

Cyprus

� Lack of opportunities for submission of personal applications by interested persons as these must be submitted

by their institutions or enterprises

Lithuania

� The strict rules for administering the budget makes co-financing difficult

Luxembourg

� Due to the strong Luxembourg economy people don’t feel the need to go abroad.

� There is a low “mobility spirit” among students, enterprises, VET-institutions and stakeholders in Luxembourg

Hungary

� IVET participants are restricted by compulsory practical training

� Mobility budget is not sufficient

The Netherlands

� IVET participants lack information on the possibility for placements abroad

� Employers organisation states that many sectors, branches and employers do not see relevance, benefits or

added value of transnational mobility.

Sweden

� Lack of interest in learning foreign languages other than English

United Kingdom

� Many IVET students are less successful in their general education than students who follow academic

pathways, so their colleges tend to concentrate on the immediate challenges of success and qualification.


Norway

� Outgoing: Lack of financial resources for preparations (particularly SMEs), lack of non-English language skills,

lack of labour / tight labour market (SMEs don’t wish to send apprentices).

� Incoming: High cost country, difficult language, very small companies without capacity to cater for foreign

students.

Romania

� Deficient communication between projects’ partners

� Changes in the personnel structure of the external partner

� Logistic problems (communication).

Some of the additional obstacles mentioned, overlap more or less with the 25

obstacles presented in the previous sub-section. At the same time, part of the

additional obstacles are in line with some of the suggestions for the new Lifelong

Learning Programme, as discussed in chapter 3. These are:

� Too little emphasis on/possibilities for individual mobility;

� Budgetary problems, in particular the daily rates for mobility participants;

� The need for more emphasis on language learning, in particular during the

preparation of the transnational placement;

� The need for including preparatory activities in the eligible costs.

What this set of additional obstacles also makes clear, is that enterprises and in

particular SMEs encounter specific problems in sending or receiving mobility

participants, since they either lack the capacity to do so or are not able to find

appropriate replacements for the time of the placement.

Solutions

With regard to the 25 obstacles, countries was also asked whether or not they had

found a solution to overcome these obstacles. Table 7.3 provides a summary of

the solutions that have been mentioned.

Overall, most solutions tend in the direction of providing more and better

information, disseminating good practices and products (manuals, web portals,

etc.) and awareness campaigns, either to bring mobility possibilities to the

attention of stakeholders (employers, employers organisations and branch

organisations in particular) or to make them aware of the benefits of transnational

mobility in IVET. Some more specific solutions are:

� Favouring network applications under the new Lifelong Learning Programme;

� Creation of (virtual) communities of practice;

� Preparatory language courses prior to the actual placement;

� Inclusion of internationalisation strategies as a compulsory part in the strategic

plans of VET institutions;

� Modularisation of curricula;

� Reciprocal placements (to overcome the replacement problems in SMEs).


Table 7.3: Solutions found to overcome the obstacles

Obstacles Solutions

1. Problems of legal nature (permits,

visa, social security rights and taxes)

� More and better information about legal procedures and required

documents (e.g. providing information and documentation needed to

obtain visa through NA web site)

� Adaptation of national (tax or IVET) legislation

� Supporting documents/confirmation letters of national agencies

2. Problems with international

coverage of insurances

� Additional insurances in own country

� Better use of existing insurance possibilities (at European level)

3. Lack of information about finding

work placements, financing and

handling procedures

� More and better information (e.g. folders, information campaigns,

information seminars, good practices)

� Better contacts with other national agencies

� Strengthening guidance services

� Better use of existing networks (e.g. Eures network, National Resource

Centre for Guidance)

� Meetings for project leaders

� Publications and manuals from the NA Leonardo da Vinci

4. Lack of networks for exchange of

knowledge and experience with

mobility

� Stimulating the forming of ‘networks’ of VET providers through national

policies (e.g. favouring ‘network applications’ in Leonardo funding

applications; active stimulation of network creation by relevant

authorities)

� Creating (virtual) communities of practice (e.g. sharing experiences and

good practices, organising seminars)

� Creation of web portal with access to all available placements (European

level or through NAs)

5. Mobility is not a priority of

national VET policy

� National mobility programmes needed

6. Lack of cooperation between

Ministries

� Create a coordination team and monitor activities

7. Little emphasis on language

learning in IVET

� Preparatory language courses before going on mobility

� Improve language skills of teachers/trainers

� Increase hours for language teaching, but with an emphasis on

vocationally specific applied language skills and vocabulary

� National innovation programme for language learning in IVET

8. Lack of recognition of

qualifications obtained in another

country

� Europass

� ECVET/EQF

� Recognition of prior learning

9. Lack of promotion or support of

transnational mobility by branch

organisations

� More targeted/better information (campaigns) for branch organisations

� Targeted actions to include sectoral organisations in the promotion of

(worker) mobility


Obstacles Solutions

10. Lack of interest and stimulation

of transnational mobility by social

partners

� More targeted/better information (campaigns) for social partners

11. Employers do not see the

benefits of transnational mobility

� Make benefits clear through good practices

� Provide guidance and counselling through branch organisations

12. Employers do not know how to

handle a transnational placement

� Providing (practical) information and support on sending and hosting

IVET participants on placements abroad

� Disseminating good practices

13. VET institutions do not have a

strategy or policy on transnational

mobility

� Disseminate examples of VET institutions with a transnational mobility

strategy

� Assist VET colleges in developing an operational internationalisation

strategy

� Make internationalisation strategies an obligatory part of VET

institutions’ strategically plans

� (bi-)annual update of strategic internationalisation policy

14. Lack of autonomy of VET

institutions to make decisions on

transnational mobility

15. VET institutions lack capacity on

managing transnational projects

� Training of VET staff, in particular project training/seminars for

coordinators

� Produce (practical) handbooks

� Organise tailored support

� Secure (funding of) staff responsible for European projects

� Some VET institutions have a strong internal support structure for

exchange of information and tools, via intranet, an internationalisation

desk and supportive and stimulating internationalisation officers

16. VET institutions don’t know what

can be learned from transnational

mobility

� Better information, especially about good practices

� Awareness raising activities

17. A placement abroad does not fit

in the home school curriculum

� Thorough preparation of the placement programme

� Apply individual study programmes in which learning goals of placement

are defined

� Modular curricula

18. Lack of quality placements � Formulate clear quality criteria

� Reciprocal placements

� Information and awareness raising campaigns

19. VET institutions meet too much

bureaucracy in handling procedures

� Simplification of application and financial procedures

� Targeted workshops for promoters


Obstacles Solutions

20. IVET participants do not see the


� Let former participants tell about their experiences (e.g. at recruitment

campaigns, through media/folders, etc.)

� Dissemination of good practices (or good experiences)

� Introduce information packages for students at IVET colleges

21. IVET participants lack the

courage for placements abroad

� Exchange of experiences between mobility participants and IVET

participants that might want to go on a placement

� Dissemination of good practices

� Adequate preparation before the placement

� Exchange those who went on a transnational placement and those who

might want to go

22. A general lack of interest among

IVET participants

� Awareness campaigns

� Dissemination of good practices

23. IVET participants do not have

enough language skills

� Preparatory language courses before going on a placement

� Strengthening language skills of teachers/trainers

24. IVET participants lack finances

for a placement abroad

� Adapt daily rates to expense level of hosting country

� Organise additional funding (target group oriented)

25. IVET participants are restricted

by obligations at home (jobs, family,

friendships

In addition to solutions already implemented, countries were also asked which

solutions they would like to suggest for overcoming the 25 specific obstacles (see

table 7.4). On the one hand, these proposed solutions are a bit less concrete and

specific than the solutions already found. On the other hand, the proposed

solutions are –to a large extent- of the same nature as the solutions found,

emphasising the necessity of providing more and better information, of exchange

of knowledge and experiences, of disseminating good practices and products and

of raising the awareness among stakeholders.


Table 7.4: Solutions proposed to overcome the obstacles

Obstacles Solutions

1. Problems of legal nature (permits,

visa, social security rights and

taxes)

� Provide supporting documents signed by head of NA

2. Problems with international

coverage of insurances

3. Lack of information about finding

work placements, financing and

handling procedures

� More promotion of mobility e.g. for workplace tutors

� Supplementing IVET curricula with the required knowledge and include

issue in further teacher training

� Strengthening guidance services

� Work-shops, Awareness conferences, publicizing leaflets, brochures

etc.: various information activities

4. Lack of networks for exchange of

knowledge and experience with

mobility

� International mobility-seminars and contact-seminars organised by the

EU

� Offer a discussion forum for IVET participants

� Establishment of (virtual) communities of practice, organisation of

European project leaders meetings

� Creating IVET networks, collecting information by career advisors at

schools

� Creation of web portal at national level

� Stimulating promoters to disseminate knowledge and experiences

through mass media

5. Mobility is not a priority of

national VET policy

� The government needs to develop comprehensive national policies

about mobility of VET as already exists in the higher education system

(numbers, percentages, guidelines)

� Implementation of a national mobility programme

6. Lack of cooperation between

Ministries

� Further joint initiatives and synergy between European DGs, ministries at

national level (education, economics, employment) and between

programmes (Lifelong Learning, ESF etc).

� Setting up a coordination team, with regular meetings to monitor

activities

7. Little emphasis on language

learning in IVET

� Student exchange possibilities (not only the work placements) would

motivate the foreign language learning

� A national strategy for improving the language attainment level

� Integrating vocational language and cultural competencies as quality

aspects of placements abroad

� Increasing the number of hours of obligatory foreign language

instruction, teacher exchange involving different European countries


qualifications obtained in another

country

� Further implementation of Europass

� Promoting Europass in the employers’ community

� Creating a network of institutions authorised to recognise vocational

qualifications

� Implementing a system of national vocational qualifications


Obstacles Solutions

9. Lack of promotion or support of

transnational mobility by branch

organisations

� Awareness raising actions, training activities on capacity.

� Developing a programme for including sectoral organisations in the

promotion of workers mobility

� Decentralisation of mobility projects to local/regional level

� Initiating bilateral meetings with the competent organisations to achieve

efficient co-operation (participation in continuing training sessions and in

events of vocational training, publication in the press of target groups,

assessment of needs).

10. Lack of interest and stimulation

of transnational mobility by social

partners

� Agenda setting of Mobility on Social Partners’ agenda, at national and

European level (Employers organisations have some interest, trade

unions none so far)

� Initiating and supporting IVET mobility projects under ESF SOP-HRD

11. Employers do not see the


� Marketing / Promotion

� Awareness raising actions

� Promoting good European practices

� Adopting more favourable legislations

� Presenting information on mobility projects to employers

�

12. Employers do not know how to

handle a transnational placement

� Dissemination of approaches and tools developed in Leonardo pilot and

mobility projects.

� Special info material and awareness campaigns on hosting students

from abroad

� Introducing flexible forms of employment and adapting labour law

regulations

� Offer of responsible authorities for employers how to prepare

transnational placements,

� Better co-operation between employers and IVET providers

13. VET institutions do not have a

strategy or policy on transnational

mobility

� Make it part of the process of quality assurance in institutions

� Funding and training for development and knowledge exchange on

internationalisation strategies and policies at school and company level

� Oblige IVET institutions to prepare international mobility strategies as a

form of preparing detailed national strategies

� Dissemination of examples of VET institutions with strategy in


14. Lack of autonomy of VET

institutions to make decisions on


� Decentralization of mobility projects to local/regional level and technical

assistance

15. VET institutions lack capacity on

managing transnational projects

� Focus on internationalisation capacity in VET institutions and companies,

dissemination and exchange of good practices.

� Promotion of good European and national practices

� Introducing independent full-time positions for staff responsible for

international projects in IVET institutions (e.g. managers of transnational

projects)

� Training and technical assistance


Obstacles Solutions

16. VET institutions don’t know

what can be learned from


� Different activities have been put into place to convince them (e.g.

quality awards including internationalization criteria)

� Promotion of good European and national practices

� Dissemination of information on benefits of transnational mobility

17. A placement abroad does not fit

in the home school curriculum

� Introducing modular IVET curricula allowing for a flexible adaptation of

the teaching content to the requirement of the work environment

18. Lack of quality placements � Develop databases of employers willing to employ IVET participants

19. VET institutions meet too much

bureaucracy in handling procedures

� Simplify the (financial) procedures for project implementation and avoid

bureaucracy

� Create more intermediaries and customized support .

� Developing electronic circulation of documents

20. IVET participants do not see the


� Introduce information packages in IVET institutions

21. IVET participants lack the

courage for placements abroad

� Introduce work-related issues into foreign language curricula

� Introduce foreign language instruction into theoretical VET curricula.

� Organise exchange of experiences between mobility participants and

potential participants

22. A general lack of interest among

IVET participants

� Dissemination and promotion of good European and national practices

at the local, regional and national levels

� Radio and TV programmes discussing such issues

� Publication of information materials

23. IVET participants do not have

enough language skills

� Increase the linguistic training of students in IVET

� Dissemination of good practices in preparatory programmes on

language and culture.

� Focus on language support and guidance at the workplace abroad.

� Organisation of intensive language training for participants with the

participation of language teachers from the target country

24. IVET participants lack finances

for a placement abroad

� Adapt daily rates to expense level of hosting country

� EU grants could be increased

� Scholarships for the poorest participants

� More funding by the state

25. IVET participants are restricted

by obligations at home (jobs, family,

friendships

� Shorter minimum duration of placements could partly solve this problem

� Develop solutions facilitating geographical and vocational mobility, e.g.

ensuring child care


Other measures to stimulatetransnational mobility in IVET

Finally, countries were asked whether they had any other suggestions for

stimulating IVET transnational mobility in their own country. Not all countries

provided additional suggestions. The answers of the countries that did give

suggestions re summarised in table 7.5. Once again, part of these solutions

underline the necessity of more and better information, not only on mobility

opportunities and procedures, but also on actual mobility practices (including good

statistical data) to feed back into policy making at different levels. The need for

sharing information, knowledge and experience is also underlined once more.

Table 7.5: Other suggestions for stimulating IVET transnational mobility

Denmark

� A number of publications/handbooks/tools have been produced in order to help practitioners and stakeholders

with various practical, organisational, pedagogical and strategic aspects of placements abroad

Germany

� Establishment of support structures for applicants at school and company level.

Estonia

� Long-term international exchanges of IVET students

Spain

� It would be very positive that mobility is taken into account when the education authorities plan the activities,

objectives and means for VET studies.

Ireland

� FETAC is working towards enabling mobility of holders of their awards through the development of a clear and

transparent awards system. Holders of FETAC awards will automatically have the certificate supplement issued

in two languages.

� FETAC also cites the recognition and achievement of awards and the access to awards , and the achievable

goal (module) at the end of the placement experience as motivational factors.

Italy

� For the mobility actions it will be important to better prepare the individual or group experience abroad through

a better financing of preparatory visits and activities in general, the elimination of taxation on grants, the

reduction of residence permit obstacles with some countries.

� Other obstacles to transnational mobility are: knowledge of foreign languages, difficulties in settling abroad,

social security and national differences in taxation schemes. Mobility activities should be integrated with cities

Twinning’s Project

Latvia

� Dissemination of good practice of Leonardo da Vinci : regional seminars, publications in national , regional and

branch newspapers, magazines, internet.

Lithuania

� Lithuania is now facing the quite important problem of social emigration, therefore mobility at this very moment

is not a priority. Efforts are mostly put to hold the emigration, not to lose the qualified workers whose lack

started to be felt in several sectors in Lithuania already.

� Project manager position in each IVET institution is still a pursuit and not the reality – when it becomes a reality

more projects for IVET and of better quality are submitted and financed, more IVET participants could have

transnational mobility experience.


Hungary

� Strengthening the synergy of transnational mobility and IVET at institutional level

� Better exploitation of the opportunities of teacher training, enhancing the European dimension of teacher

training, preparing the teachers for the challenges of transnational co-operations and mobility

� More user-friendly and transparent approach of the taxation system concerning the beneficiaries

Malta

� Incentives to promote IVET mobility as part of a degree/qualifications, since it is not obligatory for students to

undergo placement as part of the accreditation;

� Promote further the benefits of training placements in terms of increasing one’s employability

Poland

� Including research on IVET mobility in the statistics published by the Central Statistical Office

� Development of bilateral cooperation concerning mobility between IVET institutions

� Development of a coherent migration policy, similarly to other EU countries

� Development of programmes relating to the recruitment of qualified labour from abroad

� Preparing a diagnosis of the IVET mobility situation as a study which is regularly updated on an annual basis

Portugal

� The essential is to have more and better information in schools and companies, to students and workers.

� Programmes with less bureaucratic procedures, quite clear goals and expected results and enough budget.

� Open mind of schools and company leaders about mobility benefits and advantages.

� To value mobility in educational and professional environment.

Slovak Republic

� Especially, secondary vocational schools lack managerial capacity for mobility. Mobility is often organised by a

language teacher as an extra activity. It is necessary to establish coordinators of international cooperation at

secondary schools.

� Mobility should be part of regional development strategies financed from EU structural funds and other sources.

� Mobility should be understood as an integral part of VET and emphasis should be put on the quality of

professional content of placements

Finland

� The international coordinators meet every year on so called Internationalization days to get the newest

information, discuss and build networks. Student fairs promote CIMOs programmes and mobility within IVET),

Audio visual productions will be launched in Autumn 2006 to promote IVET mobility. CIMOs web-services

maailmalle.net are targeted to a large public of and IVET among others. The audio visual productions will be

distributed to guidance counsellors of ninth graders and vocational institutes.

� The Worldskills 2005 competition organised in Helsinki was also a boost to make IVET more attractive and

international.

� As to removing legal obstacles, after negotiations between CIMO and the Finnish Social Security Institution

(KELA) an agreement was reached which released Leonardo da Vinci grants, and similar grants with the purpose

of supporting international placements as a part of the curricula, from being taken into account as income when

calculating the students’ right to financial aid.

� Also, a discussion forum for VET students to share their experiences should be developed. European Youth

Portal could serve a platform for this purpose.

� The role of teachers and workplace tutors in the development and internationalisation of vocational education is

essential. One of the four national priorities for LdV mobility projects in 2005 and 2006 was expert exchanges -

continuing training for teachers and instructors.

� National policy and guidelines should be prepared. Each institute should have an international coordinator, who

is responsible for the internationalisation projects.

� Finland is active in piloting the ECVET – system in national projects and follows closely the Copenhagen goals.

Results of the pilot are not yet available.


Sweden

� Handbook for international exchange: “Upplev och utforska – om internationella utbyte i skolan” (Experience

and investigate – all about international exchange in schools)

Liechtenstein

� More PR activities focused on the EUROPASS. In addition, the integration of mobility (vocational practice

abroad) in the apprenticeship could be helpful.

Romania

� More information should be disseminated (especially in relation with impact, good practices, out-comes, uses of

such a cultural and work experience etc.); diversifying of the dissemination channels: web-sites, radio,

discussion groups on Internet, local/regional newspapers, teen magazines etc.;

� The development of active partnerships with involvement of social partners, and especially, employers and

employees representatives. These actors could bring an important contribution, by developing and

strengthening the relation between education and training. As social partners do have strong relations with

similar institutions from outside Romania and could be in their interest to benefit from the transnational

experience of the mobility beneficiaries, they should be involved in transnational mobility (at least through

information regarding the benefits, competences development, team work, intercultural experience and so on);

� Designing of publicity materials in order to increase awareness of such placements and of their potential role on

personal development, work competences improvement, language skills development and of the inter/multi

cultural skills development;

� Setting up local centres for assistance and counselling for Leonardo da Vinci project promoters or the

improvement of activities employed by county school inspectors responsible for international programmes;

devising of project management guides;

� Establishment of a network of IVET centres who have experience with such projects; such a network could

create a resource centre providing information on transnational mobility and especially on types of

difficulties/obstacles encountered and the ways in which those were addressed and solved.

Switzerland

� The particularity of the dual system in Swiss IVET has certainly an impeding effect on mobility during IVET

(apprenticeship). In the current system a stay of several weeks abroad means for the apprentices an absence

from the vocational school, obliging them to catch up the subjects or leaving abroad during the vocational

school holiday. If mobility will be promoted during IVET, it is of high importance to set learning aims for the

placement and to assure the integration in a learning environment abroad, in order to avoid backlogs once the

students will have returned back home. Currently, smaller companies might have difficulties to let their

apprentice(s) leave for several weeks since manpower will be missing during the time of the placement


Conclusions

Countries differ substantially in the extent to which they experience obstacles for

transnational mobility in IVET. Some countries experience hardly any obstacles,

whereas other countries experience a large number of obstacles as of medium or

high relevance. What becomes clear is that whether or not countries have an

(active) transnational mobility policy for IVET, does not seem to have a relation with

the number of obstacles for mobility that are experienced. The only straightforward

difference is, that countries that lack such a policy, most of the time do experience

this as an obstacle for transnational mobility in IVET.

Obstacles for mobility do not lie so much in the formal or legal sphere. Problems of

a legal nature or problems with the coverage of international insurance are

relatively little mentioned as being a serious hindrance for transnational mobility.

Obstacles that are most often mentioned as barriers for IVET transnational mobility

can be grouped into four categories:

� Policy related obstacles: lack of a national policy for IVET transnational mobility,

and the (European) bureaucracy with which VET institutions are confronted;

� Obstacles related to the wider environment of IVET: this concerns mainly the

lack of interest, support, promotion and stimulation from the side of the branch

organisations and the social partners;

� Obstacles related to VET institutions: the lack of a clear vision and strategy

among VET institutions with regard to transnational mobility as well as a lack of

capacity to manage international projects;

� Obstacles at the individual level: lack of finances, lack of language skills, lack of

courage and restrictions stemming from the home situation.

The second group of obstacles, those related to the wider environment of VET, in

particular draw the attention. In the previous chapters it has been stated already

that the involvement of branch organisations and social partners (including

individual employers) in IVET transnational mobility is not very high and that in

general, the benefits for them from IVET transnational mobility are estimated as

being relatively modest. At the same time, little is know about the benefits for these

groups of stakeholders. The fact that obstacles related to the lack of interest and

support from branch organisations and social partners are so prominent among

the ‘high scoring’ obstacles is a signal that apparently a lot of work still needs to

be done to get these important group of stakeholders on board for stimulating

IVET transnational mobility.


8 Conclusions and reflections

In this study we have attempted to analyse mobility policies and practises in the

context of initial vocational education and training in 33 European countries. The

study also attempted to identify the main obstacles for mobility in IVET and the

way in which countries try to deal with these obstacles.

A main, if not the most important conclusion of this study is, that actual

participation in transnational mobility in IVET is rather low, though in most

countries steadily increasing. Nevertheless, the fact that in 30 out of 33 countries

actual participation in transnational mobility covers far less than 1% of the total

IVET population in those countries cannot be denied. Given one of the targets of

the new European Lifelong Learning Programme that will replace the Leonardo da

Vinci II Programme (among others) from 2007 onwards, i.e. raising participation in

IVET transnational mobility to 150,000 participants per year by 2013, the actual

situation makes clear that there still remains a lot to be done if we want to reach

this target. At the same time, however, this study has also shown that the data

collected with regard to actual mobility are most likely not complete and at least

not as robust as hoped. In that context we have raised the question whether or not

we have only measured the ‘tip of the iceberg’. This is a question we cannot

answer here, due to the obvious lack of good quality data on mobility in IVET. We

know that data are not complete and do not cover all mobility in IVET, but we do

not know what we have not been able to measure.

The lack of good quality and reliable data on mobility is not unique for IVET. Kelo,

Teichler and Wächter (2006)13 indicate that a lack of (high quality) data on mobility

is also a severe problem in the higher education sector. They moreover indicate

that measuring ‘mobility in education’ is a complicated task that goes well beyond

simply counting numbers if students participating in clearly delineated mobility or

exchange programmes or simply counting numbers of students of ‘foreign

nationality’. The increasingly diversifying patterns of mobility, make adequate

measurement even more complicated. The study of Kelo et al. into mobility in

higher education contains some valuable suggestions for improving the

measurement of mobility, which, with some adaptations can also be applied for

measuring mobility in IVET. Improving the availability as well as quality and

reliability of data on mobility in IVET is an absolute prerequisite for a better

understanding of the actual situation and will also help improve comparisons

between European countries on the one hand, and the understanding of what

might be done to further enhance mobility in IVET on the other hand.


13 M. Kelo, U. Teichler & B. Wächter (2006). Student mobility in European higher education. Bonn: Lemmens Verlags- & Mediengesellschaft mbH

However, for the IVET sector, lack of comprehensive and robust data on actual

mobility is not the only problem. There is also a lack of information concerning

mobility policies and programmes and their budgets, in particular where

regional/local and sectoral policies are concerned, let alone policies of individual

IVET institutions.

From this perspective as well, improvement of the collection of data and of

monitoring of mobility policies and practices is urgently needed. We want therefore

strongly recommend developing a monitoring system for monitoring transnational

mobility in IVET at different levels; national regional, sectoral, but also European

level to guarantee comparability of data. This will require, as a starting point, the

development of a concise and common set of indicators for measuring mobility

and mobility policies and practices, which can be applied in all European

countries. Developing the required monitoring system should be a shared

responsibility of the world of IVET and the world of work. Employers, employers

organisations and sectoral or branch organisations (national but also European,

e.g. UAPME, but also sectoral platforms on European level) should take on the

responsibility to investigate how data on sectoral mobility activities and

programmes can best be collected, without too much burden for individual

employers. At the same time, VET institutions and their organisations have to take

on the responsibility to improve their information on IVET participants going on a

transnational placement either through regional programmes or on their own

initiative. Such data collection could, for instance be integrated in the quality

assurance system and procedure of VET institution.

From the point of view of increasing the comparability of data, but also from the

point of view of monitoring the extent to which European mobility targets are met,

the implementation of a concise set of indicators as well as a commonly shared

methodology is necessary. Here the EU has a clear role in starting of this process.

We would recommend that in order to ensure comparability of data National

Observatories on Mobility will be established, analogue to the National

Observatories on Employment and Training.

In addition to these ‘information problems’, the lack of evidence-based information

on the benefits of transnational mobility in IVET for different stakeholders is also a

major problem. On the one hand, since assumptions regarding who benefits, what

and why, cannot be tested. On the other hand, since the motivating potential of

these benefits in activating stakeholders, cannot be used. This is therefore also an

area of urgently needed further research, though it will require a different kind of

research approach than monitoring. Further research should have both a

quantitative and a qualitative component. The quantitative component should

focus at collecting data at the enterprise level with regard to the number of

transnational placements taken on board (and by which type of enterprises), the

main reasons to host transnational placements (or not), and the benefits they gain

from it. The qualitative component should focus on a further in-depth study of how

enterprises are coping with IVET participants on a transnational placement, how

learning takes place and which specific benefits are gained by enterprises.


Knowing little or less to nothing about the benefits of transnatioal mobility in IVET,

seems to be all the more important if we look at the involvement of the demand

side; that is, employers, employers organisations and branch organisations. We

assumed that employers and their (national and regional) organisations would be

important stakeholders in IVET and mobility in IVET. This study, however, made

clear that the actual involvement of these stakeholders in IVET transnational

mobility is rather low. At the same time their lack of involvement and interest in

mobility in IVET are seen as major obstacles for enhancing it. The question then of

course is, what are the reasons for this limited involvement and interest. Given that

this study focused on the system level and has therefore not been really

undertaken from an employers perspective, limits our capacity to answer this

question. Though there are some indications why employers are not more involved

in mobility and why they do not show more interest in it. First of all, there is the

awareness issue; employers might not know about the possibilities of participating

in mobility programmes or they might not know what benefits they could gain from

it. Secondly, the prime interests of employers do not have to coincide with the

(learning) objectives of transnational mobility in IVET and they might therefore have

other priorities. Thirdly, employers will probably have to deal with all kinds of

practical problems if they want to participate in mobility programmes; e.g. finding

replacements for their own trainees during a work placement abroad, disruption of

work process when either sending or receiving a trainee, the necessity to provide

for work place tutors (both in time and in competences), and not the least, dealing

with the required administrative procedures.

However, there are apparently benefits for employers; both for those receiving an

IVET participant on a transnational placement and those hiring an employee with a

transnational placement experience. These benefits are: internationalisation,

increase of international experience of their own staff (including language skills)

and new impulses from outside. For branch organisation the benefits seem to deal

with exchange of good practices, networking and international (project)

experiences.

Nevertheless, if we want to stimulate mobility in IVET in terms of increasing IVET

participants taking up work placements in other European countries, increased

cooperation with and involvement of employers is inevitable. Such cooperation and

involvement is required at all levels (European, national, regional and sectoral), for

which a combined top-down and bottom-up approach seems to be required.

Again, here lies an important responsibility for employers and sectoral/branch

organisations, both at the national level and at the European level. They have to

make their members aware of the potential and the benefits of transnational

mobility in IVET and to stimulate and support them to participate. Some of the

countries mentioned in this context the need to build more customised and

regional support structures, which are close to the enterprises concerned.

It will also require that the education sector, individual IVET institutions included,

will show its willingness to cooperate with employers and will take their needs and

problems serious.


Though it is very important to try to remove the obstacles related to the wider

environment of IVET, these are not the only ones to be solved. This study showed

that there are still substantial obstacles to be overcome in other areas as well.

These concern:

� Policy related obstacles: lack of a national policy for IVET transnational mobility,

and the (European) bureaucracy with which VET institutions are confronted;

� Obstacles related to VET institutions: the lack of a clear vision and strategy

among VET institutions with regard to transnational mobility as well as a lack of

capacity to manage international projects;

� Obstacles at the individual level: lack of finances, lack of language skills, lack of

courage and restrictions stemming from the home situation.

On the one hand, these obstacles make clear that not only employers, but also

policy makers and IVET institutions need to be made more aware of the potential

and benefits of mobility, and that they need to start developing a vision and a

mobility strategy. On the other hand, the obstacles also make clear that efforts to

increase mobility in IVET can only be successful if different stakeholders succeed

to cooperate and to transcend their own specific (short-term) interests.

One of the objectives of this study was to analyse the possible relations between

specific features of national IVET systems as well as mobility policies and actual

mobility. We have not been able to trace any such relationships, not in the least

since most countries did not really differ with regard to the dependent variable: i.e.

participation in mobility. Of course, countries do differ in terms of the absolute

number of IVET participants in mobility, but this is related to the size of the

countries and the size of their IVET population. The proportion of the IVET

population that actually participates in transnational mobility, does, however, differ

only slightly between countries.

This does not necessarily mean that this is the definite answer to the question

about relations between VET system characteristics and mobility policies on the

one hand, and actual mobility in IVET on the other. But, as indicated at the

beginning of this chapter, we need a lot more information as well as more reliable

and accurate data, to be able to give a more definitive and grounded answer to

this question.


73MoVE-IT Country reports

Content Country reports

Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Liechtenstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Luxembourg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Malta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

The Netherlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Norway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

Romania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Slovenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561

Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

Appendix I Overview respondents ReferNet questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Appendix II EUNEC participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

Appendix III ReferNET questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

Appendix IV Suggestions for the lifelong learning programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

Appendix V IVET mobility promoting programmes beyond EU funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Austria

75

Introduction



to get a picture of both the obstacles to transnational mobility and of how these

obstacles can be overcome or solved. The more concrete objectives of this project

are:

� To foster the development of transnational mobility in IVET, leading to

qualifications as an integral element of vocational training pathways at European

level and by identifying all the obstacles to such development and implementing

concrete solutions for overcoming them.







part of the project. One of these studies concerned, on the one hand, a description

of the national IVET systems in the 33 countries included in the study1 and on the




ReferNet coordinator/representative. The questionnaire sent out concerned not

only questions about obstacles experienced with regard to transnational mobility in

IVET and the way in which they had been solved, but also addressed issues of

national and regional or sectoral policies and programmes in IVET, the

stakeholders involved in policy making, decision making on and implementation of

such policies and programmes, the perceived benefits of transnational mobility for

different groups of potential beneficiaries and the developments in transnational

mobility in IVET in terms of numbers of participants (both outgoing and incoming).

The structure of this report is as follows. Sections 1 to 3 provide a brief description

of the national IVET system, focusing on the IVET programmes provided and their

main characteristics, governance of IVET and the involvement of stakeholders in

IVET in general, with a particular focus on the role of social partners. These

sections are mainly based on document analysis (e.g.: CEDEFOP monographs,

ReferNet reports, system descriptions included in the Eurydice database, ETF

monographs, and where necessary, information gathered from national websites

and data bases). In section 4 the results of the national questionnaires are

presented.

Austria

76 MoVE-IT Country reports


1 Initial vocational education and training inAustria

1.1 VET programmes

Compulsory education in Austria starts at age 6 and lasts until age 14 (9 years); it

encompasses primary education and lower secondary education. At the transition

from primary school to lower secondary education, pupils have to choose between

the lower secondary school and academic secondary school. At the transition from

lower to upper secondary education (age 14) the following options are open:

� Secondary academic schools;

� Secondary VET colleges;

� Secondary VET schools;

� Pre-vocational schools to be followed by the apprenticeship system.

The first option leads to general upper secondary education, whereas the latter

three lead to vocational upper secondary education, which can be perceived as

the IVET system. Together these different IVET options or programmes cater for

nearly two thirds of all upper secondary education students in a given cohort. The

apprenticeship system/part-time school for apprenticeship forms by all the largest

part of IVET in Austria, catering for about 40% of all students in upper secondary

education.

Secondary VET Colleges(berufsbildende höhereSchule or BHS) andsecondary VET schools(berufsbildende mittlereSchule or BMS)

The secondary VET colleges and schools constitute the school-based VET

pathway, whereas the apprenticeship system provides the opportunity of learning

while working. Admission to the school-based IVET programmes depends on

successful completion of year 8 of compulsory education. Choice between BHS

and BMS is partly determined by whether the student attended lower secondary

school or the first years of academic secondary school, previous study

achievements and availability of places.

The programmes provided by the VET schools generally last for three to four years,

whereas the programmes at the VET colleges have a duration of five years.

Completing a programme at the VET colleges, provides students with a double

qualification. On the one hand, the vocational qualification or VET diploma

(Diplomprüfung), and on the other hand in the general upper secondary diploma or

Reifeprüfung, also know as Matura. Graduates from the VET colleges have

therefore direct access to higher education.

Completing a programme at a VET school, provides students with the

Abschlussprüfung or VET certificate. With this certificate, as with the vocational

diploma, graduates can directly enter the labour market. Graduates from VET

schools can also decide to take further examinations (e.g. Berufsreifeprüfung) or

add-on courses, in order to be eligible for entering post-secondary and higher

education. Both the VET colleges and the VET schools are specialised according

Austria


to the specific programmes they provide, which are grouped into the following

occupational fields:

� Engineering, arts and crafts;

� Commercial occupations;

� Management and service industries;

� Tourism;

� Fashion and clothing and artistic design;

� Agriculture and forestry;

� Nursery teacher training;

� Social pedagogical occupations;

� Social occupations;

� Health care and nursing.

Both VET colleges and VET schools provide a combination of general education

and theoretical and practical training. The VET colleges give relatively more

emphasis to general education and theoretical training, whereas the VET schools

give more emphasis to the practical aspects of the training. In the programmes of

both the VET colleges and VET schools, sessions in workshops, laboratories,

practice firms (Übungsfirmen) and compulsory periods of work experience in

enterprises and organisations, form an integral part of the programme as is the

case for working on projects and diploma assignments which are part of the final

examination.

Apprenticeship training Apprenticeship training is provided in 260 legally recognised apprenticeship trades

(Lehrberufe). Apprenticeship training is particularly strong in the crafts and manual

trades, commerce, industry, and the tourism and leisure industry. Depending on

the particular trade, the training lasts from 2 to 4 years. The basis for the

apprenticeship training is the apprenticeship contract between the apprentice and

the company providing the placement. Enterprises have to be accredited in order

to be able to provide these placements.

Along side the practical training inside learning enterprises (which is regulated by

the Ausbildungsordnungen), the apprentices receive general and theoretical

training at the part-time vocational schools. The way in which this part of the

training is provided can vary between the different provinces of Austria. Basically

there are two modes for the delivery of this part of the training:

� Block-release basis: the apprentices spend a period of eight to twelve

subsequent weeks in the part time vocational schools;

� Day-release mode: theoretical training takes place along side the practical

training; apprentices attend the part time vocational schools one day a week.

Apprenticeship training is concluded with the final apprenticeship examination

(Lehrabschlussprüfung). Upon graduation, apprentices can directly enter the labour

market or can decide to take on further examinations either to be eligible for

entering higher education or to become a masters craftsperson.

Austria


2 Governance of IVET

The way in which IVET is governed in Austria differs between the full time,

school-based part of the IVET system and the apprenticeship part of the IVET

system.

Where the school-based part of the IVET system is concerned, overall the Federal

Ministry of Education bears the responsibility for legislation and regulations, for the

provision of colleges and schools and for the payment and in-service training for

teachers. Exceptions are the colleges and schools for agriculture and forestry

(falling under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture) and the colleges and

schools for occupations in the health care sector (falling under the responsibility of

the Federal Ministry of Health and Women’s Issues).

The regional authorities (the Länder) -through the Regional Education Authority-

are responsible for the supervision of colleges and schools within a province. In the

case of agricultural education, the Länder are also responsible for the

establishment and maintenance of colleges and schools and for meeting half of the

expenditure on teaching staff.

The curricula for the programmes provided by VET colleges and schools are

developed at a federal level in the form of framework curricula. Final responsibility

resides with the Federal Ministry of Education (or Agriculture or Health in those

occupational areas). Within the limits set out by these framework curricula,

colleges and schools have the autonomy to adapt the actual curriculum in terms of

the number of hours devoted to individual subjects, in terms of offering new

subjects or of focusing more sharply on particular specialised areas.

In the case of the apprenticeship system, the governing responsibilities are divided

between two Federal Ministries and between the federal and the regional level. The

Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour is responsible for the ‘in-company-part’

of the apprenticeship training. This Ministry draws up the list of officially

recognised apprenticeship trades and for drafting the training regulations. The

Ministry relies in this work on the Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship, in

which employers’ and employees’ organisations are represented. The Board

provides the Ministry with advise on -among others- the introduction of new

apprenticeship trades and the modernisation of existing ones. On the regional

level, the apprenticeship offices and the Regional Advisory Boards on

Apprenticeship play a role.

The apprenticeship offices, belonging to the chambers of commerce and the

chambers of agriculture, are responsible for the administration of apprenticeship

training, including assessing the quality and aptitude of training companies (which

they do together with representatives of the Federal Chamber of Labour),

registering the apprenticeship contracts and organising the final apprentice

examinations.

Austria


The Regional Advisory Boards (with representatives of the social partners), are

responsible for suggestions and proposals for apprenticeship training in their

Länder.

Concerning the off-the-job part of the apprenticeship training, responsibilities are

divided between the Federal Ministry of Education and the regional authorities in a

similar way as in full time IVET. The Federal Ministry develops the framework

curricula and the regional authorities -through the Regional Education Authority-

for the supervision of the part time vocational schools.

Funding for the full time IVET colleges and schools is, in the case of public schools

fully provided by the Federal Ministry of Education, again with the exception of

agricultural schools, which are partly paid by the Ministry of Agriculture and partly

by the regional authorities. In the case of private IVET colleges and school, the

Federal Ministry does pay the costs for teaching staff, pupil support and an

accommodation fee, but the costs incurred by school provision are born by the

private provider whereas school fees have to be paid by the individual households.

Attending public IVET colleges and schools is free of fee. Indirect funding, that is,

reimbursements for text books and travel costs as well as family support, are paid

by the Ministry of Social Security (both for public and private colleges and

schools).

Where the apprenticeship training is concerned, the Länder are responsible for

funding the part time vocational schools, but they receive half of the expenditure

on staff salaries from the Federal Ministry of Education. The in-company part of the

apprenticeship training is funded by the training companies themselves, though

there are several provisions in place to compensate employers (most of them stem

in their present form from the beginning of the 21st century). E.g.: a possibility to

deduct € 1,000 annually per apprentice (covering the time incurred, which is spent

by the apprentice in part time vocational school); exemption of the obligatory

health insurance for both employer and apprentice during the first two years of the

training; a bonus for three years for those employers who ‘contracted’ more

apprentices in 2005 than in 2004; exemption of paying unemployment insurances

with the exception of the last year of the training.

Austria


3 Stakeholders in IVET

In the previous section, a first indication of stakeholders in Austrian IVET has been

given. Apart from the Federal Ministries with their respective tasks in regulating

and funding their particular parts of the IVET system and the regional authorities,

the social partners are important stakeholders in this area, both on the national and

on the regional level.

At the national level, the ‘social partners’ comprise the following bodies:

� Austrian Federal Economic Chamber;

� Chamber of Agriculture;

� Federation of Austrian Industry;

� Chamber of Labour;

� Austrian Trade Union Federation.

The first three organisations represent the employers’ side and the last two the

employees’ side.

Apart from the overall entitlement of the social partners to comment legislation,

regulations and reform of IVET, and to provide suggestions and proposals for

curricular renewal in both school-based IVET and apprenticeship training, the

social partners are involved in the following bodies at the national level:

� Lehrplankommissionen (Curricula committees), in which the social partners,

representatives of involved ministries and experts have the responsibility for

developing and renewing the framework curricula;

� The Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship (see previous section).

At the regional level, social partners have mainly a role within the apprenticeship

training system. On the one hand through their representation on the Regional

Advisory Boards on Apprenticeship Training and through their involvement -via the

chambers of commerce and agriculture and the (federal) chamber of labour- in the

‘quality assurance’ of the in-company part of the apprenticeship training. On the

other hand, through their involvement in the final examinations (both regulations

and the actual examinations as such).

Austria


4 Results of the national questionnaire

4.1 Introduction

In this section the answers to the national questionnaires are presented. These

were distributed among the national ReferNet representatives or the National

Agencies for the Leonardo programme.

The data have to be interpreted with some caution. On the one hand, answers to

questions or separate items within questions are not always based on strong

empirical evidence (e.g. evaluation research), but sometimes on the ‘estimation’ of

well informed key persons on the national context. The ReferNet survey

undertaken had the intention to serve as an inventory, not as a representative

survey among stakeholders and beneficiaries. However, those who provided the

information were invited to indicate whether answers were based on evaluation

research or on information collected among key informants involved. Where

appropriate, the extent to which answers have an empirical basis (and the strength

of this basis) is indicated in footnotes.

On the other hand, caution is needed in particular with regard to the number of

IVET participants involved in transnational mobility. It has become clear that

monitoring of mobility, both outgoing and incoming, is still in its infancy. Often, only

numbers of IVET participants involved in outgoing mobility under the heading of

the Leonardo programme could be provided. There are, however, clear indications

that more mobility is going on, both outgoing and incoming (e.g.: sectoral

initiatives, bilateral initiatives, individual initiatives) that is not monitored or

registered in any way. In that sense the ‘mobility figures’ provided here, might only

show the top of the iceberg.

Section 4.2 deals with the policies and programmes with regard to transnational

mobility in IVET. Section 4.3 describes the involvement of various stakeholders in

transnational mobility in IVET, whereas section 4.4 elaborates the perceived

benefits of transnational mobility from the perspective of different potential

beneficiaries. In section 4.5 the experienced obstacles are described as well as the

solutions that have been found and/or are proposed to overcome these obstacles.

Section 4.6, finally, provides an overview of the numbers of participants in

outgoing and incoming mobility, as far as this is monitored and known.

Austria


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Austria

Austria has one general policy with regard to IVET transnational mobility under the

heading of “placements for young people”, with different specific aims and

different target groups. The objectives and target groups of “placements for young

people in IVET” are:

� Support those young people in IVET, who get no funding out of the Leonardo da

Vinci programme. This component of the policy is aimed at young people in

initial vocational training, apprentices, pupils of VET schools and sometimes

small groups of students (e.g. 10 or 15 persons) and is on the one hand funded

by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour of the Republic of Austria

(with an annual budget of € 60,500) and on the other hand by the Federal

economic Chambers, the communities, and by special initiatives (budget varies

annually).

� Co financing to reduce the own funding; pupils of VET schools. This component

of the policy, which is funded by the Federal Ministry Schools and Education,

Culture, Science and Research (annual budget of € 220,000) aims at students in

IVET schools.

Involvement of Ministries In Austria two ministries are involved in policy making with regard to IVET

transnational mobility: the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour (for the

apprentices) and the Federal Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Research

(for students in IVET schools). Given that the Ministry of Education, Culture,

Science and Research funds the Leonardo National Agency, the influence of this

ministry is estimated to be the highest. The first policy initiative in the area of IVET

transnational mobility was taken in 1995, when Austria entered the European Union

and the first Leonardo da Vinci programme started.

Two specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Austria

Name of programme Objective Target group Who funds Annual budget (€)

Leonardo da Vinci Support young

people in IVET to do

placements in EU

countries and to

gain international

experiences

Young people in

initial vocational

training,

apprentices, pupils

of VET schools

Leonardo da Vinci

Mobility Programme

€ 1,192,860.00

(amount for 2006,

this varies per year)

Governmental

programmes

Support young

people in IVET to do

placements in EU

countries, gain

international

experiences

Young people in

initial vocational

training,

apprentices, pupils

of VET schools

Federal Ministries,

Federal economic

Chambers,

communities,

special initiatives,

and institutions

varies per year

Austria


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Austria

A specific question concerning the stakeholders was included in the questionnaire

in order to get insight in which stakeholders are involved in IVET mobility, to what

extent (high, medium, low or no involvement) and in which way (policy making,

activating and stimulating, decision making, financing, approving and accrediting

placements, coaching of participants).

High involvement In Austria, two stakeholders are highly involved in IVET transnational mobility:

� European Union (through the Leonardo da Vinci National Agency): policy

making, activating and stimulating, decision making and financing;

� IFA - International Young Workers’ Exchange: activating and stimulating,

approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

Medium involvement The two ministries that are involved in policy making in this area, have a medium

involvement in IVET transnational mobility, as have the VET schools:

� Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour of the Republic of Austria: policy

making, activating and stimulating, financing;

� Federal Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Research: policy making,

activating and stimulating, financing;

� VET institutions (schools): activating and stimulating, approving and accrediting

placements, coaching of participants.

Low involvement Two other stakeholders have a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility:

� Municipal governments (e.g. City of GRAZ): policy making, activating and

stimulating, financing;

� Chamber of commerce (Federal economic Chambers): activating and

stimulating, financing.

Other stakeholders (such as employers organisations, branch organisations, trade

unions, etc.) appear not to play a role in IVET transnational mobility.

4.4 Benefits of IVET mobility

The question was asked who benefits from transnational mobility (VET institutions,

IVET participants, employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility

placement, employers hiring employees with a transnational mobility experience or

branch organisations) and to what extent.

High benefits Austria indicates that VET institutions, IVET participants and employers hiring

employees with transnational mobility experience, benefit highly from this mobility.

Concerning the first group of beneficiaries, Austria adds that this includes

companies that sent their own apprentices on a transnational placement.

Austria


Vet institutions sending participants on placements (including companies! –

apprenticeship training):

1. personal competencies of the young people increased

2. additional professional competencies

3. higher level of foreign language knowledge

4. get in contact with companies of the same branch in other EU countries

Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience

1. international experience

2. higher level of foreign language knowledge

3. proof for mobility and flexibility

4. important for companies, which have departments in other countries or are

export-orientated industries

IVET participants:

1. get to know how to live and work in foreign countries

2. improve foreign language skills

3. get more self-confidence

4. to get to know other education systems

5. additional professional competencies

Intermediate benefits The other two groups of potential beneficiaries are said to experience intermediate

benefits.

Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement:

1. get ‘international touch’ into the company

2. get in contact with companies of the same branch in other EU countries

3. mutual placements

4. work together with people from abroad brings a lot of added value also for the

Austrian employees and apprentices

5. become partner of a network

Branch organisations:

1. networking

2. mutual exchange of professional trends

Austria


4.5 Obstacles to transnational mobility

Austria indicates that eight obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another

eleven obstacles have an intermediate relevance.

High relevance � Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling of

procedures

� Employers do not know how to handle a transnational placement

� Vet institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility projects

� Vet institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility

� Vet institutions meet too much bureaucracy in handling procedures

� IVET participants lack courage for placements abroad

� IVET participants lack finances for a placement abroad

� IVET participants are restricted by obligations at home like: jobs, family and

friendships

Medium relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes

� Problems with international coverage of insurances

� Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with mobility



� Lack of promotion or support of transnational mobility by branch

organisations



� A placement abroad does not fit in the home school curriculum

� Lack of quality placements


Low relevance � IVET participants do not see the benefits of transnational mobility


30% of results based on empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

70% of results based on estimation after having consulted those involved

Solutions applied toovercome obstacles

In Austria the following solutions have been applied in order to try to overcome the

obstacles encountered:

� Information about the situation in EU countries included in the website of the

national Europass centre

� Additional insurances contracted in Austria

� Folders, information campaigns, face to face information all together

� Meetings for teachers and trainers in VET

� Distribution of cases of good practice

� IFA support

� Presentations by former participants

� Language training courses before going abroad

Austria


Solutions proposed toovercome obstacles

With regard to the obstacle that IVET participants might lack the finances to

participate in transnational mobility, the solution is proposed to adapt the daily

allowance rates to the standard of living of the country where they are going to.

4.6 Numbers in IVET mobility

Good statistical data, including the various initiatives with regard to IVET mobility,

are lacking in Europe. Some countries attempt to monitor mobility, the number of

IVET participants involved and some characteristics of mobility (e.g. the duration of

transnational placements, background characteristics of participants involved) on a

systematic basis. The specific question on numbers involved in outgoing and

incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Austria.

IVET participants in Austria The total number of IVET students in Austria (including apprenticeships) was

approx. 300,000.

Monitoring outgoing andincoming mobility

Outgoing mobility in Austria is monitored, incoming mobility is not monitored. IFA –

Young workers’ Exchange is responsible for the data collection.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in outgoing

mobility in IVET

575 1,000 1,333

Austria


For 2002 there are no exact statistics available.

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 90%

Male: 45%

Female: 55%

Agriculture: 9%

Technique: 36%

Economics: 30%

Health &

Welfare:10%

Tourism: 15%

< 6 weeks: 77%

6-12 weeks: 7%

3-6 months: 10%

> 6 months: 6%

94,2%

Male: 42%

Female: 58%

Agriculture: 11%

Technique: 37%

Economics: 24%

Health & Welfare:

15%

Tourism: 13%

< 6 weeks: 71%

6-12 weeks: 9%

3-6 months: 12%

> 6 months: 8%

95,8%

Male: 35%

Female: 65%

Agriculture: 15%

Technique: 24%

Economics: 25%

Health & Welfare:

19%

Tourism: 17%

< 6 weeks: 65%

6-12 weeks: 13%

3-6 months: 15%

> 6 months: 7%

Other European

programmes

1% 0,5% 1%

Programmes of

branch

organisations, public

and private

employment

institutions and

companies

4,7% 2,8% 1,4%

Other programmes 4,3% 2,5% 1,8%

Total number in

outgoing mobility

No exact statistics 575 1,000 1,333

Results based on IFA statistical reports

Countries to where mostparticipants of outgoingmobility went (past four years)

� United Kingdom

� Ireland

� Italy

� Germany

Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobility

The number of IVET students/apprentices involved in outgoing mobility increases

continuously over the last years.

Explanation: There is a lot of promotion and information (campaigns and face to

face) running.

Trends and developments inchoice of countries

The tendency is more or less the same over the last years.

Explanation: English as a foreign language is trained at school.

Austria


Belgium

89

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Belgium



1 Initial vocational education and training inBelgium

Since the federalisation of the Belgian state in 1989, the overall responsibility for

education (policy and system development) has been transferred to the

communities2. Given that there are three communities, this in principle means that

there are three (vocational) education systems. Though overall, the basic systemic

features and principles are more or less the same, over time differences have been

evolved between the three systems.

One common feature (since it was regulated by federal legislation) is compulsory

schooling. Compulsory education in Belgium starts at age 6 and lasts until the year

in which the student turns 18. The twelve years of compulsory education are in

principle full time, but when students turn 15 or 16 they can comply with the rules

of compulsory education through part time attendance (see sub sections for

specifications). Compulsory education thus encompasses primary and secondary

education (both lower and upper secondary education).

Typically at the age of 12, pupils transfer from primary to secondary education. It is

at this transfer point that pupils choose for a particular pathway, which channels

them through lower and upper secondary education.

1.1 IVET programmes

Flemish speaking community In Flanders, the following pathways are available after primary education:

� General secondary education (ASO after its Flemish abbreviation): ASO is

divided in three cycles of two years each. The second and the third cycle are

considered as upper secondary education. ASO takes six years and is

concluded with the secondary education diploma, which gives access to tertiary

education.

� Technical secondary education (TSO after its Flemish abbreviation): TSO is also

divided into three cycles and takes six years as well. TSO not only prepares

students for the secondary education diploma (and access to higher education)

but also for an occupation. Inclusion of practical training or work placements

has therefore obtained increasing emphasis. TSO is provided in the following

areas: auto mechanics, construction, chemistry, decoration, photography,

glazing techniques, printing techniques, commerce, woodworking, clothing,

heat and cooling, agri- and horticulture, naval training, mechanics/electricity,

optics, orthopaedics, caring, personal hygiene, dentistry, textile crafts, tourism,

nutrition.

Belgium


2 The Belgian state has two parallel structures: the structure of the regions (Gewesten) and the structure of the communities (Taalgemeenschappen).The latter concerns Flanders, Wallonie and Brussels. The former concerns: the Flemish speaking community, the French speaking community andthe German Speaking community. Both the regions and the communities have been installed with particular responsibilities in particular areas thatonce belonged to the central state. Education is the responsibility of the communities.

� Art secondary education (KSO after its Flemish abbreviation): KSO is organised

in the same way as ASO and TSO. It concerns a rather small part of secondary

education (about 2% of all pupils) and aims at preparing students for art higher

education in the areas ballet, performing arts and visual arts.

� Vocational secondary education (full time; BSO after its Flemish abbreviation):

BSO follows in principle the same logic as the other forms of secondary

education and is divided into three cycles. However, the third cycle in BSO

takes three years if students want to obtain the secondary education diploma.

BSO primarily prepares students for the labour market. After completion of 6

years of BSO they may therefore obtain certificate that states that they have

completed six years of education in a particular area. Areas of study in BSO are:

auto mechanics, construction, decoration, glazing techniques, jewellery, printing

technology, commerce, woodworking, fashion, heat and cooling, agri- and

horticulture, naval training, mechanics/electricity, building musical instruments,

caring, personal hygiene, nutrition and textile crafts. With an additional 7th year

students can obtain the secondary education diploma and with that the

possibility to continue studies in higher education3 . Since 1998, BSO has been

modularised in order to combat early drop-out and to better meet the demands

of the labour market. Apart from the general education component, BSO is now

built up from vocation oriented modules in which general education aspects and

core skills are integrated. The (experimental) implementation of the modular

curricula will be completed in 2007. Practical training or work placements is part

of the BSO curriculum.

The IVET system in Flanders therefore consists of technical secondary education

and vocational secondary education. In addition to that there are IVET options in

the context of fulfilling the obligations of compulsory education on a part-time

basis after age 15/16:

� Part time vocational education, which combines part time work with part time

education and which is provided by 45 centres for part time vocational

education, linked to technical and vocational secondary schools. Studies can in

principle be undertaken in the same areas as in vocational secondary education

and will lead -after completion of six years of secondary education- to a

vocational qualification.

� Contractual apprenticeship organised by the Flemish Institute for

Entrepreneurship. Through an apprenticeship contract, training for more than

200 vocations is possible. The pupils follow a practical training in a company

during 4 days per week and follow additional courses during one day per week.

This ‘contractual apprenticeship’ is possible for youngsters as from 15 years

who have followed the first two years of secondary education or as from 16

years. As from 18 years they can sign an agreement for practical training.

Contractual apprenticeship usually takes 3 years. Depending on the age and

pre-education a shorter training is possible.

� Part time off-shore fishing education.

� Part time accredited education.

The latter two options constitute a very small share of the total enrolment in IVET.

Belgium


3 In three specific areas BSO has a fourth cycle of 2 years (it concerns: decoration, clothing and care professions).

1.2 German speaking community

In the German speaking community primary education is followed by the first stage

of secondary education (two years), which is common for all pupils and intended to

determine what the most suitable track will be afterwards4 . After this so-called

observation grade, pupils can choose between the following tracks:

� General education;

� Technical education;

� Vocational education.

Within each direction, further specialisation is possible. However, the basic

distinction between these differentiations is based upon the criterion of ‘final

destination’. On that basis a distinction can be made between the ‘transition

stream’ and the ‘qualification stream’. The first stream (which encompasses all

tracks within general education and some in technical education) prepares

students for higher education (though the choice for entering a professional career

after completion is not excluded). The second stream (encompassing most tracks

in technical education and all tracks in vocational education) predominantly

prepares students for entrance into an occupation after completion, which is

stipulated by the vocational certificate they receive after completion. However,

continuation in higher education remains possible (for vocational education after

completion of an additional 7th year).

The IVET system in the German speaking community therefore encompasses the

qualification stream in technical secondary education and vocational secondary

education. In addition to the general education subjects that are compulsory for all

students, so-called ‘grouped’ vocational subjects are taught. These packages

cover a different occupational area. The areas are the same for technical and

vocational education (with the exception of applied sciences, which is not provided

in vocational education):

� Agriculture (Agriculture, Forestry)

� Industry (Electro-Mechanics, Microtechnics, Electronics, Mechanics, Mechanics

of Engines)

� Construction (Constructional Engineering and Public Work, Carpentry,

Cabinet-Maker, Timber Industry)

� Hotel Business and Management and Catering

� Clothing

� Applied Arts (Audio-Visual Education: Publicity and Advertising, Arts, Graphic

Arts, Printing)

� Services Sector (Social Techniques, Family and Health Assistance, Hair-care

and -dressing, Nursery)

� Applied Sciences (Applied Chemistry, Biotechnology, Physical Education)

� Economics (Accountancy and Informatics in Administration, Secretariat, Modern

Languages and Communication, Tourism)

Belgium


4 Though there is a basic differentiation that has to cater for students with e.g. learning problems, which follow their own ‘observation track’.

The main difference between technical and vocational education is that in

vocational education more time is spent on the vocational subjects. In both

technical and vocational upper secondary education practical training is an

important part of the curriculum. In addition to practical training in school

workshops, students in technical and vocational education take 2 to 6 weeks

industrial training spread out over the school year.

1.3 French speaking community

Like in the German speaking community, in the French speaking community pupils

enrol in a common first stage of secondary education that lasts two years (the

so-called observation phase) and that is intended to determine the optimal track

for each pupil5 . After this so-called observation grade, pupils can choose between

the following tracks:

� General education

� Technical education

� Artistic education

� Vocational education

Across these tracks the distinction is made between the “transition track”, which

prepares for entry in higher education and encompasses all general education and

part of technical and artistic education, and the “qualification track”, which

encompasses all vocational education and part of technical and artistic education.

The IVET system in the French speaking community therefore encompasses,

technical upper secondary education, artistic upper secondary education and

vocational upper secondary education. Next to general subjects, vocational subjects

are taught and students can choose from the following occupational areas:

� Agronomy

� Industry

� Building and Construction

� Hotel and catering

� Clothing and textile

� Applied arts

� Economy and trade

� Personal services

� Applied Sciences

With exception of applied sciences (not provided in vocational education), the

directions are the same in technical secondary education and vocational secondary

education, though there are differences in the type of occupation for which they

prepare (e.g: qualified horticulture worker in vocational education versus horticultural

technician in technical education). Here also, the main difference between technical

and vocational education is that in the vocational curricula more time is spent on

teaching vocational subjects than in the technical curricula.

Belgium


5 The French speaking community also makes one distinction in the common phase, with special provision for pupils with learning problems ordisabilities.

2 Governance in IVET

2.1 Flanders

As said, since 1989 the responsibility for education has been devolved from the

central state level to the level of the communities. With that the governmental

responsibility for organising pre-primary, primary and secondary education (which

was laid down in legislation in 1959) was transferred to the communities as well.

The Flemish community knows three types of educational providers, which are,

according to their legal status grouped into educational networks:

� The network of community schools (the former state schools). This system must

conform to special regulations concerning neutrality. These schools are called

community schools (gemeenschapsscholen);

� The network of provincial and local authority schools. They are called

grant-aided official schools (officieel gesubsidieerde scholen);

� The network of grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). This

network consists of schools of which the organising bodies are based on

religion (free confessional schools), schools where education is based on the

principles of rational enquiry, and schools that are not founded on any

confessional or philosophical basis.

These networks constitute an intermediate layer between the ‘central’ government

(in this case the Flemish Department for Education) and the level of the schools,

though the networks as such appear not to have a real governing function; this

function is pertained to the so-called school groups. The governance of IVET in

Flanders has a multi-layered structure, with responsibilities being divided roughly

between the different layers in the following way:

� At national level, the Flemish Minister of Education and the Education

Department of the Flemish government are responsible for the overall policy

making with regard to IVET, and for the overall organisation and administration

of IVET. At the intermediate level, that is the level of school groups the decision

making authority pertains. School groups are a voluntary co-operation

arrangements between primary and secondary educational institutions to offer

multi-sectoral education with at least general, technical, and vocational

education. These school groups are governed by a General Council, a

Governing Body, a Board of Head Masters and a General Director. The school

groups will serve as the organising bodies of the assigned schools, the boarding

schools, and the Centre for Educational Guidance. The General Director chairs

the Board of School Heads. He is also responsible for the everyday

management of the school group. The mandate function of General Director is

awarded to one of the school heads of the school group. The General Director

has decision-making and managerial authority on the level of the school group.

He also has the authority to decide in urgent circumstances. However, these

decisions have to be confirmed by the Governing body afterwards. This,

however, applies to community education (though in the other networks

Belgium


advisory participation of at least parents and staff is legally regulated as well).

For grant-aided schools, the municipal and provincial governments for together

with the school groups the intermediate level, whereas in grant-aided free

education this level is formed by the school governing boards (which can

actually combine the intermediate and local level).

� At the local level it are the school head and the school council that are

responsible for school matters. The school council, in which parents, staff and

the wider environment of the school are represented on an equal basis, has an

advisory function.

Schools, including IVET providers, have a certain degree of autonomy, especially in

personnel and educational matters, as long as it remains within the frameworks

and criteria stipulated at national level (e.g. applying the minimum time table and

approval of curricula). The extent to which they have more far reaching autonomy

depends on the network to which a particular provider belongs. The financing

mechanisms can explain this most clearly.

Overall, compulsory education is publicly funded, with the budget coming mainly

from the Flemish government. However, there are differences between the three

networks. Community education (or the former state schools) are funded by the

Flemish Government. Grant-aided official education is funded by both the Flemish

government and the provinces or municipalities. Grant-aided free education is

partly funded by the Flemish government and by sources such as own assets (e.g.

the Catholic schools), parental fees and other private sources.

Within community education it are the school groups that are responsible for the

autonomous financial management of the allocated budgets, for which the criteria

are laid down by the Flemish Council of Community Education. Within the network

of grant-aided official education, the municipalities and provinces are responsible

for the financial management and budgets have to be approved by the next higher

administrative level. Within the network of grant-aided free school, it are the school

boards that are responsible for the financial management and they have a large

autonomy in this. As long as they comply with some basic rules, they are free in

budgeting and their budget does not need approval from a higher level.


Like in the Flemish community, the German speaking community also makes a

distinction between three ‘educational networks’: the fist network grouping former

state schools together, the second network grouping schools together which are

run by the municipalities or provinces and the third network grouping together

schools organised by private parties or bodies.

Concerning governance of IVET, three levels can be distinguished:

� The level of the German speaking community, with the Minister responsible for

education having a dual role. On the one hand, the Minister is responsible for

the implementation of legislation and regulations and for policy development.

On the other hand the Minister has also direct responsibilities for schools, in

Belgium


his/her capacity of representing the organising body of the former state schools.

In this respect this level coincides with the following level.

� The level of the organising body or authority, which refers to the legal status of

the school. As said, this can be the government of the German speaking

community, municipal authorities or a private organisation. At this level there is

considerable autonomy, e.g. in the areas of personnel policy and in the choice

of the curricula that will be provided (though within overall legal rules).

� The level of the individual school. Schools also have a certain autonomy, though

within the boundaries set by overall regulations and specific decisions of the

organising authority. Certainly in pedagogical matters schools and teaching staff

are fully autonomous.

Secondary education is predominantly funded by the government of the German

speaking community. Private funding hardly plays a role.


In the French speaking community it is the Ministry of Education that is responsible

for all secondary education. The Ministry fulfils a double role, being on the one

hand responsible for the former state school or the ‘community education’, for

which it is the organising authority, and being on the other hand responsible for

policy making and for the implementation of legislation and regulations by all

educational providers, including the so-called ‘écoles subventionnées’ (e.g.

schools with other public authorities or private organisations being the organising

authority). Strictly spoken the French speaking community also knows three types

of educational networks as well as three levels in the governance model, but

municipalities are hardly involved in organising secondary education (with

exception of some of the larger municipalities, they are primarily responsible for

primary education) and since the mid-1980s, there has been a tendency towards

decentralisation, given the IVET providers more autonomy in several areas, such as

adapting the programmes they offer to the local (labour market) demand. The

organising authorities are responsible for all aspects of personnel policy (they are

the employers of the teaching and training staff) and financial management.

IVET is mainly funded by the government of the French speaking community. This

holds for the IVET provides for which the French speaking community is the

organising authority as well as for those IVET providers for which a private

organisation or body is the organising authority.

Belgium



3.1 Flanders

The structures of the grant-aided free schools constitute a particular type of

stakeholders in the Flemish IVET landscape. Other important stakeholders are:

� The Flemish Educational Council, with a general council and a sub-council for

secondary technical and vocational education. The general council consists of

39 members including representatives of the organising bodies, unions, parents,

university experts, students, civil servants from the Education Department, and

members representing economic and social sectors. The latter are proposed by

the Flemish Socio-Economic Council. The composition of the councils and

sections for each level of education are to be established by the Flemish

Government by decree. The Flemish Educational Council has the following

responsibilities: study, concerted action, and consultation, on its own initiative

or at the request of the Minister of Education, as regards all educational matters

for which the Flemish Community is responsible. More in particular, the Minister

of Education has to seek, prior to the discussion in the Flemish Parliament, the

opinion of the Council on all preliminary draft decrees on educational matters

(with the exception of the education budget) and on policy reports and papers

addressed to the Flemish Parliament.

� The sector commissions for technical and vocational secondary education.

These commissions are established for all major sections of the labour market

(e.g. metal industries, textiles, and food). Within the framework of the Flemish

Education Council they explore new labour market needs and give advice on

new planning initiatives.

� Parents’ associations. The umbrella organisation of local parents’ associations

(often organised on school level or the level of school groups) have mainly the

aim of helping parents and local parents’ associations to find their way in the

educational world.

� The Flemish Student Federation represents the interests of students in (upper)

secondary education, on class and school level as well as at policy making

level.

Apart from their involvement in the sector commissions, the role of the social

partners in full time IVET is still limited. Here the position of the organising bodies is

paramount. Social partners do however, play an important role in the organisation

of apprenticeship training. Here they are actively involved in the approval of

apprenticeship training centres and in the development of training in the

occupational fields.

Belgium



Given the scale of the German speaking community, much consultation takes

place at an informal level. At the level of the community itself, the Minister

responsible for education can consult various groups and experts.

In addition to that, parents can form parents’ associations, that have a right to vote

in various advisory commissions of the school. There is informal consultation

between the Minister and the coordinators of the three educational networks.

Consultation between the Minister and the relevant trade unions is regulated by

law.


The most important stakeholders in IVET in the French speaking community are

the following organisations:

� The parental council, which represents the two most important parent

associations in the French speaking community. This council has an advisory

function.

� The Education and Training Council, which was established in 1990. It

encompasses representatives from the parents’ associations, student

associations, the organising authorities, employers and trade unions (the latter

concerns both teachers’ unions and trade unions representing other areas of

economic life). Its task is similar to the task of the Flemish Educational Council.

� The Community Commission for vocational training and qualifications. This

commission was established in 1994 and has the task to align supply and

demand in VET. It encompasses representatives from both the employers

organisations and the trade unions, representatives from the area of adult

education and from the providers of VET. One of the tasks of the commission is

the subsequent development of occupational and training profiles and their

translation into guidelines for VET curricula.

Belgium



4.1 Introduction























The questionnaire that was used was structured in the following way: a first section

dealt with the policies and programmes with regard to transnational mobility in

IVET. A second section dealt with the involvement of various stakeholders in

transnational mobility in IVET, whereas the third section dealt with the perceived


beneficiaries. The fourth section dealt with the experienced obstacles described as

well as the solutions that have been found and/or are proposed to overcome these

obstacles. The last section dealt with the numbers of participants in outgoing and

incoming mobility, as far as this is monitored and known.

Unfortunately the results for Belgium are incomplete. As far as answers have been

obtained from the Flemish community and the French speaking community, they

are presented below.

Belgium


4.2 Results of the Flemish questionnaire

Answers were provided with regard to two questions: the obstacles experienced

with regard to IVET transnational mobility and the number of participants in

outgoing mobility.

Obstacles for transnationalmobility in IVET

Flanders indicates that two obstacles have a high relevance and that another four

obstacles have a medium relevance. In comparison with other countries, a

relatively large number (nine) obstacles are said to have no relevance.

High relevance � Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with mobility


Medium relevance � VET institutions do not have a strategy or policy on transnational mobility

� VET institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility projects



friendships

Low relevance � Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling of

procedures

� Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET


organisations






No relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes





� Lack of autonomy of VET institutions to make decisions on transnational

mobility




Belgium


Outgoing mobility Below the figures for outgoing mobility for Flanders are provided. The figures

concern only the mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme. These figures

are based on the monitoring of the Flemish Agency for the Leonardo da Vinci

programme that is responsible for the monitoring of this part of the outgoing

mobility.

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility in IVET

197 211 250 366*

*: provisional data; concerns grants allocated, not realised placements

Belgium-Flanders 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 97

Female: 110

Male: 81

Female: 130

Male: 70

Female: 180

Male: -

Female:-

Sector Agriculture: 0

Technique: 37

Economics: 93

Health & Welfare: 67

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 41

Economics: 93


Agriculture: 0

Technique: 24

Economics: 118

Health &

Welfare:118

Agriculture: -

Technique: -

Economics: -

Health & Welfare: -

Length of stay < 6 weeks: 148

6-12 weeks: 49

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 154

6-12 weeks: 57

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 183

6-12 weeks: 67

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: -

6-12 weeks: -

3-6 months: -

> 6 months: -

The Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci report on Performance and Impact (Brussels,

5 May 2006, CL-11-2006-Ann-en) gives numbers on the total mobility for Belgium

(Be-de, Be-nl and Be-Fr):

Belgium de, nl, fr 2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

(the figures presented are not

for mobility in VET only, but

include mobility in higher

education, and mobility for

trainers and young workers.

939 921* 938* 1.010*

*: provisional data; estimates at selection stage, not on the basis of final reports

Belgium



The following five countries are visited most by participants from Flanders in

outgoing mobility:

� Spain

� Netherlands

� France

� Germany

� Finland


General trend: increase in participant numbers.

Explanation:

More VET-institutions see it as a service they should be able to provide to their

pupils; the financial support from the Leonardo programme is a major incentive to

start transnational mobility.

Explanation for the choice of countries:

Some promoters opt for the Netherlands because they say that otherwise the use

of a foreign language would be a major obstacle for the participants.

Otherwise it is worth noticing that English is used quite a lot but the UK is not in

the top 5 of favourite destinations.

Belgium


Bulgaria

105

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Bulgaria



1 Initial vocational education and training inBulgaria

1.1 IVET programme

Compulsory education in Bulgaria has recently been extended from 11 to 12 years

and now lasts till 16 years of age. The education system has various school-types

and programmes and similar programmes start at different ages. The names of

several of these programmes have changed over the past years. There are primary

schools that provide 4 years of primary education (grades 1-4), basic schools that

provide 8 year programmes (grades 1-8) and comprehensive school that cover the

whole period of compulsory education (grades 1-12).

Upper secondary education consists of a general education stream and various

streams of vocational education. General secondary education consists of 4 to 5

year programmes, which are provided by the gymnasia (grades 9-12) and by the

“profiled gymnasia” (grades 8-12, with more attention for particular subjects such

as foreign languages, mathematics, ancient languages and culture). Both

programmes lead to the matriculation examination, which -upon successful

completion- gives pupils the secondary education diploma and provides in

principle access to tertiary education.

Upper secondary vocational education in Bulgaria encompasses the following

options:

� 6 years of vocational gymnasia; allowing entrance to higher education

� 5 years of vocational gymnasia; most enter the labour market, however pupils

are entitled to move on to higher education

� 4 years vocational secondary schools; pupils may enter the labour market or

post secondary vocational education

Successful conclusion of each of the programmes provides pupils with the

secondary education diploma and a vocational qualification at either level 2 (4 year

programmes) or at level 3 (five and six year programmes). Overall the most

common fields of study are: engineering, manufacturing and processing, business

and administration and personal services.

In addition there are some two and three year programmes, but these are partially

part of lower secondary education and do, moreover, attract only a small number

of students. These programmes are provided by the vocational schools.

Bulgaria


What the proportion of upper secondary students is, that is opting for the

vocational streams is not completely clear. According to the ETF Monograph on

the Bulgarian VET system, 55% of the participants opt for IVET, whereas 45% opts

for general upper secondary education.

However, other sources report a distribution of 32% in IVET against 68% in upper

secondary general education2 .

The IVET system is largely school-based, with narrowly profiled curricula and few

links to the labour market. An apprenticeship system is in preparation by the

Chambers of Craft. The system used to be serving a centrally planned economy,

and was corresponding to sectors and branches of the economy. The

transformation of education to meet the needs of a more market-oriented economy

began 1995 and is still progressing.

Bulgaria


2 Source: ETF Key indicators database


Of the 506 VET schools, 494 VET schools are under the direct responsibility of the

national government, 12 are under the responsibility of municipalities. The

responsibility for IVET is rather centralised. The Ministry of Education and Science

(MES), as a specialised body of the Council of Ministers, is responsible for the

management of the whole education system, including IVET. The MES has control

over the activities of schools, including the approval and implementation of

curricula and the approval of enrolment plans. The MES also manages schools’

finances in a centralised way. After a change of government in 2001, the VET and

General Education Departments of the MES were merged into one department,

with two Units, which are jointly responsible with the MES for the provision of

education and training in different sectors. This includes the updating of the list of

vocations, the development of standards and the financing of these schools.

With the Vocational and Training Act (VETA 30 July 1999, amendments January

2000 and November 2002) a first start has been made with a more decentralised

organisation and management of the VET system. The Ministry of Education

remains responsible, but over time more responsibilities will be devolved to the

regional inspectorates and the municipalities. The law proposes multi-source

funding, including the state budget, budgets of municipalities, donations, national

and international programmes and self-generated income by schools and requests

the involvement of social partners in standards development and admission plans

and defines inter-ministerial cooperation, with particular reference to the Ministry of

Labour and Social Policy (MLSP) and branch ministries. The implementation of this

new legislation is still in full swing.

In addition to this, the Crafts Law was introduced in 2001, which offers provisions

for the practising of crafts, craftsmanship and related training. It has been

developed in close cooperation with the Chamber of Commerce in Koblenz

(Germany) and closely follows the German system. The law introduces craft

training, a type of on-the-job training/apprenticeship training based on the

integration of work and learning. It encompasses three stages of mastering a craft:

apprentice – journeyman – master.

The National Agency for Vocational Education and Training (NAVET) is another

specialised body of the Council of Ministers. It supports the MES in aspects

dealing with licensing of VET institutions, elaborating the list of vocations,

developing standards for each vocation. The NAVET has a managing board, with

representatives from MES, other ministries and social partners. To support NAVET,

there are 13 expert commissions working in various occupational areas, following

the tripartite principle.

Bulgaria


While the legal basis for IVET is well developed, the financing of VET is reported to

be scattered without a solid financial strategy. Out of 506 VET schools, 339 are

centrally funded by the MES, 12 by the municipalities, 120 by the budgets of

branch ministries (around 25% of all vocational schools; for example, agriculture,

culture and transport), while another 35 are privately funded (13 postsecondary

colleges and 22 secondary vocational technical schools).

The Ministry calculates the budgets for every school, based on number of students

(including food, buildings, material costs, electricity and other). The amount per

student also depends on the vocational programme he/she is taking. Many

Vocational Schools also generate their own income by providing training for adults

and selling products and services. When vocational schools are funded by branch

ministries, the Ministry of Finance allocates the money directly to these ministries.

The State provides academic performance scholarships (high grades) and social

scholarships (low income families).

Funding by municipalities is perceived as inconsistent, the funding is not

transparent and the framework inadequate.

Although the delegation of budgets directly to general secondary schools has

started, there has been no similar measure for vocational schools as yet.

Bulgaria


3 Stakeholders in VET

Through tripartite bodies at a national, regional and local level, the social partners

take part in the consultations on the development and implementation of the policy

on VET and employment. Among the most important bodies operating at the

national levels are:

� The National Agency for Vocational Education and Training (NAVET) as a

specialised body of the Council of Ministers, established under the Vocational

Education and Training (See: Governance of IVET) The NAVET has a Governing

Board comprising different stakeholders such as Ministry of Education, Ministry

of Labour, and social partners.

� The National Council for Tripartite Partnership which comprises permanent

committees on issues related to labour legislation, social insurance relations,

incomes, the standard of living, training etc.

� The National Employment Promotion Council (subordinate to the Minister

ofLabour and Social Policy) is a partnership based advisory body dealing with

the development of the employment policy and NEAP.

� The National Council for Vocational Training, established in 2003, is a

permanent advisory body with a task to coordinate the development of a

national policy and strategies for vocational training and certification of

employed and unemployed in an LLL perspective.

� The Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities in employment for men and

women, and for disadvantaged groups, has been established in subordination

to the Minister of Labour and Social Policy. This body makes proposals and

recommendations for the development and implementation of the section of

NEAP concerning the enhancement of the equality policy.

The most important bodies operating at the regional level:

� Tripartite Cooperation Councils under the regional offices of the Employment

Agency control and monitor the implementation of programmes and measures

and advise on funding priorities.

� Permanent and Interim Employment Committees under the District Council for

Regional Development determine, organize and control the implementation of

the government policy on employment and vocational training.

Bulgaria


The IVET system of Bulgaria has been developed and modernised over the past 10

years: leading to more efficiency, transparency and compliance with the needs of

the labour market.

This has, by 2003, led to the following changes:

� A new and approved list of occupations, which is the basic document for

planning and management of the IVET system. The list, comprising 200

occupations is to be used as the basis for vocational education and training

programmes. It has been worked out in line with the International Standard

Classification for Education (ISCED-97) and the International Standard

Classification for Occupations (ISCO-89). The list is effective from the school

year 2004/2005.

� An approved framework for acquisition of vocational qualification.

� Start of the process of elaboration of new State Education Requirements

(standards) for VET programmes.

� Introduction of national qualification examinations for the theoretical part of VET

programmes for students who will be receiving level 2 vocational qualification.

Bulgaria



4.1 Introduction






empirical evidence (e.g. evaluation research), but sometimes on the “estimation” of















registered in any way. In that sense the “mobility figures” provide here, might only










Bulgaria


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Bulgaria

Bulgaria has some general policies with an internationalisation component. It is

indicated that these programmes do not specifically focus on stimulating and

promoting mobility. The national policies that are related to internationalisation with

a possible impact on mobility are:

� The Employment Strategy (2004-2010). Objective: promotion of employment

through identified priorities and measures with a focus on national specifics, but

in accordance with the European Employment promotion strategy.

� The target groups of this policy are: students who dropped out of schools,

unemployed people, employees, SMEs and employers. Funding comes from the

Ministry of Labour and Social Policy and the Phare programme.

� National Employment Action Plan 2006: It concerns an annual action plan on

programmes and projects for achieving the Lisbon goals in compliance with

national Labour Market specifics. The target groups are the same as those of

the employment strategy.

� National Strategy for Youth Policy 2003-2007. Objective: Development of

sustainable mechanisms for investment in Bulgarian Youth as core human

capital; implementation of European models for work with the younger

generations through better trans-institutional cooperation; transparent

informational policy and equal opportunities. The target group is young people

aged 16-35 and the budget comes from the “Youth” Community programme.

� Programme for Development in Secondary Education 2006-2015. Objective:

Balance between traditional and modern approaches in the Bulgarian

Educational system; transparency and planning; sustainable developments;

project oriented system. The target group consists of the whole secondary

education area, which includes: primary schools, basic schools, lower

secondary and upper secondary schools (both vocational and general).

Involvement of Ministries In Bulgaria, two Ministries and two State Agencies are involved in policy making on

transnational mobility: the Ministry of Education and Science, the Ministry of

Finance, the National Agency for Youth and Sport and the Human Resource

Development Centre. Their respective roles in this area are:

� Ministry of Finance is the management authority for the National Fund that

supports the Bulgarian contribution for the implementation of Community

programmes like Socrates, Leonardo and Youth.

� Ministry of Education and Science is the national authority for policy

development and policy implementation in the field of Secondary and Higher

Education and Research.

� National Agency for Youth and Sport is the administrative authority for the

implementation of the “Youth” Community programme in Bulgaria.

� Human Resource Development Centre is the administrative authority for the

implementation of the Socrates and Leonardo Community programmes in

Bulgaria.

The Ministry of Education and Science has the most influence on transnational

molibility policies in IVET and was also the Ministry that initiated policy making in

this area from 1998 onwards.

Bulgaria


Two specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Bulgaria

Name of programme Objective Target group Who funds Annual budget (€)

Leonardo da Vinci Development of

quality, innovation

and the European

dimension in

vocational training

systems and

practices through

transnational

co-operation.

Support for the

transnational

mobility of people

undergoing or

responsible for

vocational training

People undergoing

initial vocational

training

University students

Young workers and

recent graduates

EC, Bulgarian

Government

€ 1,778,000 (2005)

Youth European

Cooperation and

Youth exchange;

Youth voluntary

services; Youth

initiatives;

Accompanying

measures

Young people aged

15-25

EC, Bulgarian

Government

€ 509,981 (2005)

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Bulgaria






High involvement The European Union, the national government, the Human Resource Development

Centre and VET institutions are stated to be highly involved in IVET mobility. The

involvement of the European Union and the Bulgarian Ministry of Finance mainly

concerns funding. The Bulgarian Ministry of Labour is involved in policy making.

The roles of the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science are:

� Policy making;

� Activating and stimulating;

� Decision making;

� Financing.

Bulgaria


The Human Resource Development Centre approves and accredits placements

and coaches participants. The VET institutions also coach the participants.

Medium involvement The following organisation have a medium involvement in IVET mobility:

� National Agency for Vocational Education and Training: policy making,

activating and stimulating, decision making;

� Bulgarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry: activating and stimulating;

� Bulgarian Chamber of Crafts: activating and stimulating.

Low involvement Stakeholders that have little involvement in IVET mobility in Bulgaria are the

regional and municipal authorities and the trade unions (Trade Union Podcrepa;

Confederation of Independent Trade Unions).






High benefits Bulgaria indicates that both VET institutions that sent students on transnational

mobility placements and IVET participants that went on such a placement, benefit

highly from it.

Benefits for VET institutions:

1. Improvement of quality of education

2. Enhancement of the profile of the VET institution

3. International contacts and projects experience

4. Development of new methods and techniques in VET

5. Establishment of long-term partnerships

Benefits for IVET participants:

1. Better experience in vocational education and skills

2. Additional competences related to foreign culture, EU and European citizenship

3. Better chance for successful future professional realisation

4. Foreign language experience and skills

5. International contacts

Intermediate benefits For the employers and the branch organisations, the benefits are stated to be

intermediate.

Employers receiving IVET participants in a transnational mobility placement:

1. Enhancement of the profile of the employer

2. International contacts and experience

3. Establishment of long-term partnerships

4. Sharing professional experience

5. Receiving feedback on the quality of work at the institution

Bulgaria


Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience:

1. Experienced and competent employees

2. International contacts and experience

3. Establishment of partnerships

4. Sharing professional experience

5. Receiving feedback on the quality of work at the institution


1. As partners in projects, they are able to send well-experienced staff to

companies

2. As partners in projects, they support connections between IVET and the

business sphere

Bulgaria



Bulgaria indicates that five obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another

seven obstacles have an intermediate relevance.

High relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes





mobility

Medium relevance � Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling of

procedures







Low relevance � Employers do not see the benefits of transnational mobility



No relevance � Problems with international coverage of insurances



organisations







friendships




In Bulgaria, the following solutions have been adopted to overcome some of the


� Organising information seminars for promoters;

� The implementation of the national programme on Human Resource

Development by both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour and

Social Policy;

� Training of VET staff involved in projects;

� Change of partners (in order to obtain quality placements);

� Organisation of preliminary linguistic preparation (of IVET participants);

� Finding other sources of additional funding.

Bulgaria







systematic basis. The specific question on numbers involved in outgoing3 and

incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Bulgaria.

IVET participants in Bulgaria Total numbers of IVET participants in Bulgaria is: 202,217.


Outgoing mobility is monitored by the Human Resource Development Centre, that

is responsible for carrying out the Leonardo programme in Bulgaria.

Incoming mobility is not monitored and therefore no data on incoming mobility in

Bulgaria are available.

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility in IVET

229 250 545 722

These figures only cover transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci

programme.

Leonardo da Vinci

mobility placements

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 117

Female: 112

Sum: 229

Male: 176

Female: 84

Sum: 250

Male: 305

Female: 240

Sum: 545

Male: 420

Female: 302

Sum: 722


Technique: 129

Economics: 70

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 26

Technique: 136

Economics: 76


Agriculture: 146

Technique: 240

Economics: 146


Agriculture: 67

Technique: 424

Economics: 231

Health & Welfare: 0


6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 250

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 485

6-12 weeks: 60

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 692

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 30

> 6 months: 0

Results based on statistical reports Leonardo da Vinci

Bulgaria


3 Definitions:Outgoing mobility= IVET participants taking up a work placement abroadIncoming mobility= IVET participants from other countries taking up a work placement in your country

Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went (past four years)

Programme Country Number

Leonardo da Vinci

mobility placements

Germany

Italy

Spain

France

United Kingdom

716

460

214

143

82


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobility:

A constantly growing number of IVET students involved in mobility.

Explanation: Benefits for VET students and VET schools; increase of EU funding of

Leonardo da Vinci, and active information policy about the possibilities, benefits

and good practices for stimulating mobility by the Human Resource Development

Centre.

Trends and developments inchoice of countries:

Remains relatively the same.

Explanation: IVET institutions tend to continue partnership with well-known

partners, they are not very keen in ‘experimenting’ with new partners and IVET

institutions have difficulties in finding new suitable partners.

Bulgaria


Croatia

121

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Croatia


1 This concerns: 25 EU-Member States, 3 EEA countries (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein), 2 pre-accession countries (Bulgariaand Romania), 2 candidate countries (Croatia and Turkey) and Switzerland.

1 Initial vocational education and training inCroatia

1.1 IVET programme

Croatia used to be the most prosperous region of former Yugoslavia. However

development was disrupted by war in the nineties. Currently GDP is low and

unemployment high.

Like in other former communist countries, the change of the Croatian economy

towards a more market economy orientation, with the consequent decline of state

enterprises, has had serious implications for VET.

Presently VET in Croatia faces many problems, among which a poor image,

outdated training provisions and training methods well below modern standard,

poor contact with the labour market and other local stakeholders and large number

of drop-outs

Compulsory education extends from kindergarten until the second stage of basic

education (age 3-14). Upper secondary education (age 14 onwards) is divided in

several general and vocational streams:

� 4 year general secondary education (gymnasium, age 14-18) providing access

to university or professional higher education.

� 4 year art education (age 14-18) providing access to university or professional

higher education.

� 4 year technical and vocational education (age 14-18), providing access to

university, professional higher education or to the labour market. Some of the

VET schools provide a dual system and there is the possibility to acquire the

status of a ‘master’ craftsman.

� 3 year dual training (age 14-17), providing access to further and higher

vocational education and the labour market. The dual training is a system of

schooling and workplace experience.

� 3 year vocational school (age 14-17) providing access to the labour market.

The structure of the school curriculum follows separate subjects. The national

classification of occupations lists well over 400 specialisations, narrow

occupations with high specialisation.

Syllabi in VET are composed of the core general subjects (which are largely the

same as in the gymnasium programmes), as well as general vocational subjects

and elective practical subjects which are linked to the technical or vocational

specialisation chosen. There is an emphasis on factual knowledge and the

teaching methods are traditional lecture-type.

Croatia


The assessment criteria of final exams are left to each individual school. The fact

that schools determine the output standards of knowledge and skills themselves

causes problems both for employers who do not know what they can expect from

young school graduates or what is behind certain certificates, and for higher

education institutions.

Apprenticeships were re-introduced recently, learning from the German dual

model. In 2001 apprenticeships accounted for 5% of all VET students.

Participation in IVET is high (70%) due to large numbers of pupils in technical

streams preparing for further education.

Croatia



Croatia has started a process of state reform including a redefinition of the roles of

the central and local governments. This involves changes in the way education

services are managed and controlled.

The school system is traditionally highly centralised: the Ministry of Education and

Sport takes full control and responsibility over the curricula and teaching plans.

However, schools are allowed to adapt the teaching plans (implementation of

syllabi) somewhat to local conditions. The teaching plan determines the main aims

of each programme, the number of compulsory subjects and the lessons/hours per

week, materials used for teaching, teaching methods and the examinations.

However, a 2001 Law on Secondary School Education envisages financial

decentralisation, as well as the strengthening of school boards as a mechanism of

local governance.

2.1 Financing of IVET

Financial expenditure on education is low in Croatia. Until 2000, schools’ financial

resources came entirely from the Ministry of Education and Sports, and schools

had no financial autonomy. In 2001 about 20% of the school budget was

decentralised to local authorities. However, the Ministry of Education and Sports

remains responsible for teachers’ salaries and major capital expenditure. Local

government (counties) are responsible for overheads, such as transport and

materials in VET schools.

Sources of financing for vocational and technical schools are more diverse than in

other secondary schools and consist of: central government and

counties/municipalities, earnings from adult education programmes, selling of

products and services, publishing and donations.

The practical part for the training of crafts occupations in the dual system is funded

by the crafts businesses who take on apprentices.

Croatia


3 Stakeholders

Stakeholder involvement, in particular social partnerships in IVET, is little

developed in Croatia, though there are some structures at national level that do

know social partnership arrangements. On the one hand, this concerns the

Economic and Social Council and its subgroups, including one on education, in

which social partners participate. The council and its subgroups are consulted, for

example, on new draft legislation. On the other hand, it concerns the public

employment service (PES) with a tripartite governing council. Social partners are

also members of the advisory councils in regional employment offices.

Where IVET is concerned, it is in particular the Chamber of Crafts and Trades that

plays a key role in implementing VET for crafts and trades within the

apprenticeship system. The Chamber functions as the public authority in this area

(in particular for the practical part), being responsible e.g. for concluding

apprenticeship contracts, examinations and accreditation of the small and medium

sized enterprises and workshops that can train apprentices.

In 2005, a separate VET Agency was established that should function as a

one-stop-shop for vocational education and training and foster the development of

the whole VET system. Until now, however, it has been mainly dealing with

curriculum development and teacher training/certification for secondary VET. The

management board of this Agency does not include representatives of the social

partners, even though the Croatian Association of Employers, the Chamber of

Commerce, the Chamber of Crafts and Trades and the Autonomous Trade Unions

of Croatia did express their interest for a tripartite dialogue with the government on

human resource development policy planning and implementation. The same holds

for the adult education commission that was set up in 2004.

Croatia



4.1 Introduction

In this section a short overview will be given with regard to the present situation in

Croatia where IVET transnational mobility is concerned. Unlike the other country

reports, this section is not based on answers to the ReferNet questionnaire.

Croatia is a pre-accession country and is not included in the ReferNet network.

Neither is Croatia eligible for participation in the Leonardo da Vinci Programme; the

implication is that Croatia does not have a National Leonardo da Vinci Agency.

Given this and the fact that Croatia has only become a pre-accession country in

October 2005, the Croatian situation with regard to IVET transnational mobility is

rather different from most of the other countries included in the study (be it

Member States, EEA/EFTA countries or candidate countries). In order to get some

information about the present situation concerning IVET transnational mobility a

representative of the Chamber of Crafts and Trades, who is also the team leader of

the National Observatory on Employment and Training, has been interviewed. The

National Observatory, which is funded by the European Training Foundation, is

hosted by the Chamber of Crafts and Trades. In the next section the main

information concerning the specific Croatian situation with regard to mobility in

IVET will be presented.is concerned, the structure of

4.2 Transnational mobility in IVET in Croatia

Policies and programmes In Croatia, there are no policies in place for stimulating transnational mobility in

IVET. Though the issue as such is a point of discussion among some stakeholders,

transnational mobility is not on the agenda of the policy makers, starting with the

Ministry of Education.

Consequently there are no specific programmes in Croatia to stimulate

transnational mobility. Croatia is not eligible for participation in the Leonardo da

Vinci programme. It can only take part in specific projects if invited by the project

promoter from another country and if Croatia finances participation itself. However,

the Ministry of Education does not have funds available to do so.

Potential benefits ofparticipating in transnationalmobility in IVET

To what extent Croatia will participate in the new EU lifelong learning programme is

not clear yet. However, there are important reasons for participating in the new

opportunities for transnational mobility.

For both IVET participants and VET institutions the main benefits will be that they

can gain experiences with practical training in other countries where the training as

such and the learning and working environment is more up-to-date than in Croatia.

Also the experiences they can gain with a different and better organisation of IVET

and cooperation between VET institutions and enterprises will be an important

benefit. VET institutions are quite well aware of such benefits.

Croatia


This is not the case for employers. Here an awareness raising campaign will

certainly be needed. Employers will benefit from transnational mobility as well;

both employers sending apprentices on a placement in other countries and

employers hiring IVET participants with such international experiences. On the one

hand, they can benefit from the new (technological) knowledge to which mobility

can give them access (e.g. advanced technological equipment). On the other hand,

mobility gives them the opportunity to see how VET and lifelong learning is

organised in other European countries. A major problem for Croatia is that

employers do still not see that they need to be involved in VET, right from the

planning stage onwards. As good stakeholders in VET and as good future

employers they need to be involved in VET, in planning VET, in curriculum

development and in developing lifelong learning opportunities.

With regard to mobility there are ‘pockets’ of excellence in Croatia, but this does

largely depend on the initiatives of individual school directors or subject teachers.

Such individual ‘good examples’ will not change the system. And a basic problem

is that at the system level, there are no initiatives and there is no coordination.

Stakeholders The Chamber of Crafts and Trades is an important stakeholder in IVET in Croatia. It

cooperates closely with the Ministry of Education in relation to all issues

concerning the crafts training programmes (i.e. apprenticeship training) and it

functions as the public authority in this area (implementing apprentice contracts,

examinations, etc.).

Croatian employers do not see themselves as stakeholders in VET. This is partly

due to the fact that there are no incentives to stimulate them to take apprentices or

students on board in order to train them.

Stakeholders that should be involved where transnational mobility in IVET is

concerned, are at least: the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Economy

(especially the Department of Small and Medium Enterprises), the Chamber of

Crafts and Trades, the Chamber of Commerce and the Croatian Federation of

Employers. But until now, none of these stakeholders plays a substantial role,

simply because IVET transnational mobility has thus far not been seriously taken

into account. As said there are some good practices in some individual schools,

but there is no systematic attention or policy for transnational mobility.

Potential obstacles to mobility One of the biggest obstacles for transnational mobility in IVET is the lack of a

policy in this area and the lack of attention for it from the side of the policy makers.

There is no national strategy with respect to mobility; nothing.

Concerning legal and financial obstacles, it is indicated that legal obstacles are not

important, given that Croatian citizens do not need a visa for other European

countries. The financial obstacles might be quite important. Only if some EU funds

will come available this obstacle might be partly overcome. However, it is clear that

the Croatian Ministry of Education has no funds available for further stimulating

mobility for the time being.

Croatia


It is thought that if Croatian VET institutions will be eligible for EU funding, they will

most certainly try to apply for such funding and would be most happy to

participate in exchange projects.

Also, it is assumed that there will be little obstacles at the level of individual IVET

participants. English as a second language is taught from primary school onwards

and at a quite high level. Even those IVET participants that participate in shorter

programmes (for specific crafts) will most of the time have sufficient command of

the English language to be able to participate in transnational placements. Every

IVET programme and class will have a number of talented students that will be

most willing to go for an international experience.

Apart from the lack of policy attention and initiatives, the biggest obstacle for

transnational mobility is the lack of awareness among stakeholders (employers in

particular) of the benefits of mobility and the fact that opportunities for mobility

exist. The lack of a true awareness raising campaign reinforces this. It is thought

that if these obstacles can be overcome, all other obstacles that might occur can

be overcome as well.

Transnational mobility should be pushed, but the question is by whom. As such the

Chamber of Crafts and Trades can play a role. However, it is expected that a more

effective strategy would be that the EU authorities come up with clear

recommendations for Croatia in this area. Such recommendations would mean

that signals will come in through the Ministry of Education; certainly if

recommendations are perceived as requirements that have to be met by the

Croatian VET system; this will have impact on policy making and policy attention.

Transnational mobility in IVET has to be promoted at the system level.

Croatia


Cyprus

131

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Cyprus



1 Initial vocational education and training inCyprus

1.1 IVET programme

Education is compulsory for ten years and starts at the age of 52 . It comprises 6

years of primary (grades 1-6) and 3 years of lower secondary schooling (grades

7-9). Primary education (Dimotiki scholi) and lower secondary education

(Gymnasio) offer general education. At the end of lower secondary, pupils can

choose to enter upper secondary education, which is divided in the following

streams:

� 3 years of general education (the Eniaio Lykeio – Unified Lyceum, EL), preparing

for university.

� 3 years of technical education (Mesi Techniki Ekpaidefs, MTEE). Technical

(MTEE) schools offer a choice of technical (theoretical) and vocational (practical)

education. The theoretical stream is completely school-based whereas students

in the practical stream do practical training in an enterprise one day a week in

their last year.

The programmes in IVET include a variety of clusters in both technical courses and

vocational or craft courses. Examples of clusters provided are mechanical

engineering, electrical engineering, building and civil engineering, hotel and

catering, fashion design, graphic arts and interior design and other clusters. The

great majority of programme clusters are offered in both technical and vocational

streams.

In the technical stream general subjects and science take up 58% of the total

programme. The rest of the time (42%) is for technology and workshops. General

subjects include religious education, modern Greek, languages, history and

physical education, mathematics, physics, chemistry and computers.

In the vocational stream, general subjects take up 42.5% of the programme and

technology and workshop skills 57.5%. Final-year pupils of vocational courses are

placed in approved enterprises for one day a week throughout their final year.

Horizontal mobility was strengthened in recent reforms: it is possible to transfer

between the MTEE and the ELs (and vice versa). However, in practice there is little

mobility between general and technical education. Technical education suffers

from a negative perception in society, where a clear preference for higher and

more general education (university) exists.

Upon completion of upper secondary education, whether general or

technical/vocational, all pupils receive an upper secondary school-leaving

certificate, which provides access to higher education. However, due to limited

Cyprus


2 Children are admitted once they are 4 years and 8 months old.

places in higher education, students sit selection examinations, organised by the

Ministry of Education and Culture (Ypourgeio Paideias kai Politismou, MoEC) and

compete for access to public higher education institutions in Cyprus as well as in

Greece.

Students in secondary education may also opt out of upper secondary and take up

apprenticeships (Systima Mathiteias) between the ages of 14 and 16. The

programme lasts two years and is a combination of general education and

vocational training at school and practical training in industry. Apprenticeships

apply to a very small part of the VET population (less than 1% of IVET students,

2001) and mainly for craft workers.

Recently, the Apprenticeship System was reviewed. Responsibility for

apprenticeships was centralised and new curricula and training methods

introduced, including the use of modular classes and the integration of ICT in

learning.

Three diplomas were introduced: Certificate, Diploma and Higher Diploma.

National occupational standards are in the process of being developed: a total of 5

standards (waiting, cooking, reception, construction and retailing) have been

developed. Links with European Pathways and Europass are being established to

improve European mobility. The development of a Competence-Based system of

Vocational Qualifications is a high priority. The Board of Governors of the Human

Resource Development Agency has, supported by the involved Ministers, decided

to gradually implement suc a system of vocational qualifications. Full

implementation is envisaged by 2013.

The 2002/2003 enrolments in MTEE included 1 031 pupils in the technical stream

and 3 332 pupils in the vocational stream (including evening classes). The total

number of pupils in upper secondary schools in 2002/2003 was 31 843. Only

13.7% was enrolled in one of the technical and vocational programmes.

Cyprus



The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for managing all public

education, including secondary education, both general and technical and

vocational upper secondary education. It shares responsibility for the

apprenticeship system with the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance. The

Ministry of Education is advised by the Education Council, in which the Planning

Bureau, the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, the church, the Parliamentary

Committee of Education, parents associations, teachers associations and 7

experts are represented.

The Planning Bureau, part of the Government of Cyprus, develops overall strategic

planning of education at the national level. It is responsible, on the basis of

proposals from the Ministers, for a development plan and budget, which -once

accepted by the Minister of Finance- is submitted for approval to the Council of

Ministers and the House of Representatives. All proposals for reforms in education

have to be endorsed by the Planning Bureau.

Needs expressed by schools are channelled through local and regional authorities

but decisions are taken at national level. With the reform of the educational system

in Cyprus, for which a committee of 7 experts delivered a report in 2004, a reform

of the institutional framework for administration and decision-making with an

emphasis on decentralisation is on its way.

School-based IVET, that is the theoretical and practical stream in Secondary

Technical and Vocational Education, is funded by the state. The share of public

expenditure on IVET is relatively small; it amounted in 2004 till 4.8% of the total

public expenditure on education. Participation in IVET is free of charge.

Apprentices receive a wage from the employer who provides them with a training

place. For the two days per week that apprentices spent at a technical school

(which is free of charge for them) employers receive a compensation for the wages

they pay the apprentices. This compensation is paid by the Human Resource

Development Authority.

Cyprus


3 Stakeholders

In Cyprus there has been a long-standing tradition of tripartite consultation

(government, trade unions and employers associations) and social dialogue. This is

reflected in the active participation of social partners in the various bodies and

committees. The social partners also participate in an advisory and consultative

capacity in the development planning process, including the preparation of the

Strategic Development Plan, the Single Programming Documents for Objective 2

and Objective 3, the National Action Plan for Employment, the Community Initiative

Programme (CIP) “EQUAL” and the National Lisbon Programme (Ethniko Schedio

Drasis gia ti Stratigiki tis Lissavonas).

As a result of administrative arrangements the social partners also participate in:

� The Labour Advisory Board (Ergatiko Symboulevtiko Soma), which advises the

Minister of Labour and Social Insurance (Yourgos Ergasias kai Koinonikon

Asfaliseon).

� The Pancyprian Productivity Council (Pangyprio Symboulio Paragogikotitas).

� The Economic Consultative Committee (Symboulevtiki Oikonomiki Epitropi).

Furthermore, the social partners as main stakeholders usually participate on the

Board of Governors of institutions dealing with human resources such as Human

Resource Development Authority, HRDA (Archi Anaptyxis Anthropinou Dynamikou,

AnAD), the Cyprus Productivity Centre, CPC (Kentro Paragogikotitas, KEPA), the

Higher Technical Institute, HTI (Anotero Technologiko Institouto, ATI) and the

Higher Hotel Institute of Cyprus, HHIC (Higher Hotel Institute of Cyprus, AXIK).

Finally, the social partners participate in consultative committees (the Education

Council, the Consultative Committee of Technical and Vocational Education, ad

hoc committees for curriculum development). Participation ranges from policy

development to the design of training programs and curricula.

As a consequence of the size of the country all major VET related decisions are

taken at national level. Thus it is at this level that the social partners have specific

roles and responsibilities.

In the reforms of upper secondary education (between 1997 and 2001)

School-Industry links were strengthened with better-designed placements for

students and teachers in Cypriot companies.

Cyprus



4.1 Introduction































4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Cyprus

National policies that stimulate IVEt transnational mobility and the involvement of

Ministries. Cyprus only has the Leonardo da Vinci programme as a policy driver

and a programme that stimulates transnational mobility in IVET. The bodies and

ministries that are involved in policy making in Cyprs with regard to transnational

mobility in IVET are the Planning Bureau, the Ministry of Labour and Social

Insurance and -to a lesser extent- the Ministry of Education and Culture.

Cyprus


One specific programme supports IVET transnational mobility in Cyprus

Name of programme Objective Target group Who funds Annual budget

Leonardo da Vinci To improve the skills

and competencies

of people, especially

young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels.

To improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing

vocational training

and the lifelong

acquisition of skills.

To promote and

reinforce the

contribution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation with a

view to improving

competitiveness and

entrepreneurship.

Young persons

undergoing initial

vocational training.

University students.

Young workers and

recent graduates.

HRD and Training

managers.

Trainers.

European Union € 69,000 (2001)

€ 190,000 (2002)

€ 172,000 (2003)

€ 484,000 (2004)

€ 554,000 (2005

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Cyprus






High involvement Cyprus indicates that it are in particular VET institutions that are highly involved in

IVET transnational mobility. Their role consists of activating and stimulating and

coaching of participants.

Medium involvement The following stakeholders have a medium involvement in transnational mobility in

IVET:

� National government: policy making, decision making, financing and approving

and accrediting placements;

� Non-governmental organisations: activating and stimulating and coaching of

participants.

Cyprus


No involvement There are no stakeholders that according to Cyprus have a low involvement in IVET

transnational mobility. The following stakeholders are not involved at all:

� Municipal governments

� Employer organisations

� Employers: public and private organisations and companies

� Trade unions

� Chamber of commerce

� Student associations






High benefits Cyprus states that it are in particular VET institutions sending students on a

placement and IVET participants themselves that benefit highly from transnational

mobility.

Benefits for VET institutions

1. Co-operation among VET institutions

2. Enhancing the institution’s knowledge of various training systems

3. Transfer of good practice in training provision

4. Development of professional co-operation with other EU institutions

Benefits for IVET participants

1. Improved professional skills

2. Improved intercultural skills

3. Improved team working skills

4. Learning new techniques and working methods

5. Improved social skills and autonomy

Intermediate benefits

Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement

1. Sharing of teaching methods and techniques

2. Experience of another culture and new people

3. Promotion of convergence between vocational training systems

4. Acquisition of information on specific field of expertise

5. Basis for future co-operation

Benefits for employers hiring an employee with a transnational mobility experience

and for branch organisations could not be indicated by Cyprus (no information

available).

Cyprus



Cyprus mentions three obstacles to transnational mobility with high relevance and

another one with an intermediate relevance.

High relevance � Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with

mobility.

� VET institutions meet too much bureaucracy in handling procedures.

� Other: Lack of opportunities for submission of personal applications by

interested persons as these must be submitted by their institutions or

enterprises.


procedures.

Low relevance � VET institutions do not have a strategy or policy on transnational mobility.


friendships.



No relevance � Employers do not know how to handle a transnational placement.

� Employers do not see the benefits of transnational mobility.

� Lack of interest and stimulation of transnational mobility by social partners.


organisations.

� Lack of recognition of qualifications obtained in another country.

� Little emphasis on language learning in IVET.

� Lack of cooperation between ministries.

� Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET.


mobility.

� Vet institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility projects.

� Vet institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility.

� A placement abroad does not fit in the home school curriculum.

� IVET participants do not see the benefits of transnational mobility.

� A general lack of interest among IVET participants.

� IVET participants do not have enough language skills.

� Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes.


Cyprus


Solutions applied toovercome the obstacles

Solutions that have been implemented in order to overcome the obstacles are:

� Better contacts with other national agencies;

� Incorporating transnational mobility in the educational and training programmes

of VET institutions.

Solutions proposed toovercome the obstacles

Other solutions that are being proposed are:

� Simplification of procedures and forms;

� Increased funding by the state.

4.6 Numbers in transnational mobility in Cyprus






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Cyprus.

IVET participants in Cyprus In 2004 4,678 students were enrolled in IVET, of which 329 under the

apprenticeship scheme.


Outgoing mobility is monitored by the Leonardo da Vinci Agency.

Incoming mobility is not monitored and therefore no figures on incoming mobility in

Cyprus are available.

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility in

IVET

40 53 169 199

Cyprus



Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci Male: 21

Female: 19

Sum: 40

Agriculture: 0

Manufacturing: 10

Services: 30

Health & Welfare: 0

< 6 weeks: 30

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 10

> 6 months: 0

Male: 25

Female: 28

Sum: 53

Agriculture: 0

Manufacturing: 0

Services: 53

Health & Welfare: 0

< 6 weeks: 48

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 5

> 6 months: 0

Male: 96

Female: 73

Sum: 169

Agriculture: 0

Manufacturing: 0

Services: 169

Health & Welfare: 0

< 6 weeks: 169

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

Male: not available

Female: not

available

Sum: 199

Agriculture: 0

Manufacturing: 0

Services: 199

Health & Welfare: 0

< 6 weeks: 199

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

Results based on statistical data Leonardo National Agency

Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went

(Based on last four years)


Leonardo da Vinci Germany

France

UK

Italy

Greece

139

76

66

43

35



The number of students involved in outgoing mobility has been increasing.

Explanation: More funding available as a result of the accession of Cyprus to the EU.


There has been an increase in the number of countries involved in outgoing

mobility.

Explanation: VET institutions are learning from their previous experiences and are

finding more interesting and relevant destinations. The Leonardo National Agency

is also encouraging innovation in the proposals submitted.

Cyprus


Czech Republic

143

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Czech Republic



1 Initial vocational education and training inthe Czech Republic

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in the Czech Republic begins at the age of six and lasts for

nine years. The period of compulsory education is divided into two phases; an initial

phase of five years after which a certificate can be obtained and a second phase of

four years after which a second certificate can be obtained. Obtaining the second

certificate is a condition for entry into regular upper secondary education, usually at

the age of 15. An exception to these rules are pupils who make the transfer to a

gymnasium with an extended programme directly after the first phase (eight year

gymnasium) or after a further two supplementary years (six year gymnasium).

After completion of compulsory education, students can enrol in different types of

vocational education. The two most important types of the secondary technical

schools and the secondary vocational schools.

The secondary technical schools provide both three- and four year programmes,

but the four year programmes are predominant. There are about 290 different four

year programmes which train students for both a vocational qualification and

prepare them for the maturita examination (equivalent to gymnasium), which gives

them access to higher education. Approximately 45% of the overall curriculum is

devoted to general subjects, and the rest of the time is spent on vocationally linked

theory and gaining practical skills. Work placements (6-8 weeks) can be part of the

curriculum, but practical training often takes place in school work shops due to a

lack of placements offered.

The secondary vocational schools offer both three and four year programmes.

There are about 190 different three year programmes that prepare students for

vocational qualifications as defined in the national occupational list. Depending on

the particular programme, 30-35% of total curricular time is spent on general

subjects, 20-30% on vocational subjects and 35-45% on practical training, which

again mainly takes place in laboratories and school work shops. Upon completion

they receive a vocational certificate. The four year programmes prepare students

for both a vocational qualification and the maturita examination, as in the

secondary technical schools. There are about 100 different four year programmes,

but the proportion of students they cater for is relatively small (less than 6% of all

secondary school leavers).

Students who completed a three year vocational programme with a vocational

certificate can take so-called follow-up courses of two years that prepare them for

the maturita examination upon which they gain access to higher education. These

follow-up courses are also considered as being part of the IVET system.

Czech Republic



Since 2000, governance of IVET has been devolved. Where the IVET system was

previously highly centralised, nowadays most of the administrative responsibilities

for secondary technical and secondary vocational schools have been

decentralised towards the level of the regions. About two thirds of the secondary

technical and vocational schools are run by the regions, whereas about 22% of

these schools are private are run by the churches. The remainder are either school

run by municipalities or by specific Ministries (schools in specialised fields). Up till

now, the IVET programmes have to comply with the national Standard of

Secondary Vocational and Technical Education, which sets out the requirements

that have to be met by the different vocational programmes. Principals of

secondary technical and vocational schools have some freedom to adjust the

curricula (from 10% for overall number of teaching periods to 30% of subject

syllabi), in accordance with adjustments resulting from new technologies,

modernisation of the field or new requirements stemming from regional conditions

and the demand of social partners).

Starting from the school year 2006-2007 the existing curricula will gradually be

replaced by national framework curricula, on the basis of which school-based

curricula can be developed, taking into account the specific regional environment

and the requirements of the social partners.

The budgets for IVET are born by the central government and the regions (or in the

exceptional case of municipal founded schools, by the municipalities). The budget

the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports allocates to the regions, covers the

direct costs of providing education (staff salaries, teaching and learning materials,

continuing training of trainers). The budgets from the regions cover the operational

and capital costs of the schools.

Czech Republic



There are different official platforms and institutions that play a role in IVET. At the

national level that is on the one hand, the National Institute for Technical and

Vocational Education (NUÓV), whose task it is, among others, to develop the

national Standard for Secondary Vocational Education for the different levels (three

and four year programmes) and for the different occupational directions. For this

developmental work the institute cooperates with 25 field groups including 270

experts. These field groups have also been responsible for the development of the

new framework curricula. On the other hand, there are two national councils that

advise the government on vocational education and training and related issues.

These are the Council for Economic and Social Agreement and the Government

Council for Human Resources Development. The first Council is the platform for

social dialogue, in which social partners are represented, and which contributes to

the formulation of legal regulations and government policies in the socio-economic

area, including education (covered by a working group for education and human

resources). The second Council, which was established in 2003, is organised on a

tripartite basis and has the task to help the government in developing strategic

policies interlinking employment, VET, qualifications and entrepreneurship.

At the regional similar regional Councils for Economic and Social Agreement and

for Human Resources Development have been set up, though the extent to which

they are really operational differs from region to region. Their tasks are similar as

the those of the National Councils, but then vis à vis the regional authorities.

There are also examples of cooperation between social partners and VET schools

at sectoral level, but these are mostly initiated by professional organisations and

not by employers or trade unions. Direct involvement of social partners, and in

particular of employers, in the delivery in VET by means of offering practical

placements is still little developed.

Czech Republic



4.1 Introduction































Czech Republic


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in the Czech Republic

The Czech Republic has specific national or regional policies to stimulate or

support mobility in vocational education and training.

� Let Us Go Abroad programme. To support international co-operation of

schools.

� Leonardo projects support programme. To support involvement in the Leonardo

da Vinci programme.

� Support of international co-operation of youth and co-financing international

study programmes. To support international co-operation including mobility.

� Programme for development of international co-operation of schools in the Zlín

region. To support international co-operation of schools.

� Vysocina Fund. To support involvement in the international projects.

Involvement of ministries Two ministries are involved in policy making for transnational mobility in initial

vocational education and training. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports is

involved in the implementation of Leonardo da Vinci programme. The Ministry for

Regional Development is involved in programmes of bilateral co-operation with

neighbouring countries.

Czech Republic


Eight specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility


Leonardo da Vinci To support the VET

innovation

People in IVET and

CVET, young

graduates and

workers, job

seekers, VET

managers and

teachers, personnel

managers.

EC Approx. € 5 mill.

(2006)

Let Us Go Abroad

programme

To support the

international

co-operation of

schools

All schools in the

region

Regional Authority

of South Moravia

Approx.

€ 220,000

Leonardo projects

support programme

To support

involvement in the

Leonardo da Vinci

programme

VET schools in the

region

Regional Authority

of Moravia-Silesia

n. a.

Support of

international

co-operation of

youth and co

financing

international study

programmes

To support the

international

co-operation incl.

mobility

All schools in the

region

Regional Authority

of Plzen region

Approx. € 20,000

Programme for

development of

international

co-operation of

schools in the Zlín

region

To support the

international

co-operation of

schools

All schools in the

region

Regional Authority

of Zlín region

Approx.

€ 35,000

Vysocina Fund To support

involvement in

international

projects

All schools in the

region

Regional Authority

of Vysocina region

Approx.

€ 53,000

Interreg –

Co-operative

programme with

neighbouring

countries

To support the

bilateral

co-operation of

various

organisations

Professionals in

various

organisations /

sectors

EC Approx.

€ 18 mill.

Well done ! To support the

Czech-German

co-operation of

youth

Young people in

IVET

Czech-German

Future Fund

€ 80,000

Czech Republic


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility

What stakeholders are involved (high, medium, low or no involvement) and in what

way (policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making, financing,

approving and accrediting placements, coaching of participants).

High involvement The Czech Republic states that the European Union, the VET institutions and the

National Agency Leonardo da Vinci are highly involved in IVET mobility.

The European Union is involved in

� policy making

� decision making

� financing

The National Agency Leonardo da Vinci is involved in

� activating and stimulating

� coaching of participants

Low involvement The following Czech institutions have a low involvement in IVET mobility. The

national government/Ministry of Education is involved in approving and accrediting

placements.

The National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education is involved in

approving and accrediting placements. Regional governments (regional authorities

managing IVET) are involved in activating and stimulating and financing.

Also employer organisations, individual employers (public and private

organisations and companies) and the Chamber of commerce (The Economic

Chamber of the Czech Republic) have low involvement in IVET mobility.

No involvement The National education council (HRD Council), the national council of VET

institutions, branch organisations, trade unions and student associations are not

involved.



Czech Republic



The Czech Republic indicates that VET institutions and IVET participants highly

benefit from mobility.

High benefits VET institutions sending participants on placements:

1. Chance to exploit foreign know-how and experience

2. Improvement of knowledge how to manage international training projects

3. Enlargement of international contacts

4. Strengthening European dimension of teachers´ work

5. Better image of VET institutions

IVET participants:

1. Personal development

2. Improvement of vocational knowledge and skills

3. Improvement of language skills

4. Strengthening motivation for further training

5. Contribution to better employability

Intermediate benefits Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement:

1. Use of qualified workforce

2. Chance to compare domestic and foreign workforce

3. Enlargement of international contact

Low benefits Branch organisations experience low benefits.

The benefits they do have:

1. Chance to exploit foreign know-how and experience

2. Enlargement of international contacts

No answer has been given about benefits for employers hiring employees with

transnational mobility experience, because no data are available on this point.

Results based on empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

Czech Republic



The answer to this question gives an overview of existing obstacles and their

relevance in the Czech Republic.

High relevance � Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with

mobility.





organisations.





� IVET participants lack finances for a placement abroad.


procedures.

� VET institutions do not have a strategy or policy on transnational mobility.

� VET institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility projects.


� Lack of support of promoters by their founders (regional authorities)

� Weak dissemination of the best practice.

Low relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes.



� VET institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility.


� IVET participants lack courage for placements abroad.

No relevance � Lack of autonomy of VET institutions to make decisions on transnational

mobility.





friendships.




In the Czech Republic mobility actors applied the following solutions to overcome

obstacles:

� Development of services of insurance companies;

Czech Republic



The Czech Republic proposes a long list of solutions which should be undertaken

to support further diminishing of obstacles in mobility policy and practice:

� Strengthening guidance services;

� Collection of information on projects;

� Creation of web portal at national level;

� Implementation of a national mobility programme;

� Better links between ministries;

� Improvement of curricula;

� Better recognition of mobility;

� Better involvement of branch organisations in mobility programmes;

� Presenting information on mobility projects to employers;

� Offer of responsible authorities for employers how to prepare transnational

placements;

� Better co-operation between employers and IVET providers;

� Dissemination of examples of VET institutions with strategy in transnational

mobility;

� Implementation of the new position (manager of transnational projects);

� Dissemination of information on benefits of transnational mobility;

� Dissemination of information on quality placements;

� Simplification of procedures;

� Expericence exchange between mobility participants and potential participants;

� Training of teachers.

Another Czech expert indicated the importance of a national programme and/or a

national or regional action plan for transnational mobility in IVET. The government

should stress in such a programme or action plan the importance of mobility for

the improvement of human resources development and education and training

(strategies). The VET institutions and the sectoral organisations should be the main

actors involved in mobility, however they should be supported by other

stakeholders, especially by managing institutions.

The Czech Republic added two extra obstacles to the list of 25 in the

questionnaire

Lack of support of promoters by their founders (regional authorities) and weak

dissemination of the best practice. Czech Republic’s suggestion to diminish these

obstacles: moral appreciation of promoters by their founders and intensive

dissemination of the best practice.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in the Czech Republic.

Czech Republic


IVET participants in the CzechRepublic

The total numbers of IVET participants is 420 095.

Monitoring of mobility Outgoing mobility is monitored by different agencies. Incoming mobility is not

monitored.

The agencies gathering statistical data on mobility are the National Agency

Leonardo da Vinci, regional authorities managing IVET and project promoters of

some institutions.

Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 704 709 1 419 1 567

Comenius 30 55 85 101

Other governmental

programmes at national,

regional and municipal level

221 112 404 230

Interreg 18 29 188 154

Other 9

Total 973 905 2096 2061

Leonardo da Vinci 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 313

Female: 391

Sum: 704

Male: 296

Female: 413

Sum: 709

Male: 663

Female: 754

Sum: 1419

Male: 733

Female: 834

Sum: 1567


Technique: 136

Economics: 304

Health & Welfare:

132

Agriculture: 50

Technique: 204

Economics: 347

Health & Welfare:

108

Agriculture: 139

Technique: 485

Economics: 639

Health & Welfare:

154

Agriculture: 156

Technique: 501

Economics: 752

Health & Welfare:

158


6-12 weeks: 60

3-6 months: 83

> 6 months: 12

< 6 weeks: 567

6-12 weeks: 48

3-6 months: 83

> 6 months: 81

< 6 weeks: 1142

6-12 weeks: 118

3-6 months: 157

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 1254

6-12 weeks: 125

3-6 months: 188

> 6 months: 0


Czech Republic


Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went over the past four years.

Germany

United Kingdom

Austria

The Netherlands

Italy

31.5%

10.1%

8.6%

8.4%

7.5%


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin the Czech Republic

There is an increase, especially during the last two years.

Explanations: better skills of promoting organisations to prepare and manage the

mobility projects, better awareness of transnational mobility and accession of the

country to the EU.


The number of countries where IVET participants go to for placements abroad is

increasing.

Explanation: larger international contacts of VET schools and more funds available

from the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Branches or occupationalfields of study in which theCzech Republic would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

The Czech Republic would like to stimulate international mobility in two branches:

� The technical branches, because the technical branches are typical for the

economy of the country, there is a high demand for technicians in the labour

market;

� The social services, because social services should be improved, also through

experience from abroad.

Czech Republic


Denmark

157

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Denmark



1 Initial vocational education and training inDenmark

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Denmark starts at age 7 and lasts for nine years2 .

Compulsory education is comprehensive and provided at the basic schools.

Transfer to upper secondary education takes place at age 16. After having

completed basic school, different options are open for students, which can

basically be divided into the academic track and the vocational track. The

academic track consists of:

� The gymnasium, which is a three-year upper secondary general programme that

is concluded with the school-leaving certificate that gives access to tertiary

education;

� The preparatory examination programme, which is a two-year alternative for the

gymnasium;

� The higher commercial examination programme, provided by the commercial

colleges;

� The higher technical examination programme, provided by the technical

colleges.

The latter two programme are also three-year programmes and have a vocational

orientation. They are also concluded with the school-leaving certificate and provide

access to tertiary education. Even though these programmes have a vocational

orientation, they are considered as being part of general upper secondary

education.

The vocational track -which is considered as being vocational upper secondary

education- consists of:

� Vocational education and training programmes;

� Social welfare and health training programmes;

� Agricultural training programmes;

� Maritime training programmes.

The structure of the programmes is more or less similar; the difference is that the

latter three programmes are mainly provided by specialised VET schools, whereas

all other IVET programmes are provided by the general VET institutions.

Denmark


2 For pupils who wish, it is possible to extend basic schooling with a 10th year; for admission to the higher preparatory examination programmehaving completed the 10th year at basic school is obligatory.

Apart from these options, there are options especially for those young people who

have not yet made an educational/occupational choice, who have learning

disabilities or social or personal problems. The first option is taking a course at a

so-called production school. The second option is enrolling in an individualised

basic vocational training course. Both ‘alternative’ options aim at having their

participants enrolled in a regular vocational education and training programme

after some time.

The vocational upper secondary education system in Denmark has gone through a

major reform, known as Education 2000. This reform had several intentions. On the

one hand, the attempt was to reduce the drop-out rate from IVET. The main reason

for the high drop-out from IVET was considered to be the choice of the wrong

vocational direction by young people. In order to reduce drop-out rates it was

decided to reduce the number of specialisations from which young people had to

choose and to postpone further specialisation by introducing a basic phase in all

vocational programmes to be followed by the main programmes. The choice in the

basic phase was reduced from some 80 entry programmes, to seven broad basic

programmes. The number of specialisations was also reduced and now counts 96

main IVET programmes. On the other hand, Education 2000 was also a

pedagogical reform introducing individualised training programmes (in the form of

an individualised training plan for each student) and a further developed guidance

and counselling function for all participants that is integrated within the VET

institutions. Each student also has his/her own educational portfolio, which is

intended to make students more aware of and responsible for their own learning

process.

The present seven entry programmes or basic courses are:

� Technology and communication (Teknologi og kommunikation);

� Building and construction (Bygge og anlæg);

� Crafts and engineering trades (Håndværk og teknik);

� Food production and catering (Fra jord til bord);

� Mechanical engineering, transports and logistics (Mekanik, transport og

logistik);

� Service industries (Service);

� Commerce and clerical trades (Handel og kontor).

The basic programmes vary in length, depending on the particular needs of

individual students. Within the technical basic programmes, duration can vary from

10 to 60 weeks. In the commercial programmes the basic programme takes either

38 or 76 consecutive weeks (with the possibility to extend it to 116 weeks). After

finalising the basic programme (with a certificate stating the subjects a student has

taken), participants can enrol in the main programme. Where the basic programme

is mainly school-based, the main programmes have a ‘dual’ character, in the sense

that periods of practical training are alternated with periods of school-based

training (sometimes also called the ‘sandwich formula’). Two third of total curricular

time in the main programmes is spent on practical training within an enterprise (or

alternatively in a school workshop if there are not sufficient apprenticeship places

Denmark


available3 ) and on third on school-based education. Before a participant can start

the main programme, he or she has to have concluded an apprenticeship contract

with an employer (or a similar agreement with the school that provides the

alternative)4 .

Though the vocational programmes can vary in length, depending on the particular

specialisation, on average their duration is 3 to 3.5 years.

Upon successful completion of an IVET programme, students receive the

journeyman’s certificate for the practical part of their training and a certificate from

the VET institution for the part of the training they have concluded there. Once

graduated, students are considered to be skilled workers and can enter the labour

market directly. They can also continue education in some so-called short cycle

tertiary programmes.

Denmark


3 The option of taking the practical training in a school workshop has been introduced since there is a lack of apprenticeship places withinenterprises and other private or public organisations. This option is still subject of debates between stakeholders (including the social partners, whoactually want to get rid of this option), but until now no alternative solution has been found.

4 Apart from entering the main programme through the basic programme, it is also possible to start training within an enterprise directly if aparticipant has concluded an apprentice contract with an enterprise. In this case participants start their VET programme in a company and thenalter in-company training with school-based training for the remaining period of the programme.


The IVET system in Denmark is highly decentralised. The Ministry of Education sets

the overall framework for IVET as well as the overall objectives. Within this

framework however, VET institutions, together with the boards and the local trade

committees, have a substantial autonomy in adapting VET (curricula as well as

teaching and learning methodologies) to local demands and needs. Each VET

institution has its own governing board, on which teachers, students,

administrative staff and social partners are represented.

The local trade committees, on which the social partners are represented, have the

task to advise the VET institutions (as well as the labour market training centres

that play a major role in CVET both for the unemployed and the employed) on local

adaptation of IVET (and CVET).

VET programme curricula are agreed between the social partner trade committees

(Faglige udvalg) and the Ministry of Education for each individual programme. The

trade committees submit recommendations to renew curriculum so that VET

programmes keep up with the demands of industry, based on qualification

analyses and in-depth knowledge of the field in question. Recommendations must

be accompanied by quantitative and qualitative data. The committees must, for

example, provide information on opportunities for employment and practical work

training, on the annual intake for the scheme, and information on any existing

analyses and forecasts concerning qualification requirements in this area.

IVET is based on alternance models where training takes place at college and in a

company in turns. The state finances training at colleges, and companies finance

on-the-job training, i.e. the trainees receive an apprentice salary while in the

company. All employers pay an amount into a fund called the Employers’

Reimbursement Scheme (Arbejdsgivernes Elevrefusion - AER) which is based on

the number of employees in the individual company. The money is then allocated

to the companies taking in trainees so that they do not bear the cost of training

alone. The companies are reimbursed for costs during school-based training. In

2005, the companies paid DKK 2 909 million (€ 390 million) to AER and received

DKK 3 240 million (€ 434 million) in reimbursement. The payments to AER have

remained quite stable from 2001 to 2005 whereas the reimbursements have risen

20% from DKK 2 496 million (€ 335 million) in 2001 to 3 240 million (€ 434 million)

in 2005. This is among other things due to the fact that the number of adult

trainees have risen in the same period

Denmark


3 Stakeholders in Danish IVET

The Danish VET system has a long standing tradition of involvement of the social

partners. Co-operation with the social partners is an integral part of national labour

market policy, also in areas which are primarily regulated by statute for example

health and safety at work, job placement services, labour market training,

vocational education, measures to combat unemployment, and unemployment

insurance.

The social partners are involved in IVET at all levels; national as well as

regional/local. The main bodies within the Danish VET system are:

� The councils for Vocational Education and Training: their task is to advise the

Minister of Education on principal matters concerning VET (such as systemic

reforms).

� The National Trade Committees: these trade committees (De faglige udvalg)

consist of representatives from both sides of industry and constitute the

backbone of the VET system. They perform a central role in relation to the

creation and renewal of VET courses and have a dominant position in the

formulation of curricula. The committees normally have 10-14 members and are

formed by the labour market organisations (with parity of membership). They are

responsible for the following matters relating to the individual VET course: i)

objectives; ii) duration; iii) contents; iv) final examination standards and v)

issuing final certifications. There are 59 trade committees who are responsible

for approximately 96 courses. Trade committees decide the regulatory

framework for individual courses - they decide which trade is to provide the

core of the training and the ratio between classroom teaching (approximately

1/3) and practical work in an enterprise (approximately 2/3). The committees

also approve enterprises as qualified training establishments and rule on

conflicts which may develop between apprentices and the enterprise providing

practical training. The trade committees and their secretariats are financed by

the participating organisations.

� Local Trade committees: they have the task to advise the VET institutions (as

well as the labour market training centres that play a major role in CVET both for

the unemployed and the employed) on local adaptation of IVET (and CVET).

They also issue the journeyman’s certificates.

� The Governing Boards of the VET institutions, on which not only the social

partners, but also students and teachers and administrative staff are

represented.

Denmark



4.1 Introduction































Denmark


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Denmark

Apart from participating in mobility programmes such as Leonardo, Denmark has

three specific policies for stimulating IVET transnational mobility, which are all still

operative.

Three specific programmes for stimulating IVET transnational mobility

� PIU-programme: this programme, which is in place since 1992 is intended for

funding and promoting placements of IVET participants abroad. It is funded by

the employers and the estimated expenditure (annually) is € 2,5 million.

� Internationaliseringsredegørelsen: this policy -operative since 2004- has the aim

to promote the internationalisation of education and training in Denmark. It is

therefore more a general internationalisation programme with an (in)direct

impact on IVET transnational mobility. It is funded by the Ministry of Education.

� Globaliseringsstrategien: the latest policy of the Danish government has been in

place only recently (2006). Its aim is to prepare Denmark for the challenges

posed by the globalisation process.

Involvement of Ministries In Denmark, the Ministry of Education has been involved in policy making with

regard to transnational mobility in IVET since the launch of the PIU programme

since 1992.

Denmark


Five specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Denmark


The PIU-programme Fund and promote

placements abroad

in IVET

Apprentices and

people in IVET

Employers – through

the Employers’

Reimbursement

Scheme for

Apprentices and

people in IVET (AER)

Unlimited (annually

some 2,5 mill. spent)

Leonardo da Vinci Placements and

study periods

abroad

Apprentices and

people in IVET

European

Commission

Nordplus Junior Cooperation

between upper

secondary

educational

establishments in

the Nordic countries

(may also include)

apprentices and

young people in

IVET for placements

and study periods in

other Nordic

countries

Nordic Council App. 900,000 euro

for Danish

participation

Comenius School partnerships

in Europe

May also fund

exchanges of

apprentices and

students in IVET –

no figures available

European

Commission

DK - USA Cooperation in

education and

training between

Denmark and the

United States

May also fund

placement and

study periods for

apprentices and

young people in

IVET

Ministry of

Education, DK

Dept. of Education,

USA

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Denmark






High involvement In Denmark, the European Union, in its capacity of policy making, and the Danish

Ministry of Education, in its capacity of both policy making and financing, are said

to have a high involvement in IVET transnational mobility.

Denmark


Medium involvement Denmark indicates that the following bodies have a medium involvement in IVET

transnational mobility:

� The trade committees (in their role of national qualification authorities) approve

and accredit the placements;

� Employer organisations are involved in policy making and in activating and

stimulating transnational mobility;

� Branch organisations, fulfil the same role as the employer organisations;

� Trade unions also are involved in policy making and in activating and stimulating

transnational mobility;

� VET institutions are involved in activating and stimulating transnational mobility

and they coach the participants.

Low involvement The national education council, the national council of VET institutions and

employers are said to have a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility in

Denmark. The first two stakeholders are both involved in policy making and the

national council of VET institutions also in activating and stimulating transnational

mobility. Employers have a role in activating and stimulating, financing and

coaching the participants.

No involvement Regional and municipal governments, chambers of commerce and student

organisations are not involved in IVET transnational mobility.






High benefits Denmark indicates that both IVET participants and employers that hire an

employee with a transnational mobility experience gain high benefits from it.


1. Reflective thinking


3. Factual knowledge of business and training systems

4. Vocational skills

5. Language skills

IVET participants


2. Intercultural competence

3. Language skills


Denmark


Intermediate benefits Intermediate benefits from IVET transnational mobility are reported for VET

institutions and for employers who receive IVET participants on a transnational

mobility placement.

Vet institutions sending participants on placements


2. Language skills

3. Factual knowledge of other countries

4. Intercultural competence



1. Reciprocity

2. “Creating an international atmosphere”

3. Intercultural understanding

Denmark



Denmark indicates that two obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another six

obstacles have an intermediate relevance.

High relevance � Employers do not see the benefits of transnational mobility


Medium relevance � Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with mobility

� Employers do not know how to handle an transnational placement





Low relevance � Problems with international coverage of insurances

� Vet institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility






friendships







organisations



mobility



80% of results based on estimations after having consulted those involved

The problems for VET institutions with too much bureaucracy, apply only for the

Leonardo programme. With regard to the obstacle of a lack of language skills it is

indicated that this only applies for less spoken languages.

Denmark



Denmark indicates that the following solutions have been adopted to overcome the

obstacles for transnational mobility:

� (EU) Article 17 special agreements concerning social security

� Annual conference for practitioners at vocational schools involved in the

PIU-programme (for the rest there is little exchange of experience between VET

practitioners)

� Awareness campaigns among employers

� Information material on practical aspects of hosting and sending

� Assistance with development of operational internationalisation strategies

� Handbook for organisers of placement projects

� Develop information material for foreign companies on how to improve quality

on placements offered

� Awareness campaigns


Denmark proposes the following further solutions to overcome obstacles to

mobility:

� Establishment of virtual community of practice via IT

� Special info material and awareness campaigns on hosting students from

abroad.







incoming5 mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Denmark.

IVET participants in Denmark The total number of IVET participants in Denmark is: 116,592.


Outgoing mobility in Denmark is monitored by Cirius ( the national authority on

international aspects of education and training). It monitors only programme

related activities. Incoming mobility is not monitored in Denmark.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

NA NA 1530 1825

Denmark



Figures for 2004 and 2005 are given with a margin of 20 participants more or less.

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 182 271 330 513 (expected)

PIU-programme 1062 1212

Leonardo and PIU

programmes

Agriculture: 146

Technique: 826

Economics: 629

Health & Welfare:

125

DK-USA 2 15 12 31

Comenius

Nordplus Junior

Approx. 40

Approx. 110

Total Mobility Approx. 1530 Approx. 1825

Leonardo da Vinci 2004 2005


6-12 weeks: 6

3-6 months: 25

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 275

6-12 weeks: 30

3-6 months: 25

> 6 months:

Total 330 425

PUI- Programme 2004 2005


6-12 weeks: 109

3-6 months: 90

> 6 months: 825

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

Total 1065 < 1200

Denmark



Country

All Programmes United Kingdom

Germany

Norway

Sweden

Ireland

Results based on statistics Cirius


After a couple of years with stable figures, mobility in IVET is increasing again.

Explanation: Good funding programmes, more awareness of the need for mobility

due to the government’s internationalisation and globalisation strategies.


The host countries above will probably retain their position.

Explanation: Participants choose host country mainly for linguistic reasons.

172

Estonia

173

Introduction





are:

















only questions with regard to obstacles experienced with regard to transnational

mobility in IVET and the way in which they had been solved, but also addressed

issue of national and regional or sectoral policies and programmes in IVET, the

stakeholders involved in policy making, decision making and implementation of












presented.

Estonia



1 Initial vocational education and training inEstonia

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Estonia starts at age 7 and ends at age 17, covering 6

years of primary education (Põhikool) and 3 years of lower secondary education

and the first two years of upper secondary. Primary and lower secondary

education are comprehensive; together they constitute ‘basic education’. Upon

completing basic education pupils can continue in either upper secondary general

education or gymnasium (Gümnaasium), which lasts 3 years and gives them

access to higher education, or in upper secondary vocational education(lasting at

least 3 years), which prepares them primarily for the labour market and/or for

continuing studies in post-secondary vocational education. In that sense two

pathways into IVET are distinguished in the Estonian context:

� The IVET pathway on top of basic education, and

� The IVET pathway on top of upper secondary education.

The first pathway leads students after the completion of basic education into upper

secondary vocational education institutes, whereas the second pathway gives

them access to more specialised VET training in post-secondary institutions. The

latter programmes are classified as being ISCED 4B programmes, which in

principle falls outside the scope of the IEVT definition used in this study2 , and will

therefore not be further discussed in this report.

In principle, each student who concludes basic education is entitled to be enrolled

in upper secondary education if he or she wishes so. State and local authorities

have the obligation to provide learning opportunities for them. Well over two thirds

of Estonian young people continue their studies after basic education in upper

secondary general education (including those “pre-vocational” programmes that

prepare them for continuation in post-secondary vocational studies), whereas the

remainder continue their studies in upper secondary vocational institutions. Upper

secondary VET is often perceived as a dead end route as opportunities for VET

graduates wishing to continue their studies on a higher education level are rather

low (the proportion of general education subjects in the upper secondary

vocational education curricula is much smaller as compared to an upper

secondary general school).

Estonia


2 Initial vocational education and training in the context of this study has been defined as being IVET programmes at the level of ISCED 3 (uppersecondary), irrespective whether it concerned ISCED 3A, B or C programmes.

Of the 59 VET providers, 8 offer only upper secondary VET, 21 only

post-secondary (non-tertiary) VET and the remainder offer both.

Upon completion of upper secondary VET, graduates receive a Certificate on

Acquiring Vocational Secondary Education Based on Basic Education, a certificate

that, at present, does not represent a formal qualification as such, but gives merely

evidence that the holder has covered a certain programme, at a particular level in a

given school. Graduates from upper secondary VET can apply for the professional

accreditation of their qualification through examinations.

IVET in Estonia is school-based, and oriented towards providing theoretical

knowledge followed by practice in school workshops and later on –if possible-

practice in companies. An apprenticeship system has been piloted in recent years,

but the number of participants is limited up till now (less than 200). The intention is

to further develop the apprenticeship system.

Until recently each IVET institute developed in principle its own school-based

curriculum that had to be approved and registered by the national Ministry of

Education. IVET institutes also developed their own subject-related study

materials. In this context, a graduation certificate from IVET schools confirms that a

particular programme and level has been finalised, without specific (nationally

recognised) vocational qualifications being attributed to graduates.

Since the late 1990s, several reforms have been planned and (partially)

implemented. By 2001, all study programmes were modular and designed

according to a competence-based system appropriate for initial and continuing

training for both young people and adults. Curriculum development continues with

the aim to establish national framework curricula which will include the

professional competence requirements for a given occupation as laid down in the

National Employee Qualification System (riiklik kutsekvalifikatsioonisüsteem) which

will be recognised by employers. This should also raise the status of VET as well

as its responsiveness.

Estonia



Education policy in Estonia is approved by Parliament (Riigikogu). The Government

of the Republic (Vabariigi Valitsus) decides on national strategies by adopting and

implementing state education development plans, determining procedures for the

establishment, reorganisation and closure of public educational institutions

(including tuition fees, payment procedures) and to determine remuneration

principles for staff of public educational institutions and state universities.

The Ministry of Education and Research - MoER (Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium)

co-ordinates the implementation of education policy through local governments

and other relevant Ministries. Their role is: to establish, reorganise and close public

educational institutions (except universities and applied higher education

institutions); to direct and organise curricula preparation, study programmes,

textbooks and teaching/study aids (except for universities); and to administer

public assets allocated to the education system.

At local level, county and local governments have an administrative role to play in

VET. County governments and their education departments prepare and

implement education development plans for their administrative county. They

provide supervision of pre-primary institutions and organise vocational guidance

and counselling of children and young people.

VET providers can be under local or central government or privately owned. They

have a common management form by a director with the involvement of the

teachers’ council and the council of VET institutions

In important development in the governance of IVET, consists of the mergers of

individual VET providers (at upper secondary and post-secondary level) into

regional vocational education centres since 2000. On the one hand, this

development should also result in a reduction of the number of state owned

institutions and in setting up private run institutions. On the other hand, this

development should strengthen the role of regional vocational education centres in

the economic and social development of their region. Up till now, these centres or

VET institutions have a relatively large autonomy where decision making with

regard to curricular content, curricular renewal and the choice of teaching and

learning materials as well as study plans are concerned. Even though the

development of national framework curricula is underway, there are as yet no signs

that this freedom in the field of educational policy making at institutional level will

be substantially restricted.

The funding of initial vocational education is regulated by the Vocational

Educational Institutions Act (Kutseõppeasutuse seadus), which provides that VET

institutions are financed from the state, municipality or city budgets, fee-charging

services, revenues from foundations, and other funds. Budgets are delegated to

VET institutions.

Estonia


Students attend public VET institutions which may be owned and funded by the

state or municipality. In both cases, costs are covered from the state budget from

relevant ministry funds on the basis of student cost and the number of financed

students at institution.

The funding of private VET institutions is regulated pursuant to the Private Schools

Act (Erakooliseadus, 1998). Teacher salaries are calculated on the same basis as

public or municipal VET institutions, and the costs of acquiring study materials are

covered from the state budget. This applies where the VET institution is providing

state commissioned education. Admission numbers are approved by the Ministry

of Education and Research on the basis and pursuant to the procedure prescribed

by the Vocational Educational Institutions Act (Kutseõppeasutuse seadus, 1998). In

2003/2004, the Ministry of Education and Research financed a small amount (196)

of student places in private VET institutions.

Estonia



In developing VET policies, the Estonian Ministry of Education is assisted by

several different bodies, such as:

� Teachers’ Union;

� Education Organisation Council;

� Education Forum;

� Estonian Employers’ Central Union;

� Estonian Employees’ Unions’ Confederation;

� Estonian Qualification Authority;

� Estonian Research and Development Council.

Where the social partners are concerned, their participation in IVET is regulated by

national legislation as well as by their own charters, action plans and agreements

with other stakeholders. Their involvement in the administrative and consultative

bodies of the education system has increased since the early 1990s. Employers in

particular, play a more active and influential role through their participation in

Vocational Councils (established under the Vocational Educational Institutions Act)

and in creating a national employee qualification system. The Vocational Councils

develop qualification requirements and vocational standards, which are used as a

basic reference in curriculum development at educational institutions. At local

level, social partners are less involved.

At national level, social partners are represented by Estonian Chamber of

Commerce and Industry (Eesti Kaubandus-Tööstuskoda) and Estonian

Employers´Confederation (Eesti Tööandjate Keskliit). Membership includes

enterprises, employer/employee unions, and other employer associations. As a

result of trilateral negotiations, the Agreement on Joint Activities (Ühise tegevuse

kokkulepe, 2000) was signed to develop the national qualification system for

employees, as well as to ensure a sufficient number of study places in IVET, to

make the labour market more youth friendly and to improve in-service and

re-training.

At the regional level, social partner participation depends on cooperation agreed

between VET providers and enterprises. Good cooperation exists at

provider/enterprise level especially within specific sectors. This cooperation

applies to both initial and continuing training provision.

No national system for organising practical training in enterprises has been

developed so far and practical training facilities do not (yet) receive substantial

support. So far individual VET institutions have established either formal or informal

agreements with local employers, concerning the provision of in-company

practicing opportunities both for students and teachers.

Estonia


4 Results questionnaire

4.1 Introduction

In this section the answers are presented to the national questionnaires, which



These data have to be interpreted with some caution. On the one hand, answers to



























Estonia


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Estonia

Estonia has no specific national or regional policies on stimulating or supporting

mobility in initial vocational education and training other than the national support

for the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

The Ministry of Education and Research is actively involved in Leonardo da Vinci

and supports the implementation of this programme in Estonia. No other ministry is

involved in mobility in vocational education and training.

Programmes on IVETtransnational mobility

Two programmes/initiatives are mentioned:

� Leonardo da Vinci, aimed at promoting innovation in vocational education and

(partly) targeted at student mobility in vocational education. Funds come from

the European Commission. The average annual Leonardo budget in Estonia is

€ 740.000,-.

� Bilateral initiatives of different VET institutions, aimed at transnational

cooperation, acquiring new technologies and developing students’ personal

skills. Funds come from own school or students’ budgets.

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility




High involvement Estonia indicates that the European Union and the VET institutions are highly

involved. It is stated that the European Union is involved in

� policy making


� decision making

� financing

� approving and accrediting placements


Low involvement National government, national qualification authorities and employers have low

involvement in IVET mobility.

As far as there is employer involvement, it is focused on


No involvement Regional governments, municipal governments, national education council,

national council of VET institutions, employer organisations, branch organisations,

trade unions, chamber of commerce and students associations have no


Estonia



Who or which organisations benefit from transnational mobility and what do they

gain?

High benefits Estonia indicates that VET institutions and VET participants highly benefit from

mobility.

Benefits for the VET institutions

1. Risen reputation of the VET school through international mobility

2. Higher attractiveness of the VET school among potential students

3. Feedback on the students’ skills level and new knowledge received through

mobility

4. Institutional development and growth; new challenges

5. New contacts for international co-operation


1. International experience, better opportunities both on the domestic and

international labour market

2. Better language skills

3. Updated technical know-how

4. Better personal skills

5. Contacts for one’s future

Intermediate benefits Benefits for employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility

placement

1. New interesting experience; students bring (possible) new approaches or new

technologies.

2. New contacts for future co-operation.

3. Practicing of their foreign languages.

4. Additional skilled workers.

Low benefits Estonia indicates that employers hiring employees with transnational mobility

experience have low benefits. The benefits they do have are listed as follows:

1. Better professional skills.

2. Good language skills.

3. More developed personal skills.

4. More open-minded approach.

Results are based on data of the Leonardo da Vinci agency

Estonia




relevance in Estonia.

High relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET.




procedures.








friendships.

Low relevance � Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with mobility.







No relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes.



mobility.




70 % of results based on estimation after having consulted those involved

30 % of results based on empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports


In Estonia mobility actors applied the following solutions to overcome the

obstacles:

� Active use of partner search databases and contact seminars;

� Organisation of Estonian Leonardo mobility seminars and participation in

international mobility-seminars organised by Leonardo colleagues;

� Using of CLIL – methodology in certain VET-institutions;

� Lots of VET schools have transnational mobility in their development plan;

� Bigger VET institutions have hired project managers;

� Individual study plans have prepared in order to fit the placement in the

curriculum;

� Using opportunities provided by the Leonardo Programme.

Estonia



Estonia proposes the following solutions as relevant for further diminishing of

obstacles in Estonian mobility policy and practice:

� International mobility seminars and contact seminars organised by the EU;

� Student exchange possibilities (not only the work placements) would motivate

the foreign language learning;

� Using Europass;

� Using ECVET within EU.

A representative of the Estonian Education Forum, indicated that one of the main

obstacles for IVET transnational mobility consists of the fact that initiatives for

mobility mainly come from VET schools or individual students, without support

from the “top”, e.g. the government. This obstacle could be overcome by a

national policy or a national or regional action plan for international mobility in VET.

Important would be to not only include the social partners, but also the local

governments, since they often have transnational cooperation networks that might

support the mobility of IVET students as well. An action plan for mobility in IVET

should be developed in accordance with other strategies and development plans,

like the overall development strategy for VET, VET curricula development

processes and VET teacher training, in order to make such action plan more

successful and sustainable.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Estonia.

IVET participants in Estonia The total numbers of IVET participants in Estonia is 29915.


Outgoing mobility is monitored.

Incoming mobility is not monitored.

The organisation gathering statistical data on mobility in Estonia is the Leonardo da

Vinci National Agency.

Estonia



Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Bilateral exchanges between

VET institutions

No information

available

No information

available

No information

available

No information

available


Gender Male: 50

Female: 41

Sum: 91

Male: 48

Female: 34

Sum: 82

Male: 35

Female: 44

Sum: 79

Male: 32

Female: 47

Sum: 74


Technique: 8

Economics: 5

Health & Welfare: 8

Agriculture: 11

Technique: 22

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 4

Agriculture: 26

Technique: 7

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 29

Technique: 40

Economics: 0


Length of stay < 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks: 82

3-6 months: 9

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 22

6-12 weeks: 52

3-6 months: 8

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 29

6-12 weeks: 34

3-6 months: 16

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 44

6-12 weeks: 39

3-6 months: 6

> 6 months:


Countries to where mostparticipants of outgoingmobility went over the pastfour years

� Germany

� Finland

� The Netherlands

� Sweden

� United Kingdom

Results based on statistical data Leonardo National agency

Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin Estonia

The number of IVET outgoing students is expected to stay approximately in the

scope of 70 – 80 per year

Explanation: The Leonardo da Vinci programme is the main provider of outgoing

mobility for IVET students, thus the number of outgoing mobility depends on funds

available through the Leonardo da Vinci Programme.

Estonia



In Estonia no big changes in choice of country are foreseen.

Germany is the number one country IVET students go to for placements abroad.

Explanation: German is the second language taught in the Estonian education

system; similar apprenticeship system used in certain Estonian schools; good

co-operation between Estonian and German schools/enterprises.

Finland is the number two country to go to.

Explanation: Finland is a neighbouring country; large similarities in language, good

co-operation between Estonian and Finnish schools/enterprises.

Branches and domains inwhich Estonia would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

Estonia indicates that it would like to stimulate international mobility of both

students and teachers in the technical professions in particular, given the very fast

technological changes that take place in the occupational fields concerned.

In addition, Estonia would like to stimulate international mobility for those already

in working life (and skip the age limit of 28 years) to provide additional and

re-training in particular for the unemployed and the low-skilled. Main reasons for

this priority is the Europe wide ageing of the workforce.

Estonia


Finland

187

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Finland



1 Initial vocational education and training inFinland

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Finland is a comprehensive system. It comprises nine

years of basic education (no longer distinguishing between lower and upper stages

since 1999) and lasts from age 7 to age 16. Upon successful completion of basic

education pupils receive a certificate. It is also possible to stay on for an additional

tenth year in basic education.

After successful completion of basic education, students can either continue in

upper secondary general education or on upper secondary vocational education.

Over 90% of students continue in upper secondary education, immediately after

concluding basic education. Of all students enrolled in upper secondary education

(2004), 56% was enrolled in a vocational programme.

IVET is provided by vocational education institutions. There are 116 different study

programmes leading to 52 different vocational qualifications. Programmes are

divided into the following eight fields:

� Natural resources;

� Technology and transport;

� Business and administration;

� Tourism, catering and home economics/domestic services;

� Health and social services;

� Culture;

� Leisure and physical education.

The programmes within these fields are based on national core curricula, which are

prepared by the National Board of Education in cooperation with the world of

work. Within the limits set by these national core curricula, VET schools are free to

design their own curricula. All three-year IVET programmes are organised

according to a credit unit system with each programme encompassing 120 credits

(one credit being equivalent to 40 hours of work). Of these 120 credits, 20 credits

consist of general core subjects, 10 credits of free choice studies and 120 credits

of vocational qualifications of which at lest 20 credits of on-the-job learning. Upon

successful completion of the IVET programme (with the assessment including a

vocational skills demonstration in a practical work situation), graduates receive a

vocational qualification with gives them entry to both working life and further

training, including studies at the polytechnics that can lead to a bachelor’s degree.

Under certain conditions, IVET students can also take the matriculation

examination which gives them access to university education.

Finland


In principle it is also possible to obtain all existing vocational qualifications through

apprenticeship training.

Students who want to enrol in this route must be at least 15 years old and must

have concluded a written employment contract of fixed duration with an employer.

Participation in apprenticeship training has been and still is relatively low.

Apprentices constitute only 7% of the total upper secondary education population

(and only 12% of the total IVET population).

Finland



The education system in Finland is highly decentralised. At national level the

central government sets out the overall VET policy and the National Board of

Education provides the national core curricula, both of which function as

framework regulations. In operating the educational institutions, local authorities

are a key player. With regard to basic education, municipalities have the statutory

obligation to organise and provide basic education. Even though there is no such

statutory obligation for post-compulsory education, most upper secondary schools

are owned by local authorities or joint municipal authorities. This holds for both

upper secondary general education and upper secondary vocational education. A

minority of general secondary schools and vocational schools is owned privately,

though the proportion is slightly higher among vocational schools (about 18% of all

IVET institutions). Local authorities do have the obligation to assist in financing

vocational schools, for which they can (partly) use their right to impose taxes.

As said, within the overall regulations laid down at the national level, IVET

providers are free to design their own curricula.

Irrespective of the ownership of a IVT provider, funding regulations and

mechanisms are the same. Each IVET provider receives a statutory government

transfer for the operating costs, which is based on the unit costs which are

institution-specific. Since 2002, gradually a performance-based component has

been introduced alongside the calculatory model, in order to increase completion

rates and decrease drop-out. For the apprenticeship training the statutory

government transfer covers 100% of the costs.

Finland



Apart from the Finnish National Board of Education, which plays an important role

in the overall curriculum development for IVET, social partners play a key role in

IVET in Finland as well. In the first place there are the legally established bodies in

which social partners are represented. These are the National Vocational

Education and Training Committees for the different vocational fields and the

National Coordination Group for Education and Training. Both function under the

auspices of the Ministry of Education and the National Board of Education. The

main task of the National Committees is to monitor the developments in their field,

in particular with regard to competence requirements, to develop both quantitative

and qualitative proposals for the development of IVET in their field and to deal with

the development of the core curricula and the requirements of competence-based

qualifications that will finally be confirmed by the National Board of Education. The

role of the National Coordination group is more an overall one, monitoring the

overall (anticipated) developments in working life and IVET and advising the

Ministry and the Board of Education subsequently.

Next to these legally established bodies, involvement of the social partners in IVET

can take shape in their representation on the board of IVET institutions and on

institutional advisory boards. Neither of these two possibilities are legally required,

but IVET institutions can have various advisory boards for the different vocational

fields for which they provide training. In these advisory boards, social partners can

exert further influence on shaping the IVET curricula in accordance with local and

regional needs.

Finally, social partners are also represented on the so-called qualification

committees, which are responsible for organising and implementing vocational

skills demonstrations as part of the final assessment of vocational students. These

committees also hand out the vocational qualifications.

Finland



4.1 Introduction

In this section the answers to the national questionnaires are presented. The

questionnaires were distributed among the national ReferNet representatives or the

National Agencies for the Leonardo programme.


















registered in any way. In that sense the “mobility figures” provided here, might only










Finland


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Finland

Finland has specific national or regional policies to stimulate or support mobility in

initial vocational education and training.

National and regional policiesthat stimulate IVETtransnational mobility

� Education and Research Development plan 2003 – 2008.

Objective: to enhance the efficiency of the education system, children’s and

young people’s support and guidance, and adult’s opportunities for education

and training. On IVT: “Internationalisation and changes in the social and cultural

environments entail renewal in the education system”.

� Government subsidy for international activities of vocational education and

training: Internationalisation services provided by the National Board of

Education (NBE).

� Objective: promotion of mobility of people in vocational education and training;

internationalisation of VET; project funding. Target group: VET institutions.

� CIMO work programme 2007-2010. (CIMO administers scholarship and

exchange programmes).

Objective: CIMO administers scholarship and exchange programmes and is

responsible for implementing nearly all EU education, training, culture and youth

programmes at national level. CIMO also promotes and organizes international

trainee exchanges.

� Report on education and training policy: current state and future needs.

Objective: Internationalisation and IVT; ECVET and EQF and mobility in

connection to the Copenhagen process mentioned.

� Global Education 2010. Proposal for action programmes targeted at educational

institutions, staff, decision makers.

‘End user’: pupils and students.

� Regional strategies for education and research up to 2013. Objective: “Boosting

the emergence of an international infrastructure of the regions and increasing

international exchanges and interaction in secondary and higher education

institutions”.

Involvement of ministries In Finland two ministries are involved in policy making on transnational mobility in

initial vocational education and training: the Ministry of Education and the Ministry

of Labour.

Finland


Five specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Finland


Leonardo da Vinci Placements IVET European

Commission

IVET˜ € 1,065,000

(2006)

Government subsidy Placements and

study periods linked

with larger

networking projects

incl. exchanges

VET Government VET: € 500 000

(2005)

VET: € 500 000

(2006)

Nordplus Junior Promotes Nordic

co-operation,

allocates mobility

funds mainly for

study periods

VET students and

teachers

Nordic Council of

Ministers

VET: € 190 816

(2004)

VET: € 158 217

(2005)

Pohjola-Norden, The

Norden Association

Promotes Nordic

co-operation,

mobility funds cover

travel expenses

Students in VET and

higher education

(polytechnics)

The Nordic Council

and The Nordic

Council of Ministers

VET ˜ € 9000 (2004)

Sokrates Comenius

1

Project funding

Short visits

VET institutions/

students and

teachers

European

Commission

VET: € 346 908

(2005)

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Finland






High involvement Finland indicates that the European Union/Centre for International Mobility, CIMO

are highly involved in IVET mobility:


� decision making

� financing


Medium involvement The following organisations have a medium involvement in IVET mobility.

The national government (Ministry of Education) is involved in

� Policy making

� Decision making

� Financing

Finland


Municipal governments (Education providers) are involved in

� Activating and stimulating

� Financing

National qualification authorities (National Board of Education) are involved in

� Policy making


� Decision making

VET institutions are involved in


� Financing

� Approving and accrediting placements

� Coaching of participants

Student associations (OSKU ry, Sakki ry) are involved in

� Policy making


Low involvement Finland states that the regional governments ((local, regional Authorities and state

provincial), the national education council and the national council of VET

institutions, employer organisations and (public and private) employers, branch

organisations, trade unions, chamber of commerce and the labour offices have low



40% of results indicated by empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports






High benefits Finland indicates that institutions and IVET participants highly benefit from mobility.

Benefits for the VET institutions:

1. Internationalization (partnerships, networks)

2. Attractiveness of the VET institution, advertising value for the school

3. Curricula development, comparison of training and working methods

4. Student competencies – key skills, student satisfaction

5. On-the-job learning places abroad

Finland



1. Key skills

2. Language and cultural skills

3. Motivation for further training/employment

4. Life experience

5. Employability

Intermediate benefits Branch organisations:

1. Possibility to compare training and working methods

2. Internationalization

3. Networking

Low benefits Finland indicates that employers get low benefits from IVET mobility, though some

benefits are mentioned here.


1. Possibility to language learning

2. Opportunity for reciprocity (students from local schools go abroad)

3. Knowledge transfer, comparison of working methods

4. Continuing training of staff


1. International employees

2. Employees with better social and working skills (flexibility, open minded, life

experience)

3. Knowledge transfer


Finland



Finland indicates there are no obstacles with a high relevance. Eight obstacles are

mentioned with a medium relevance.

Medium relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET.



organisations.


(although this varies per sector).







� Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling of

procedures.

� Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with

mobility.



mobility.








friendships.

No relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET.



Results mainly based on empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

Finland



In Finland mobility actors, especially CIMO, applied the following solutions to

overcome obstacles:

� Non-EU citizens. CIMO favors resident permits for international trainees (within

CIMO’s programmes). Tax relief for trainees from some countries.

� One of the national priorities of LdV mobility in Finland has been the

development of sectoral and regional networking. Also government subsidy has

been strongly directed to the development of international networks formed by

several education providers and institutes.

� Different activities have been put into place to inform and convince VET

institutions on the importance of mobility (e.g. quality awards including

internationalization criteria).

� Project training for coordinators.


Finland indicates there should be more cooperation, promotion and a stronger

national policy:

� More cooperation between relevant ministries.

� More promotion on mobility e.g. to workplace tutors.

� A discussion forum for VET students should be offered.

� The government needs to develop comprehensive national policies about

mobility of VET like already exist in the higher education system: numbers,

percentages, guidelines.

� Lack of resources can be an obstacle.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Norway

IVET participants in Finland The total numbers of IVET participants in Finland is 134,742 in 2004 (136,700

estimation for 2005).


Outgoing mobility and incoming mobility are monitored.

The agencies gathering statistical data on mobility are

� National Board of Education (NBE)

� VET institutions

� Leonardo da Vinci

Finland



Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility in

VET

3680 4570 4080 4480

Of which (only) work

placements in VET

1980 2100 2090 1710


Coverage of data has slightly varied from year to year.

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo Mobility 498 677 632 600

Socrates/ Comenius 80

Governmental

programmes:

national, regional

level, municipal

680

Nordplus Junior 120

Other programmes 50

Individual financing

by IVET participants

400

Results based on reports National Board of Education (NBE) and Leonardo da Vinci

Finland


2002

Leonardo da Vinci

2003

Leonardo da Vinci

2004

National

2005

National

Gender Male: 181

Female: 304

Male: 234

Female: 431

Male: -

Female: -

Male: 540

Female:1400


Technique: 111

Economics: 73


Agriculture: 41

Technique: 107

Economics: 117

Health & Welfare:

106

Agriculture: 353

Technique:601

Economics: 376

Health & Welfare:

647

04 and 05 Figures

are not fully

comparable

because the

methodology of data

collection changed

Agriculture: 148

Technique: 360

Economics: 237

Health & Welfare:

148


6-12 weeks: 43

3-6 months:32

> 6 months: 1

< 6 weeks: 536

6-12 weeks: 74

3-6 months: 67

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: -

6-12 weeks:-

3-6 months:-

> 6 months:-

< 6 weeks: 1165

6-12 weeks: 552

3-6 months: 206

> 6 months: 12

Results based on reports National Board of Education (NBE) and Leonardo da Vinci


Results given for the year 2005

Spain

United Kingdom

Sweden

Germany

Estonia

314

234

211

183

105

Results based on reports National Board of Education (NBE)


No big changes are seen in outgoing mobility.

Explanation: Small decrease explained by the significant reduction of the

government subsidy for international mobility for 2003. The government subsidy

has been the most important instrument for enhancement of international mobility

in vocational education. At this moment Leonardo is the biggest source. Changes

in the number of institutions covered by the statistics may also explain changes in

the mobility numbers. The reduction in the statistics is partly explained by grounds

of different methodologies adopted.

Finland



Funding sources have a notable influence on the duration of mobility and on the

selection of a country. Regional strategies can be seen as another important

factor. The country choice depends on the type of mobility: for shorter (study)

periods it is easier to travel to the neighbouring countries.

Incoming mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number of

incoming mobility

1500 2200 1847 1838

Countries from where most incoming IVET participants came

Results given for the year 2005

Germany

France

Estonia

Sweden

Spain

304

294

210

192

190

Results based on reports National Board of Education (NBE)

Trends and developments innumbers of incoming mobility

There is a stagnation in the incoming mobility.

Explanation: Lack of funding. (Good reputation of Finnish training organisations in

organising placements, some interests raised from good PISA –results, national

networks share common international strategies and reach more partners abroad).

Trends and developmentswith regard to the countriesparticipants come from

No big changes.

Some sectors in Finland attract more, those with networks especially (e.g. IT,

forestry, social and health care).

Finland


France

203

Introduction





are:
































presented.

France



1 Initial vocational education and training inFrance

1.1 IVET programmes

The French education system has three stages: the first stage comprises

preschool and primary education, the second stage comprises lower secondary

education (designated as the first cycle) and upper secondary education

(designate as the second cycle), and the third stage relates to higher education.

Compulsory education begins ate the age of six and ends when pupils turn 16,

thereby including primary education (five years), lower secondary education and

the first year of upper secondary education. Further distinctions are drawn within

lower secondary education, which is split in three cycles. Halfway through the

second cycle, pupils can choose for a general or a technical direction. For less well

performing students there is the possibility to follow a work preparatory (alternate)

direction, which can be continued under the apprenticeship system after the

transition from lower secondary to upper secondary education.

The French IVET system comprises a variety of IVET programmes with different

duration and different scope (focusing on further education or on labour market

entry).

Baccalauréat Technologiqueor BacTechno

The BacTechno has a nominal duration of three years, though the average study

length is between three and four years. Students who gain their BacTechno can

choose to continue their studies in higher education in general, including STS, IUT

and University or to enter the labour market. The BacTechno is provided in the

following directions:

1. Science and tertiary technology;

2. Science and industrial technology;

3. Science and laboratory technology

4. Medical-social science;

5. Other specialisms (in particular in the area of hotel/catering or the performing

arts).

France


Baccalauréat Professionnel(BacPro)

The BacPro was introduced in 1985, in order to provide further study options for

vocational education pupils and thereby improve the transition phase between

school and the labour market. To be able to enrol in a BacPro programme,

students much have obtained a ‘first VET qualification’, either the Brevet d’études

professionnelles (BEP) or the Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle (CAP), though

both the BacPro and the BEP and CAP are part of the upper secondary education

system. Nevertheless, the BacPro is a ‘second level’ qualification. The BacPro is

provided in 73 different directions, of which 11 are in the agricultural sector. A

BacPro can be obtained through three different routes:

� The schools-based route (sous statut scolaire), which takes two years and

which includes a practical training period varying from 12 to 24 weeks;

� The work-based or apprenticeship route, under which students are given an

employment contract with the company in which they will be trained. This route

is a dual one, in which theoretical and general subjects are taught at the Centre

de Formation d’Apprentis (CFA) and the bulk of the vocational training takes

place in a company.

Students who obtain the BacPro can continue their studies in higher education, in

particular for a BTS or a DUT, but hey can also enter the labour market.

Brevet d’étudesprofessionnelles

The BEP encompasses 69 specialisations, 27 of which are in the agricultural

sector. A Bet programme has a double function. On the one hand, the

programmes are designed to provide preparation for the labour market, that is for

immediate work in a chosen occupation. On the other hand, the option of further

study is not ruled out. They can either enrol in a BacTechno programme (directly or

after an “adaptation year” in which they can catch up on any lost ground) or in a

BacPro programme. The BEP programme is provided in the same three modes as

the BacPro (school-based, apprenticeship or a qualification contract). The BEP

programme in generally takes two years to complete, though the duration under

the qualification contract mode can be shorter and is on average one year.

Certificat d’Aptitudeprofessionnelles

The programmes leading to the CAP are primarily designed as preparation for the

labour market, though enrolment in a BacPro after completion of the CAP is

possible. A Cap can be gained in 244 specialisations, of which 25 are in the

agricultural sector. Again, a Cap can be obtained via three modes (school-based,

apprenticeship or a qualification contract). The duration of a CAP is generally two

years, though the average duration under the qualification contract mode is one

year2.

France


2 For the CAP three-year programmes have existed as well, aimed at the weaker participants. However, these options were already in 1995 ratherinsignificant and set to disappear all together.

Other IVET programmes Apart from the four IVET programmes described above, there are some other IVET

programmes, which however have a relatively small share in terms of the

proportion of all IVET participants. These programmes are:

� Brevet de Technicien (BT) as a three year programme after having completed

lower secondary education or as a two year programme after having obtained a

BEP. The BT prepares for 54 different specialisations, 16 of which are in the

agricultural sector.

� Brevet de Métiers d’Art (BMA) with a strong focus on artisan occupations in 14

different specialisations.

� Mention Complémentaire (MC), which provides a one-year specialisation after

having obtained a BEP or a CAP. A MC can be obtained in 67 specialisations,

either through a school-based route or through apprenticeship.

� Brevet professionnel, which for some occupations is required in order to be

recognised as a fully fledged tradesman. A BP can be gained by a further two

year training after having obtained a BEP or a CAP and is provided in 72

specialisations, 7 of which are in the agricultural sector.

There are two main types of IVET providers: the “lycée professionnel” (known as

établissements scolaire) and the “centres de formation des apprentis” (CFA).

Those who take the apprenticeship route to a vocational qualification can follow

their ‘theoretical training’ either at a lycée or at a CFA (depending on the particular

qualification and the specialisation). At the moment about 27% of all young people

enrolled in an IVET programme is an apprentice. The intention of the French

government is to increase this number substantially by 2010, especially the

number of apprentices attending a lycée. Recently, there has been the

development towards so-called “lycée des metiers”; it concerns “établissement

scolaire” where different types of IVET programmes of different levels up to the

level of “licence professionnelle3 ” training for the same occupation or occupational

field are grouped together. This should both enhance the flexibility and the

attractivity of IVET.

France


3 This is tertiary level (as BTS and DUT), which exceeds our definition of IVET as being located at ISCED level 3. The “licence professionelle” is auniversity diploma.


The French education system, including IVET, has been highly centralised for a

long time. Decentralisation of governmental power from the state level to the level

of the regions started in the 1980s; the apprenticeship was decentralised from

1983 onwards. The Five Year Law of 1993 first stipulated the gradual transfer of

the responsibility for vocational training of young people from the state to the

regions. From January 1999 onwards, the responsibility for all vocational training

and qualification programmes for young people has been transferred to the regions

and from January 2003 onwards, regions are also responsible for the

administration of the lump-sum payments to employers for hiring and training

apprentices. The 26 regions now all dispose of their own administrative structure

for vocational education and training in the form of a vocational training

commission, department or directorate.

This means that the regional authorities, that is, the Regional Councils, now have

the responsibility for the planning and implementation of all vocational education

and training programmes. Two “tools” have been implemented since 2002 to

support this regional responsibility. On the one hand, Regions/Regional Councils

elaborate an regional plan for the development of vocational training of young

people (as well as adults). The plan determines all actions of initial (and continuing)

training for young people as well as information and guidance actions. On the other

hand, regional committees for the co-ordination of employment and vocational

training have been set up. These committees are responsible for the co-ordination

of vocational training policies and actions and in particular for the co-operation

between the many organisations involved in vocational training. Specific tasks of

these regional co-ordination committees concern: needs analysis, studies,

monitoring and evaluation. The committees consist of representatives from the

regional authorities, the regional councils, employers’ organisations, trade unions

and the regional chambers of commerce and industry, agriculture, and trade. The

development of similar committees at local level (which in France is the level of the

departments) is planned.

In addition to the regional co-ordination committees, there is also a national

Committee for the Co-ordination of Regional Apprenticeships and Vocational

Training Programmes, which has the task to facilitate the development of coherent

and harmonious state and regional programmes.

Even though decentralisation has strongly developed over the last years, the state

level remains important in IVET, in the sense that the National Ministry of Education

still issues the diplomas for those programmes and qualifications that are

considered to be part of the national education system (see also next section) and

that the (appointment of the) teaching and training staff still is the responsibility of

the National Ministry.

France


The funding of IVET in France is based on a mixed model, which also differs

between different IVET pathways. School-based IVET (although since the

mid-1990s periods of practical training in an enterprise have become an obligatory

part of the curriculum) is funded by the state and the regional and local authorities

and from fees paid by participants. As part of the decentralisation movement, state

budgets are transferred to the regional authorities, which have been given greater

discretion in the allocating funds. Nevertheless, central and regional governments

negotiate a so-called State-Region Planning Agreement, which is valid for a period

of five years, and in which priorities are set out that have been jointly defined.

These Agreements more or less form the framework within which regional

authorities can decide on budget allocation. Regional and local authorities can add

finances for IVET from their own resources. The funding of apprenticeship training

is more or less similar, with the exception that companies contribute to the funding

as well.

Since 1971, there is a law that covers CVET and that obliges enterprises to pay a

certain percentage of their total wage bill to so-called training funds, out of which

continuing training of employees has to be paid. Over time the percentage to be

set aside has increased. In addition to this obligation for CVET there are specific

taxes for apprenticeship training, operated on a similar basis as taxes for CVET. In

the area of funding apprenticeship training, two major developments are taking

place. On the one hand, as already indicated, the devolution of the financial

responsibility for the apprenticeship training to the regions. On the other hand, the

intention of the national government to strengthen the incentives for employers to

hire and train apprentices, by given them an annual tax deduction of € 1600 (which

can increase to € 2200 if it concerns an apprentice from a disadvantaged group).

France


3 Stakeholders in French IVET

Involvement of the social partners has always been strong in the French IVET

system. The French IVET system has been developed through a tri-partite decision

making process in which both the government and employers’ organisations and

trade unions have been and are involved. Nevertheless, it is rather complicated to

map the stakeholders in the French IVET system, given the various committees

and bodies at different levels, and the frequent changes these bodies are going

through.

At national level, there are at least the following players:

� The National Commission for Vocational Certifications (CNCP): this recently

established commission, in which the social partners are represented together

with representatives from the state and the education system, has the task to

take care of the renewal and adaptation of certifications to meet the changes in

working life, and to develop a national catalogue of vocational certifications.

One of the reasons for establishing this commission has been the introduction

of the legal right for all individuals to get their experiences assessed in order to

receive a certificate or to be able to enrol in further learning activities (known as

“validation des acquis de l’expérience”). It is the task of the Commission to

control the conformity and homogeneity of the presentation of the certifications

included in the national catalogue.

� The advisory vocational commissions (Commissions Professionnelles

Consultatives) in which the relevant social partners and experts are represented.

The task of these commissions to develop proposals with regard to the

creation, modification or suppression of diplomas. It is the Minister of Education

that takes the final decision. There are presently 20 advisory vocational

commissions, each covering a particular sector or branch of economic activity.

In addition, some CPC exist in the context of the Ministry of Agriculture that is in

charge of its own certifications.

� The inter-professional advisory vocational commission: this commission

consists of the (vice-)presidents of the advisory commissions and has the task

to coordinate the work of the separate commissions.

� The professional sectors through their “Commissions Professionelles Nationales

pour l’Emploi” (CPNE) or national vocational commissions for employment, in

which the social partners are represented. Though the professional sectors

through their CPNE’s are mainly concerned with continuing training, there

legitimacy in vocational training issues and in particular in the area of

certification of qualifications has expanded. These commissions issue their own

Certificats de Qualification Professionnelle and they intend to have these

included in the national catalogue of qualifications.

� The earlier mentioned national Committee for the Co-ordination of Regional

Apprenticeships and Vocational Training Programmes with state representatives

and representatives from the social partners and the national assemblies of the

chambers of commerce and industry, agriculture and trade.

France


The following bodies operate on the regional and local level:

� The so-called “Commission Nationale de la Formation Professionnelle tout au

long de la vie” that has the task (among others) to ensure funding for vocational

training, and to advice on the creation or suppression of training

facilities/institutions or vocational sectors of school and to advice on the

recognition of vocational training provided by private training institutions.

Departmental authorities, teaching staff, managers of VET institutions, social

partners and the chambers are represented in this commission.

� The chambers of commerce and industry, agriculture and trade that not only

register the apprenticeship contracts, but are also involved in providing

vocational training by running the Centres de Formation d’Apprentis (CFAs).

France



4.1 Introduction





















registered in any way. In that sense the ‘mobility figures’ provide here, might only










France



Leonardo da Vinci Mobility

pilot projects

Young people and

adults

European

commission

€ 13,569,000

€ 4,370,000

Socrates :

Comenius,

Grundtvig, Erasmus

Comenius

objectives

Erasmus objectives

Grundtvig objectives

Students in VET ,

apprentices, other

students

European

commission

€ 9,600,000

€ 26,700,000

€ 1,230,000

Jeuness Young people European

commission

Arion Teachers and

trainers

European

commission

€ 247,000

194 bourses

Cedefop Study visits VET Experts European

commission and

European states

Bilateral programme

Interreg

Young people and

adults

Bilateral programme

OFAJ, office franco

–allemand pour la

Jeunesse

Youngsters,

teachers

Bilateral programme

Secrétariat

Franco-Allemand

Youngsters,

teachers

British Council

Regional

programmes:

For example :

� Ile de France,

� Rhone Alpes,

� Centre,

� Bretagne

Apprentices,

students and young

people in vocational

schools

Programmes of

Sectoral

organisations and

branches:

� Chambers of

agriculture, of

commerce and

craft

� Automobile

services branch

� Building

industries

Students and young


schools

France


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in France






High involvement France indicates that both the regional governments and the employer

organisations are highly involved in IVET transnational mobility. Both the regional

governments and the employer organisations fulfil all roles distinguished, with the

exception of coaching of participants.

Other organisations that are highly involved in IVET transnational mobility are:

� Branch organisations


� Chamber of trade

� Chamber of agriculture

Their particular role in IVET transnational mobility is, however, not specified.

Medium involvement The Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Education are the two organisations that

have a medium involvement in IVET transnational mobility. They both have a role in

policy making and in activating and stimulating IVET transnational mobility.

Low involvement The only type of body that has a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility are

the municipal authorities. Even though their involvement is low, they do play a role

in policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making and financing IVET

transnational mobility.

No involvement France indicates that bodies like the VET institutions, the national qualification

authority (in this case: the National Commission for Vocational Certification), trade

unions and individual employers do not seem to be involved in IVET transnational

mobility or if they are, information about their involvement and role is lacking.

Given policy making structures and the involvement of different stakeholders in

decision making processes in France, this is somewhat surprising.

France







High benefits According to France, the only real beneficiaries of IVET transnational mobility are

the IVET participants. Their benefits are;

1. self confidence

2. maturity

3. personal development

4. employability

5. professional inclusion

Benefits for otherstakeholders?

Concerning the other stakeholders (VET institutions sending participants on

placements, employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility

placement, employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience and

branch organisations), no benefits are reported.

France



France indicates 7 obstacles as being of high relevance and another 10 obstacles

as being of medium relevance.


procedures






� IVET participants are restricted by obligations at home like: jobs, amily and

friendships





organisations







Low relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes


mobility






Other obstacles � No replacement

� Not enough employees in the company

France








incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in France.

IVET participants in France The total number of IVET students in France falls just short of 1 million (slightly over

956,000).


According to France both outgoing and incoming mobility are partly monitored.

Agencies that do the monitoring are: the Socrates/Leonardo national agency, the

regions, some branch organisations and the chambers of commerce and trade.

Outgoing mobility Concerning outgoing mobility France indicates that there are no data available for

the years 2002 till 2005. For 2006 a preliminary estimate is given of 2282 IVET

participants going on a transnational mobility placement (this only concerns

mobility under the Leonardo programme).


� Germany

� Spain

� United Kingdom

� Belgium

Results based on survey Ministry of education


Increase of numbers.

Explanation: More information available. Increased governmental and regional

policies


Since 2004, increase of exchanges with new members of the European Union.

Policies are more targeted to young workers (apprentices).

Levels of vocational study forwhich France would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

France would like to stimulate international mobility in particular for apprentices

and young workers that prepare for a vocational qualification at ISCED level 2 and

3 (lower and upper secondary education). The main reasons for this are on the one

hand that the data show that very few young workers ask for mobility. On the other

hand, students who prepare for higher level qualifications (ISCED level 4 and 5) are

well informed by their college or university about the possibilities and benefits of

participating in Erasmus; these students also have a better level in foreign

language proficiency.

France



Germany

219

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Germany



1 Initial vocational education and training inGermany

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Germany starts at the age of six and consists of primary

school, Sekundarbereich I and Sekundarbereich II. Depending on the federal state

at stake, primary school lasts five or six years (the latter is the case in Berlin and

Brandenburg). After finalising primary school, pupils have the choice between the

Hauptschule, Realschule, Gesamtschule (not available in all states) or the

Gymnasium. Transfer from Sekundarbereich I and Sekundarbereich II (equivalent

to upper secondary education) typically takes place at the age of 15 or 16.

Where initial vocational education and training is concerned, the basic distinction is

that between full time IVET and the dual apprenticeship system. The full time IVET

programmes encompass the following options:

� Berufsfachschulen: offering vocational programmes varying from one to three

years (a few programmes can even be longer). The one year programmes are

mainly for students that did not yet succeed in obtaining the

‘Realschulabschluss’ (middle level diploma); successful completion can result in

a reduction of the length of the dual training undertaken subsequently. The two-

and three-year vocational programmes result in a so-called ‘Berufliche

Abschluss’ or a certificate that confers the status of state recognised ‘assistant’

in a particular discipline. This certificate is regarded as the equivalent of the

certificates awarded under the dual system.

� Kollegschulen: their IVET offer is similar to the offer of the Berufsfachschulen.

� Schulen des Gesundheitswesen: these schools offer a range of one to

three-year programmes, for instance one-year nursing assistant courses taught

to situations that offer in-service training and two to three-year programmes

qualifying for nationally recognised “assistant qualifications” in paramedical

professions or other professions allied to the medical sector (e.g.: occupational

therapist, speech therapist, assistant dietician).

� Berufsgrundbildungsjahr: a one-year programme primarily intended for those

who wish to gain entry to the dual system but have not yet been offered a

work-study place in a recognised learning firm. In this respect it replaces the

first year of the dual vocational programmes and offers both general and

vocational orientated subjects, similar as in the dual system, but in this case

fully school-based.

The dual system forms the bulk of the German IVET, in the sense that it attracts

the most students. Theoretical training in the dual system takes place at the

so-called Berufsschulen.

Germany


The practical training takes place in recognised learning firms. Theoretical training

comprises about 20% of the total curricular time and is attended on one or two

days a week. There are currently 348 different Ausbildungsberufe, but

approximately a 100 of these are no longer operational. There is no longer any

demand for them and the flow of students into these programmes has come to an

end.

The majority of the dual programmes have a length of three years (36 months).

There are some exceptions however. Approximately 65 programmes have a

duration of four years while another 25 programmes have a duration of two years.

Examples of four-year courses are programmes that provide professional

qualifications for goldsmiths, pharmacists, instrument makers, recognised gas and

water fitters, heating and air conditioning installers and mechanical engineers.

Examples of two-year courses include programmes for sales assistants, photo

laboratory assistants and milling machine operators. Finally there are two eighteen

month programmes mainly focusing on (simple) assembly work.

Although the majority of the dual programmes have a three-year duration –apart

from the mentioned exceptions- they still reflect an informal hierarchy. The training

for a qualification as a cook, for instance, is regarded as one of the relatively easier

courses, while more prestige attaches to the course for ‘Bankkaufmann/-frau”,

attracting relatively large number of students who despite having gained the

‘Abitur’ and with that are eligible for entry into higher education, still opt for a dual

programme.

Participation in the dual programmes is strongly concentrated in a limited number

of Ausbildungsberufe. Nearly half of the male students train in the following five

occupations: motor mechanic, electrician, painter, cabinet maker and

plumber/installer. About two thirds of the female students are trained in the

following five occupations: secretarial assistant (industrial secretary), retail sales

assistant, medical receptionist, hairdresser and dental surgery assistant.

Germany



Full time IVET is the responsibility of the federal states in Germany. The regional

governments are in principle autonomous in these issues, though the Standing

Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (Kultusministerkonferenz)

the instrument for a certain coordination and alignment between the different

federal states. However, full time IVET can differ between the federal states and

centralised information and statistics are hardly available2 .

With regard to the dual system, the responsibility is divided between the federal

government and the governments of the ‘Länder’. Legislation and regulations

concerning the practical part of the dual training as well as the official recognition

of (new) Ausbildungsberufe belongs to the competency of the federal government,

whereas the legislation and regulation of the Berufsschule belongs to the

competency of the regional governments. In practice this means that curriculum

development for the dual programmes is a joint effort of the federal government

and the regional governments. The federal government designs the training

regulations (Ausbildungsordnungen) while the Standing conference of Ministers of

Education and Cultural Affairs takes care of the development of the Framework

Curricula (Rahmenlehrpläne).

In developing IVET, in particular the Ausbildungsberufe, social partners (employers’

organisations and trade unions) play an important role. They are consulted in the

process of (re-)designing Ausbildungsberufe and Ausbildungsordnungen. They are

also represented on the board of the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and

Training (BiBB; Bundesinstitut für Berufliche Bildung), together with the federal and

regional governments, a representative from the municipal associations and a

representative from the Federal Employment Agency. The BiBB has -among

others- the responsibility to advise the Federal government on vocational training

issues, to assist in preparing (new) training regulations (in close consultation with

the social partners), to conduct research and collect statistics on vocational

training and to maintain and publish the list of recognised Ausbildungsberufe.

The practical part of dual training is, as said, regulated by the

Ausbildungsordnungen. These regulations set more or less a minimum standard

and leave training enterprises substantial freedom for actually designing the

training programme. Within the training companies, elected representatives from

the employees have a say in the planning and conduct of vocational training and in

the appointment of trainees and instructors.

Germany


2 The annually published report on vocational training (Berufsbildungsbericht) only deals with the dual IEVT system.

Where the theoretical training is concerned, the regional governments (the

governments of the federal states) bear the responsibility. Though framework

curricula are agreed through the Standing conference and coordinated with the

training regulations, the actual implementation of the framework curricula as such,

belongs to the governments of the different federal states.

In principle, this can result in variation between ‘Länder’. The federal governments

also employ the teaching staff at the Berufsschulen. School autonomy is until now

limited. At the level of the Länder, vocational training committees operate,

consisting of representatives from the social partners as well as the regional

ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs. Their task is to advise the regional

governments on vocational training issues.

Another important player in IVET -particularly at local level- are the chambers (the

chambers of industry and commerce, chambers of handicraft, chambers of

agriculture, and various chambers representing the liberal professions). They are

the competent bodies for consultation, supervision and recognition of vocational

training in accordance with the relevant legislation. Moreover, they play an

important role in devising the exam regulations, that cover both the theoretical and

the practical part of the dual programmes.

Germany



The previous section has indicated the main stakeholders in IVET in Germany.

Apart from the federal government these stakeholders are:

� Governments of the Länder;

� Employers’ organisations;

� Trade unions;

� Various types of chambers;

� BiBB.

The social partners play an important role both at the federal level, the regional

level and the local level (as far as it concerns IVET in the training enterprises;

contacts between Berufsschule and training enterprises are minimal in Germany

and officially not encouraged, though in practice closer contact between ‘theory’

and ‘practice’ are developing).

Germany



4.1 Introduction































Germany


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Germany

In Germany two policies/acts to support and stimulate IVET transnational mobility

are in place.


� Reform of Vocational Education and Training in Germany, enshrined in the

Vocational training Act. Under the law, a stay abroad is treated as part of a

person’s initial training as long as it serves the purpose of training;

� Training promotion act, focused on promotion of IVET (other than trainees in the

dual system).

Involvement of Ministries Two Ministries are involved in IVET transnational mobility in Germany:

� Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF, Federal Ministry of

Education and Research);

� Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (Federal Ministry of

Economics and Technology).

Specific programmes support the German IVET transnational mobility


National Priority

Leonardo da Vinci:

(Grenzüberschreiten

de

Verbundausbildung)

Providers

(Bildungsträger)

organise

transnational

vocational training

and cooperate

during the whole

IVET period;

transnational

placements should

last at least 4

months (compulsory

for IVET

participants)

Enterprises and

learners in the dual

system.

Leonardo da Vinci Targeted Budget

2005:

€ 630,000

Targeted Budget

2006:

€ 500,000

National priority

Leonardo da Vinci

(Frühe Förderung)

Identification of best

practices and

exchange of

experiences

between decision

makers and

teachers/trainers;

development of new

training concepts,

further professional

development and

qualifications of

teachers/trainers.

IVET participants,

young workers and

teachers/trainers.

Leonardo da Vinci Targeted budget

2005:

€ 1,000,000

Targeted budget

2006:

€ 900,000

Germany



Leonardo da Vinci Persons in IVET

Trainers

Young Workers

European

Commission

Socrates Language Teachers

Trainers in Adult

Education

Trainees

European

Commission

BAND – Bilateral

Exchange

Programme

between Germany

and the Netherlands

Development of

bilateral

partnerships in VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers

BMBF

(Federal Ministry of

Education and

Research)

€ 220,000

Training Bridge –

Bilateral Exchange

Programme

between Germany

and UK

Development of

bilateral

partnerships in VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers

BMBF


Education and

Research)

€ 100,000

Gjør Det – Bilateral

Exchange

Programme

between Germany

and Norway

Development of

bilateral

partnerships in VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers

BMBF


Education and

Research)

€ 275,000

German Israeli

Cooperation

Programme in the

Field of Vocational

Education and

Training

Exchange and

co-operation in the

field of Further

Education and

Training

Contacts between

experts and

executives of

vocational and

technical education

and training

BMBF


Education and

Research)

€ 241,000

TANDEM Coordination Centre

German-Czech

youth exchange

(Koordinierungszentr

um

Deutsch-Tschechisc

her

Jugendaustausch)

http://www.tandem-

org.de

Coordination Centre

(Koordinierungs-zen

trum Regensburg

vom

Bundes-ministerium

für Familie,

Senioren, Frauen

und Jugend,

Freistaaten Bayern,

Bundesland

Sachsen)

German-French

Youth Work

(Deutsch-Französisc

hes Jugendwerk)

Joint Funding of

France and

Germany

Germany



German-Polish

Youth Work

(Deutsch-Polnisches

Jugendwerk)

www.dpjw.de

DPJW PNWM Federal

Governments of

Poland and

Germany

German-French

Secretariat)

Deutsch-Französisc

hes Sekretariat

Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(PAD; Educational

Exchange Service)

Acquisition and

deepening of

language

competences

Foreign language

assistent)

Federal States and

hosting countries

Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(PAD; Educational

Exchange Service)

Language learning

and cultural

dialogue

IVET participants

and partnerships

between schools

(Schulpartner-

schaften)

Auswärtiges Amt


Foreign Affairs)

Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(PAD; Educational

Exchange Service)

Comenius 1

Language learning

projects, school

development

projects an school

projects

VET institutions European

Commission

Parlamentarisches

Patenschaftsprogra

mm (PPP)

Visits to a

community college

or a company in the

USA

Students and young

workers

Deutscher

Bundestag (German

Bundestag/Parliame

nt)

350 annual stipendia

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Germany






High involvement It is indicated that in Germany the National and Regional governments, the

National education council, the Trade Unions and the Chamber of commerce are

highly involved in IVET mobility.

Germany


The National and Regional governments are involved in

� policy making


� decision making

� financing

The National education council is involved in


The Trade Unions are involved in


� decision making

� financing

The Chamber of commerce is involved in


� decision making

� financing

Medium involvement Vet institutions, Außerbetriebliche and Überbetriebliche Ausbildungsstätten have a

medium involvement in IVET in Germany.

Employer organisations are involved in


� decision making

VET institutions, Außerbetriebliche Ausbildungsstätten (extra-company- training

institutions) and Überbetriebliche Ausbildungsstätten (inter-company vocational

training centres) are involved in



Low involvement In Germany Municipal governments and Employers have a low involvement in IVET

mobility.

Municipal governments are involved in


� financing


Employers (public and private organisations and companies) are involved in

� financing




Germany







High benefits It is stated that in Germany IVET participants highly benefit from mobility.


1. Improvement of language skills

2. Improvement of problem solving skills

3. Improvement of social skills.

4. Acquisition of knowledge concerning the hosting country and its inhabitants.

5. Improved career and earning capacities.

Intermediate benefits Vet institutions, companies/employers sending or receiving IVET participants and

branch organisations have intermediate benefits.


1. Enterprises can retain engaged and well-performing trainees by means of the

supply of transnational placements.

2. Transnational placements enhance the cooperation with partner companies in

other countries.

3. International cooperation increases the competitiveness and innovativeness of

companies.

4. Transnational mobility increases the attractiveness of IVET.

5. Transnational mobility enhances the motivation and willingness to perform

among students.

Companies sending participants on placements

1. Better understanding of multi-cultural diversity.

2. Insight in different work processes and work organisations.

3. Better public image.

4. Occupational challenges.

5. Impulses for HRD.


1. Transnational mobility increases the understanding of multi-cultural diversity.

2. Transnational mobility increases the public image.

3. Transnational mobility results in occupational challenges for IVET.

4. Improved possibilities to answer specific questions from customers from other

countries.

Germany


Branch organisations

1. Staff members acquire international competences and increase the companies’

competitiveness (in international comparisons).

2. Improvement of the replcament of retiring workers with newly qualified workers.




relevance in Germany. Five obstacles are ranked as highly relevant and another

nine as intermediate relevant.








� Organisations







friendships


procedures



No relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET




mobility

� VET institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational




75% of results based on an estimation after having consulted those involved


Germany



In Germany mobility actors applied the following solutions to overcome obstacles:

Through the incorporation of the new arrangements in section 2 subsection (3) and

section 76 subsection (3), the option of completing parts of initial training abroad

for periods of limited duration has also been enshrined in the Vocational Training

Act. Under the law, a stay abroad is now treated as part of a person’s initial

training as long as it serves the purpose of training. Since the time spent abroad

does not interrupt the initial training relationship in such cases, there is no need for

additional regulations addressing issues such as the obligation to pay an

allowance, the recognition of skills, knowledge and qualifications acquired abroad,

or the person’s status as a trainee under the law governing social insurance and

taxation.

A stay abroad requires the agreement of both parties to the initial training contract.

It is still possible for trainees to spend time abroad within the framework of a leave

of absence or time off and then leave it to the competent body to rule on whether

the stay may be credited towards their initial training or not.


For problems with international coverage of insurances: third party liability and

Health insurance.

For lack of recognition of qualifications obtained in another country: ECVET / EQF.

To overcome the obstacle that employers do not see the benefits of transnational

mobility Germany indicates that Marketing / Promotion is needed.

To tackle the lack of strategy or policy on transnational mobility in VET institutions

a process of Quality-Insurance in institutions is needed.

Germany added extra obstacles to the list of 25 in the questionnaire

� Allowing time off for mobility for apprentices in the dual systemt by their learning

companies (especially in economic hard times);

� Bureaucracy around proposals (Leonardo da Vinci);

� Lack of possibilities to set aside time for mobility (holds for enterprises and

schools);

� Failing support in writing applications (including the existing support structure);

� Too little emphasis on individual mobility (Leonardo da Vinci);

� Too little attention for network building (e.g. preparatory visits);

� Allowances for daily and material costs are too small (Leonardo da Vinci)

� Source: InWent

Disadvantages for companies sending their apprentices on transnational mobility

(especially within the dual system) e.g.:

� Loss of man power during the transnational placements;

� Disruption of working processes;

� Costs.

Germany


Disadvantages for companies that receive transnational mobility participants, e.g.:

� Guidance and counseling effort needed;

� Costs;

� Disruption of working processes.

An extra suggestion as a solution for enhancing IVET mobility Germany is given:

Establishment of support structures for applicants at school and company level.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Germany.

IVET participants in Germany The total numbers of IVET participants in Germany is

� 1,581,629 in the Dual System (2003, Source: Report on Vocational Education

and Training for the Year 2005, p. 110.

� plus approx. 484,000 in full-time vocational schools (2003), Source: Report on

Vocational Education and Training for the Year 2005, p. 86.

Monitoring Outgoing mobility is monitored by different agencies.

Incoming mobility is partially monitored.

Agencies gathering statistical data on mobility:

� InWent

� National Agency Leonardo da Vinci

� Pädagogischer Austauschdienst (PAD; Educational Exchange Service) Agency

for programmes for schools (Länder jurisdiction)

� Various companies (e.g. BASF, VW Coaching)

Germany



Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci,

IVT:

Male: 1.614

Female: 2.207

Sum: 3.821

< 3 months: 3.502

> 3 months: 319

Male: 2.024

Female: 2.531

Sum: 4.555

< 3 months: 4.301

> 3 months: 254

Male: no data

available

Female: no data

available

Sum: 5.854

Male: no data

available

Female: no data

available

Sum: 6.255

GJØR DET Male: 6

Female: 1

Sum: 7

All <6weeks

Male: 88

Female: 21

Sum: 109

All <6weeks

Male: 119

Female: 47

Sum: 166

All <6weeks

TRAINING BRIDGE Male: 44

Female: 32

Sum: 76

All <6weeks

Male: 30

Female: 8

Sum: 38

All <6weeks

Male: 141

Female: 58

Sum: 199

All <6weeks

Male: 42

Female: 21

Sum: 69

All <6weeks

BAND Male: 102

Female: 130

Sum: 232

All <6weeks

Male: 98

Female: 126

Sum: 224

All <6weeks

Male: 104

Female: 115

Sum: 219

All <6weeks

Male: 97

Female: 69

Sum: 166

All <6weeks

Comenius 1/

Fremdsprachen-

projekte

88

At least 14 days

Duration of projects:

1 year

75

At least 14 days


1 year

54

At least 14 days


1 year

Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(PAD; Educational

Exchange Service);

School level

1.215

All 6-10 months

1.322

All 6-10 months

1.313

All 6-10 months

Parlamentarisches

Patenschaftsprogra

mm (PPP)

350

All one year

350

All one year

350

All one year

Data based on Empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

Germany


Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went over the past four years


Leonardo da Vinci United Kingdom

Spain

Italy

France

Poland

6,301

3,251

2,746

2,614

1,351

Comenius 1/Fremsprachenprojekte; Project

partners; 2004/2005

Spain

Hungary

Italy

United Kingdom

Poland

9

7

7

4

3

Programme conducted by Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst (PAD; Educational Exchange

Service) for vocational schools;

Fremdsprachenassistenten (foreign language

assistant)

United Kingdom

France

Spain

Ireland

Italy

1,834

1,553

100

89

84


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin Germany

Numbers of outgoing mobility in Germany increase.

Explanation: Bedarf, jahrelange PR-Arbeit, anderungen des BbiG, neue

Mitgliedsstaaten and globalisierung der Wirtschaft (need, years of PR actions,

change in BbiG, new Member States and globalising economy).

Trends and developments inchoice of countries foroutgoing mobility

United Kingdom, Spain and Italy.

Placements in new Member States are increasing.

Explanation: Neue wirtschaftliche Kontakte zu den neuen Mitgliedsstaaten (new

economic contacts with new Member States).

Incoming mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

BAND

(all participants

come from the

Netherlands)

Male: 85

Female: 79

Sum: 164

All<6 weeks

Male: 91

Female: 80

Sum: 171

All<6 weeks

Male: 71

Female: 61

Sum: 132

All<6 weeks

Male: 103

Female: 48

Sum: 151

All<6 weeks

Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(PAD; Educational

Exchange Service);

School level

1,001

All 6-9 months

945

All 6-9 months

1,017

All 6-9 months

Germany


Countries from where most participants of incoming mobility came over the past four years


Only programme conducted by Pädagogischer

Austausch-dienst (PAD; Educational Exchange

Service) for vocational schools;

(Fremdsprachenassistenten (foreign language

assistant)

United Kingdom

France

Spain

USA

Italy

986

925

353

300

109


Branches or occupationalfields of study in whichGermany would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

� In education and training of preschool teachers. International comparative

studies show that there is a need for improving pre-school education in

Germany.

� In the Dual System – more commitment of companies. It is necessary that more

companies are engaged in transnational education and training activities.

� In the service sector. Service sector needs to expand.

Germany


Greece

239

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Greece



1 Initial vocational education and training inGreece

1.1 IVET programmes

Education in Greece is compulsory for nine years; from the ages of seven to fifteen,

with six years of primary education and three years of lower secondary education

(Gymnasio). Once they have completed compulsory education, pupils can enter the

labour market or continue their studies in upper secondary education.

Upper secondary education is divided into General Secondary Education (Eniaio

Lykeio) and Technical Vocational Schools (Technika Epaggelmatika Ekpaideutiria,

TEE) providing vocational education and training. The distribution of the school

population between the two streams in the school year 2000-2001 was 65% and

35%.

Greek education has always been characterised by a strong demand for general

secondary education and, by extension, for education at university level. Both are

demanding and therefore many students attend private tutoring schools

(frontistiria) in preparation for national examinations and the competition for

entrance at Universities level.

Vocational education and training has only minimal interest for young people. In

theory, it is possible to transfer between General secondary and Technical

Vocational education, in practice transferring is rare and occurs only from General

education to Technical Vocational education, in case the academic character of

the General system proves too demanding.

Foreign-language learning is of particular interest to students in Greece. Almost all

pupils aged 9-15 learn foreign languages, not only through foreign language

teaching at school, but also in private language institutes. (More affluent pupils are

tutored at home.)

After completion of compulsory education students can acquire vocational

qualifications by three different routes:

� School- based technical vocational education and training (TEEs, Ministry of

Education, see under 2. Governance of IVET)

� Alternating technical vocational education and training at apprenticeship (TEEs

of the Ministry of Labour)

� One-year (post lower secondary) initial vocational training in areas covered by

Institutes of Vocational training (IEKs)

Education at TEEs has two cycles. Graduation may lead to post secondary training

at Institutes of Vocational Training (IEKs,)

Greece


School- based technical vocational education and training (TEEs, Ministry of

Education) and Alternating technical vocational education and training at

apprenticeship (TEEs of the Ministry of Labour) are both provided at Technical

Vocational Schools. The education of both schools has two independent cycles;

the first lasting two years at the School-based and three year at the Alternating at

apprenticeship-based training During second and third years students in

Alternating at apprenticeship spend four days a week in a work place and attend

lessons at school for one whole day and two evenings a week. They sign an

apprenticeship contract and receive a salary. In the second cycles all students are

in school full-time.

The curricula and specialisation offered at the two types of TEEs are identical.

Roughly one third of the time is spent on general subjects (Greek, English, history,

physics, chemistry etc). The concentration of the curriculum is on work-related

subjects. In the school year 2000-2001 the distribution of pupils in State TEEs

supervised by the Ministry of Education by study section was:

� Mechanics 21%

� Health and Welfare 15%

� Finance and administration 14%

� Information technology 14%

� Electricity 11%

� Beauty and hairdressing 9%

� Electronics 6%

� Applied art 3%

� Construction sector 3%

� Agriculture, food and the environment 3%

� Marine and shipping 0.5%

� Silverwork, gold work and watch making 0.5%

� Chemical laboratory applications 0.2%

� Textiles 0.1%

The education is hampered by large class sizes and inflexible curricula and too

theoretical education. There is no underlying framework of education in IVET.

Qualifications are awarded at ISCED levels 2 and 3. The system of accreditation

has its weaknesses since it is primarily time based rather than competence based.

There is no national standard based on professional criteria and social partners are

not involved in establishing standards and qualifications.

Post secondary training at Institutes of Vocational Training (IEKs) is either run or

supervised by the Ministry of Education or the Ministry of Labour. They provide

further education in the same areas of specialisation. Compared to TEE’s, IEK

courses are more work oriented and closer related to the demands of the labour

market. They are designed by tripartite teams of experts (State, employers and

employees) and officially approved in accordance with the European training

regulation.

Greece



In 1992, by Law 2009, a new National Vocational Education Training System

(ESEEK) was established with the aims of securing flexibility in training

specialisations and improving quality by the introduction of an accreditation

process. The organisation for Vocational Education and training (OEEK) was set up

as an independent body under the Ministry of Education to design, organise,

implement and supervise programmes of study and to provide accreditation for

professional qualifications related to the courses and areas of specialisation.

The Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs is responsible for School-

based technical vocational education and training. To define and implement the

relevant policies, the Ministry employs the following bodies:

� The Pedagogical Institute (PI), an advisory body on education with responsibility

in primary and secondary education (general and vocational) for designing and

compiling curricula, developing educational material and organising teacher

training;

� The Department of Studies in Secondary Education, responsible for

implementing programmes of general and vocational education;

� The above mentioned Organisation for Vocational Education and Training

(OEEK);

� The Centre for Educational Research (KEE), which reaches a comprehensive

description and evaluation of the education system.

The ministry of labour, through The Greek Manpower Employment Organisation

(OAED) provides Alternating technical vocational education and training at

apprenticeship, as well as continuing vocational training. To achieve greater

flexibility and effectiveness, a recent reform (Law 2956/2001) allowed OAED to

transfer part of its activities to three public companies operating under its

supervision. These are:

� The National Employment Observatory Research - Informatics SA, to explore

what human resources are needed on the labour market.

� Human Resources Support Services SA, to provide support to the unemployed

(counselling career guidance) via Employment Promotion Centres (KPA) and

� Vocational Training SA, to design, organise and run courses in continuing

vocational training via Institutes of Vocational Training (IEKs) and Vocational

training Centres (KEKs).

Greece


Education at all levels of public state education is free of charge.

Funds for education in Greece come from the General State Budget and from

individuals.

State funds for education (i.e. running costs, with the exception of school

maintenance costs covered by municipal authorities, and school building costs

covered by prefectural authorities and investment costs) are, for the most part,

allocated by the Government directly to schools (centralised administration model).

In 1998 government expenditure on education was 3.7% of GDP. Even though

education in Greece is provided free of charge at all three levels, it is estimated

that private spending on education (tutorial school fees, private school fees, private

IEK fees, etc.) is equal to more than 40% of State spending.

Greece


3 Stakeholders

The Management Board of The Organisation for Vocational Education and Training

(OEEK) includes the social partners, though strictly speaking it is not tripartite. At

prefectural level OEEK has established three-member advisory committees (TSEs)

to advise on issues relating to the linkage between training provided in the

prefecture and the local labour market.

3.1 Trends and developments

The past few years have seen important changes in vocational education and

training (VET) in Greece: new institutions have been set up, innovative programmes

have been implemented, the social partners have taken on a more active role,

certification processes have been changed to conform more closely to European

standards and curricula have been modernised. However, much remains to be

done to bring the Greek vocational education and training system in line with those

of the EU Member States.

The establishment of a new supervisory body, the.National System for the Linking

of Vocational Education and Training with Employment. (ESSEEKA), which will

operate on the basis of tripartite (State, employers and employees), is expected to

improve things greatly. Its job will be to establish meaningful links between

vocational education and vocational training, and to link these sectors to

employment. One of the main aims of the relevant bill is to ensure cohesion

between all systems of vocational training provision and to provide for the

accreditation of occupational qualifications, regardless of how these qualifications

are gained.

Greece


4 Transnational mobility in Greek IVET

Despite the many efforts invested, we finally did not succeed in obtaining a filled out

questionnaire from Greece. The information on mobility in Greek IVET is therefore

limited. Most of the information presented here (with the exception of mobility

numbers) stems from a report drafted on behalf of CEDEFOP for a study into the use

of transnational mobility as a pedagogical tool in the context of vocational education

and training2 . This report, however, stems from early 2001, so the information is not

up-to-date (it mainly addresses the second half of the 1990s).

4.1 Policies and programmes

Greek IVET participants were involved in various European programmes such as:

ESF co-funded programmes with a mobility component, Socrates, Leonardo,

Employment and ADAPT. Next to this Greece knew specific mobility programmes on

a bi-lateral basis with third countries (e.g. the USA) and mobility programmes for

Greek immigrants. A specific Mobility Programme (1996-1999) was run as part of the

Operational Plan for Education and Initial Vocational Training. The mobility

programme aimed at students and staff of both general and technical secondary

education. Two specific strands within this programme included mobility of students:

� The strand encompassing educational visits, orientation and information

seminars, laboratory practice and a combination of the latter and educational

visits;

� School partnerships.

Both strands could, however, concern transnational mobility as well as mobility

within Greece. As far as figures are available, it appears that 9,027 students were

involved in transnational mobility under the first strand (this includes both

participants in general and in technical education). Figures for the number of

students involved in transnational mobility under the second strand are not provided.

For all programmes mentioned above, the estimate is that in total 21,051 IVET

participants have been involved in transnational mobility during the period

1994-1999.

For the first Leonardo da Vinci programme, it is indicated that most Greek students

go to:

� Italy

� United Kingdom

� Germany

� Spain

� France

Greece


2 The Greek report was written by Savvatou Tsolakidou

4.2 Benefits for students

The following benefits of (transnational) mobility for students are reported:

� Improvement of scholastic achievement and acquisition of knowledge

� Acquisition of experience

� Improved communication and cooperation with their classmates and other

students

� Development and discovery of skills, capabilities and personality traits (students

acquired self-confidence, improved their speaking and writing skills, so that

they could express their thoughts fully and clearly, they learned how to assume

responsibility for themselves and deal with every eventuality arising during the

programme, they developed intellectually and morally)

� Students acquired the ability to judge for themselves

� The programmes provided guidance regarding their future career

� They came closer to their teachers and got to know them better

� They discovered values that form attitudes toward life in different environments

� They discovered that working with others helps them communicate, exchange

experiences and fulfil their personality

4.3 Obstacles to mobility

The following obstacles to mobility are reported (note: concerns the second half of

the 1990s):

� Schools have too little autonomy, but are nevertheless expected to bear the

responsibilities of the financial management of concrete mobility projects (in the

mean time school autonomy appears to have increased);

� Lack of equipment and infrastructure (e.g. modern ICT, administrative support);

� Lack of experience in organising mobility programmes (school management and

staff);

� Limited links between mobility programmes and school curricula;

� The loss of school time and disruption of school routines (to which teachers and

management object);

� Insufficient information about mobility projects (in particular in rural and insular

areas);

� Language barriers;

� Too much bureaucracy in procedures;

� Insufficient financing;

� Different levels in expertise and specialised knowledge;

� Absence of certification of the transnational placement (and what has been

learned).

It is indicated that the last five obstacles are specific for European funded mobility

programmes.

Greece


4.4. Recent numbers on Greek participation in transnational mobility

The Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci report on Performance and Impact (Brussels,

5 May 2006, CL-11-2006-Ann-en) gives numbers on the total mobility for Greece:

Greece 2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

(the figures presented are not

for mobility in VET only, but

include mobility in higher

education, and mobility for

trainers and young workers)

1060 1526* 1427* 2017*

* provisional data; estimates at selection stage, not on the basis of final reports

Greece


Hungary

249

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Hungary



1 Initial vocational education and training inHungary

In Hungary the participation in VET in upper secondary used to be as high as: 90%

of student enrolment. However, since the 90s, a shift towards general secondary

education (33% of participation in 2004) and the more theoretical stream of VET

has taken place. Furthermore, the IVET system is developing from one providing

primarily basic vocational education to one that focuses on intermediate and

higher vocational qualifications as well.

IVET does not form a coherent system in terms of the contents and standards of

qualifications, and is not attached to the employment system.

From 1997, the expansion of higher education has been a government priority. This

development goes together with a decline of the social prestige of especially the

lower levels of vocational education and training. At this level pedagogy and

methodology of education are poor.

1.1 VET programmes

Compulsory education starts at age 5 (last year of kindergarten) and lasts until the

age of 18. It encompasses the last year of nursery school, 8 years of primary

school and 4 years of upper secondary education.

After finishing 8 years of primary education at the age of 14 (with the primary

school graduation certificate), pupils have the following choices:

� General education at a Gymnasium, which lasts 4 years and is concluded with

the maturity examination, which provides access to tertiary education;

� Secondary Vocational education, which is also concluded with the maturity

examination and given access to tertiary education. Once the maturity exam has

been passed (or the 12th grade completed), students in these schools can enrol

in a vocational education programme that can take 1 or more years. The VET

qualifications awarded are of a post-secondary level. Even though students who

passed the maturity exam are eligible for tertiary education, many graduates of

secondary vocational schools enter the labour market.

� Vocational schools, who also offer 4 year programmes, of which the first two

years are primarily general education (which has become mandatory starting

this year), and the last two years (from grade 11 onward) are primarily vocational

education. The vocational qualifications awarded by this type of schools can be

either on lower secondary level or upper secondary level.

Hungary


All vocational qualifications, whether they are provided by secondary vocational

school or by vocational schools, are included in the National Qualifications

Register (OKJ after its Hungarian abbreviation) of state-recognised vocational

qualifications. As indicated, there are differences between the secondary

vocational school and the vocational schools. Given that students in the secondary

vocational school first pass their maturity exam before continuing studies in the

VET grades, they can obtain by taking the vocational examination an ISCED 4C

level OKJ qualification (which is the post secondary level). Since students in

vocational schools can only take the vocational examination and are not awarded

a maturity certificate, they can only obtain an ISCED 3C (upper secondary level) or

an ISCED 2C (lower secondary level) OKJ vocational qualification.

The OKJ vocational qualifications are grouped into 21 occupational groups, being:

� Health;

� Social services

� Education;

� Art, cultural education, communication;

� Mechanical engineering;

� Electro technology, electronics;

� ICT;

� Chemical engineering;

� Architecture;

� Light industry;

� Wood industry;

� Printing;

� Transport;

� Environmental protection – water management;

� Economics;

� Administration;

� Commerce-marketing, business administration;

� Catering and tourism;

� Other services;

� Agriculture;

� Food industry.

New regulations introduced in 1998 stipulated that IVET can only be provided once

participants have become 16. Until then, vocational schools as well as secondary

vocational schools can only provide vocational preparatory/pre-vocational training

to students younger than the age of 16. General subjects in the general education

grades of both types of vocational training schools are taught in compliance with

the requirements of the National Core Curriculum, the recommendations of the

framework curricula, and the school’s local educational programme based on

these. Schools must develop the curricula of the vocational

preparatory/pre-vocational training in accordance with the central programmes of

the OKJ qualifications and the requirements of the maturity examination (in

secondary vocational schools), and they may follow the guidelines of the

framework curricula developed for the 21 occupational groups by the National

Institute of Vocational Education. Such preparatory programmes include:

Hungary


� career orientation and practical training in the 9th, and “vocational grounding

theoretical and practical training” in the chosen occupational group in 10th

grades (in at most 40% of the mandatory teaching hours) of vocational schools

where the provision of such training is mandatory since 2006; and

� vocational orientation from the 9th, and “grounding training in an occupational

group” from the 11th grade of secondary vocational schools.

The framework curriculum for vocational schools recommend 74 teaching hours of

career orientation and 222 hours of vocational grounding theoretical and practical

training per school year in the 9th grade (total teaching hours: 1,017.5), and

296-370 hours of the grounding training per school year in the 10th grade (total

teaching hours: 1,017.5). In secondary vocational schools they recommend 185

teaching hours per school year of grounding training in an occupational group in

the 9th-10th grades (total teaching hours: 1 017.5), 296 in the 11th grade (total: 1

110) and 256 in the 12th grade (total: 960).

The curricula of the VET grades, called vocational programmes, are also developed

by the schools based on the professional and examination requirements of the

awarded OKJ qualification and the recommendations of the central curricula of its

vocational subjects (modules). Both types of documents published by the minister

of the relevant field.

IVET pathways in public education do not differ according to the form of practical

training: school-based, alternance and apprenticeship trainings (in their Hungarian

versions) are all available in both types of schools. Current education policy aims

to encourage students, schools and enterprises, to organize practical training in

such a way that its first phase, which is focusing on the mastery of basic

vocational skills, should be provided in a workshop (maintained by the school, one

or more enterprises, or a regional training centre). This phase should be followed

by training at a real workplace in the final vocational grade, in order to provide

specialized vocational skills and competences.

The Act on Vocational education and training prescribes that practical training

should alternate with theoretical education within a week during the study period,

and has to be conducted uninterrupted during the summer vacation time.

Typically, however, during the school year 1 week of theoretical instruction

alternates with 1 week of practical training which may be delivered in the school

workshop and/or at an enterprise workshop or the workplace.

Hungary


Apprenticeship training in Hungary as a form of practical training provided by an

enterprise on the basis of a student contract concluded between the student and

the enterprise is not a separate pathway in IVET. Structure, content and learning

outcomes of the vocational education and training of students who participate in

the apprenticeship pathway, does not differ from that of students studying in a

(secondary) vocational school and who receive their practical training in a school

workshop and/or an enterprise based on a cooperation agreement between that

enterprise and the school. Important differences between the apprenticeship

pathway on the one hand, and the school-based or alternance pathway on the

other hand, is that:

� Students in the apprenticeship pathway conclude an apprentice contract with

the employer under the supervision of a representative of the competent local

chamber of economy (who is also responsible for continuously monitoring of the

conditions and quality of the training offered by the enterprise); in the case of

the other two pathways agreements are signed between the vocational school

and the enterprise;

� Apprentices have to be paid by the enterprise with which they have concluded

an apprentice contract, whereas payment for students in the other two

pathways is optional (with the exception of the summer months during which

practical training is obligatory for students).

Even though educational policy in Hungary promotes the apprenticeship pathway,

participation is relatively low. In the school year 2004/2005 only 4% of all full-time

students in VET grades participated in the VET pathway, whereas 22% of those

students took the alternative pathway (within the framework of a cooperation

agreement between the school and an enterprise) and 74% of these students

received their practical training in a school workshop.

Depending on definitions (which students are considered to be enrolled in VET),

27.5% of the students aged 14-18 were enrolled in a vocational school (of which

52% in the VET grades), 38% in the secondary vocational schools (general grades

only, since VET tracks are outside upper secondary education and start after

students become 18), and 34.5% in the grammar schools or gymnasia. If looking

at only those students that are actually involved in VET grades/tracks (and thus not

counting the first two years at vocational schools as being part of IVET), only

12.5% of all students in upper secondary education were enrolled in IVET in 2004,

whereas this was still just over 76% in 1990.

Hungary



The operation of Vocational Education and Training (VET) is primarily governed by

two Ministries. The Ministry of Education (OM) is responsible for IVET and the

Ministry of Employment Policy and Labour (FMM) is responsible for continuing VET

(CVET).

� The Ministry of Education is responsible for policy regulation in IVET, covering

strategic developments, target setting, curricula policy, dialogue with social

partners and evaluation and monitoring.

� The Ministry of Social and Family Affairs is responsible for the promotion of IVET

(and CVT) for women and people with disabilities and the disbursement (through

the country labour offices) of finances for these target groups.

� The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for IVET (and CVT) in the field of

agriculture.

� The Ministry of Defence is responsible for IVET (and CVT) in the field of defence.

The National Institution of Vocational Education (NIVE or NSZI), established by the

Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour, has the responsibility of carrying

out research and development in VET. It provides services in upgrading trainers

and assisting in the implementation of the new curricula for VET schools. The NIVE

also maintains the National Vocational Qualification Register (NVQR

The National Vocational Training Council (NVTC, or OSZT) is a consultative body,

performing preparatory work for decisions taken at ministerial level. The council

includes representatives of the major stakeholders in VET: employers, employees,

chambers of commerce, organisations in charge of maintenance of schools

(municipalities) and ministries in charge of vocational qualifications. Its functions

are advisory of ministries involved in VET and development of legislation, the

monitoring of vocational qualifications (defined in the National Vocational

Qualification Register) and development of proposals concerning the introduction

of new vocational qualifications.

The NVTC draws on the support of qualification sub-committees in 21 vocational

groups. The sub-committees are made up of experts of the relevant stakeholders

(enterprises and employers’ associations) chaired by the relevant ministries. This

allows stakeholders to influence the contents of vocational qualifications.

Hungary


The National Centre of Assessment and Examination (OKÉV, after its Hungarian

abbreviation) is a central budgetary state administration agency. It assists in

supervising the operation of the public education system at national and regional

level. The head office and seven regional offices of OKÉV perform tasks related to

organizing the national maturity examination, conducting national surveys and

inspections, compiling the national registers of experts and presidents of

vocational examination boards, accrediting textbooks, and performing quality

assurance functions.

The governance of the system has different layers, though the administration as

such seems still to be highly centralised. The Ministry of Education is responsible

for the overall regulation of IVET at a national level and shares the responsibility

and competence of defining the content of VET programmes that award one of the

qualifications included in the OKJ, with the Ministries relevant to particular

occupational areas (e.g.: health, agriculture, defence). Since the early 1990s

Hungary has deregulated its education system, giving significant autonomy to

schools and municipalities and counties. The tasks of maintenance are carried out

by municipalities, foundations and the church, supported by a system of normative

financial assistance provided by the State. Public education institutions providing

VET - vocational training schools (szakképzo iskola) - enjoy autonomy in

professional-pedagogical matters, supervised by the head of the institution

In Hungary enterprises make a contribution (Vocational Training contribution) to the

funding of IVET in the school system and the provision of Continuing Vocational

Training for employees through a tax of 1.5% of their total wage bill. The emphasis

of the system is on subsidising IVET. Up to 75% of the tax can be contributed

directly to vocational schools. The remainder is paid into the Vocational Training

Fund, which has a decentralised (Municipalities) and a centralised component.

The decentralised amount is calculated on a student per capita basis. The money

may be used at the discretion of the municipalities but within a framework of

measures drawn up by the Minister of Education and on the advice of the National

Vocational and Training Council (NVTC).

The centralised component is used on the authority of the Minister of Education

following advice from the NVTC: to pay for practical training places in IVET

students (Funds are distributed on the basis of applications by enterprises and

verified by a contract with a vocational school or a mediator from the Chamber of

Commerce), for equipment requested by a vocational school, to contribute to the

Leonardo da Vinci programme and other VET programmes and to support the

work of the National Institute for Vocational Education (NIVE).

Hungary


3 Stakeholders

The previous section on governance in Hungarian IVET, has already outlined some

of the major stakeholders in IVET. This section will in particular focus on the

involvement and the role of the social partners.

The involvement of social partners in the decision- and policy making processes of

vocational education and training is wide ranging. At national level there are

several councils involving social partners established by the law to serve as forums

for professional dialogue and the conciliation of interests. The ones that are

relevant for IVET are:

� National Council for the Conciliation of Interests: set up to cooperate in defining

strategies for VET;

� National Vocational Training Council: a consultative-advisory body established

in 1995.

At national level, the development of the professional and examination

requirements for vocational qualifications included in the National Qualifications

Register, has been assisted by qualification sub-committees in which the relevant

stakeholders (e.g. social partners) for each of the distinguished 21 occupational

groups were included.

At regional level, the regional development and training committees - coordinated

by the National Centre for Assessment and Examination - are designing regional

strategies for the development of VET and assist in the tendering of public

subsidies from the decentralized section of the training sub-fund of the Labour

Market Fund. The county labour councils serve as forums for the county level

conciliation of interest concerning VET and the allocation of public subsidies for

the training of disadvantaged adults.

The two chambers of economy (Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry

and the Hungarian Chamber of Agriculture) play an important role in VET at

national, sectoral and also local level. The chambers, in cooperation with the

national economic interest representative organizations, organize and develop the

requirements of the master examination, participate in the development of the

professional and examination requirements of OKJ qualifications, and perform

various quality assurance tasks related to IVET provided within the school system

(monitoring apprenticeship and other kinds of practical training, organizing level

exams, participating in vocational examinations).

Hungary



4.1 Introduction































Hungary


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Hungary

Hungary reports one national programme that is (in)directly supporting IVET

transnational mobility. It concerns the Human Resource Development Operational

Programme 2007-2013, within the framework of the second national development

plan for Hungary.

Involvement of Ministries At the time of answering the questionnaire, it was a bit difficult for Hungary to

indicate the precise involvement of different Ministries, due to a change of

government and departmental restructuring. The Ministry of Education or the

Ministry of Labour and Employment. As the new government is been set up at the

moment, it is difficult to tell which ministry is of highest influence on mobility policy.

In the new structures it will be the Ministry of Labour and Employment (present

name) who will be in charge for the issues in IVET.

Hungary


Two specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Hungary


Leonardo da Vinci To train and

complete the

vocational education

and training of the

target groups. It

contributes to the

development of the

European labour

market, to the free

movement of

workers and citizens

and to a better

knowledge and

transparency of

competences

across borders.

pupils, teachers /

trainers

EC 3,470,000 EUR

(2006)

Mobility for

Apprentices

Making the training

more

practice-oriented,

enhanced

relationship between

the world of work

and training,

facilitating

motivation for

learning (particularly

language learning),

improvement of

skills and

competences

required by the

labour market

pupils Ministry of

Education

250,000 EUR (2003)

640,000 EUR (2005)

Hungary


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Hungaria






High involvement Hungary indicates that the following stakeholders have a high involvement in IVET


� European Union: in their role of policy maker, activator and stimulator, decision

maker and funder;

� The national Ministry of Employment and Labour ): both as policy and decision

maker;

� The national Ministry of Education: in their capacity of policy making, decision

making and funding;

� VET institutions: in activating and stimulating students, (co-)funding, approving

and accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

Medium involvement Stakeholders that have a medium involvement in IVET mobility in Hungary are:

� National council of VET institutions: as one of the financing parties;

� Employer organisations involved in the National Selection Committee, and in

that capacity decision makers;

� Employers: public and private organisations and companies: as one of the

financers and in the role of coaching participants;

� Trade unions, involved in the National Selection Committee, and in that capacity

decision maker, but also one of the financing parties and as a coacher of

participants;

� Chamber of commerce, also involved in the National Selection Committee, and

fulfilling the same roles as the trade unions.

Low involvement Stakeholders that have little involvement in IVET mobility in Hungary are:

� Municipal governments (financing);

� Branch organisations (financing and coaching participants);

� Student associations (activating and stimulating and coaching participants).

No involvement With regard to the following stakeholders, Hungary indicates that they are not

involved in IVET transnational mobility:

� Regional governments;

� National education council;

� National qualification authorities.

Hungary







High benefits High benefits are only reported for IVET participants. The benefits are said to be:

1. Improved ability of working autonomously

2. Working with new technology

3. Improved language competences

4. Better communication skills

5. Broader horizon

Intermediate benefits Intermediate benefits are reported for the VET institutions sending participants on

placements:

1. The awareness of the management on the importance of international

cooperation was raised

2. More application submitted by the institution

3. Involvement in transnational co-operations

4. Increased competitiveness of the institution

5. More foreign visitors in the schools

Low benefits Hungary indicates that employers, both those who receive an IVET participant on a

transnational mobility placement and those hiring an employee with a transnational

mobility experience, will gain some, but low benefits from this.

Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placemen,

1. Improved language attainment level of the staff.

2. More open-minded attitude, new approaches, better self-assessment.

3. Increased transnational co-operation.


1. Better language competences of the staff.

2. Stronger self-confidence of the staff.

3. Improved intercultural competences.

No benefits Hungary stipulates that branch organisations are not likely to gain benefits from

IVET transnational mobility.

Hungary



Hungary indicates that 2 obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another 8

obstacles have a intermediate relevance.

High relevance � IVET participants do not have enough language skills.

� Mobility budget is not sufficient

Medium relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET.



organisations.






friendships (and compulsory practical training).



procedures.









No relevance � Problems with international coverage of insurances.


mobility.





Other obstacles � Mobility budget is not sufficient.

Results both based on estimation after having consulted those involved and on

empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

Hungary



In Hungary, the following solutions have been adopted to overcome some of the


� Providing better information;

� Co-operation with national authorities, national social partners and branch

organisations;

� Extending thematic seminars, publishing best practise;

� Targeted information and dissemination activities aimed at the national

authorities;

� Implementing Europass and the EQF;

� More targeted information provision (including disseminating best practices and

the outcomes of programme evaluations);

� Changing regulations and recognising mobility as part of the work of teachers

and trainers;

� More active involvement of the school management;

� Simplification of the main goals of the new phase of the community education

and training programmes;

� Better preparation before placements start;

� Setting up additional funding mechanisms for disadvantaged target groups;

� Co-financing mobility form the resources of the Structural Funds.

Concerning proposed solutions for overcoming obstacles for mobility, Hungary

indicates that there is a national strategy for improving the language attainment

level.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Hungary.

IVET participants in Hungary Depending on the definition of IVET participants, the numbers differ. If we take only

those participants enrolled in courses to be part of upper secondary IVET, the total

number in the school year 2004/2005 was 68,452 3. If participants enrolled in

vocational programmes in secondary vocational schools (after obtaining the

maturity certificate) are also considered another 63,518 students at

post-secondary, non-tertiary level can be added brining the total to 131,970 IVET

participants.

Hungary



3 Though strictly spoken this is not even the right number since it includes participants enrolled in programmes leading to ISCED 2C vocationalqualifcations (which according the ISCED classification standards is considered to be lower secondary education).


Outgoing mobility is partially monitored, but there are no data available on smaller

initiatives, such as: town twinning’s, bilateral partnerships, etc. Incoming mobility is

also partially monitored. The Agencies that gather statistical data on mobility are:

� Ministry of Education (incidental)

� Leonardo da Vinci (on an annual basis)

Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci IVET 371 578 861* 850*

Mobility for Apprentice schools 167 309*

Total 371 745 861* 1159*

* on the basis of the approved projects (the projects are still running)

Results based on statistical data Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo IVET

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 158

Female: 213

Sum: 371

Male: 277

Female:301

Sum: 578

Male: 412

Female: 449

Sum: 861

Male: 391

Female: 291

Sum: 850

(data available for

completed projects

only)


Technique: 12

Economics: 40

Health & Welfare: 6

Agriculture: 104

Technique: 64

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture: 51

Technique: 106

Economics: 180

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 162

Technique: 73

Economics: 308



6-12 weeks: 41

3-6 months: 34

> 6 months: 6

< 6 weeks: 515

6-12 weeks: 32

3-6 months: 31

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 737

6-12 weeks: 59

3-6 months: 65

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 493

6-12 weeks: 119

3-6 months: 68

> 6 months: 2


Hungary


Mobility for Apprentices 2003 2005

Gender Male: 46

Female: 121

Male:

Female:

(data not available yet)


Technique: 57

Economics: 83

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 45

Technique: 54

Economics: 207

Health & Welfare: 3

(still on-going projects)

Length of stay < 6 weeks:73

6-12 weeks: 49

3-6 months: 45

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 181

6-12 weeks: 101

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 27

(still on-going projects)




Leonardo da Vinci

IVET

Germany

United Kingdom

Finland

France

Austria

1011

288

229

229

226

Mobility for Apprentice schools Germany

Italy

Finland

United Kingdom

France

376

33

28

17

12



There is a continuous increase in the number of outgoing students

Explanation: mobility became part of strategy of more and more institutions.


Germany has been the most popular destination since the beginning of the

Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Explanation: language and geographical reasons.

Hungary


Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 356 276 69* 77*

* Only partial information available


Countries from where most participants of incoming mobility came (past four years)



Denmark

Sweden

Spain

The Netherlands

376

106

96

66

48


Trends and developments innumbers of incoming mobility

According to the estimations of the Leonardo NA, the number of incoming

beneficiaries is increasing in line with the number of out-going beneficiaries.

Explanation: mostly projects work on mutual basis.

Trends and developmentswith regard to the countriesparticipants come from

40% of the projects are organised on a mutual basis.

Hungary


Iceland

269

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Iceland



1 Initial vocational education and training inIceland

1.1 IVET programmes

Participation in initial vocational education and training is relatively low in Iceland,

certainly if compared with the other Nordic countries. Approximately 15-20% of

the students in upper secondary education take a vocational pathway. In 2000,

20,256 students were enrolled in upper secondary education.

Education is compulsory from age 6 until age 16 and takes place in comprehensive

schools. Given that students pass two of the following subjects, Icelandic, English

and mathematics, satisfactorily, they are admissible to upper secondary education.

In general, about 90% of each age cohort takes up upper secondary education,

though drop out rates are relatively high with at average 23%. Upper secondary

education encompasses both general and vocational upper secondary education.

Since the 1970s, upper secondary education has become more and more

organised in ‘comprehensive schools’, which provide both the general education

programmes and the vocational education programmes. In 2000, about 66% of all

students enrolled in upper secondary education followed their studies in a

comprehensive school. The curricula in the comprehensive school have a modular

basis (each unit giving a credit) and offer all students a core of general subjects. In

addition to the general subjects, each student chooses a particular path, which

either leads to the matriculation examination or to a vocational certificate. It is,

however, possible to graduate with both types of certificates. There are also

students who first follow the general path and take up a vocational pathway

afterwards. The programmes that are distinguished in upper secondary education

are:

� General programmes;

� Languages;

� Fine and applied arts;

� Pedagogical and physical programmes;

� Social science programmes;

� Natural science programmes;

� Commerce, economics;

� Crafts and technical trades;

� Agriculture, food and service trades;

� Health related programmes.

The IVET system in Iceland contains two main routes:

� IVET pathways leading to a legally recognised and certified qualification;

� IVET pathways that do not lead to recognised qualifications.

Iceland


The first category can be seen as the most important type of IVET, not only in

terms of the labour market effect (though it is stated that courses that do not lead

to a recognised qualification, still bring their participants benefits), but also in terms

of the number of participants. IVET programmes that belong to this category are:

� Certified trades leading to a journeyman’s certificate (about 50 different trades,

of which about 15 are ‘dormant’);

� Training for the health service;

� Training for transportation officers for vehicles in the air and at sea;

� Training for police officers.

Examples of the second category of IVET programmes are computer studies,

agriculture and horticulture, commercial studies and studies related to the travel

services. In addition various specialised trade unions and other organisations run

their own training institutions with their own offer, as do the fire departments, the

post and customs and excise.

The IVET programmes can vary considerable in length (from one semester to four

years), most IVET programmes last 4 years. Work-based training is a compulsory

part of IVET and lasts (depending on the structure and length of the programme)

from 4 to 36 months. For the work-based training part of the programme, in

principle a contract is signed between the enterprise offering the training and the

trainee. In the certified trades, participants receive a gradually increasing

proportion of the full journeyman’s salary.

Most participants in IVET start with the school-based part of the programme,

followed by the work placement and end their training with a demonstration of the

acquired skills (journeyman’s examination).

Presently, the Icelandic IVET system is confronted with two problems. On the one

hand, a continuing lack of sufficient places for the work-based part of the

programme. In particular small enterprises have difficulties with offering training

places, since often the work they undertake only constitutes part of the trade to be

learned and apprentices can therefore not cover all tasks to be undertaken in order

to obtain a certificate. On the other hand, enrolments in IVET (that is: those

programmes that lead to a recognised and certified qualification) have been

dropping more or less continuously over the last decades.

Iceland



IVET is mainly a state responsibility in Iceland. Whereas in primary and lower

secondary education the locus of control has shifted towards the municipalities

(including funding), the locus of control remains with the state authorities. It is the

Ministry of Education that bears the main responsibility for IVET. Other Ministries,

such as the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Agriculture

and the Ministry of Transportation are involved in the certification for those trades

that are part of their working domain.

Funding of IVET is also mainly a state affair, though municipalities do pay 40% of

the costs of the construction of upper secondary schools. Individuals/private

households cover the registration fees and the costs of books and learning

materials in IVET. These can partly be covered by means of loans from the

Icelandic Study Loan Fund, where IVET participants can apply for a loan against

low interest for their living expenses. As said, those enrolled in an IVET programme

leading to a journeyman’s certificate and with a contract with a training enterprise,

receive wages that slowly increase with the progress through the programme.

Iceland


3 Stakeholders in Icelandic IVET

The involvement of social partners in IVET has been characterised as often begin

weak. Nevertheless, social partners have traditionally been involved in the

journeyman’s programmes, at least in their representation in the examination

bodies taking the journeyman’s exams. In 1996 a new law was introduced

(following up the law of 1988, which covered both general and vocational upper

secondary education for the first time), with which so-called vocational councils

were established. Presently 14 vocational councils exist with each 6

representatives of the social partners and 1 representative from the Ministry of

Education. Each vocational council covers all the trades in its particular sector. In

addition to the councils a cooperative committee (SAMSTARF) has been

established. The task of this committee is to advise the Ministry of Education with

regard to the development of a VET-policy for the whole VET sector. It is expected

that this more ‘institutionalised’ cooperation between education authorities and

social partners will help bridge the gap between education and the labour market

and will in particular contribute to: i) increased curriculum planning according to

occupational requirements; ii) a further modularisation of vocational curricula, with

the possibility to obtain partial qualifications; iii) an increased role for on-the-job

training with the social partners specifying the objectives and content and iv) likely

the development for valuing and recognising informal learning (as part of

secondary school education).

Apart from this, as indicated earlier various specialised trade unions and other

organisations in industry run their own training institutions, though it is not

completely clear to what extent these training institutions offer IVET courses, next

to continuing training.

In 1998 ‘Educate Island’ (Mentt) was established as a forum for cooperation

between the education sector, social partners, municipalities and other parties

interested in education and training. Educate Island focuses on cooperation

between the employment and the education sector with regard to the further

development of upper secondary (vocational) education, higher education and

continuing training. Their main tasks are:

� Collecting and distributing information with regard to legislation, policy,

research, pilot projects and available courses;

� Supporting the involvement of the sector in European work;

� Managing projects on behalf of the governmental, public or private sectors;

� Supporting the cooperation between different actors in the sector.

Iceland



4.1 Introduction































Iceland


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Iceland

Iceland does not have a specific policy with regard to supporting and stimulating

transnational mobility in IVET, but does, however, participate actively in the

Leonardo da Vinci programme. Given the lack of policy making in IVET

transnational mobility, Iceland states that the question with regard to the

involvement of ministries is not applicable.

As said Iceland does participate in the Leonardo programme, which is in fact the

only mobility programme in Iceland.


Leonardo da Vinci Improve skills and

competences of


education

VET students Leonardo da Vinci Not the same from

year to year.

Average amount for

IVET students

2002-2005 81,500

Euros

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Iceland






Given the specific situation in Iceland (no policies in the area of IVET transnational

mobility, no direct involvement of governmental bodies) it is not surprising that, as

far as stakeholders are involved in IVET transnational mobility their involvement is

low.

Low involvement � National education council

� National qualification authorities

� National council of VET institutions





No involvement � National government

� Regional governments



� Trade unions


Iceland







Iceland has not indicated what the benefits for different groups of beneficiaries

might be. On the one hand, reliable data seem not to be available. On the other

hand, the fact that various beneficiaries/stakeholders are not involved -or only at a

low level- in IVET transnational mobility makes it hardly likely that they will be able

to experience potential benefits.


Iceland indicates that seven obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another ten


High relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET



organisations





friendships


procedures










Low relevance � Vet institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility






Results based on an estimation after having consulted those involved

Iceland








incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Iceland. The total number of

IVET participants in Iceland is about 7,800.


Only outgoing mobility is monitored for the Leonardo da Vinci programme by the

National Agency.

Outgoing mobility With regard to outgoing mobility, Iceland indicates that information about total

numbers is not available, with the exception of the numbers for the participation in

the Leonardo programme (see tables below).

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

55 22 64 70


Gender Male: 29

Female: 26

Sum: 55

Male: 7

Female:12

Sum: 22

Total: 64 Total: 70

Sector


6-12 weeks: 10

3-6 months: 18

> 6 months: 4


Countries to where mostparticipants of outgoingmobility went (the past fouryears)

In general Italy, Austria, UK and the Nordic countries have been most popular

during the last four years.

Iceland




There has been an increase in the number of IVET students participating in the LdV

programme.

Explanation: Personal interest and ambition of international officers within some of

the bigger vocational schools.


The Nordic countries are popular because of similar systems and culture. Italy is

popular amongst students of art and design.

Explanation: Personal interest and ambition of international officers within some of

the bigger vocational schools.

Iceland


Ireland

281

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Ireland



1 Initial Vocational Education and Trainingin Ireland

1.1 VET programmes

Compulsory education in Ireland lasts 10 years from the age of 6 until the age of

16. Compulsory education encompasses primary education and the junior cycle of

secondary education (or lower secondary education). After completion of the junior

cycle of secondary education with a ‘junior certificate’. Secondary education is to a

certain extent ‘comprehensive’ in the sense that the four types of educational

institutions offering secondary education (the voluntary secondary schools,

non-state funded), the vocational schools, the community schools and the

comprehensive schools) more or less offer the same curricula, though facilities for

practical of vocational training are often more common in the state-funded school

than in the voluntary secondary schools.

After completion of lower secondary schools, the following options are open for

participants:

� The transition year programme, which is a one year bridging programme

between lower and upper secondary education and which encourages

participants to further develop a broad range of competences and skills before

deciding upon a choice for a particular tow-year upper secondary programme;

� The leaving certificate programme, which is chosen by most of the participants;

� The leaving certificate vocational programme; and

� The leaving certificate applied programme.

Each upper secondary programme lasts two years. As said the Leaving Certificate

Programme is chosen by most students and can be considered as being upper

secondary general education. In principle it provides access to higher education.

The other two upper secondary vocational programmes are ‘newer’ and have a

predominantly pre-vocational character2 . Next to general subjects, both

programmes offer more vocational oriented subjects. Within the Leaving Certificate

Vocational Programme participants usually take five to seven subject of which at

on average two are vocational specific, whereas in the Leaving Certificate Applied

Programme, participants take a range of different vocational subjects along

general subjects, such as English, Irish, mathematics and another modern foreign

language. The differences between the two prevocational programmes is that the

Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme is generally accepted as a basis for

entering tertiary education3 . Those participants that have successfully completed

the Leaving Certificate Applied Programme can subsequently enrol in a variety of

Post-leaving certificate programmes (non-tertiary level) after which entry into

tertiary education can be obtained (depending on the course followed). The

Ireland


2 These two programmes are classified as being ISCED 3B programmes, preparing mainly for short courses in higher education or ISCED 4Bprogrammes (in between IVET at upper secondary level and tertiary non-university programmes).

3 For entering tertiary education in Ireland, different directions of study as well as different tertiary education institutions can set additional entryrequirements or even entry examinations on top of having obtained the Leaving (Vocational) Certificate.

majority of participants in upper secondary education (about 70%), enrols in the

Leaving Certificate Programme and only about 6% in the Leaving Certificate

Applied Programme.

Next to the programmes in upper secondary education, there are three other

programmes in IVET. The first one is the apprenticeship training. Reintroduced in

the 1970s, a new standards based system of apprenticeship was implemented in

1991, with the curricula for apprenticeships being compiled on the basis of uniform

pre-specified standards, agreed with the relevant industry. There are presently 26

trades designated under the standards-based system, divided over 6 branches

(construction, engineering, motor, furniture, printing and other, the latter with only a

few apprenticeships). Apprenticeships normally last 4 years and encompass four

on-the-job phases and three off-the-job phases (the latter lasting about 40 weeks

in total). During the off-the-job phases vocational and theoretical subjects are

taught, whereas during the on-the-job phases -after the first introductory period-

application and further development of acquired skills forms the focus. For

admission, apprentices must be at least 16 years old and have gained a pass in

the Junior certificate (or equivalent). Apprentices receive a (varying) percentage of

the full craft wage.

The second programme outside the formal education system concerns the

traineeships. In comparison with the apprenticeship scheme, this option is

relatively small (just over 2000 take ups in 2002 against well over 25,000

apprentices in 2002). Traineeships last from 6 to 24 months and are based on

employer consultation. Traineeships combine workplace training with formal

off-the-job training in a centre of the national Training and Employment body (FÁS

training centres). This dual system of occupational training leads to a recognised

qualification.

The third option for IVET outside the formal education system concerns of the

programme Youthreach. This programme was introduced in 1989 and set up for

young people aged 15 to 20 years old, who had left school early without

qualifications or vocational training. It is estimated that about 7% of the age group

belongs to this target group. The programme consists of two phases:

� A foundation phase aimed at helping to overcome learning difficulties,

developing self-confidence as well as developing competences that are

essential for further learning;

� A progression phase which provides more specific development through a

range of education, training and work experience options.

Duration of the programme is dependent on participants’ particular needs.

However, courses are full-time (that is on a 35 hours duration per week) and are

available on a year-round basis. In addition to these programmes, IVET is also

provided by sector specific training institutions such as agricultural colleges (under

the Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Teagasc), in hospitals (under the

authority of the Nursing Board, An Bord Altranais), training institutions for the hotel,

catering and tourism industry (under the authority of Failtre Ireland) and sea

fisheries colleges (under the authority of the Sea Fishery Board).

Ireland



The education system in general and also the IVET system in Ireland is rather

centralised. Most decisions about IVET and its funding are made by the central

government departments, with the Department of Education and Science and the

Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment being the two most important

ones. Upper secondary schools have little autonomy where curricular or

pedagogical matters are concerned. In most cases the Departments involved exert

their regulatory power through intermediary bodies. In the case of IVET under the

responsibility of the Department of Education and Science, these are at the

national level the National Council for Curriculum Assessment and on the regional

level so-called Vocational Education Committees (VECs), consisting of

representatives of the local authorities, parents of students aged under 18 and

teaching staff. There are presently 33 VECs (one for each county or county

borough). The VECs have the authority to identify and meet local needs for IVET,

however, within the boundaries of the budget provided to them by the national

exchequer.

For IVET falling under the responsibility of the Department of Enterprise, Trade and

Employment the main intermediary body is the Training and Employment Authority

(FÁS). FÁS has 20 training centres and also delivers training through

subcontracting to other training providers. FÁS is responsible for the regional

management of the Youthreach programmes, together with the VECs, for the

management of the apprenticeship training scheme, with the support of the

National Apprenticeship Advisory Committee and for managing and operating the

Traineeships scheme (in close cooperation with employers). Other intermediary

bodies are:

� Teagasc, for the Department of Agriculture and Food;

� The Nursing Board for the Department of Health and Children;

� Failte Ireland for the Department of Arts, Sports and Tourism;

� The Sea Fisheries Board for the Department of Communications, Marine and

Natural Resources.

Other bodies in governing IVET are the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland

(responsible for developing and implementing a national qualifications framework

encompassing all levels of qualifications and ensuring progress routes through

education and training, thus stimulating lifelong learning), which was established in

1999, and the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC), which was

established as an awarding council for IVET and CVET in 2001. FETAC is, among

other things, responsible for the certification obtained through Youthreach, the

apprenticeship scheme (national craft certificate) and through Traineeships.

Ireland


IVET is mainly state funded. In upper secondary education, schools either receive

funds directly from the Department of Education and Science or through the VECs

(in the case of vocational schools).

In the case of IVET that does not fall under the responsibility of the Department of

Education and Science, it are the intermediary bodies that receive the state grants,

with which they can either provide training themselves or which they can reallocate

to other training providers. In the case of the apprenticeship scheme, FÁS offers

enterprises a bursary in order to stimulate them to hire female apprentices.

Ireland



The intermediary bodies described in the previous section form the first group of

stakeholders in IVET. The role of the social partners is in particular strong in IVET

that does not form part of the responsibility of the Department of Education and

Science (it should be taken into account that the Leaving Certificate Vocational and

Leaving Certificate Applied are classified as being pre-vocational and not

vocational programmes). The social partners have seats on the board of FÁS as

well the various FÁS committees on the basis of equal representation for

employers and unions. The social partners are also represented on the Boards of

Teagasc and Failte Ireland.

With regard to the apprenticeship scheme, social partners play a role in curriculum

planning and development. On the one hand, social partners are represented on

the National Apprenticeship Advisory Committee, together with representatives of

FÁS and the Department of Education and Science. On the other hand, employers

and trade unions, as well as FÁS and the Department of Education and Science

nominate the experts that are responsible for compiling the curricula for the

apprenticeship programmes on the basis of the uniform standards. As said, the

training content and occupational standards or the Traineeship programmes are

based on employer consultation.

Ireland



4.1 Introduction































Ireland


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Ireland

Ireland has specific policies to stimulate or support mobility in initial vocational

education and training.


� The National Development Plan to underpin the development of a dynamic

competitive economy over the period 2000-2006.

� Promotion of education and employment training policies attuned to the needs

of the labour market, special focus on those most at risk of unemployment and

social inclusion. The reference to ‘international conditions’ and ‘Ireland’s

international competitiveness’ indicates a necessity for knowledge of and

exposure to international elements, and thus a requirement for mobility.

� Learning for Life: White Paper on Adult Education (July 2000) to ensure that

there is a fit and complementarity between education and training. One of the

core principles is Inter-culturalism, indicating an awareness of mobility and the

need for transnational models.

� Qualifications (Education and Training) Act 1999 with the object the recognition

of Knowledge, Skills and Competences, within the remit of Life Long Learning.

These inclusions acknowledge the importance of both incoming and outgoing

mobility for the Irish Education system.

� FÁS / The National Training and Employment Authority; The Irish Labour Market

Review (2005) In chapter 2: Labour Market Policy; the goal of addressing the

challenges and maximising the benefits of globalisation are identified.

� Building on our Vision FÁS Statement of Strategy 2006 – 2009, embracing

cultural diversity and ensuring that FÁS Programmes and Services meet the

requirements of the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) and the

Awards Councils (FETAC and HETAC)

Involvement of Ministries In Ireland two ministries are actively involved in policy making on transnational

mobility in initial vocational education and training: the Department of Education

and Science and the Department of Enterprise Trade and Employment.

Ireland


Programmes that support IVET transnational mobility

Name of

programme

Objective Target group Who funds Annual

budget

Leonardo da

Vinci

1: To improve the skills and

competences of people, especially

young people, in initial vocational

training at all levels, to facilitate

their integration and reintegration

into the labour market;

2: To improve the quality of, and

access to, continuing vocational

training and the lifelong acquisition

of skills and competences;

3: To promote and reinforce the

contribution of vocational training

to the process of innovation,

improve competitiveness and

entrepreneurship, and meet new

employment possibilities.

Vocational Education

and Training

Learners

Tutors and Trainers

European

Commission

Not

completed

Socrates II

Comenius

Comenius Action focuses on the

first phase of education (covering

nursery, primary and secondary

schooling including technical and

vocational education).

Comenius extends to all

in this education

community, teachers,

education staff and

pupils, while

endeavouring also to

involve organisations

outside the school such

as parents’

associations, NGOs,

local authorities, the

business sector and the

social partners.

European

Commission

Not

completed

Socrates II

Grundtvig

Grundtvig Action of Socrates seeks

to improve the quality and

European dimension of adult

education in the broadest sense,

and to make lifelong learning

opportunities more widely available

to Europe’s citizens.

It encompasses all

modes of learning,

whether this takes place

in the ‘formal’ or

‘non-formal’ system of

education for adults, or

in more ‘informal’ ways

such as autonomous

learning, community

learning or experiential

learning.

European

Commission

Not

completed

Ireland


Name of

programme


budget

Socrates II

Lingua

The Lingua Action of SOCRATES

provides support to language

teaching and learning through a

series of measures designed to:

Contribute to an improvement in

the quality of language teaching

and learning

Encourage and support linguistic

diversity throughout Europe

Promote access to lifelong learning

opportunities appropriate to

individual’s needs

Language Teachers and

Learners

European

Commission

Not

completed

Youth The YOUTH Action Programme of

the European Community offers

funding for a variety of

opportunities for young people

aged between 15 and 25 years who

are resident in 30 countries (15

Member States EU and other

countries).

Young people between

15 and 25 years

European

Commission

Not

completed

Youth –

Causeway

Youth British

Irish

Exchange

The Causeway programme has

been developed as a means of

helping to strengthen and improve

relationships between young British

and Irish people.

It has been designed to contribute

to the development of strategies

aimed at diminishing

misunderstandings that have

existed and which currently exist

between people of these islands.

Young people between

15 and 25 years

European

Commission

Not

completed

Ireland


Name of

programme


budget

Youth -

NcompasS

NcompasS is an initiative

promoting understanding, respect

and reconciliation between young

people in Northern Ireland and the

border region of Ireland. It supports

young people and those who work

with them. The aim is to develop

partnerships between people and

organisations from differing cultural

traditions in the formal and non

formal education sectors which will

contribute to peace and

reconciliation in Ireland and

Northern Ireland.

As above and those

who work with them

NcompasS is

being funded

for activities

2006-2008 by

the extension

to the EU

Peace II

Programme,

under

Measure 5.4

and is

monitored by

Community

Foundation

Northern

Ireland

Not

completed

East West

Schools

Programme

To strengthen school partnership

and to encourage and friendship

and understanding between young

people in Ireland and the UK. It is

open to primary, post-primary and

special schools with a focus on

disadvantaged areas. Priority is

given to projects promoting respect

and understanding of each others’

culture.

Open to primary,

post-primary and

special schools with a

focus on disadvantaged

areas.

Not

completed

IASTE The International Association for

the Exchange of Students for

Technical Experience (IAESTE) is a

non-political, independent and

non-governmental organisation

representing academics, industrial

and students interests.

Each participating country, of which

there currently over 85 worldwide,

is represented by a National

Committee, which is responsible for

the administration of the exchange

in that country.

IAESTE Ireland is managed by

Leargas The Exchange Bureau and

is supported by the Department of

Education and Science.

Students, Trainees and

Employers

Not

completed

Ireland


Name of

programme


budget

Export

Orientation

Programme

(EOP) – Irish

Business and

Employers

Confederation

(IBEC)

Graduate

Placement

Programme

The Export Orientation Programme

is Ireland’s longest-running and

most successful graduate

placement programme. The EOP

allows Irish exporting companies to

develop their international

marketing and export capacity and

provides recent graduates of all

disciplines with a valuable

introduction to international

business. The programme offers

graduates a unique opportunity to

develop practical skills and to gain

hands-on experience in a

fast-moving business environment.

EOP is the only Graduate

Placement Programme to offer

Postgraduate Accreditation at

Masters Level. For further

information please contact the EOP

office.

Third Level Graduates Sponsored by

Enterprise

Ireland

Not

completed

IBEC

European

Experience

Programme

(EEP)

The aim of the EEP programme is

to foster equality in educational

opportunity by providing suitable

unemployed and underemployed

candidates with foreign language

skills and life skills training in

Ireland and abroad. The 2006/7

EEP is currently under negotiation.

Non-graduates,

unemployed and

underemployed

candidates

Not

completed

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Ireland






High involvement Ireland indicates that the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Education and the

National qualification authorities of Ireland are highly involved in IVET mobility.

The Ministry of Labour is involved in policy making and the Ministry of Education is

involved in policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making and

financing.

Ireland


The National Qualifications Authority of Ireland are involved in

� policy making


� decision making

Medium involvement The National Education Awarding Body - Further Education and Training Awards

Council (FETAC) is involved in

� policy making


� decision making


No answer or unknowninvolvement is indicated for

The regional and municipal governments, for the National council of VET

institutions, for employer and branch organisations and for individual employers,

for trade unions, the Chamber of commerce, the VET institutions and Student

Associations

Results based on an estimation after having consulted those involved






High benefits Ireland indicates that VET institutions and IVET participants highly benefit from

mobility.

Benefits for the VET institutions sending participants on placements

1. Greater opportunities for beneficiaries to see work practices and best practice

in another EU State. This facilitates the observation, reflection and

implementation of good practice within the organisation on return.

2. Greater opportunities for the transfer of expertise between partner colleges.

This in turn allows the establishment networks of between European and Irish

partners/links.

3. Upskills staff in a very cost effective manner. Encourages innovation and

motivates those involved to examine differences and similarities of approach

and provision.

4. Raises the profile of language/culture study and research within the

organisation leading to an enhancement of educational opportunities. Affords

students greater recognition of what they do- offers a better package to would

be students if they know mobility is a possibility during training.

Ireland



1. Opportunity to experience life abroad, linguistic and cultural skills acquisition.

More open and flexible to different approaches. Personal Development.

2. Opportunity to experience professional work abroad. More knowledgeable

about their sector of training, better skilled. More open and flexible to different

approaches. Professional Development.

3. Increase long-term employability.

4. Observation, reflection and implementation of good practice

5. Increase in self-confidence, a journey of self-discovery.

Intermediate benefits It is stated that employers receiving participants in a placement of hiring

employees with transnational mobility experience have medium benefits.


1. Staff development; Raise staff and peer intercultural awareness. Exchange of

professional views. Support for staff development and opportunity to explore

further contacts. The student brings different approaches, skills and language,

which enriches the experience of co-workers.

2. Extra pair of hands in industry in busy periods. A motivated, interested

employee who is keen to contribute may assist in culture or ethos of office.

Unpaid assistance and the knowledge of a beneficiary, which may be

specialised and useful to the employer.

3. Networking education and industry links. Liaison between industry and

education and training organisations is mutually beneficial.

4. Enhanced HR / Recruitment Procedures; employers recruit from students they

had on placement- so companies have opportunity to try future employees and

then can hire persons suited to their companies.

5. Enhanced international / European contacts for the organisation. Reciprocal

programmes may be implemented.


1. Greater personal development-mental flexibility and openness of employee.

This will lead to an added dimension in customer service with an employee who

is more likely to communicate better with different cultures and show more

understanding of cultural diversity.

2. Employees’ mastery of professional language skills. Having worked through the

language of the host country on placement students are exposed to current

applied language skills.

3. Broadening of product base (especially in Catering Programmes).

4. Employees will have a more sophisticated appreciation of product and service,

gained from exposure to practises in other countries. Will have proven

commitment to best practices in the industry.

5. Greater independence and autonomous learner/worker who has shown proven

survival skills.

Ireland


Additional benefits mentioned Personal and Professional

Mobility equips young people (often at risk of social exclusion) with core life skills.

Also builds confidence and enhances skills development. Improves employment

prospects facilitating integration into labour market, improves language skills,

affording the participant an understanding of new cultures. In particular Comenius

students and Leonardo da Vinci trainees play an active role in the placement

process.

Institutional

Mobility encourages learners, brings a European dimension into Irish education

systems, dissolves boundaries and makes us more competitive. Mobility has made

a significant contribution to linguistic diversity of educational institutions and

impacts on curriculum content through new teaching methodologies and materials.

The organisations involved gain increased knowledge of European Educational

systems. Provides opportunity to enhance cooperation and expand networks with

industry beyond Ireland. Networks established through mobility make a proven

contribution to curriculum development and innovation. Comenius and Grundtvig

in-service training and Youth and Leonardo da Vinci job-shadowing lead to

renewed enthusiasm for the trainer, which in turn encourages learners.

Community

Mobility contributes to changing attitudes in young people by increasing tolerance

and understanding of other cultures. In particular Grundtvig, Youth and Leonardo

da Vinci placements focus on marginalised and disadvantaged groups.

At a National level

Mobility complements national initiatives in a number of way. Promotes greater

linguistic diversity and supports the Government’s modern language initiatives.

Mobility also leads to improved use of ICT, and contributes towards the

government’s policy of making lifelong learning accessible to all. Mobility

encourages the participation of immigrants and refugees in education, and

supports national Literacy initiatives as outlined in White Paper on Adult Education

(2000). In particular the Leonardo da Vinci Programme dovetails with areas of skills

shortages identified by the Government in existing and future areas of employment

ultimately leading to a more competitive economy. Mobility initiatives may also

lead people from other countries to work in Ireland. The IASTE Programme has

built international networks of students who may eventually seek employment in

host countries.

Mobility programmes provide Irish companies and Educational institutions with the

opportunity to share their expertise with other countries, and promote Ireland as a

centre for educational excellence. The programmes contribute towards policy

development in key areas including education and training, employment and social

welfare, along with the creation of new methodologies and tools. These initiatives

can lead to the development of new qualifications such as the certificate and

diploma courses in modern language teaching run by the Institutes of Technology

in Ireland.

Ireland


European

At a European level mobility creates extended networks of educators, trainers and

workers. This promotes the sharing of policy and good practice, which contributes

to the development of new methodologies. Overall mobility contributes to a

competitive European Knowledge-based economy.




relevance in Ireland. It is stated that four obstacles have high relevance in Ireland

and another five are of medium relevance.

High relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET









friendships




procedures



� organisations





No relevance � Lack of cooperation between ministries



mobility




Ireland


Other obstacles mentioned � A promoter has found that in certain countries employers fear unpaid student

placements such as in Milan where Trade Unions need assurances that jobs for

paid workers are not being endangered. Host partner has to complete

documents and give details of students to be received;

� Students on certain healthcare and childcare placements were required to have

Garda / Police Clearance prior to commencement of the placement (is the case

in more countries, e.g. Wales);

� Participants felt they were not adequately informed about procedures relating to

reporting prior to departure;

� Participants felt they were not adequately briefed about procedures relating to

work placements prior to departure;

� All participants who were in host countries requiring the use of a second

language felt that additional language tuition was necessary prior to departure

on placement. Emphasis should also be placed on teaching participants

vocationally specific applied language skills and vocabulary.

� A small number of students encountered difficulties with host employers which

would have been prevented had the employer been informed of procedures

specific to transnational placements;

� Reporting Processes are too detailed, with duplication of evidence required.

Also time frames for deadlines are often too short.

� Participants felt that too much reporting was expected during and

post-placement. Many thought that there was duplication in reporting also;

� All participants felt that additional language tuition was necessary prior to

departure. All cited a need for vocationally specific applied language skills and

vocabulary.


� FÁS suggests that a European pool of placements database could be

developed and maintained by the Commission. This would be accessed by

promoters seeking placements for participants;

� Few promoters have time for extended networks and numerous emails but re

inventing the wheel in mobility practices is commonplace. Promoters suggest

that resources and site links should be hosted by NA sites. The workshops and

support provided by Leargas (NA Ireland) are acknowledged by promoters;

� Emphasis should be placed on teaching participants vocationally specific

applied language skills and vocabulary;

� National Framework of Qualificaitons forms the reference point for Ireland;

Recognition of Prior Learning Process (Policy Document), enhances the

recognition of persons with informal skills;

� All stakeholders recognise the relevance of the NQF and refer to same. Where

possible FETAC and EUROPASS awarded to all students;

� Students and employers are constantly informed and encouraged about the

benefits of the transnational mobility experience;

� Constant contact between sending and host organisations especially in the

initial years;

� National Agency dissemination raises profile/Internal Dissemination raises

profile within college and region;

� A good partner link will provide quality placements;

Ireland


� Share the responsibilities with other staff in the organisation (dependent on

goodwill);

� Promoters refer to the paperwork as as by far the biggest obstacle. It is

overwhelming and off putting. It is felt that it is a great pity that funding is under

utilised because of inadequate paperwork when the core of programmes’

success lies with experience of beneficiaries;

� Before departure the project is a working holiday involving serious time

commitment and engagement. Post-project IVET participants realise the

enormous benefits of the experience. Former participants disseminate at

recruitment promotions;

� Support from tutors, lecturers and former participants is offered to participants

who have never travelled and who need to be supported and encouraged;

� Implement additional funding procedures in specific circumstances.

Other solutions proposed Fetac is working towards enabling mobility of holders of their awards through the

development of a clear and transparent awards system. Holders of FETAC awards

will automatically have the certificate supplement issued in two languages. Please

see www.nqai.ie and www.europass.ie .FETAC also cites the recognition and

achievement of awards and the access to awards, and the achievable goal

(module) at the end of the placement experience as motivational factors.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Ireland.

IVET participants in Ireland There is no IVET within the regular education system in Ireland, only pre-vocational

education. However, people can have their qualifications assessed and credited

through FETAC (the national qualification authority). Approximately 185,000 people

do so annually.




� FETAC through monitoring the numbers of candidates completing the

Transnational Experience module/s

� Leargas the Exchange Bureau for Annual Reports

� Specific Programmes / National Agencies for research purposes

� International Offices / Officers, Project Promoters

Ireland



Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Youth Mobility

Youth Exchange (1)

EVS

Youth Initiatives (3)

Support Measures

(5)

Socrates

Comenius 1

Teacher Exchange

Head Teacher Study

Visit

Teacher Placement

Industry

Project Meeting

Teachers

Project Meeting

Pupils

Student Exchange

Teachers

Student Exchange

Pupils

Comenius 2.2

Inservice Training

Language

Assistantship

Outgoing

Initial Teacher

Placement

Grundtvig 2 (Mobility

Activities)

Grundtvig 3

(Mobility) (Inservice)

806

79

114

282

26

29

2

330

70

25

177

128

1

5

1078

106

237

326

14

31

5

412

160

20

99

124

7

115

10

441

53

51

156

(Socrates) Total

Number of teachers

in mobility – 557

Total Number of

pupils in mobility –

240

117

17

705

339

96

84

(Socrates)

Total Number of

Teachers in mobility

– 603

Total number of

pupils in mobility -

254

Ireland


Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

IBEC – Irish

Business and

Employers

Confereration

European

Orientation

Programme -

(graduates)

IBEC have also

implemented a

non-graduate

programme – EEP,

this has not been

implemented in the

past 3 years.

Previous data are

not available.

85 (average) 85 (average) 85 (average)

Leargas – National

Agency own

mobility support

measures

Causeway

Ncompass

91

242

597

313

186

411

854

208

259

1705

Results based on statistical data of the different agencies

Countries to where mostparticipants of outgoingmobility went over the pastfour years

Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilitychoice of countries

Branches in whichtransnational mobility shouldbe stimulated

The mobility of all learners within Ireland and the wider European union is an

objective that all parties within the Irish education and training sector endorse.

One of the main functions of a framework of qualifications is to promote the

mobility of qualifications and ultimately the mobility of learners. Thus the NQAI

continues to be one of the most significant players with regard to mobility in

Ireland. The NFQ affords the opportunity for the recognition of a European or

international qualification in order to gain employment or a learning opportunity.

The NQAI does not differentiate between occupational sectors of fields of study,

and facilitates access transfer and progress across all fields of learning. In addition

systems are now being introduced at an Irish and international level to facilitate the

building of credits towards qualifications. The VET Qualifications system now being

Ireland


introduced by FETAC includes a credit system which promotes accessibility and

mobility, by enabling the building of credits for small pieces of learning into the

national system, thus determining the recognition of qualifications as a mobile

process.

FETAC continues to support this goal through the development of complementary

strategies. The awards system of FETAC where a learner can attain an award be it

minor, major, special purpose or supplemental is intended to assist the learner to

build his or her learning in a lifelong approach. Where that learning takes place is

not important, rather it is the recognition of the achievement of the standard for the

award that is imperative.

FETAC will continue to support the recognition of awards to ensure transparency

of awards, and thus facilitate mobility, across all 9 fields of learning. Approximately

185K learners were enrolled in a one-year period for FETAC awards. It is likely that

some of these learners will have come from abroad and some will travel abroad on

completion of their awards. The recognition of their learning is equally important to

the learners for further education and for employment purposes whether temporary

or permanent.

Promoters have recommended the stimulation of mobility in the more mature

group of students (returning to education). This is in keeping with the Life Long

Learning Programme. The Social Care, Childcare and Health Care sectors and the

Hotel and Catering Sector have been identified as key areas for the implementation

of mobility programmes. Expertise not yet available within Ireland would thus be

observed and ultimately practised here. One group of students who had

completed placements in La Rochelle noted a marked increase in their

employability upon return to Ireland. International Trade and Business Studies with

languages is another identified area as all Business is international and students

best benefit from experiential learning.

In general the area of languages is being somewhat neglected within education in

Ireland, due to a high influx of multilingual immigrants. Centres have argued that

the Irish learner should continue to be encouraged in his her study of languages,

and that transnational mobility should continue to be implemented for motivational

reasons.

Ireland


Italy

303

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Italy



1 Initial Vocational education and training inItaly

1.1 IVET Programmes

Secundary education in Italy recently underwent a major reform: the unification of

the general secondary education system (sistema dell’istruzione) and the

vocational education system (sistema della formazione professionale) into one

system with a more general channel (often including vocational choices) and a

strictly vocational channel. This was done to provide training and qualification

options that give a better change at the labour market. The process of change also

involved pooling and improving vocational training courses, strengthening

apprenticeships and improving of certification and transparency with the

involvement of the social partners. These measures have moved the Italian system

closer to the systems of other European Member States.

Compulsory eduction is until the age of 18 including 3 year of pre primary

education, 5 years of primary (scuola primaria, age 6-11), three years of lower

primary (general education, age11-14) and up to 5 years of upper secondary.

Upper secondary includes two channels:

� The Licei system (lycée, with State responsibility, leading to ISCED 3, roughly

75% of students in secondary), lasting five years, at the end of which students

take the State examination enabling for entrance at university or other higher

education. Lycées include classical lycées, scientific lycées, arts lycées,

language lycées, schools of applied arts, teacher training institutes, technical

schools and vocational schools. Courses comprise a two-year and a three-year

cycle. The curriculum includes subjects common to all the various

specialisations (Italian language, foreign language, mathematics, history,

sciences, etc.) and subjects specific to each specialisation.

� Vocational education and training (Responsibility with regional authorities,

roughly 25% of secondary students), lasting at least three years, and leading to

the award of a vocational qualification certificate (certificato di qualifica

professionale). Courses are given in agriculture, industry, crafts, services

sectors and others. The end qualification can be used to enter the labour market

or to enter post qualification courses leading to an upper secondary vocational

diploma (State diploma, ISCED 3). This diploma is required for entry into higher

technical education and training (istruzione e formazione tecnica superiore.

IFTS) or, after attending a supplementary year, for entry into universities.

Italy


It is possible to switch streams within licei and within vocational education and

training.

There is access to higher education after an additional year of study.

Apart from the regular programmes of upper secondary education there is an

apprenticeship programme, allowing pupils to learn on the job complemented by

courses outside the work place (minimum of 120 hours per year).

Under the new system (which gives an educational right to everyone) there are now

two types of apprenticeships:

� Apprenticeships for young people aged 15 to 18 that provide more broader

(vocational) education;

� Apprenticeships for young people aged 18 to 29 that have a more strictly

occupational goal.

Italy



The Italian State has 20 Regions, 103 Provinces and 8100 local authorities. The

state has legislative powers over most of the main issues, including general rules

on education and the setting of minimum service levels (Article 117 of the

Constitution).

Five Regions with special status and two autonomous provinces have more

autonomy over education and vocational training.

At national level school and university education are under the responsibility of the

Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (Ministero dell’Istruzione,

dell’università e

della ricerca, MIUR) which governs and steers public education, coordinates the

work of the Regional Education Offices and is responsible for inspection tasks, the

proper award of school and university qualifications and level and their

certification.

Regions have exclusive legislative powers over vocational education and training

(The Constitution, approved in 1948), but must abide by European and national

law. Together with the provinces they have responsibility for planning.

Provinces and local authorities provide school buildings and infrastructure, and

carry out tasks in the area of adult education and guidance, including the

management of employment services.

2.1 Policy developments

An important law is Law 144/99 on initial training, which introduced the obligation

to attend one of the three strands of the education system (l’obbligo formative)

(education, vocational training or apprenticeship) up to the age of 18.

The current government drew up the objectives and priorities for vocational

training in a White Paper on the Italian labour market (October 2001). The paper

describes vocational training as the main way of bringing about an increased

employment rate. Proposals to develop the training system include encouragement

for alternance training and continuing training to safeguard and improve human

resource qualifications.

Italy


These objectives were endorsed in the Patto per l’Italia (Pact for Italy) of July 2002,

an agreement between the government and the main employers and trade union

organisations (apart from the Confederazione generale italiana del lavoro, (CGIL,

General Confederation of Italian Labour).

In order to implement the government’s development strategies, two reform laws

have recently been approved which radically changed the education and

vocational training system:

� Law 53/03 bringing the two traditionally separate systems of higher secondary

education and vocational training in one system. The aim is to ensure that all

young people obtain a diploma or qualification before entering the labour

market;

� Law 30/03 on the labour market and employment covers the reform of

apprenticeship contracts.

2.2 Funding

In the case of vocational education, the Ministry of Education, Universities and

Research (MIUR) bears the costs of salaries and refresher training of the teaching

and management staff of vocational schools, the salaries of non-teaching staff and

the costs of adult education schemes. Provinces finance all the operating and

maintenance costs of schools (buildings, laboratories, etc.). In the future, powers in

this area will be transferred to the Regions.

To finance vocationally-oriented education streams the Ministry of Education,

Universities and Research (MIUR) obtains its funds under the general State budget.

The amount is set by the Ministry on the basis of the number of students and

classes planned and, therefore, on the overall need for teachers. A further amount

of funds is paid directly to schools, for the School Fund, which covers some costs

connected with school operation.

Italy



Framework Law 845/78 gave the social partners a major role to play in the

vocational training system, recognising them as partners of the Regions for the

planning of training and the potential providers of training schemes. In this they are

not just partners but also joint deciders. Many joint bodies, in particular bilateral

bodies are playing an important part in promoting training activities. The trilateral

agreements (1993, 1996 and 1998) stress the importance of concertation and

recognise this as a basic instrument for planning and formulating action strategies.

The white paper (2001) paved the way for new relations between the government

and the social partners, towards social dialogue.

3.1 European and international dimension

National education and training strategies, in line with the European Employment

Strategy, are set out in the National Action Plan (NAP) for employment and in the

subsequent Patto per l’Italia. The aim of the NAP for employment (2002) is to

increase the employment rate. Its action priorities include better general education

and occupational qualification of young people and adults to make it easier for

them to enter and stay in the labour market and reducing the current divide

between the north and south of Italy.

The impact of Europeanisation/internationalisation on education and training is

found in:

� Mobility and the measures taken to promote innovations (for instance

recognition of qualifications and occupations, Europass, Community

programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci, Socrates, Erasmus);

� Systems innovation through transfers of results and best practices in the areas

of methodology, models, training tools, teaching aids, etc.;

� The creation of transnational partnerships and networks for cooperation with

European partners and involvement of local, national and transnational actors

from the systems of education, vocational training and the working world.

Italy



4.1 Introduction































Italy


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Italy

In Italy various policies to support and stimulate IVET transnational mobility are in

place, though not all policies appear to be targeted towards transnational mobility

of IVET participants. Some of the policies seem to focus more on enhancing the

mobility of workers.

� National Information Plan “Education and Training 2010 (Istruzione e

Formazione 2010). The main aim of this policy is to develop the national network

(Ministry of Education and regional school offices) built for the national initiatives

“Europe of Education” (Europa dell’Istruzione) and “Educate for Europe”

(Educare all’Europa) and through this to stimulate the European citizenship

through education. Target groups of the policy are: Regional school offices,

schools of the national networks, local authorities and secondary schools

students. The policy is funded by the EU Commission and Ministry of Education

(General Directorate for International Affairs).

� “Europe of Education” (Europa dell’Istruzione) initiatives for the promotion and

the development of the European dimension of education. This policy that is

intended to create networks of schools to support and stimulate transnational

cooperation in the EU programmes, targets secondary schools. It is funded by

the Ministry of Education (General Directorate for International Affairs).

� ESF Community Support Framework objectives 1 and 3 and Equal (measure

2.2) National Operative Plan of the Ministry of Labour as well as the National

Action Plan for Employment 2004. These national programmes aim at

implementing and supporting transnational mobility through systematic actions

and focus on the regions and other public administrations. It is funded by the

Ministry of Labour and co-funded from ESF.

� How to help mobility in Europe via company placements. Core objective of this

policy was developing and promoting European company placements for

various user categories, such as young people, practitioners, and businesses.

Apart from young people and companies, the policy also targeted guidance

services. It was funded by the Ministry of Labour and concluded in 2003.

� Eures National Coordination. This concerns the coordination and support of the

Eures services, aimed at developing transnational professional mobility projects

and developing cross-border cooperation (Eurazur, Euralp, Transalp,

Transtirolia). Target groups are: job seekers, workers, local authorities, public

employment services and enterprises. The coordination is funded by the

Ministry of Labour and the EU.

� Youth policies and international mobility. Main aim of these policies is the

promotion and coordination of international youth exchanges and the

organisation, management and support of the National Youth Programme

Agency. The policy targets young people and youth organisations/associations

and is funded by the Ministry of Labour and the EU.

� PICO – Plan for Innovation, Growth and Employment 2005. This policy aims at

supporting a national committee for guidance in joint action with the Ministry of

Labour and has the regional networks for guidance, local authorities and training

agencies as its target group. Funding comes from the Ministry of Education and

the Ministry of Labour.

Italy


� National Committee for competences and mobility in the EU. The aim of the

National Committee is to analyse themes related to professional mobility and

define a programme of actions to coordinate and monitoring the mobility

actions and through that to inform the government (department for community

policies) and citizens.

� Local Youth policies (transnational mobility), funded by the municipalities,

attempt to stimulate the mobility of young people and students. Municipalities

are (because of the decentralisation of competencies) the main actors for Youth

Policies. They promote, finance or co-finance transnational projects (twinning,

Socrates, ESF).

Involvement of Ministries The following Ministries are involved in IVET transnational mobility in Italy: Ministry

of Education (coordinates Leonardo and Socrates), Ministry of Labour (coordinates

Leonardo da Vinci and Youth (until 2001 coordinated by the Department for Social

Affairs) and the new Ministry for Youth policies (since may 2006). The Ministries of

Education and of Labour also coordinate the guidance policies that -among

others- have to support transnational mobility. Both Ministries were initiator of

policy making in the area of transnational mobility (since 1995).

Specific programmes thatsupport IVET transnationalmobility in Italy

Italy has a substantial number of specific programmes that support transnational

mobility. However, some of the programmes do so only in a very indirect manner,

whereas others appear to be primarily intended for the mobility of workers instead

of IVET participants.


Leonardo da Vinci Community

vocational training

action programme.

Promoting a Europe

of knowledge is

central to the

implementation of

the programme,

which seeks to

consolidate a

European co-

operation area for

education and

training.

Enterprises, social

partners, schools,

universities, local

authorities, public

and private training

centres.

EU (in some

Regions there is

co-financing)

Mobility grants for

the period

2000-2006 65.5

million Euro;

(2006) 16.4 m.

(2005) 19.9 m.

(2004) 11.9 m.

(2003) 11.1 m.

(2002) 10.2 m.

Italy



Socrates –

Comenius 1

COMENIUS

focuses on the first

phase of education,

from pre-school and

primary to

secondary school.

COMENIUS

supports school

partnerships,

projects for the

training of school

education staff, and

school education

networks. It thus

aims to enhance the

quality of teaching,

strengthen its

European dimension

and promote

language learning

and mobility.

COMENIUS also

emphasises certain

important issues:

learning in a

multi-cultural

framework, which is

the cornerstone of

European

citizenship, support

for disadvantaged

groups, countering

under-achievement

at school and

preventing

exclusion.

All members of the

education

community in the

broad sense –

pupils, teachers,

other education

staff, but also local

authorities, parents’

associations,

non-government

organisations

EU (in some

Regions there is

co-financing)

Total budget for

IVET mobility

(2002) 7 m.

(2003) 7.4 m.

(2004) 6.1 m.

(2005) 5.3 m.

Italy



Youth – ‘Gioventù’ The YOUTH

programme is the

EU’s mobility and

non-formal

education

programme

targeting young

people. The YOUTH

programme offers

possibilities to

young people in the

form of both group

exchanges and

individual voluntary

work, as well as

support activities.

Young people aged

between 15 and 25

years

EU (in some

Regions there is a

co-financing)

Total budget for

youth mobility (non

formal- education

and EVS)

5.6 m.

4.9 m.

4.9 m.

4.8 m.

Eures cross-border

partnerships

(Eurazur, Euralp,

Transalp,

Transtirolia)

EURES

cross-border

partnerships serve

as valuable points of

contact among

employment

administrations,

both regional and

national, and the

social partners.

They are also an

important means of

monitoring these

cross-border

employment areas,

which are a key

element in the

development of a

genuine European

labour market.

Public employment

and vocational

training services,

employers and

trades union

organisations, local

authorities and other

institutions dealing

with employment

and vocational

training.

EU – Ministry of

Labour

Not available

Italy



Europass National

Centre

Europass brings

together into a

single framework

several existing

tools for the

transparency of

diplomas,

certificates and

competences.

Helping citizens to

better communicate

and present their

qualifications and

skills throughout

Europe, Europass

will promote both

occupational

mobility, between

countries as well as

across sectors, and

mobility for learning

purposes.

National Resource

Centre for

Guidance, Naric,

NRP, citizens

EU - Ministry of

Labour – Ministry of

Education – Isfol

Not available

National Reference

Point – ‘Punto

Nazionale di

Riferimento’

Provides information

both on Educational

and Vocational

Training Systems

and on the

certifications issued

in Italy

regarding vocational

qualification.

It belongs to a NRPs

Network promoted

by the European

Union and aimed at

implement the

transparency of

national

qualifications

systems, thus

facilitating a greater

mobility of citizens

across Europe.

Citizens,

Employer, VET

System and Social

Partners.

EU - Ministry of

Labour – Isfol

Not available

Italy



EU Twinnings –

‘Gemellaggi UE’

Ministry of Foreign

Affairs promotes EU

Twinning projects as

part of the following

programmes:

CARDS (since

2002), MEDA (since

2004) and TACIS

(since 2002).

The programmes

are usually

organised around

initiatives focused

on training,

monitoring,

assistance in the

preparation of

regulatory texts and

their application.

Local authorities EU Not available

National Information

Plan Education and

Training – ‘Istruzione

e Formazione 2010’

To develop the

national network

(Ministry of

Education and

regional school

offices) built for the

national initiatives

“Europe of

Education – Europa

dell’Istruzione” and

“Educate for Europe

– Educare

all’Europa”, to

stimulate the

European

citizenship through

education.

Regional school

offices – Uffici

scolastici regionali;

schools of the

national networks

“Educare

all’Europa” and

“Europa

dell’Istruzione”;

local authorities;

secondary schools

students.

EU – Ministry of

Education

Not available

Europe of Education

– ‘Europa

dell’Istruzione’

Initiatives for the

promotion and the

development of the

European dimension

of education

Creation of a

networks of schools

to support and

stimulate

transnational

cooperation in the

EU programmes.

Secondary schools Ministry of

Education

Not available

Italy



ESF Community

Support Framework

ob. 1 and 3 ; Equal

(measure 2.2);

Ministry of Labour

National Operative

Programme

To implement and

support

transnational

mobility through

system actions.

Regions and other

Public

administrations

EU (ESF) – Ministry

of Labour – Regions

Not available

National Resource

Centre for Guidance

Centro risorse

Nazionale per

lorientamento’

Supports and

fosters the mobility

for studying and

working within the

European Union,

and supports the

development of a

European viewpoint

for guidance in the

national context.

Develops of

information

resources on study,

training and

employment

opportunities at the

national and

transnational level

European network

‘Euro guidance’;

National

Dissemination

Network; service

providers in the

fields of guidance,

training and

employment, as well

as to teachers and

trainers; young

people.

European

Commission -

Ministry of Labour -

Ministry of

Education

Not available

Learnet II Information and

training to facilitate

the spread of

information about

the new European

Mobility strategies

related to European

programmes,

training and stage.

Guidance

Counsellors

specialized in

Transnational

mobility

EU – Ministry of

Labour – Ministry of

Education

Not available

Forum Euromobility National Forum on

the European labour

market and mobility

Experts, university

teachers and

institutional officials

acting in the field of

guidance,

education, training

and European

mobility of workers;

young people

National Resource

Centre for Guidance

- European

Commission -

Ministry of Labour -

Ministry of

Education

Not available

Italy



Eurodesk European

Information network

for young people

and youth workers

in European youth

programmes and

initiatives.

Young people,

youth services

EU Not available

‘Mobilità

transnazionale degli

studenti – Delibera

di Giunta Regionale

n.288/2005 e

1064/2005’

To finance projects

of transnational

mobility of

secondary school

students for training

periods in Europe.

Secondary schools

in Region

Emilia-Romagna

Regione

Emilia-Romagna

1 million

Initiatives for the

promotion of

european integration

and study periods

abroad

‘Iniziative per la

promozione

dell’integrazione

europea e Soggiorni

studio all’estero’

Financing training

period in Europe (a

school year in

Austria, Germany,

UK, France;

language courses

abroad; others

schools initiatives

for European

integration)

Secondary schools

and students in

Region

Trentino-Alto-Adige

Regione Trentino

Alto-Adige

not available

Co-operative

(bilateral)

programmes with

neighbouring

countries

‘Convenzioni

internazionali per la

sicurezza sociale’

International

conventions for

social security.

Italian citizens

resident abroad

Ministry of Foreign

Affairs

not available

Intercultura - Study

programmes abroad

‘Programmi di

studio allestero

Intercultura’

Promotion and

organisation also

trough scholarships

of study

programmes abroad

for secondary

school students.

Secondary school

students

AFS – International

ONG

not available

A school year

abroad with EF –

‘Anno di scuola

allestero con EF’

Promotion and

organisation also

trough scholarships

of study

programmes abroad

for secondary

school students

Secondary school

students

EF Education First not available

Italy


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Italy






High involvement Quite a number of stakeholders are highly involved in IVET transnational mobility

according to Italy. These stakeholders and their roles are:

� National government, Ministry of Education: policy making, activating and

stimulating, decision making, financing;

� National government, Ministry of Labour: policy making, activating and


� National government, Ministry of Foreign Affairs: policy making, activating and


� Regional government: policy making, activating and stimulating, financing;

� Municipal governments: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision

making, financing;

� VET institutions (Regional training centres, schools): approving and accrediting

placements, coaching of participants;

� Student associations (Associations are active at univerisity level);

� National Agencies Leonardo, Socrates, Youth National Agencies Leonardo,

Socrates, Youth: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and

accrediting placements and coaching of participants;

� Public Institutes of VET research (Isfol, Indire): activating and stimulating;

� National Europass Centre (NEC): activating and stimulating;

� National Centre for Guidance (Centro risorse nazionale per l’orientamento):

activating and stimulating;

� Information Centres for Youth (Eurodesk, Informagiovani): activating and

stimulating.

Low involvement Italy indicates that the following stakeholders have a low involvement in IVET


� Employer organisations (Confindustria and Confapi): activating and stimulating;

� Employers: public and private organisations and companies (North-Centre

Italian companies): activating and stimulating, financing and coaching of

participants;

� Branch organisations;

� Trade unions (Uil – quadric): activating and stimulating.

Italy







High benefits Italy indicates that it are in particular the VET institutions and the IVET participants

that benefit highly from transnational mobility.

Vet institutions sending participants on placements:

1. facilitate EU citizenship

2. transnational co operations

3. better languages knowledge for students

4. creation of a transnational network

5. new competencies for the students

IVET participants:

1. better knowledge of professional competences demanded (improve job

prospects)

2. improvement of languages knowledge

3. development of communication skills

4. development of basic knowledge

5. development of new competencies

With regard to the potential benefits of IVET transnational mobility for employers

receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement, employers hiring

employees with transnational mobility experience and branch organisations, there

are no reliable data available in Italy.

Italy



Italy indicates that eleven obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another nine


High relevance � Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security rights and taxes.


� Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with mobility.








� Period of volunteering not recognised as a credit in education.


procedures.






friendships.

� Length of Work placement is too long.

� The limit of age reduce participation.

� Problems in finding a lodging – isolation.

Low relevance � A general lack of interest among IVET participants.

No relevance � Lack of cooperation between ministries.


mobility.





Results mainly based on empirical research, evaluation and statistical reports

Italy



In Italy the following solutions have been found to overcome specific obstacles:

� The Leonardo Agency has put on its website all the documentation in order to

obtain the visa (for Romania and the Czech Republic)

� Eures network, National resource Centre for Guidance

� Europe of Education - Europa dell’Istruzione

� Creation of a networks by the Ministry of Education of schools to support and

stimulate transnational cooperation in the EU programmes

� Award of European cooperation by the Ministry of Education

� A New Ministry of Youth policies has been created since may 2006

� Europass National centre

� Introduction of a quality document of commitment

� Introduction of preparatory activities







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Italy. The total number of

IVET participants in Italy is approximately 1,5 million (according to the ISCED

classification this mainly concerns pre-vocational education).


Outgoing mobility is in Italy monitored for the EU programmes Leonardo da Vinci,

Socrates and Youth. Incoming mobility is only monitored for the EU programme

Youth. The collection of data is undertaken by the national agency for these

programmes.

Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total numbers in mobility 7792 8187 7499 8555

Leonardo (only work placement

abroad)

1867 2038 2144 2733

Youth (mobility for non-formal

education ”youth exchanges”

and EVS)

1180 1154 636 883

Socrates – Comenius I (IVET

mobility) 2005 is an ex-ante

evaluation

4745 4995 4719 4939

Results based on statistical data Leonardo da Vinci, Youth and Socrates

Italy



Leonardo (trainees

IVET and University)

2002 2003 2004

no data available

2005

no data available

Gender Male: 1515

Female: 2297

Sum: 3812

Male: 1551

Female: 2443

Sum: 3994

Sector Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics: 23%

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics: 23%

Health & Welfare:


6-12 weeks: 120

3-6 months: 2016

> 6 months: 25

< 6 weeks: 1816

6-12 weeks: 852

3-6 months: 1274

> 6 months: 52


Youth (mobility for

non-formal

education ”youth

exchanges” and

EVS)

2002 2003 2004

no data available

2005

no data available

Gender Male: 619

Female: 561

Sum: 1180

Male: 556

Female: 598

Sum: 1154

Male: 256

Female: 380

Sum: 636

Male: 375

Female: 508

Sum: 883

Sector no data available

Length of stay *

Results based on statistical data Youth

* Length of stay youth exchanges 6-21 days (age 15-25), EVS 6 -12 months (age

18-25)

Italy




Leonardo da Vinci Spain

United Kingdom

France

Ireland

Germany

1643

1563

1435

922

626

Socrates. Comenius 1 Germany

France

Spain

Poland

United Kingdom

277

239

227

126

111

Results based on statistical data Leonardo da Vinci and Socrates


Leonardo da Vinci programme:

The number of IVET students and the overall number of young people involved is

continuing to increase.

Youth programme:

Explanation: young people aged over 20 (in majority university students) find the

activities proposed not stimulating and they renounce because of difficulties in

finding a place to stay or because they were not so motivated in choosing EVS

only as a way to pay a flight ticket. Sometimes they felt isolated in rural

environment far from the cities or villages, or they were not well informed about the

work or the place to stay.


Leonardo da Vinci programme:

The choice is influenced by the language knowledge (English for UK and Ireland),

more options in big countries like Spain, France and Germany. Spain is the most

chosen country because of the language (close to Italian) facility even for non

foreign language speakers. In the previous Leonardo edition the UK was the first

country. The explanation for the change is found in an increasing number of

promoters from others countries like Ireland.

Italy


Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Youth 3597 2965 3306 2983

Based on statistical data Leonardo da Vinci

Youth (mobility for

non-formal

education ”youth

exchanges” and

EVS)

2002 2003 2004

no data available

2005

no data available

Gender Male: 1820

Female: 1777

Sum: 3597

Male: 1384

Female:1581

Sum: 2965

Male: 1536

Female:1770

Sum: 3306

Male: 1383

Female:1600

Sum: 2983

Results based on statistical data Youth

* Length of stay youth exchanges 6-21 days (age 15-25), EVS 6 -12 months (age

18-25)

Italy


Latvia

327

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Latvia



1 Initial vocational education and training inLatvia

Latvia has experienced high growth rates in recent years and has become one of

the fastest growing economies in Europe. In the meantime the country still has a

low GDP, the third lowest per capita in the EU.

Since the 1990s the VET system in Latvia has had to adapt to a market economy

and at the same time to cope with the heritage of a poor image and quality of IVET.

In recent years the demand for education in Latvia has been more directed

towards general and higher education.

Although Latvian was declared the state language in 1999, 20% of VET schools

teach in the Russian language and many Latvians speak Russian.

1.1 IVET programme

Compulsory education starts at age 7 and lasts 9 years, encompassing both

primary and lower secondary education, which is provided through the

comprehensive basic education system.

At the end of basic education children take the basic school leaving exam, after

which they can continue their studies graduating pupils have a choice of the

following programmes:

� 3 years of general upper secondary education, which is concluded with the

maturity examination and which gives access to tertiary education;

� 4 years of vocational secondary education, which is concluded with both the

final examination (giving access to tertiary education) and leading to vocational

qualification examination (diploma vocational secondary school);

� 3 years of vocational education and training, which leads to a vocational

qualification. Participants who wish so, can also enrol in a 1 to 2 year

programme that prepares them for the final examination2 .

Both the vocational education and training programmes and the vocational

secondary education programmes lead to a level 3 vocational qualification

(consistent with the European classification of levels). The difference between the

programmes lies primarily in the possibilities to continue studies in tertiary

education and in the time spent on practical training and on general subjects. In

the vocational education and training programmes time between theoretical and

practical training is on a 35:65 basis and between general and vocational subjects

on a 60:40 basis. In the vocational secondary programmes this is respectively

50:50 (theory and practice) and 60:40 (general and vocational subjects).

Latvia


2 The information on the duration of vocational secondary education and vocational education and training is not always consistent. A graphicalpresentation of the education system in Latvia indicates the vocational secondary education programmes take 4 years and the vocationaleducation and training programmes take 3 years. However, the Latvian ReferNet report (2004) indicates that vocational secondary education lasts 3to 4 years, whereas vocational education and training takes 2 to 3 years,

In 2003 43% of all upper secondary students were enrolled in an IVET programme

(of which about 68% were enrolled in a vocational secondary programme, 31% in

a vocational education and training programmes and just about 3% in a basic

vocational programme; the remainder was taking programmes that lead to a level 4

vocational qualification).

IVET is provided by state vocational educational institutions, local government

vocational education institutions and by private vocational educational institutions.

The latter two types of IVET institutions are a far minority (though slightly

increasing). In 2004/2005 nearly 84% of the IVET institutions were state vocational

educational institutions, whereas only 6% were municipality run IVET institutions

and another 10% private institutions. The total number of IVET institutions is slowly

declining (from 121 in 1999/2000 to 111 in 2004/2005).

VET programme curricula are developed by education establishments (based on

guidelines developed by the Vocational Education Centre and based on 2 different

standards):

� National vocational education standards are developed by the Ministry of

Education and Science and adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers. Standards

determine strategic objectives of education programmes, compulsory contents

of education, basic principles and the assessment procedure in accordance

with the level of education. The standards determine the relation of theory to

practice, the general subjects versus professional ones and the distribution of

general subjects.

� Occupational standards determine basic requirements of vocational

qualifications, as well as specific demands for performing the tasks in a given

profession. The standards are developed based on a common agreement

among employers, trade unions and national and local government as well as

institutions involved in vocational education and employment.

In addition, there is an apprenticeship system in Latvia, but on a small scale in the

crafts sector. The apprenticeship is mainly regulated by the Latvian Chamber of

Crafts, who issues the qualifications and also offers the theoretical training for

apprentices (studying for a journeyman’s certificates or for a master’s certificate).

Presently about 80 young people enrol in apprenticeship training each year. In

2002, the Chamber of Crafts issued 243 journeyman’s certificate (about 2% of all

students enrolled in an IVET programme). Interest in the apprenticeship training is

declining. In 1996, for instance, the Chamber of Commerce issued nearly 700

journeyman’s certificates.

Latvia



As indicated in the previous section, most IVET institutions in Latvia are state

vocational education institutions. Responsibilities with regard to IVET are divided

over the following bodies and organisations:

� The Cabinet of Ministers is responsible for the political and strategic issues with

regard to IVET and decides on funding of IVET institutions according to criteria

set out by the Ministry of Education. The Cabinet of Ministers also sets the

framework for issuing state-recognised qualifications.

� The Ministry of Education develops the framework regulations for IVET and

accredits providers. It is responsible for developing the national vocational

education standards as well as for having the register of occupational standards

updated. Heads of IVET institutions are employed and supervised by the

Ministry.

� The department of vocational and continuing education, which is part of the

Ministry of Education. The department develops state policy and strategy in

VET. It guides, plans and coordinates VET development and supervises VET

providers. The department collaborates with employer institutions and trade

unions and provides technical support for the work of the National Tripartite

Sub-council for co-operation in VET and employment (see next section).

� The vocational education centre. This centre also falls under the Ministry of

Education and Science and it organises the accreditation of VET providers and

programmes. It participates in the development of occupational standards as

well as the content and methodology for exams. It oversees the functioning of

learning and examination centres and organises the professional development

of VET teachers.

Financing of IVET is according to numbers of students and classes. It is also based

on the profile the student takes: the lowest expenditure applies to communication

sciences, library and information sciences, business, public and institutional

management, legal sciences, printing and naval shipping services. The highest

expenditure per students applies to dentistry, art, music and choreography. VET

schools are financed mainly from the national budget (85% of the total budget

available for IVET). School maintenance and teachers’ salary costs account for

97% of the budget. The education system has a relatively low student by teacher

ratio in vocational and general education. The infrastructure of VET schools is a

major problem; many workshops and buildings are below standards and materials

for practical training are outdated and insufficient.

15% of funds are raised by the schools themselves; selling products and services

and training adults.

Latvia


3 Stakeholders

In 2000 both:

� the National Tripartite Council for Cooperation in VET, formed by

representatives from several ministries (one representative from the Ministries of

Education and Science, Economy, Culture, Agriculture), by representatives from

Latvian Association of Local and Regional Governments, the Employers’

Confederation of Latvia, the Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the

Free Trade Union Confederation of Latvia, as well as one representative from

each VET institution under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and

Science, and

� the National Tripartite Sub-council for Cooperation in VET and Employment,

which is a sub-council of the National Tripartite Council with the specific

responsibility of ensuring coordinated actions in education and training at state

level. The difference with the National Tripartite Council is that representatives

of IVET institutions are not included in this sub-council. Among other things, the

sub-council has since 2000 developed a procedure for practical training places,

developed regulations for centralised vocational qualification examinations and

their commissions as well as regulations for examinations in programmes for

unemployed people (with employers being included on the examination boards)

and helped developing occupational standards.

At the regional level, the National Tripartite Council tries to stimulate co-operation

between the different stakeholders (which it does at sectoral level as well) and the

sub-council is establishing regional sub-councils. By the end of 2005 these

regional sub-councils were operative in 4 (out of 26) counties. The main tasks of

these regional sub-councils will be to promote cooperation in VET development

and to improve accessibility, quality of VET, employment development and

international cooperation. Regional sub-councils will be involved in coordinating

activities of the regional examination centres, activities regarding practical

placement, information exchange and accreditation of education establishments

and programmes. They will also be involved in the coordination of continuing

training.

Latvia like other Eastern European countries does not have a long tradition of

social dialogue. The Free Trade Union Federation (LBAS) and Latvian Employers

Confederation (LDDK) were established after the renewal of independence.

Latvia


Social dialogue in vocational education at the branch level is at its initial stage.

The Social partners’ functions are:

� To nominate their representatives to the National Educational Council;

� To consult working groups for the preparation of new standards;

� To participate in financing and preparation of new curricula;

� To provide in-company training;

� To support teachers qualification;

� To inform about new technologies;

� Together with the support institutions develop final qualification descriptions

and tests.

Latvia



4.1 Introduction































Latvia


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Latvia


There is no specific national or regional policy to stimulate IVET transnational

mobility. (Furthermore education development strategy is not focused on

transnational mobility).

Involvement of Ministries In Latvia the Ministry of Education and Science is the responsible ministry for IVET

and involved in the supervision and implementation of the Leonardo da Vinci

programme.

One specific programmes supports IVET transnational mobility in Latvia

Name of

programme


budget

Leonardo da

Vinci

To improve the skills and

competencies of people, especially

young people, in IVET at all levels.

This objective may be achieved

inter alia through work-linked

training and apprenticeship with a

view to facilitating integration and

reintegration;

to improve the quality of, and

access to, continuing vocational

training and the lifelong acquisition

of skills and competencies, with a

view to increasing and developing

adaptability, particular in order to

consolidate technological and

organizational change;

People undergoing

initial vocational training

University students

Young workers and

recent graduates

Human resources

managers, vocational

training programme

planners and managers,

trainers and

occupational guidance

specialists

Trainers and mentors in

the area of language

competencies.

European

Commission

Co-financing

of

participating

institution

From 600,000

EUR in 2000

to 1,000,000

EUR in 2005

to promote and reinforce the

contribution of vocational training

to the process of innovation, with a

view to improving competitiveness

and entrepreneurship, also in view

of new employment opportunities;

special attention will be paid in this

respect to fostering co-operation

between vocational training

institutions, including universities,

and undertakings, particular SMEs.

Latvia


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Latvia






High involvement Latvia indicates that the European Union (DG EAC) and the VET institutions are

highly involved in IVET mobility.

The European Union is involved in

� policy making


� decision making

� financing

The VET institutions are involved in


� financing


Medium involvement Quite a number of Latvian institutions have a medium involvement in IVET mobility.

The National government (Ministry of Education and Science), the Latvian

Employers Confederation, the Trade unions (Latvian Free Trade Union) and the

Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Trade are involved in

� policy making


� decision making


Employers: public and private organisations and companies (different state

institutions, SMEs, different companies) are involved in


� financing

The NGOs are involved in


� financing


Latvia


Low involvement Municipal governments (Latvian association of local and regional governments) are

involved in


� decision making

The National council of VET institutions (Association of VET institutions, VET

directors board ), the Branch organisations (Professional associations) and Student

associations (Students association, agriculture students association) are involved

in



No involvement It is indicated that the National Qualification authorities have no involvement in

IVET mobility.








High benefits Latvia indicates that VET institutions and IVET participants highly benefit from

mobility.

Benefits for VET institutions sending participants on placements

1. Professional skills of IVET students

2. Professional skills of IVET teachers

3. Personal development of participants

4. Widening of international cooperation


1. New professional skills


3. Language skills

4. Social skills

5. Intercultural skills

Intermediate benefits Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience

1. Diverse professional skills

2. Employees with language competence

3. Employees with social skills

Latvia


Low benefits Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement,

1. New working experience

2. International cooperation experience

Branch organisations,

1. International project experience




relevance in Latvia.






� organisations









procedures











friendships

No relevance � Mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET


mobility



Latvia



In Latvia mobility actors applied the following solutions to overcome obstacles:

� To solve problems of legal nature students (non-citizens of Latvia) are applying

for visa

� E11 form of social insurance solves problems with international coverage of

insurances

� To tackle the lack of information about finding work placements, financing and

handling of procedures more information is provided during seminars and

consultation process

� Europass offers a solution for recognition of qualifications obtained in another

country

� The National Leonardo Committee tackles the lack of interest and stimulation of

transnational mobility by social partners

� Seminars, consultation, dissemination of good practices contribute to raising

capacity and awareness among VET institutions and for increasing quality of

placements

� Simplification of procedures should diminish bureaucracy

� Latvia is disseminating good practices towards institutions and VET students to

inform and support them in mobility projects also regarding language

preparations

� Partly co-financing is increased in Latvia to overcome financial obstacles

Solutions proposed by Latvia: There is a imited number of foreign languages taught in the country (max 2). This

should be improved.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Norway

IVET participants in Latvia The total numbers of IVET participants in Latvia is 44,651 (2004/2005).




The organisations gathering statistical data on mobility in Latvia is the Leonardo da

Vinci National Agency.

Latvia


Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci

Mobility placement projects for

IVET students

156 137 212 257


Information on gender, sectors and length of stay

Leonardo da Vinci

Mobility placement

projects for IVET

students

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 87

Female: 69

Sum: 156

Male: 69

Female: 63

Sum: 137

Male: 124

Female: 88

Sum: 212

Male: 164

Female: 93

Sum: 257


Technique: 9

Economics: -

Health & Welfare: -

Agriculture: 10

Technique: -

Economics: -

Health & Welfare: 6

Agriculture: 24

Technique: 4

Economics: -

Health & Welfare: 8

Agriculture: 48

Technique: 11

Economics: 2

Health & Welfare: 6


6-12 weeks: 58

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 42

6-12 weeks: 47

3-6 months: 31

> 6 months: 12

< 6 weeks: 181

6-12 weeks: 24

3-6 months: 7

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 189

6-12 weeks: 44

3-6 months: 24

> 6 months: 0





Finland

The Netherlands

Sweden

United Kingdom

135

64

21

14

14


Latvia



The number of students and the number of the promoting organisations rise each

year.

Explanation: Each year the number of requests is much higher than the Leonardo

programme can approve. The promoter organisations are become increasingly

active in international cooperation.


The promoters are advised to choose the economical way of travel and living

costs. Scandinavian countries are also attractive due to the activity of these

countries at the beginning of the independence years in The Baltics.

Today the tendency is that the promoters try to come to know new promoters,

mainly from new countries and neighbouring countries (as Bulgaria, Turkey and

Estonia).

Incoming mobility Incoming mobility is not monitored in Latvia.

Latvia


Liechtenstein

343

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Liechtenstein



1 Initial vocational education and training inLiechtenstein

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Liechtenstein lasts for seven years from the age of 7 until

the age of 16. Compulsory education is divided into primary education and the

lower part of secondary education in the ‘Oberschule’, ‘Realschule’ or

‘Gymnasium’. Pupils typically receive 5 years of primary education, after which

they transfer to lower secondary education (at the ages of 11). Lower secondary

education is ‘streamed’; in which particular type of school pupils enrol determines

their options after lower secondary education. The ‘Oberschule’ is perceived as

being lower secondary school, the ‘Realschule’ as being intermediate secondary

school (both last four years from age 11 to age 152 ) and ‘Gymnasium’ as higher

secondary school (with the lower level lasting from age 11 to age 14). Both the

‘Oberschule’ and the ‘Realschule’ prepare for upper secondary vocational

education, though the ‘Oberschule’ mainly provides the opportunity to continue

education and training in the less demanding apprenticeships or for a transfer to

the ‘Realschule’. The ‘Realschule’ prepares participants for the more demanding

apprenticeship or for a transfer either into the ‘Gymnasium’ or the ‘Berufsmittlere

Schule’ (mainly Switzerland, canton of St. Gallen or the ‘Liechtenstein

Berufsmittlere Schule’) where participants can obtain their ‘Berufsmaturitat’.

Upper secondary vocational education and training encompasses the following

options:

� Apprenticeship training encompassing training within an enterprise and

subject-specific as well as general education at vocational schools (the

school-based part of the apprenticeship training takes place in Switzerland);

� Colleges of full-time vocational schools (in Switzerland) that can be followed

after apprenticeship training to obtain more specialised vocational skills (e.g. in

areas as: agriculture, forestry, medical, teaching and design professions);

� Berufsmittelschule Liechtenstein for obtaining the Berufsmaturitat;

� ‘Anlehre’, an introduction into professional activities for those that cannot

(directly) take up a regular apprenticeship.

Liechtenstein


2 Both types of school offer the option of a voluntary 10th year, either for those participants that want to broaden and/or deepen their general skills orthose that do not yet have a clear idea which direction they might want to continue in.

The apprenticeship training is by far the most important part of IVET. At the

moment (school year 2004/2005) about 1100 participants were enrolled in the

apprenticeship scheme, whereas 132 participants were enrolled in the

Berufsmittelschule Liechtenstein.

There are two basic forms of apprenticeship training:

� The dual pathway consisting of training and education in apprenticeship firms

and in vocational school;

� The three-track pathway, which combines training within an enterprise and at a

vocational school, with supplementary ‘introductory courses’ that impart

fundamental practical skills.

Liechtenstein



Responsibility for IVET is mainly located at national level, e.g. the Ministry of

Education. For IVET there are two other bodies: the Office of Vocational Training

and the Vocational Guidance Centre. Both are governmental bodies. The tasks of

the Office of Vocational Training are -apart from implementing legislation in this

area- among others: providing teachings posts and supervising vocational schools

and enterprises offering on the job training. Tasks of the Vocational Guidance

Centre are: providing information on vocational and career choices and

cooperation with parent and the business community on questions of vocational

preparation.

Liechtenstein


3 Stakeholder involvement in IVET

An important body in IVET in Liechtenstein is the so-called Vocational Training

Council, which is constituted of representatives of the Chambers of Trade

(representing the SMEs), the Chambers of Commerce, the trade unions and the

employers’ organisations. The Council’s main tasks are, the recognition of

applications for new vocational courses or schools, the implementation of course

programmes, setting VET rules and conducting pilot programmes in IVET, e.g. on

the basis of evaluations of the current situation and the analysis of specific

problems. The Council has seven members.

Apart from this involvement, and of course the involvement of enterprises in the

delivery of training, some stakeholders develop their own specific initiatives. The

Chamber of Trade has initiated a working group that deals with the question of

how to improve the attractiveness of apprenticeships in the trade area, whereas

the Chamber of Commerce initiated a similar working group dealing with the

attractiveness of apprenticeship training in the different industrial companies in

Liechtenstein. The Association of Liechtenstein Banks has also taken initiatives to

make apprenticeship training more attractive.

Liechtenstein



4.1 Introduction































Liechtenstein


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Liechtenstein


� Liechtenstein presents one national policy that stimulates mobility in IVET:

� Berufsbildungsgesetz Revision of the existing “Berufsbildungsgesetz” (Law of

vocational education).

Involvement of Ministries In Liechtenstein the Ministry of Education and the Amt für Berufsbildung (VET

Office) are responsible for the policy making with regard to IVET transnational

mobility.

One specific programme supports IVET transnational mobility in Liechtenstein


Leonardo da Vinci Mobility VET Institutions Amt für

Berufsbildung

(VET Office)

Not completed

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Liechtenstein






High involvement Liechtenstein indicates that the National qualification authorities (ABB Amt für

Berufsbildung) are highly involved in IVET transnational mobility: activating and

stimulating, approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

Medium involvement The Ministry of Education has a medium involvement in IVET transnational mobility.

They fulfil the following roles: policy making, decision making and financing.

Low involvement The Branch Organisations (GWK Gewerbe und Wirtschaftskammer recommend the

Mobility programs) have a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility.

No involvement It is stated that the Employer organisations (LIHK Liechtensteinische Industrie und

Handelskammer are not involved. They are running an own project – without EU

support.

No answer/no information is available on the involvement of the European Union,

Regional governments, Municipal governments and the National education council

Results based on estimation after having consulted those involved

Liechtenstein







Liechtenstein indicates that the following institutions and individuals benefit from

participation in transnational mobility. No distinctions has been made between the

degree of benefit.


1. Enrichment of training program

2. Teambuilding

3. Good contact to the institute in GB, and new in Malta

4. Influence on Image

5. Qualification, EUROPASS


1. First contact with an Institute in Belgium

2. Interested in participating in future projects

3. Ideas on how to organise an project

IVET participants

1. New Language

2. Teambuilding

Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience and Branch

Organisations in Liechtenstein benefit from mobility as well, but no further

description of these benefits has been given.

Results based on empirical research, evaluation or statistical reports

Liechtenstein



Liechtenstein indicates that three obstacles have a high relevance, whereas

another eight obstacles are considered to have an intermediate relevance.

Fourteen obstacles have a low or no relevance.






organisations







friendships


procedures













mobility




It is stated that handling of information is sometimes a bit difficult in Liechtenstein.

Partners are often not so interested in young people, i.e. for 4 students there was

only one workstation. There are no existing networks for exchanging knowledge

and experiences with mobility.

Mobility is a priority but not easy because Liechtenstein doesn’t have Vocational

Training Schools. They are located in Switzerland. Also the Suisse Federal

authority is in charge of the regulations.

Liechtenstein


In Liechtenstein the following solutions have been applied in order to try to

overcome the specific obstacles experienced:

� Good cooperation between ministries. As Liechtenstein is a small country there

is a very good contact between all responsible institutions.

� EUROPASS finds a good acceptance in Liechtenstein.

� The participants in the Leonardo da Vinci programme (Inform college and LAK)

see the strategic possibilities and will go on with their projects on mobility.

� There is strong and personal help from the ‘Amt für Berufsbildung’ und the

‘National Agentur LdV’ for all interested organisations.

Liechtenstein indicates further that there should be more information on benefits.

As main problem Liechtenstein stresses the point that a placement abroad does

not fit in the home school curriculum.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Liechtenstein.

IVET participants inLiechtenstein

Approximately 1000 apprentices.


Outgoing mobility in Liechtenstein is monitored, incoming mobility is not

monitored.


� Ministry of education

� Amt für Berufsbildung

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

11 18

Liechtenstein



Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci:

� Holzkreislauf

� Inform-ICT

� Suomy Worldskills

� Cartex

8

3

6

12

Male: x

Female:-

Male: x

Female: x

All students in

Agriculture

Students in

Technique and

Health & Welfare

Total Leonardo da Vinci 11 18

Cooperative programmes with

neighbouring countries:

With Switzerland: Tessino

With Germany: X-Change

No specific

numbers given

LIHK: AGIL (Arbeitsgruppe

IndustrieLehre

No specific

numbers given

Results based on statistics National Agentur Leonardo da Vinci


Country

Belgium

England

Norway

Liechtenstein


Lithuania

355

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Lithuania



1 Initial vocational education and training inLithuania

Lithuania allocates a relatively high percentage of public expenditure on education

(25% of total public expenditure in 2004, or 5.8% of GDP). The amount has

increased substantially since 1995.

The educational level of the Lithuanian population is high, 44.3% of the 25-64 year

olds have attained higher or college education and over 80% of this age group has

at least secondary education. However, a negative tendency can be observed with

regard to the educational attainment of young adults. The unemployment rate in

Lithuania is high, especially so among young people (30% 15-24 years, 2001).

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education starts at age 7 and lasts 10 years, encompassing 4 years of

primary education followed by 6 years of general basic school, which is concluded

with the school-leaving certificate. The basic school is in principle comprehensive,

but the last 2-3 years of basic school education can be followed in basic

vocational education (called stage 1), which leads to a level 1 vocational

qualification after 2 years. Pupils who also want to obtain the school-leaving

certificate take 3 years. These programmes are provided in vocational schools.

Each year about 1% of all pupils in basic school education take this option.

After basic school there is a choice of continuing in general upper secondary or

vocational upper secondary education:

� 2 years of general upper secondary education, provided in gymnasia or upper

secondary schools, which is concluded with the maturity examination and gives

access to tertiary education;

� 3 years of vocational upper secondary education (called 3rd stage), which also

lead to a maturity certificate (entry to higher education) together with a qualified

worker’s diploma

� 2 years of vocational upper secondary education (called 2nd stage), which leads

to a qualified worker’s diploma.

The main difference between general and vocational upper secondary education is

that IVET programmes are oriented towards the development of skills and

competencies while in the general education curriculum priority is given to the

acquisition of knowledge. Another important difference is the existence of practical

training: in the case of IVET programmes, practical training should comprise 60-70

% of the total curricular time. Vocational education and training is not popular in

Lithuania. In 2002, only 28% of all students enrolled in upper secondary education

attended an IVET programme.

Lithuania


The difference between the level 2 and level 3 IVET programmes is that in addition

to vocational subjects and general cultural subjects, the level 3 programmes

include general education subjects. In both programmes broad occupational skills

are emphasised and specialisation subjects (if so foreseen) make up 10-15% of

the total time allocated for professional subjects. In the level 2 IVET programmes,

vocational subjects make up 88 % of total curricular time, and general cultural

subjects 12 % (aesthetics, religion or ethics, Lithuanian language, language culture

and physical culture). In the level 3 IVET programmes, vocational subjects make up

62 % of total curricular time, and general education subjects 38 %.

IVET in upper secondary is school based; most of the time allocated for training is

spent in school. However in the last year of study 15 weeks should be spent in an

enterprise or in a practical training base of the school where working conditions

should be similar to the working situation.

The competence of students (both level 2 and level 3 programmes) is assessed

during a final qualification exam, organised according to procedure set by the

Ministry of Education and Science and consisting of a theoretical and a practical

part (tests and observations). Responsibility for final qualification examination has

recently been moved to the Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts and

Chambers of Agriculture. Their responsibilities are: approving of composition of the

qualification exams commission, preparation and approving of tasks and tests for

theoretical and practical exam and storing of a copy of protocol of the exam. The

qualification exam commission is formed by 3 members: 1 employer, 1 employee

and 1 VET provider. In case of general education subjects in the level 3

programmes, students together with other students in general education, take the

(national or school) maturity exams.

Vocational schools provide both vocational and general education. In some

regions vocational schools have been merged together to create regional

vocational training centres (there were 7 in 2003/2004). Since 2003, a number of

vocational schools have been granted self-governing status which gives them

budgetary autonomy. It also allows them to have a variety of stakeholders in their

management (enterprises, regional and municipal government representatives,

etc.). This change has helped improve the relationship with employers and has

strengthened their reputation. Vocational schools have also taken over the role of

professional colleges in providing post-secondary VET (enrolment in colleges

stopped in 2003). The total number of vocational schools in 2004/2005 was 73,

whereas in 1995/1996 there were still 106 vocational schools.

Since 2000 technological gymnasiums (21) have been established to provide level

3 IVET programmes at vocational schools. They provide upper secondary

education and pre-vocational education. Graduates are awarded a maturity

certificate. Further they can choose either to stay in vocational school and continue

education and training according to IVET programmes provided by the school or to

enter higher education. Technological gymnasiums firstly, make VET more open to

general education and vice versa, and secondly, promote participation in IVET.

Lithuania


Since 1990, curriculum development has been delegated to VET providers. They

compose a curriculum development group (CDG) which develops IVET

programmes on the basis of general requirements that are established by the

Ministry of Education and Science. Standardised parts of the programme (areas of

activity, competences and training objectives) are automatically transferred from

the relevant VET standard. A newly drafted programme is subject to approval by

the competent employer organization (e.g., Chamber of Commerce, Industry and

Crafts). The Methodological Centre for VET assesses the programme. If the

programme is regarded as meeting general requirements and there are sufficient

resources to provide the new programme, it is legitimised by the Ministry of

Education and Science and included in the Register of Study and Training

Programmes. VET providers can make changes to curricula content up to 10% of

a programme to enable them to meet particular local circumstances. Changes of

more than 10% require an official process of approval.

Apprenticeships training is a very limited part of the IVET system (<1% of VET

students in 2001, 2 schools and a limited number of professions) and is not

considered in the Law on VET.

Lithuania



The governing system gradually changing from a centralised system to one in

which VET schools will be self-governing institutions. The recent reorganization of

the system of vocational schools with the creation of regional vocational training

centres and involvement of employers in the governance of these centres, create

opportunities for cooperation between industry, social partners and other public

institutions. Some vocational schools have now budgetary autonomy and

vocational schools have a substantial autonomy in areas as curriculum

development (be it within the frame of national regulations).

The vocational education and training policy is outlined in the Education Concept

(1993) and the White Paper on VET (1999) of which key issues are the need for

flexibility, accessibility and social partnership.

Furthermore, in the long-term Education Development Strategy until 2012 a flexible

structure of comprehensive education, which brings together the systems of

general education, VET and higher education, is envisioned.

� At national level the Ministry of Education and Science shapes and implements

State formal and non-formal education policy. The Ministry of Social Security

and Labour deals with labour market training policy2 . Key functions of both

Ministries are to develop national VET standards, to supervise training providers

and to develop pedagogical staff. In the Ministry of Education and Science

(MES), IVET is the responsibility of the Department of Vocational and Continuing

Education and Training;

� The Methodological Centre for VET, which falls under the responsibility of the

Ministry of Education and Science, provides didactical support for IVET

institutions. Its main services are to analyse information on VET and human

resources development, to develop training and learning means and its

preparation for publishing, to develop VET standards and programmes and to

evaluate the quality of IVET;

� At regional level (that is: the county governor’s administration) is responsible for

the supervision of vocational schools, according to the regulations established

at state level, and for proposals regarding the scope of enrolments in IVET (as

well as CVET);

� At the local level municipal authorities can be involved in the management

board of IVET (and CVET) providers.

Funding of IVET is by lump sum, calculated per student and allocated to schools.

The amount of money a school receives is calculated by the number of students

times a coefficient for the cost of the particular training programme (calculated on

the basis of premises area, equipment and its maintenance, training materials and

the energy required for a specific programme).

Lithuania


2 More recently, attempts are made to bring the two system closer together.

From 2003 and by ways of an experiment, the status of a number of institutions is

being changed to non-public (self-governing) institutions.

Approximately 8.5% of income is raised by schools themselves.

Lithuania


3 Stakeholders

3.1 Social partners

There has long been a lack of social partner involvement in VET and a weak

relation between the VET institutions and employers. However, nowadays

structures are in place for the involvement of social partners in VET. On the one

hand, a Vocational Education and Training Council has been established that

functions as an advisory body on VET issues. The Council consists of an equal

representation from state institutions, employer and employee organizations. On

the other hand, there are Industrial Lead Bodies, which can be considered as key

consultants to the Ministry of Education and Science at sectoral level in legalising

VET standards and shaping the content of vocational training. They equally

represent all the social partners involved in vocational training: employers, trade

unions and educational institutions. 14 Industrial Lead Bodies are established at

the Methodological Centre for VET.

Until now, there is little involvement of social partners in the provision of practical

training for IVET students, though employers do tend to be members of the board

of certain VET providers.

Chambers of the Industry, Commerce and Craft and Chambers of Agriculture play

a role at national and regional level. They are involved in the vocational

qualification examinations and attempts to establish co-operations with VET

schools and colleges occur at regional and national level (though still somewhat

incidentally).

At regional level vocational training strategies and policies are implemented by

regional VET councils. They are responsible for expertise, consulting, targeted

measures of training curricula, initiating the new vocational training curricula,

raising initiatives in the development of the practical training and the renewal of the

technical infrastructure of training.

The main actors at sectoral level are the expert Commissions of the Branch of

Economy (constituted of the main employers of the sectors of economy). These

Commissions have influence on curriculum design, assessment of qualifications

and competences, development and implementation of new training programmes

and the development of occupational standards.

Lithuania



4.1 Introduction































Lithuania


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Lithuania


Lithuania has no policies neither at national nor at regional level to stimulate or

support mobility in initial vocational education and training. Only individual

initiatives based on bilateral schools’ co-operation can be mentioned, however it is

known only from the personal accidental conversations: no official information or

statistics are collected.

Ministries involved in policymaking of IVET transnationalmobility

In Lithuania three ministries are involved

� Ministry of Education and Science

� Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs

� Ministry of Agriculture

The mentioned ministries are involved in the Leonardo da Vinci programme

Steering Committee, that approves strategies prepared by the Leonardo da Vinci

National Agency, decides on national priorities for mobility, the distribution of

mobility grants and the final selection of projects.

Lithuania


Programmes that support IVET transnational mobility


Leonardo da Vinci 1. Improve the skills

and competencies


young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels.

2. Improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing

vocational training

and the lifelong

acquisition of skills

and competencies.

3. Promote and

reinforce the

contribution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation.

1.Young people in

initial vocational

training

2. Students

3. Young workers

and recent

graduates

4. People in charge

of human resources,

planners, managers,

vocational guidance

specialists

5. Instructors and

tutors in the field of

language skills

European

Commission

For IVET mobility

projects:

2002 € 148,423

2003 € 179,966

2004 € 432,867

2005 € 467,820

Comenius The overall

objectives of

COMENIUS are to

enhance the quality

and reinforce the

European dimension

of school education,

in particular by

encouraging

transnational

cooperation

between schools,

contributing to the

improved

professional

development of staff

directly involved in

the school

education sector,

and promoting the

learning of

languages and

intercultural

awareness.

Individuals, Pupils

and school students

(from pre-primary to

secondary school)

and University

students.

Vocational schools

and Vocational

training institutions

can participate in

Comenius

programmes

because they offer

general education

and issue matura

certificates.

European

Commission

€ 1,643,071*

*this amount was

allocated by the EU

to Lithuania’s

Socrates National

agency for all

Comenius activities.

There are no

statistics collected

on the specific

financing of IVET

mobility.

Lithuania


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Lithuania




High involvement It is indicated that in Lithuania the European Union, the national government, the

VET institutions and the EU Leonardo da Vinci programme Co-ordination Support

Foundation are highly involved in IVET mobility.

The European Union (European Commission) is involved in


� decision making

� financing

The national government is involved in

� policy making


� decision making


The VET institutions (Vocational Training Schools) are involved in


� financing



The EU Leonardo da Vinci programme Co-ordination support Foundation is

involved in

� policy making


� financing

Medium involvement The Chambers of commerce (Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts) are

involved in



� policy making


� decision making

� financing



Quite a number of Lithuanian institutions have low or no involvement in IVET

moblity.

Lithuania


Low involvement National council of VET institutions

Employer organisations

Employers: public and private organisations and companies (different enterprises)

are involved in evaluation of skills of beneficiaries and dissemination of results

No involvement Regional governments, Municipal governments, National education council,

National qualification authorities, Branch organisations and Trade unions.








High benefits Lithuania indicates that VET institutions and IVET participants highly benefit from

mobility.

VET institutions sending participants on placements

1. improved professional skills of participants

2. some changes introduced into the curricula after the placements

3. increased motivation of pupils to study

4. expanded international co-operation

5. improved image of school and increased popularity of some professions

IVET participants

1. improved professional skills

2. increased motivation to study and to reach for more

3. improved communication skills

4. increased self-confidence

5. improved foreign language knowledge


It is stated that employers have intermediate benefits.


1. better skilled workers with the practical experience

2. better communication skills of workers

3. workers wit better foreign language knowledge

4. more flexible workers

5. possibility to get new international co-operation contact from former trainees

Lithuania


Low benefits Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement

1. increased European dimension and international co-operation within the

company

2. possibility to have new skilled workers after the project ends

3. free labour force

4. started or expanded co-operation with training institutions




relevance in Lithuania. Two are mentioned to have high relevance and 11

obstacles have a medium relevance.



organisations







� VET institutions meet too much bureaucracy in handling procedure




friendship

� Strict rules for administering of budget money makes co-financing difficult




procedures







No relevance � Employers do not see the benefits of transnational mobility


mobility





Lithuania



In Lithuania mobility actors and the National Agency applied the following solutions

to overcome obstacles:

Problems of legal nature, like permits, visa, social security rights and taxes are very

rarely reported and usually solved using common efforts of the sending and

hosting institution.

After Lithuania has joined the European Union it became possible to use E111 form

and European Health Insurance Card, so lesser problems with international

coverage of insurances.

Leonardo da Vinci NA puts lots of efforts to give as much support and information

to promoters as possible.to overcome the obstacle on lack of information about

finding work placements, financing and handling of procedures.

The Leonardo da Vinci NA is promoting networks by putting it as a priority for the

selection of project. More than 3 sending organisations are favoured to those with

1-2 sending organisations. It helps to create networks and to start closer

co-operation after the project.

The lack of language knowledge is currently improving, the motivation to learn

foreign languages is often stimulated by hearing those with mobility experience

abroad.

Skills and qualifications acquired during the placements abroad are usually

recognized as a part of the usual training; Europass Mobility documents started to

be issued from June 2005 to all participants.

The problem of employers who do not know how to handle a transnational

placement is usually solved by providing adequate information.

Some schools with good international experience and qualified personnel already

have intenationalisation strategies, the majority of them don’t, because they don’t

have such traditions, visions and in fact little incentive from the Ministry of

Education and Science to do it.

During last years new positions of project managers were introduced in many

schools and it improved the situation of projects’ management significantly. In

previous years all the projects were initiated by vocational teachers with no

experience of project management and no time to do it.

A placement not fitting in the school curriculum only happens when a placement is

not well prepared with the host partners; it can easily be avoided if the programme

of the placement is well discussed and prepared in advance by both (sending and

receiving) partners.

Lithuania


Lack of quality placements. Host organisations have little motivation to take part in

such projects and act as the host partners because they do not receive any

remuneration for it. Such partners are often found on the internet, in a certain

partner search database and usually such partnerships are just accidental and not

long-lasting. In case of reciprocal placements, good co-operation relations

between the partners, it solves the problem and good quality of placements is a

normal thing.

There is no doubt that EU project procedures (application forms, reporting, etc) are

quite complicated. Improvement is needed in the new LLL programme. However

Lithuanian Leonardo da Vinci NA is trying to be as much flexible and client-friendly

as possible by giving advice, organising information and training seminars, giving

consultations, etc.

Lack of courage and interest among IVET participants can be tackled by

information and motivation activities. Those who are too attached to homes,

families should see clear benefit from a placement abroad to be persuaded to go

for it; it’s mainly a matter of information, motivation and good preparation of the

placement itself.

Leonardo da Vinci programme financing is not always sufficient; some schools

have possibilities for co-financing, they find very good partners, some host

institutions give possibility for trainees to earn money, but in majority of cases

pupils must have additional own funds which is very difficult for them.

Solution proposed toovercome obstacles

Lithuania indicates that mobility is not a priority of the national policy in IVET. There

are still problems to be solved, so more attention from the policy makers is needed

in this area.

Other Lithuanian suggestions for solutions are increase of EU grants and a shorter

minimum duration of placements.

Lithuania added an extraobstacle to the list of 25 in thequestionnaire

Obstacle - Strict rules for administering of budget money makes co-financing

difficult.

The solution is related to the reorganisation of state owned schools by changing

their legal status, thus allowing them more flexibility in managing funds.

Lithuania


4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Lithuania.

IVET participants in Lithuania There are 46,344 IVET participants in Lithuania.


Outgoing mobility is monitored for the Leonardo da Vinci programme.


The organisation gathering statistical data on mobility in Lithuania is the Leonardo

da Vinci Agency.

Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 142 155 287 263*

Results statistical data Leonardo da Vinci

*Results of 2005 not yet final


Gender Male: 84

Female: 58

Sum: 142

Male: 68

Female: 87

Sum: 155

Male: 173

Female: 114

Sum: 287

Male: 112

Female: 151

Sum: 263


Technique: 66

Economics: 48


Agriculture: 0

Technique: 57

Economics: 90

Health & Welfare: 8

Agriculture: 12

Technique: 166

Economics: 94


Agriculture: 28

Technique: 72

Economics: 125



6-12 weeks: 10

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 151

6-12 weeks: 4

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 246

6-12 weeks: 41

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 186

6-12 weeks: 45

3-6 months: 32

> 6 months: 0


*Results of 2005 not yet final

Lithuania






Finland

Italy

United Kingdom

Austria

413

121

62

59

38


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin Lithuania

Mobility is growing each year and the duration of the placements is becoming

longer.

Explanation: The growth of IVET mobility is due to the fact that the total grant for

Leonardo da Vinci programme mobility is also increasing each year. The National

Leonardo da Vinci Steering Committee also decided to increase the percentage of

the total grant allocated to IVT mobility from 25 % in 2002 to 35 % in 2005.


No major changes in the choice of a country from 2002 to 2005. The most popular

destination remains Germany. However last years some placements are performed

in less popular countries, and namely, neighbouring ones: Poland, Latvia.

Explanations for Germany being number one: traditionally good relations with

Germany, the German language is the second most popular foreign language in

Lithuania, the German dual system is considered attractive to counterparts.

The choice of other countries most often depend which partner sends the letter of

intent on time (before the deadline of submitting the project), so the choice of a

country is often accidental. In Italy and the UK there were some very active

intermediary organisations that offer to organise any kind of placements so it

attracts the not experienced promoters.

Other suggestions forenhancing IVET mobility inyour country

Lithuania is facing now quite important problem of social emigration, therefore

mobility at this very moment is not a priority. Efforts are mostly put to hold the

emigration, not to loose the qualified workers whose lack started to be felt in

several sectors in Lithuania already.

Project manager position in each IVET institution is still a pursuit and not the reality

– when it becomes a reality more projects for IVET and of better quality are

submitted and financed, more IVET participants could have transnational mobility

experience.

Branches or occupationalfields of study in whichLithuania would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

Tourism, mechatronics, transport/logistics, beauty sector (image design) – those

fields in particular should be further developed in Lithuania and mobility experience

could be really beneficial for the IVET participants of those fields.

These areas are rather new in Lithuania and still not sufficiently developed,

therefore more international experience, skills, acquaintance with new techniques,

methods are needed in these areas.

Lithuania


Luxembourg

373

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Luxembourg



1 Initial vocational education and training inLuxembourg

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Luxembourg starts at age 4 and comprises 2 years of

pr-school education, 6 years of primary education and 3 years of post-primary or

lower secondary education (up till the age of 15). Post-primary education lasts for

6 to 7 years, depending on the option chosen; the choice is more or less already

made at the transition from primary education to lower secondary education.

Post-primary education can roughly be divided into general secondary education

and technical secondary education.

Technical secondary education consists of three cycles:

� The lower cycle (years 7, 8 and 9), which still has a more or less ‘comprehensive

character’ (in the sense that too much specialisation does not yet take place);

� The intermediate cycle (first and second year of upper secondary education),

and

� The upper cycle (third and fourth year of upper secondary education).

The intermediate and upper cycle know three differentiations: the vocational

stream (regime professionnel), the technician training stream (regime de la

formation technician) and the technical stream (regime technique). In addition there

is a preparatory stream (regime préparatoire), aimed at those pupils who do not

have achieved the level of competence that should enable them to go directly into

the first year of the lower cycle of technical secondary education. The preparatory

stream is designed in order to allow students after completion to move onto either

year 9 of the lower cycle of year 10 of the intermediate cycle or into working life. If

they do enter working life, there is always the possibility to return to secondary

technical education (mainly the vocational stream) in order to obtain a qualification.

Vocational stream The vocational stream is equivalent to apprenticeship training in Luxembourg,

though there is also a mixed system and a school-based system. However, the

apprenticeship mode is dominant. Apprenticeship training is provided in the

following sectors:

� Agriculture

� Craft trades

� Commerce

� Hotels and tourism

� Industry

� Domestic work

� Health care professions

Luxembourg


Craft trades and commerce are the most important, catering for respectively 39%

and 32% of the students enrolled. Depending on the particular direction, the

vocational stream lead upon completion either to the technical and vocational

proficiency certificate, the preliminary technical and vocational certificate or the

manual proficiency certificate.

Training lasts three years, but the form in which it is organised depends on the

particular mode taken. The apprenticeship training lasts three years during which

theoretical training is undertaken in a technical secondary school for a minimum of

8 hours per week. In the mixed system (e.g. administrative and commercial clerk,

carpenter, motor mechanic, etc.), students attend full-time classes at a technical

secondary school during one or two years, after which they undertake practical

training in an enterprise during which they still follow theoretical training at school

for at least 8 hours per week. For a small number of occupations (e.g. care worker)

the three year training is entirely school-based.

Technician training stream This stream is full-time, lasts four years and leads to the technician certificate,

which allows entry into higher education. It was introduced by reforming the

legislation on technical and vocational secondary education in 1990. It includes the

following directions:

� Administration and commerce

� Agriculture

� Art

� Chemistry

� Electrical engineering

� Civil engineering

� Hotels and tourism

� Information technology, and

� Mechanical engineering

Technical stream This stream also lasts four years and leads upon completion to the technical

baccalaureat (technical secondary school leaving certificate), which gives entry

into higher education. Within this system students can choose for the

administration and commerce division, the paramedical division or the general

technical division.

Luxembourg



The governance of IVET in Luxembourg is to a large extent centralised, with the

Ministry of Education and Vocational Training baring the responsibility for the

secondary technical schools and vocational education and training in general.

However, the Chambers of Labour and Trade (chambers professionnelles) have

certain powers as well. There are six chambers in Luxembourg:

� 3 representing employers (chamber of commerce, chamber of trades, and

chamber of agriculture);

� 3 representing employees (chamber of private-sector employees, chamber of

labour and chamber of civil servants and public employees).

Membership of the chambers is compulsory for any person being employed,

self-employed or an employer in an occupational area covered by one of the

chambers. They have in particular influence in the apprenticeship training stream.

On the one hand, they have to be consulted by the Ministry on all legislation and

policy making on IVET before these can be debated in parliament. On the other

hand, the chambers have substantial influence in terms of accrediting the

enterprises where apprentices are trained, the regulations and requirements for the

examinations, the composition of the examination boards and the design of the

training programmes for the workplace part of the training.

Luxembourg



As described in the previous section, social partners do have substantial influence

on vocational training. They are also involved in curriculum development and

curricular renewal for secondary technical and vocational education. Apart from

the Chambers, also professional associations are involved in IVET (drawing up

theoretical and practical syllabi for technical education, representation on the

national Education Council). At a national level the social partners are also

represented in the Tripartite Advisory Body on Vocational Education and Training.

Luxembourg



4.1 Introduction































Luxembourg


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Luxembourg


Concerning national policies for stimulating IVET transnational mobility,

Luxembourg mentions the law of 12 August 2003, with which the University of

Luxembourg was created and with which also the mobility of researcher and

students was introduced, with mobility being compulsory for the bachelors

degrees and encouraged for the other degrees. This policy however, does not

pertain to IVET.

Involvement of Ministries In Luxemburg both the Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training and

the Ministry of Culture, Higher Education and Research. Both Ministries cooperate

closely in the frame of Euroguidance and the preparation of the Implementation of

Lifelong Learning Programme.

One specific programme to support IVET transnational mobility in Luxembourg


Leonardo da Vinci

mobility

programme

The programme

promotes

transnational

projects based on

co-operation

between the various

players in vocational

training - training

bodies, vocational

schools,

universities,

businesses,

chambers of

commerce, etc. - in

an effort to increase

mobility, to foster

innovation and to

improve the quality

of training. The

Leonardo da Vinci

programme aims at

helping people

improve their skills

throughout their

lives.

Placements:

� people

undergoing initial

vocational

training

� university

students

� young workers

and recent

graduates

European

Commission

Luxembourg


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Luxembourg






High involvement Luxembourg only indicates high involvement of two Ministries:

� The Ministry of Labour in its capacity of policy making, and

� The Ministry of National Education and Vocational training that has a role in

policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making and financing.

Concerning the involvement of other potential stakeholders in IVET transnational

mobility (such as employers and employers organisations, VET institutions, trade

unions, chambers of commerce, etc.) as well as their role, no information has been

provided, due to the lack of reliable information.






With regard to this question, Luxembourg did mention benefits for four of the five

distinguished groups of beneficiaries, but did not indicate to what extent these

groups do benefit from IVET transnational mobility. For each group, the benefits

are listed below.

Benefits for VET institutions

1. Adaptation of the curricula to the needs of a global labour market

2. Exchange of know how in transnational educational networks

3. Indirect evaluation of the curricula

4. Strengthening of the partnership school-enterprise

5. Enhancing the employability of the students

Benefits for employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility

placement

1. Host highly motivated and cheap manpower

2. Exchange of theoretical and practical knowledge with the trainees

3. Establishment of international contacts

4. Strengthening the partnership school-enterprise

5. Pre-selection of potential employees

Luxembourg


Benefits for employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience

1. Host highly motivated and cheap manpower

2. Increase the intercultural competence of the enterprise

3. Pre-selection of potential employees

4. Potential of innovation


1. Improvement of the practical knowledge

2. Improvement of the language skills

3. Improvement of the intercultural competences

4. Getting familiar with working life and the demands of the profession

5. Improvement of employment opportunities

Luxembourg



Luxembourg indicates that at least 13 obstacles are of high relevance, and another

6 of medium relevance.







organisations








Medium relevance � Employers do not know how to handle a transnational placement


mobility





friendships



procedures



No relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET


Other obstacles � Due to the strong Luxemburgish economy people don’t feel the need to go

abroad

� There is a low ‘mobility spirit’ among students, enterprises, VET-institutions

and stakeholders in Luxembourg




One solution is being applied in Luxembourg to overcome a particular obstacle:

the National Agency will develop instruments to improve the quality of the mobility

placements.

Luxembourg








incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Luxembourg.

IVET participants inLuxembourg

In total 26,712 students are enrolled in IVET in Luxembourg (school year

2002/2003).


Both outgoing and incoming mobility are monitored in Luxembourg by the National

Leonardo da Vinci Agency.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

59 78 127 145

These figures only cover transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci

programme.

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Female: 22

Male: 48

Female:30

Male: 73

Female:54

Male: 48

Female:38 (not all of

the projects are

finalised)

Agriculture:15

Technique:12

Health & Welfare: 0

Tourism: 30

Other sectors: 2

Agriculture:26

Technique:13

Health & Welfare:15

Tourism: 24

Agriculture:40

Technique:23

Health & Welfare:8

Tourism: 46

Other sectors: 10

Agriculture: 37

Technique: 35


Tourism: 31

Other sectors: 18

6-12 weeks 6-12 weeks 6-12 weeks 6-12 weeks

Total outgoing

mobility Leonardo

da Vinci

59 78 127 145

Results based on statistical data National Agency Leonardo da Vinci

Luxembourg



Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went (the past four years.)


Leonardo da Vinci France

Germany

Belgium

Austria

The Netherlands

182

122

55

22

6



Luxembourg has an increase in outgoing mobility.

Explanation: a more systematic promotion of the Leonardo da Vinci mobility

programme since 2004.


The participants prefer to stay in countries with a familiar culture and language.

That is why they choose neighbouring countries like Germany and France.

Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Female: 1

Male: 3

Female: 1

M/F: figures are not

yet available,

because not all of

the projects are

finalised

Finances: 5

Research &

development: 4

Finances: 4 Research &

development: 18

Tourism: 14

Human resources:

10

Other sectors: 10

Finances: 4

3-6 months 3-6 months 3-6 months

Total incoming

mobility Leonardo

da Vinci

none 9 4 56

Results based on statistical data National Agency Leonardo da Vinci.

Luxembourg


Countries from where most participants of incoming mobility came (past four years)


Leonardo da Vinci France

Germany

Belgium

Spain

United Kingdom

23

15

15

12

4


Trends and developments innumbers of incoming mobility:

Luxembourg has an increase in incoming mobility.

Explanation: There is a need in Luxembourg for highly qualified students with a

scientific and academic background.

Trends and developmentswith regard to the countriesparticipants come from:

The trainees prefer to stay in a country with a familiar culture and language.

Furthermore Luxembourg is attractive for trainees, because of its strong economy.

Luxembourg


Malta

387

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Malta



1 Initial vocational education and training inMalta

Malta is the smallest of the new Member States, with a population of 399,867

inhabitants. In general, educational attainment levels in the country are low,

according to the 1995 census, 51.9% of the working age population have not

completed secondary schooling, about 60% of the working age population did not

have a formal qualification, and 9% of the population is illiterate.

1.1 IVET programme

Schooling is compulsory for pupils aged 5-16 years and comprises 6 years of

primary education and 5 years of secondary education (in 2 cycles).

According to the results achieved at the final primary school exam, pupils are

channelled into two main types of educational institutions at lower secondary level:

“area secondary schools” and “junior lyceums”. For the latter, an entrance exam is

required. The 2 types of lower secondary education are now largely unified, both in

curriculum and in end-of-cycle examinations.

Pupils underperforming in the primary school exam can take up further studies in

boys’ schools and girls’ schools (formerly called “opportunity centres”). These

institutions do not offer any formal qualifications at the end of their cycle.

The school choice in upper secondary level depends on achievements in the final

examination of lower secondary and on professional aspirations. They are:

� 2 years of Higher Secondary Upper lyceum (preparing students for the

matriculation examination, which gives access to university);

� 2 years of Junior College (also preparing students for the matriculation

examination, which gives access to university);

� MCAST institutes (largest VET provider in Malta), six institutes offering courses

in Art and Design, Business and Commerce, Building and Construction

Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Information and Communication

Technology and Maritime Studies, preparing pupils for different vocational

qualifications;

� Other vocational institutes, such as the ITS, preparing students for professional

certificates or diplomas in the tourist industry;

� One of the two existing apprenticeship schemes:

� 2-4 years Extended Skills Training Scheme (ESTS) leading to the journeyman’s

� certificate at craftsmanship level;

� 4 year Technician Apprenticeship Scheme (TAS) leading to a technician

qualification.

Malta


IVET in MCAST and ITS, includes placements in industry as a part of the

curriculum. The share between theoretical and practical elements in the curricula

varies according to the area of study and the course year. Institutes linked to the

four-year ESTS and TAS schemes place pupils two and three days per week the

second year onwards. Other institutes have block work experience placements for

two to three weeks at a time. In most cases, there is not the structured interaction

between work and school based curriculum that is characteristic of the dual

system.

In ESTS and TAS after a school-based first year, the programme combines

on-the-job and off-the-job training (3:2 ratios).

Access to higher University from Higher Secondary Upper lyceum and Junior

College is by matriculation examination. Access to higher education from a

vocational stream is currently being developed. MCAST offers tertiary diploma and

certificate training corresponding to ISCED 3-5 levels.

Vocational and technical education is not considered an attractive alternative: 78%

chose the general stream and 14% and 9% opted for technical and vocational

options (2003).

Horizontal mobility is very limited.

The different VET providers used to offer a variety of examination (school-based or

external examiners) and certificates. They were often tied linked with British

examination boards, such as the City & Guilds, the Association of Accounting

Technicians, and the Chartered Institute of Bankers. Local skill certification and

testing included the Journeyman’s Certificate, as well as licensing for would-be

plumbers and electricians. The different VET qualifications have not yet been

integrated within a national framework of qualifications.

Recent developments in IVET � The Employment Training Corporation (ETC) has launched a revitalised

Apprenticeship Scheme as well as training aimed at a number of professions.

� The establishment in August 2000 of the Malta College for Arts, Science and

Technology (MCAST) as the largest VET provider, which gradually replaces the

Trade Schools.

Malta



2.1 Governance and responsibility

Education in Malta is the prime responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The

Ministry is also responsible for (public) examinations.

Under the ministry of education recedes the Employment and Training Corporation

(ETC), which offers employment services, but also caters for both initial and

continuing VET and the MCAST.

The Ministry for Tourism runs the Institute for Tourism Studies (ITS) which provides

courses at different levels for careers in tourism. Coordination among the Ministries

is ensured at Cabinet of Ministers’ level.

2.2 Laws of influence to present IVET

The Constitution of the Republic of Malta and the Education Act (1988) provide the

constitutional and legal framework and the main aims and objectives of the

education system

It underlines the compulsory and free of charge nature of education. There are no

formal/legal documents outlining the government’s policy objectives for VET.

Articles 29-45 of the Employment and Training Services Act of 1990 empower the

Employment and Training Corporation (ETC) to administer apprenticeship schemes

in Malta. The article provides a legal basis for the education/training and labour

conditions of apprentices.

Legal Note 215 (October 2000) established the Malta Professional and Vocational

Qualification Awards Council (MPVQAC) as an independent body with the goal of

developing a unified National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) framework for the

establishment of qualification standards in all the vocational fields, in order to

facilitate recognition and certification.

The apprenticeship systems operate within a different legal framework from that of

the Education Act of 1988. Legal Notes 125 (1981) and (1990) define the rights and

obligations of employers and apprentices bound by a contract of apprenticeship.

They fall under the responsibility of the Minister for Social Policy.

Malta


2.3 Centralisation/decentralisation

The management of the education has been highly centralised.

Decision-making continues to be with the relevant ministries, and ministers have

discretion in appointing members to management boards or boards of governors

in respective institutions. Ministerial approval is required for most managerial and

policy-related decisions.

However, the management structure of the Education Division has been reformed

to give it a more decentralized character. The previous Education Department has

become an Education Division with six Departments: Planning and Development,

Operations, Further Studies and Adult Education, Curriculum Management,

Student Services and International Relations, Finance and Administration.. Each

new Department is responsible for its educational area/sector. The process of

decentralization is moving further down and more responsibilities and authority are

being delegated to the administrators of educational institutions and to School

Councils.

State schools are administered directly by the school heads and their assistants.

Each school has a School Council that administers the funds and assets of the

school. Together with the Head of School, the council can study ways and means

of increasing parental participation and establish relations with local organizations

and enterprises so that these may contribute towards education, vocational

training and co-operation between the school and the enterprise.

A National Commission for Education was established in 1996 with the mandate to

study education in Malta; to identify, together with stakeholders, the needs in

education and training against the background of the economic and social

development of the island; recommend necessary reforms to make education

effective and to ensure the availability of the necessary manpower; audit the

educational services being provided; publish reports on its research and

recommendations, and present an annual report.

The Minister of Education appointed the National Curriculum Council (NCC) in

March 2001. The chairperson of the Council is the Director of the Curriculum

Management Department. This provides a link between the NCC and the

Curriculum Department.

Financing of IVET In 1998, Malta spent 8% of its GDP on education in general and 0.44% on VET.

According to the Education Act all education (up to the first degree level in

university education) has to be provided free of charge to Maltese citizens.

Malta


3 Stakeholders

One distinctive feature of the system is that there has been little institutionalised

social partner involvement in vocational education and training, either as an input

into the decision-making process or through financial contributions. Education and

training provision has remained largely the responsibility of the government, often

responding in an ad hoc manner to the requirements of the economy.

However, recently the role of the social partners has been strengthened through a

number of consultative bodies. In particular, the Malta Professional and Vocational

Qualifications Awards Council (MPVQAC) has recently strengthened its activities

and is in the process of enhancing the national vocational framework.

Malta



4.1 Introduction































Malta


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Malta


Malta has various national or regional policies to stimulate and support mobility.

These policies are:

� National Reform Programme. Objectives: To facilitate the mobility of workers

between one country and another. To facilitate mobility through policy initiatives

related to transparency, recognition and quality. Target group is all job seekers,

the budget comes from the EU.

� National Commission for Higher Education. The legal framework for the

commission has been set up. One of the aims and function of this commission

is to propose policies which are related to students on sustainable options,

equity in access and mobility in institutions, financial support, services of

information and guidance, about pathway development for students. Target

group is all students.

� *EURES services. Objective is to promote Employment Mobility for all job

seekers. Funding is 95% Commission, 5% Public Funds.

� International Internships. Objective: To offer students the chance of gaining

awareness to deeper insights into the art of hospitality. Aimed at ITS students

Involvement of Ministries In Malta three ministries are involved in policy making with regard to IVET


� Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment

� Ministry of Tourism and Culture

� Ministry of Competitiveness and Communication

The Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment is the most influential on current

policy making for IVET mobility, the Ministry of Tourism and Culture was the

initiator of it.

The first initiatives date back to 1990.

The Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment is actively involved in the

European Year of Workers’ Mobility (2006). This involvement is organised through

the EURES office within the Employment & Training Corporation and through the

Ministry of Competitiveness and Communication

All mentioned ministries have internationalisation-units and are actively involved in

EU affairs.

Malta


Two specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Malta: Leonardo da Vinci and Interreg IIIA

Name of the

programme

Programme

objectives

Target group(s) Who funds Annual budget

Leonardo da Vinci II

(Procedure A –

Mobility)

To improve the skills

and competences of

people, especially

young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels,

with a view to

facilitating their

integration and

reintegration into the

labour market;

To improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing training

and the lifelong


and competences;

To promote and

reinforce the

contribution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation, with a

view to improving

competitiveness ad

entrepreneurship,

also in view of new

employment

possibilities.

Persons undertaking

initial vocational

training;

Students registered

in higher education

institutions

(short-term or

long-term);

Young Workers and

recent graduates;

HR Managers in

companies;

Planners and

managers of

vocational training

curricula, in

particular trainers;

Career guidance

specialists;

Trainers and tutors

in the area of

language

competences.

The DGEAC through

the EUPU as

financiary

intermediary

Varies annually:

� 2000 - € 257,300

� 2001 - € 174,227

� 2002 - € 186,368

� 2003 - € 191,200

� 2004 - € 296,000

� 2005 - € 452,000

� 2006 - € 466,000

Malta


Name of the

programme

Programme

objectives


Leonardo da Vinci II

(Procedure B –

Development

Projects)

To improve the skills

and competences of

people, especially

young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels,

with a view to

facilitating their

integration and

reintegration into the

labour market;

To improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing training

and the lifelong


and competences;

To promote and

reinforce the

contribution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation, with a

view to improving

competitiveness ad

entrepreneurship,

also in view of new

employment

possibilities.

Public

organisations;

Private

organisations;

Semi-Public

organisations .

The DGEAC through

the EUPU as

financiary

intermediary

Varies annually

(based on approved

project proposals):

� 2000 - € 0

� 2001 - € 334,863

� 2002 - € 654.113

� 2003 - € 0

� 2004 - € 778,421

� 2005 - € 375,577

� 2006 - € 0

Interreg III A

Italy – Malta

To encourage

exchange of

knowledge and

experience in the

hospitality industry

between ITS and

Sicilian Institutions

Hotel Schools € 49,000 € 49,000

Malta


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Malta






High involvement Malta indicates that the VET institutions are highly involved in IVET mobility.

VET institutions (MCAST) are involved in


� financing



VET institutions (ETC, Employment & Training Corporation), it is not indicated how

these institutions are involved.

VET institutions (ITS, International Hotel Chains) are involved in


� decision making



Medium, low or noinvolvement

No indication given.






High benefits Malta indicates there are three actors that highly benefit from transnational

mobility.

Benefits for the VET institutions (ITS) sending participants on placements:

1 Acquisition of language skills

2 Students are more autonomous in their work

3 Enhancement of skills

4 More responsible and independent

Malta


Benefits for employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility

placement:

The International Hotel Chains which receive students are very satisfied with the

high standard of responsibility of ITS students and are always offering placements.

Benefits for IVET participants (MCAST):

1 International exposure to the culture in the field of work

2 Learning of new skills

3 Enhancement of skills already known


Malta indicates that four obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another eight

obstacles have an intermediate relevance. Five obstacles are reported to have no

relevance.







procedures







friendships

Low relevance � Lack of cooperation between ministries











mobility


Malta



In Malta the following solutions have been applied in order to try to overcome the


Creation of a central office to deal with information dissemination and handling of

administrative procedures. (MCAST)

There is no lack of cooperation between ministries, Malta has a Joint Ministry for

Education, Youth and Employment.

The language obstacle is not relevant in Malta since English, the main language

used during mobility placements, is Malta’s 2nd language. (MCAST/ITS)

Local employers are encouraged to host placements (MCAST).

Employers who do not know how to handle a transnational placement get further

assistance through general seminars / workshops… as well as one-to one

meetings. (EUPU)

To promote quality placements VET institutions select the partners and the

placements carefully (MCAST) to promote quality placements. Main project

coordinators are trained; emphasis on programme objectives and importance of

work programmes submitted at application stage (EUPU).

To support institutions in handling bureaucracy assistance and guidelines are

provided (EUPU). (Solution is partial).

Although a lot of IVET participants are interested, some do not see the benefits.

Introduction talks are held with various groups to encourage and motivate.

(MCAST)

Team building during preparation meetings prior to placements has helped to instil

courage and motivation in participants.

The language problem is not relevant since English, the main language used during

mobility placements, is Malta’s 2nd language. (MCAST).

Compulsory education until the age of 15 includes the learning of Maltese, English

and 1 foreign language;

The employment and training corporation provides learning courses to increase

employability. (EUPU)

The apprenticeship coordinators at the Employment and Training Corporation

assist the College when students need to be released for a few weeks from their

employer. (MCAST)


Obstacle: taxation as income on nominal amount provided by host organisation to

complement EU grant.

Proposed solution: Nominal amount not viewed as income by national taxation

regulations provided that individual is formally participating in an EU educational

programme.

Malta








incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Malta.

IVET participants in Malta The total number of IVET participants in Malta is 4,063 (aged 16-21).


Outgoing mobility in Malta is monitored for the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Incoming mobility is monitored for ITS (Institute of Tourism Studies).

Monitoring organisation At national level the Employment Training Corporation is gathering statistics on

mobility in IVET monthly.

The European Union Programmes Unit – Leonardo da Vinci Section is monitoring

the outgoing mobility annually.

The Malta College of Arts, Science & Technology and the Institute of Tourism

Studies are constantly monitoring and updating statistics on mobility.

Outgoing mobility

Year 2003 2004 2005


mobility (MCAST)

12 6 97


mobility (GCHSS)

10

(not through Leonardo)

- -


mobility (ITS)

- - 23


mobility

22 6 120

Malta


2 Definitions:Outgoing mobility = IVET participants taking up a work placement abroadIncoming mobility = IVET participants from other countries taking up a work placement in your country

Programme

Category

Name of the

programme

2002 2003 2004 2005 Source of

data

Leonardo da

Vinci

Mobility 0 12 6 97 MCAST

Internal Data

Report ~

Sept 01 – Oct

06

Leonardo da

Vinci

Mobility 0 0 0 11 -

Chocolate

Making

12 -

Placements

Industrial

Ecole de

Paris de

Metiers de la

Table du

Tourisme et

de

l’Hotellerie.

(www.epmtth.

org)

Other

programmes

– 100

Institute of

Tourism

Studies (ITS)

Other

European

programmes

10 Giovanni

Curmi Higher

Secondary

School

(GCHSS)

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender (MCAST) Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 8

Female: 4

Male: 6

Female: 0

Male: 67

Female: 30

Gender (GCHHS) Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 0

Female: 0

Gender (ITS) Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 13

Female: 10

Gender (Total) Male: 0

Female: 0

Male: 8

Female: 4

Male: 6

Female: 0

Male: 80

Female: 40

Malta


2002 2003 2004 2005

Sector (MCAST) Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 12

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 6

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 20

Technique: 65

Economics: 0


Sector (GCHSS) Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 10

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Sector (ITS) Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Hospitality: 23

Sector (Total) Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 22

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 6

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 20

Technique: 65

Economics: 0


Hospitality: 23

Length of stay

(MCAST)

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 12

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 6

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 97

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

Length of stay

(GCHHS)

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 10

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

Length of stay (ITS) < 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 11

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 12

> 6 months: 0

Length of stay

(Total)

< 6 weeks: 0

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 22

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 6

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 108

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 12

> 6 months: 0

Malta



Austria (MCAST)

Spain (MCAST)

Italy (MCAST)

Ireland (MCAST)

UK (MCAST)

23

20

20

14

13


MCAST:

The trend is felt that more students are interested in carrying out a placement

however these are limited.

The numbers fluctuate according to the input from the international coordinator at

MCAST.

Students tend to prefer English speaking countries however this is never a major

obstacle. Availability of work placements and approval of funding are the crucial

elements.

ITS

There is an increase of outgoing students. More students are interested to

experience internships.

The trends and developments in outgoing mobility with regard to the choice of

country is that students study the respective language.

Incoming mobility

Year 2003 2004 2005

Total number of incoming

mobility (MCAST)

8 18 90


mobility (GCHSS)

20 10 8


mobility (ITS)

- 21 *49

TOTAL 28 49 147

* Incoming mobility is monitored by ITS. A coordinator monitors students

regularly. Prior to their arrival ITS requests CV of every participant, Hotels are

contacted to provide placements, ETC is contacted for work permit.

Malta


Programme Category Name of the programme 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci Mobility 8 18 90



Other European programmes ESF 3 4 2

Programmes of branch

organisations, public and

private employment institutions

and companies

Fachtcraftcaustauch a

programme by the Austrian

Chamber of Commerce

4 6 6

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender (MCAST) Male: 0

Female:0

Male: 6

Female:2

Male: 8

Female:10

Male: 36

Female:54

Gender (GCHSS) Male: 0

Female:0

Male: 7

Female:13

Male: 3

Female:7

Male: 4

Female:4

Gender (ITS) Male: 0

Female:0

Male: 0

Female:0

Male: 16

Female:5

Male: 28

Female:21

Gender Male: 0

Female:0

Male: 13

Female:15

Male: 27

Female:22

Male: 68

Female: 79


Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare:0

Performance Arts: 8

Agriculture:0

Technique: 4

Economics:0

Health & Welfare: 6

Performance Arts: 8

Agriculture: 52

Technique: 31

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 6

Administration: 1


Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 20

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare:0

Performance Arts: 0

Agriculture:0

Technique: 10

Economics:0

Health & Welfare: 0

Performance Arts: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 8

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Administration: 0


Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare:0

Performance Arts: 0

Agriculture:0

Technique: 0

Economics:0

Health & Welfare: 0

Performance Arts: 0

Hospitality: 21

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Administration: 0

Hospitality: 49


Technique: 0

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 0

Agriculture: 0

Technique: 20

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare:0

Performance Arts: 8

Agriculture:0

Technique: 14

Economics:0

Health & Welfare: 6

Performance Arts: 8

Hospitality: 21

Agriculture: 52

Technique: 39

Economics: 0

Health & Welfare: 6

Administration: 1

Hospitality: 49

Malta


2002 2003 2004 2005


6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 8

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 18

6-12 weeks:0

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0

< 6 weeks: 89

6-12 weeks: 1

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0


6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 20

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 10

6-12 weeks:0

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0

< 6 weeks: 8

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0


6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 20

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 21

6-12 weeks:0

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0

< 6 weeks: 41

6-12 weeks: 8

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0


6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 28

6-12 weeks: 0

3-6 months: 0

> 6 months: 0

< 6 weeks: 49

6-12 weeks:0

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0

< 6 weeks: 138

6-12 weeks: 9

3-6 months:0

> 6 months:0

Countries of the incoming mobility participants

Italy 44

France 17

UK 16

Austria 13

Germany 10

Denmark 13

Holland Not available

Belgium Not available

Stimulating mobility Malta would like to promote mobility in certain fields:

� All Institutes at MCAST are active to a different degree on the international field.

Possible fields to be developed are the Business and Commerce placements

and the ICT placements.

� Hospitality Industry ITS, Environment, Small and medium sized Enterprise,

Pharmaceutical Companies.

Few placements, both incoming and outgoing, have been carried out in this field

mainly due to the restrictive timetabling and intensive study programmes. Another

possible reason for this lack of inter-activity with the industry is that the majority of

local Business and Commerce and ICT IVET students are not on apprenticeship

scheme. (MCAST)

Hospitality, Environment and SmEs are national priorities identified in the National

Reform Plan.

Malta


TheNetherlands

407

Introduction





are:
































presented.

The Netherlands



1 Initial vocational education and training inThe Netherlands

1.1 IVET programmes

Education is compulsory in the Netherlands from the age of five until the school

year in which a pupil becomes 16. Main elements of the education system are

primary education (basisonderwijs, 4-12 years), and secondary education

(voortgezet onderwijs, VO 12-16/17/18 years). Depending on the stream secondary

education only consists of lower secondary education or both encompasses lower

and upper secondary education:

� VMBO or lower secondary pre-vocational education, which lasts four years and

has a further internal differentiation into four pathways or levels; depending on

the pathway taken different options are open in secondary vocational education

(see below);

� HAVO or general secondary education, which takes 5 years and prepares

students for tertiary non-university education (higher vocational education or

HBO)

� Pre-university education or VWO, which takes 6 years and provides access to

university education.

IVET in the Netherlands is part of the upper secondary education system, like the

last two years of HAVO and the last three years of VWO. IVET (or MBO after its

Dutch abbreviation) is organised outside the general upper secondary education

system in independent training colleges, the so-called Regional Training Centres

(ROCs) or of which there are presently 41, or Agricultural Training Centres (AOCs),

of which there are presently 12, and a small number of specialised vocational

colleges aiming at a specific occupational area (e.g. graphics industry, jewellery,

instrument making, etc.)

The percentages of students in Upper Secondary vocational education in

comparison to the higher level of general education (VWO and HAVO) is 68%

versus 32% (2000).

MBO has a structure that corresponds to the different sectors in the economy.

Training programmes are offered in four different fields: technology,

commerce/administration, services/health care and agriculture.

The Netherlands


Training is provided, within the framework of the national qualification structure for

vocational education (kwalificatiestructuur beroepsonderwijs, KSB), at four

different levels:

� level I (assistentenopleiding, assistant training) lasts for a maximum of one year.

It prepares participants to carry out simple executive tasks (ISCED level 2);

� level II (basisberoepsopleiding, basic vocational training) lasts two or three

years. It prepares people to carry out executive tasks (ISCED level 3);

� level III (vakopleiding, vocational training) lasts two to four years (two after

completion of level II). It prepares people to carry out tasks independently

(ISCED level 3);

� level IV (middenkaderopleiding, middle-management training) usually lasts four

years. It prepares people to carry out specialised tasks completely

independently (ISCED level 3).

Within MBO there are two learning pathways: the block- (or day) release pathway

(beroepsbegeleidende leerweg, BBL) and the vocational training pathway

(beroepsopleidende leerweg, BOL):

� In BBL at least 60 % of training is in a company, and the rest at a school.

Students have a contract with the company where they receive practical

training. The contract (leerwerkovereenkomst) specifies that the student both

works and learns within the company.

� BOL is a more theoretical pathway where the percentage of practical

occupational training (beroepspraktijkvorming, BPV) is between 20 and 60.

Those who complete the training at level IV (highest level) can transfer to higher

professional education. In practice almost 36% of students obtaining a diploma

level IV in the theoretical pathway (BOL) move on to higher professional education.

The Netherlands



There are three levels of organisation in the Dutch vocational education and

training system:

� national (ministries, umbrella organisations, support or advisory organisations,

examination institutions and national social partner organisations);

� sectoral (social partner organisations by sector, national expertise centres for

vocational training and the labour market);

� regional/local (schools, private training centres, municipalities, regionally

organised social partner organisations).

National level: The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur

en

Wetenschap, OCW) is responsible for the total education system, including

vocational education and adult education. The Ministry has a policy of

decentralisation of responsibilities. It finances and monitors publicly funded

institutions. VET institutions receive a lump sum for vocational education and

training and are then responsible for the overall management of the institution,

including personnel policy:

The Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Management and Food Quality

(Ministerie van Landbouw, Natuurbeheer en Voedselkwaliteit, LNV) is responsible

for education and training in the agricultural sector;

Representation boards atnational level:

The national expertise centres for vocational training and the labour market.are

members of, and represented at national level by, their association Colo

(Vereniging van kenniscentra beroepsonderwijs bedrijfsleven).

Sectoral level: The national expertise centres for vocational training and the labour market

(Kenniscentrum Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven, KBBs after their Dutch

abbreviation) are intermediary organisations organised on a branch or sectoral

basis. Each of the 19 KBBs has a board consisting of representatives of both

employers and employees and (in most cases) education. These institutions are

quite unique and do not have exact equivalents in other countries.

As intensive cooperation between the organised labour market and education is

central to the concept of vocational education and training in the Netherlands, the

expertise centres form the essential link between them. The following tasks are

formulated by law (Vocational and Adult Education Act):

� to develop and maintain the qualifications for senior secondary vocational

education (MBO);

� to recruit a sufficient number of (new) companies offering practical training

places and to monitor the quality of these companies (in senior secondary

vocational education, HBO and, additionally since 2003, in preparatory senior

secondary vocational education,

The Netherlands


The aim of each expertise centre is to increase quality and professionalism in their

branch by providing advice, information and training. Expertise centres also have a

role in quantitative staffing in their branch and learn-work trajectories in

preparatory senior secondary vocational education. At meso level, these centres

define occupational profiles and work together with educational representatives to

translate these into competence requirements. The introduction of the quality

centre for examinations changed the examination roles of the actors. The expertise

centres are no longer responsible by law for the quality of the examinations.

However all 19 expertise centres are now, each in a different way, involved in

ensuring the quality of examinations. The expertise centres also act internationally,

for example in projects on comparison of qualifications.

Employer and employee organisations are organised by sector and/or region. A

number of economic sectors are represented by specialised departments

(construction, government, services, transport, sport, catering and hotel, arts,

police, etc.).

These departments sometimes also represent their members on regional basis.

Regional/local level: At this level there are the training institutions (ROCs, AOCs and other). The ROCs

and the AOCs (as well as the specialised vocational colleges) have obtained

substantial autonomy when the new law on Adult and Vocational Education was

implemented in 1996. They have organisational, financial and curricular autonomy.

The receive a lump-sum budget from the government to cover their costs. In

issues like personnel and teaching and learning they have discretionary power

within the framework provided by the law and additional regulations, such a

competence requirements for teaching staff on the one hand, and discretionary

power within the framework of the qualification structure and the learning

objectives defined therein with regard to teaching and learning on the other hand.

Employer and employee organisations are also structured and organised at

regional level to provide support to regional labour markets.

Municipalities are responsible for managing the budget for, and the good quality

of, adult education provision.

Quality assurance is a central priority in education policy, since the government is

leaving more and more responsibilities to the institutions in the field. VET

institutions have a great deal of autonomy to design their own quality assurance

system. Self-evaluation by institutions is the starting point for external quality

assurance under the responsibility of the Inspectorate of Education. Supervision

and monitoring by the Inspectorate takes place through yearly visits and is

proportional to the self-evaluation; institutions with a well developed quality system

are monitored less intensively.

The Netherlands


In August 2002, a national Kwalititeitscentrum examinering (KCE, Quality Centre for

Examinations) was established. In it, education institutions and the labour market

cooperate to control the quality of examinations in secondary vocational

education. The aim is to improve the quality of the examinations of accredited

courses and all related aspects. The tasks of the KCE include:

� defining and maintaining the quality standards for examination;

� external validation of the quality of examinations.

Appointed by law, the KCE is the only institution to control the quality of VET

examinations.

The role of the Inspectorate for Education will be limited to supervising the KCE.

At sectoral level, the KCE works with sectoral examination platforms. Branches

and sectors can, where necessary, make specific arrangements concerning

examinations with institutions providing education.

The funding of initial vocational education and training (IVET) is a public

responsibility. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) and the

Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Management, and Food Quality (LNV) for the

agricultural sector are responsible for financing the ROCs and the vocational

schools and the AOCs respectively.

The input budget accounts for 80 % of the total budget of a ROC. The number of

pupils is calculated by weighting the two different training pathways. The block-or

day release pathway (BBL) is given a lower weighting than the more school-based

pathway (BOL). The different courses in either pathway are also attributed a certain

value. The block-or day release pathway (BBL) has a hybrid structure of financing.

The school-based part is funded directly from public funds by the Ministry for

Education, Culture and Science. The work-based part is funded by central

government (Ministry of Finance) through fiscal measures introduced in 1996:

enterprise tax can be reduced for employers hiring apprentices. In addition there

are contributions from employers in the form of salary or pocket money for

students engaged in apprenticeship activities.

Students older than 18 years have to pay course fees, collected centrally by the

Information Management Group (Informatie Beheer Groep).

The Netherlands



The principle of social partner involvement in education and training can be

characterised as an important advisory and initiating role in many networks,

bodies, councils and boards of institutions. They are involved in important new

developments for example the newly established innovation platform supporting

the move to the knowledge society

At national level, the Social Economic Council (Sociaal Economische Raad – SER)

is the main advisory body of the Dutch government and gives advice, solicited or

unsolicited, on all major social and economic issues. In its influential advisory

capacity, the SER represents the interests of trade unions and industry. The

Labour Foundation still functions as a platform for the three most important

employer organisations and trade unions.

Both government and social partners have their own responsibilities and roles in

negotiations.

However, they are inter-dependent because they both have access to a part of the

policy instruments. For example, the social partners negotiate wage policies, the

outcomes of which substantially influence all government expenditure and public

charges. Cooperation is essential to achieve collectively defined aims.

At sectoral level, social partners are represented in the board of Colo, the

association of expertise centres on vocational education, training and the labour

market. Colo has a tripartite board consisting of a chairman and representatives

from employers (two), employees (two) and national expertise centres for

vocational education, training and labour market (four).

Committees for each branch, where social partners and education representatives

have equal representation (the so-called paritaire commissies), have been created

within the KBBs. These committees define occupational profiles, which are

subsequently elaborated by educational institutions into educational profiles.

At regional level, most regional training centres (ROCs, AOCs) have representatives

of (regional level) social partners in their supervisory board

At enterprise or branch level, social partners are involved in negotiations on

collective labour agreements. Training measures increasingly form part of these

agreements in terms of human resource management and lifelong learning for

employees

The social partners are also involved in sectoral platforms to monitor the quality of

examinations in vocational education and training. They are increasingly involved

in, or take initiatives at, branch or local level by stimulating cooperation between

education and training and trade and industry. The main idea is to improve the

relationship between the demand for, and supply of, labour and skilled personnel

The Netherlands


Internationalisation isconsidered an importantfactor in education:

Bilateral agreements and programmes with the neighbouring countries as well as

other agreements and programmes have existed since several years.

The representative councils in the VET sector are major stakeholders in the

internationalisation process: the Dutch Council for Vocational Education and

Training (MBO Raad), the Association of agricultural training centres (AOC Raad),

the Association of national expertise centres on vocational education and the

labour market (Colo) and intermediary organisations like CINOP.

The social partners are involved in the national Leonardo da Vinci programme

agency and they engage in various activities related to international policy and

mobility.

At branch level, some instruments have been developed to increase the

transparency of qualifications in an international perspective, e.g. Euro-certificates,

modules implemented in different countries. One specific example in the metal

sector is the creation of the EMU

Berufspass. Berufspass contains information on the level of competences and

skills of the employee and can be updated throughout his or her entire working life.

A few initiatives have been, or are being, taken in the border region with Germany

to develop bilateral modules for which the students receive two national diplomas

(bi-diplomering). For example, a regional training centre in the south of the

Netherlands developed a bilateral module in the laboratory technical branch and

agreed with the Chamber of Industry and Commerce in Aachen (Industrie- und

Handelskammer zu Aachen) that the students received both a Dutch and German

certificate. A small number of students has benefited from this initiative, but it has

not yet been taken further. Other initiatives are at the moment being developed in

the Euregio region (covering parts of Belgium, Germany, France, Luxembourg and

the Netherlands), but are in the first stages of development.

The Netherlands



4.1 Introduction































The Netherlands


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in the Netherlands


The Netherlands has various national or regional policies to stimulate and support

mobility in IVET. These policies are:

� Internationalising Vocational Education (June 2006): this is a fairly new policy

from the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Ministry of Education, Culture and

Science. The policy will be in place for the coming three year (2006-2009) and

has a budget of 5 million euro for that period. In fact it is a joint initiative with

75% of the budget coming from the government and 25% from employers and

companies. The main aim of the policy is: Increasing international orientation

and capacity of SME, raising awareness among SME on the importance, giving

new impulses for imbedding internationalisation as integral leading managing

philosophy in vocational education (and in higher professional education). More

specific aims are: more mobility of students, teachers, management; creating

better matchmaking mechanisms; diminishing financial obstacles, integration of

international aspects in the curricula and support for companies and schools on

organisation and handling procedures. Target groups are: SMEs, VET

institutions (students, teachers, management) and Universities for Applied

Sciences.

� GENT-akkoorden (GENT Agreements): The main aim is to stimulate cooperation

in vocational education between the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). The

policy targets VET institutions.

� Cooperation and working group the Netherlands and Germany: the main is to

stimulate cooperation in vocational education between the Netherlands and

Germany and to stimulate exchange of VET students and teachers. Both the

Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OCW) and the German

Ministry of Education (BMBF) are involved, whereas the Dutch Ministry for

Agriculture (LNV) also contributes financially (2005: OCW - € 150,000, LNV -

€ 40,000 and BMBF - € 220,000).

� Adult and Vocational Education Act (WEB, 1996; Ministry of Education, Culture

and Science): this law stipulates that VET institutions have to fine tune their

educational programmes and activities to the national and international labour

market (requirements).

� EQF, European Qualification Framework: Promoting international mobility and

international learning. The ministry of Education, Culture and Science is actively

involved and addresses all relevant VET stakeholders

The following policies are no longer in place, but are worth mentioning since they

provide better understanding of how Dutch educational policy has been and is

addressing the issue of mobility in IVET:

� ‘Grenzen verleggen’, Policy paper 1991 (‘Expanding borders’): Aim was

stimulating internationalisation in the VET sector (among others);

� Action plan (1997) and Programme (1998-2002) ‘Talents without Borders’,

Internationalisation of Education: this policy initiated by the Ministry of

Education, Culture and Science had the overall aim of promoting European and

global citizenship. More specific aims were: Promoting internationalisation

strategies and policy in VET institutions aimed at internationalisation as an

integral element of VET; Promoting the Dutch VET sector abroad and providing

The Netherlands


extra training activities for VET institutions on internationalisation. Target groups

were the VET institutions, the VET sector as a whole and specifically the

managers, internationalisation officers and placement coordinators in VET

institutions in relation to the last specific objective.

� Hoofdlijnenbrief Internationaliseringsbeleid: Onderwijs voor wereldburgers

(Education for World Citizens), Ministry of Education 2001: aim was to stimulate

internationalisation in education, e.g. through promoting mobility in VET,

internationalisation of curricula.

Involvement of Ministries In the Netherlands the following Ministries are involved in policy making with

regard to IVET transnational mobility:

� Ministry of Education, Culture and Science;

� Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Management and Food Quality;

� Ministry of Economic Affairs ;

� Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment.

The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science is the most influential concerning

policy making for IVET mobility. The first initiatives date back to the mid-1980s.

The ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the ministry of Agriculture,

Environmental Management and Food Quality work together in the Leonardo da

Vinci and in the bilateral BAND programme.

The ministry of Economic Affairs (Directorate International Entrepreneurship),

initiated actions on internationalising SMEs and vocational education. A new

programme is in the phase of preparation aimed at mobility and awareness and

capacity raising in SMEs and VET institutions in close cooperation with the ministry

of Education, Culture and Science.

The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the ministry of Social Affairs

and Employment established a Project Directorate Leren & Werken (Learning &

Working). This is a joint initiative for two years stimulating innovative policies and

practices in Lifelong Learning.

Four specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in the Netherlands


Leonardo da Vince Mobility of VET

participants.

In general:

Internationalisation

and innovation of


and training and

stimulating of

transnational

cooperation

VET sector European

Commission

In 2005

approx. € 1,600,000

for mobility of VET

participants,

€ 550,000 for VET

teacher mobility

The Netherlands



BAND

Bilateral Exchange

Programme

Netherlands-

Germany

Encouragement of

bilateral

partnerships in VET

and exchange of

VET students and

teachers, aimed at:

- improvement of

vocational skills, key

qualifications and

language

knowledge;

- tolerance and

open mindedness.

VET participants

VET teachers and

trainers

Ministry of

Education, Culture

and Science (OCW)

Ministry of

Agriculture,

Environmental

Management and

Food Quality (LNV)

On German side:

BMBF (Federal

Ministry of

Education and

Research)

In 2005

OCW: € 150,000

LNV: € 40,000

BMBF: € 220,000

Socrates Promoting mobility Language Teachers

Trainers in Adult

Education

Trainees

European

Commission

Internationalising

Vocational

Education

(June 2006)

Increasing

international

orientation and

capacity of SME

and giving new

impulses for

imbedding

internationalisation

as integral leading

managing

philosophy in


(and in higher

vocational/professio

nal education).

Activities: mobility;

matchmaking

mechanisms;

diminishing financial

obstacles, creating

better support for

companies and

schools on

organisation and

handling

procedures.

SMEs

VET institutions:

students, teachers,

management

Universities for

Applied Sciences.

Joint Initiative of

government (two

ministries), MKB NL

(SME employers

organisation) and

the Dutch Trade

Board.

Government: 75%

Ministry of

Economic Affairs

(Directorate

International

Entrepreneurship)

and Ministry of

Education, Culture

and Science.

Employers/compani

es (25%)

€ 5 million for three

years 2006 - 2009

The Netherlands


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in the Netherlands






High involvement The Netherlands indicate that the following stakeholders have a high involvement

in IVET transnational mobility:

� The National Education Council has a role in policy making (advising the

national government) and through that in activating and stimulating transnational

mobility;

� CINOP intermediary organisation for the ministry of Education on

internationalisation in VET, Leonardo, BAND: CINOP plays in this capacity both

a role in policy making and in activating and stimulating;

� European Platform in the Netherlands, Agency for Socrates (i.e. secondary

education): also policy making and in activating and stimulating.

Intermediate involvement The following stakeholders have an intermediate involvement in IVET transnational

mobility:

� Ministry of Education: policy making and financing;

� Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment: policy making;

� Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Management and Food Quality: policy

making, activating and stimulating and financing

� Ministry of Economic Affairs: policy making and from 2006 onwards also

financing.

� European Commission: policy making, activating and stimulating and financing.

� National council of VET institutions: policy making, activating and stimulating ad

decision making;

� VET institutions: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making,

financing, approving and accrediting placements, coaching of participants.

Low involvement There are various stakeholders in the Netherlands that are involved in IVET

transnational mobility, but only o a low level:

� Regional governments: mainly policy making and activating and stimulating;

� Employer organisations: also mainly policy making and activating and

stimulating;

� Employers: policy making, decision making, financing and coaching of

participants;

� Branch organisations: policy making and activating and stimulating;

� Trade unions: policy making;

� Student associations: activating and stimulating;

� National Youth Council: policy making and activating and stimulating.

Municipal authorities are said to have no involvement in IVET mobility in the

Netherlands.

The Netherlands


Concerning the national qualification authorities (the Dutch KBBs) it is indicated

that their involvement can vary from one KBB to the other, but if they are involved

their role is: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making and

approving and accrediting placements.






High benefits The Netherlands indicate that it are in particular IVET participants going on

transnational placements that highly benefit from it:

1. Improvement of language competencies

2. Increased self-esteem and improved personal and social skills

3. Increased international orientation and international contacts (friends abroad)

4. Increased attractiveness for employers in the Netherlands

5. Increased interest and increased attractiveness for working abroad

Intermediate benefits VET institutions that sent their participants on transnational placements experience

intermediary benefits:

1. Delivery of future employees with international competencies

2. Establishment of (longer lasting) partnerships with schools and companies

abroad, contacts, networks

3. Innovation and internationalisation of curriculum

4. Increased attractiveness for students and Increased motivation among

students and teachers/trainers

5. Value for the school: more attractive and innovative for the regional labour

market, PR in general

Little benefits The other stakeholders are said to reap only little benefit from transnational

mobility.


1. Increase of international awareness

2. Information on professional differences/similarities in working methods

3. Impulse for future expansion/export/contacts in home country of foreign

student, impulse for increased international orientation

4. Exploitable issue for PR objectives: articles/pictures in local/regional

newspapers.

The Netherlands



1. Input of international knowledge and experiences in Dutch companies, impulse

for increased international orientation.

2. Easier access to contacts and potential business in the countries the

employees went to for placements.

3. Employees speaking languages more easily are better equipped for contacts

with clients abroad.

4. Economic profit (is the most important acc. to some, but not yet fully

recognised)


1. Sharing companies for placements abroad

2. Comparing training approach in the branch, improving quality

3. Networking, creating partnerships of branch organisations in European

countries

4. Future employees in the branch are more internationally competent and can

support further international actions

5. Creation of a European workforce for the branch, less dependency of

regional/national supply of labour

The Netherlands



The Netherlands indicate that nine obstacles have a high relevance, whereas

another ten obstacles have an intermediate relevance.

High relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET

� Lack of promotion or support for transnational mobility by branch

organisations







� IVET participants lack information on the possibility for placements abroad

Medium relevance � Problems with international coverage of insurances


� Lack of cooperation between Ministries





� VET institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility

� VET institutions do not know what can be learned from transnational mobility

� A placement abroad does no fit in the home school curriculum

Low relevance � Problems of legal nature (permits, visa, taxes, social security rights)


procedures



mobility





In the Netherlands, the following solutions have been adopted to overcome some

of the obstacles encountered:

� Collective approach in school, branch (insurance problems);

� Project leaders meetings and publications and manuals of the Dutch NA

Leonardo da Vinci on practical tips for organising mobility (2006), hand books

on dissemination, implementation, evaluation, start phase of projects, virtual

team work and valorisation down top (-p) earth;

� Currently new joint initiatives have been taken by ministries, e.g. Economic

Affairs and Education, Culture and Science, aimed at increasing mobility by

funding and awareness and capacity raising in SMEs and VET institutions;

� National Innovation Programme for language learning in IVET;

� ECVET and EQF; Implementation of Europass;

The Netherlands


� (bi-)Annual update of strategic internationalisation policy;

� Some VET institutions have a strong internal support structure for exchange of

information and tools, via intranet, an internationalisation desk and supportive

and stimulative internationalisation officers;

� Good preparatory programmes on language and culture;

� Improved quality in guidance.


The following solutions are proposed to overcome obstacles:

� Establishment of communities of practice, organisation of European project

leaders meetings;

� Further joint initiatives and synergy between European DGs, ministries at

national level (education, econi ( i=o)mics, employment) and between

programmes (Lifelong Learning, ESF etc.);

� Integrating vocational language and cultural competencies as quality aspects of

placements abroad;

� Further implementation of Europass;

� Awareness raising actions, training activities on capacity;

� Agenda setting of Mobility on Social Partners’ agenda, at national and European

level; (Employers organisations have some interest, trade unions none so far);

� Dissemination of approaches and tools developed in Leonardo pilot and

mobility projects;

� Funding and training for development and knowledge exchange on

internationalisation strategies and policies at school and company level;

� Focus on internationalisation capacity in VET institutions and companies,

dissemination and exchange of good practices;

� Simplify procedures in new programmes and more intermediaries and

customized support;

� Dissemination of good practices in preparatory programmes on language and

culture;

� Focus on language support and guidance at the workplace abroad;

� Information campaigns, presentation of international options to students,

mobility as integral and regular aspect during vocational training, an

international student counter in VET schools;

� Awareness raising campaigns and linking mobility to demographic changes like

the ageing workforce.

The Dutch National Education Council indicates that, apart from obstacles like

‘mobility is not seen as a priority in national VET policy’ and ‘language learning

gets little emphasis in VET’ which were also mentioned as obstacles in the

ReferNet questionnaire’, the lack of commitment from the side of employers and

social partners is a major obstacle (also mentioned in the ReferNet questionnaire).

The Education Council indicates that among these stakeholders the general

opinion is that there are other, more important and bigger challenges for VET than

internationalisation. Mobility and internationalisation are therefore not perceived as

priority by the employers and social partners. Moreover, there is no immediate

urgency to internationalise VET, nor a clear incentive for students to go abroad.

Students are likely to get a job in the Netherlands, why go abroad or send them

abroad?

The Netherlands


According to the Dutch Education Council, national/regional policies will not

necessarily help to overcome these obstacles. On the one hand, the question has

to be answered whether and to what extent mobility in VET is necessary. On the

other hand, the common policy philosophy for VET in the Netherlands is ‘good

governance’ (similar to subsidiarity in the EU, try to organise as much as possible

on a local level). Colleges are getting more and more autonomy. Employers have a

considerable influence on the VET school curriculum, therefore if they don’t

consider internationalisation and mobility a priority for VET, it is likely that neither

VET colleges, nor the ministry will give mobility a high priority.

To make national/regional policies work, it would certainly be helpful if the benefits

of mobility in VET are explicitly connected with other benefits in VET, and not

exclusively with internationalisation; e.g. making clear that VET students improve

their social and language skills by going abroad and with that improve their

(national and international) mobility on the labour market. These benefits will

probably be of more importance to employers than internationalisation as such.

National/regional action plans for mobility in VET should therefore serve the

following functions:

� To provide information about the benefits and possibilities of mobility to

colleges, students and social partners (role of government, sectoral

organisations);

� Create resources for mobility (role of government, VET institutions, sectoral

organisations);

� Disseminate good practice and research (role of government, sectoral

organizations and education councils).







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in the Netherlands.

IVET participants in theNetherlands

The total number of IVET participants in the Netherlands in 2005 was 485,000 (of

which 25,000 in AOCs, 435,000 in ROCs and 25,000 in vocational colleges).


The Netherlands has an annual monitor instrument and publication (the BISON

Monitor) on mobility in all sectors of education (primary, secondary, vocational and

higher education), commissioned by the Ministry of Education. Outgoing mobility

of IVET participants is monitored in Leonardo and in the bilateral programme

BAND (Netherlands-Germany) programme. There is no registration of mobility in

sectors and between companies outside the programmes/without financial

support. Incoming mobility is only monitored in the BAND programme, which is

based on reciprocal mobility.

The Netherlands


Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

973 1236 1388 2589

These figures cover transnational mobility under Leonardo and the BAND

programme.

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo Mobility 789 1054 1175 2464*

BAND programme 184 182 213 125

Results based on reports of NA Leonardo da Vinci and BAND annual and

evaluation reports

* It concerns planned placements, there are no figures on realisation yet

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 360

Female: 429

Male: 514

Female: 540

Male: 541

Female: 634

Male: not yet

reported

Female: not yet

reported


Technique: 45

Economics: 79


Agriculture: 40

Technique: 47

Economics: 240

Health & Welfare:

226

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Length of stay < 6 weeks and

6-12 weeks: 578

3-6 months and

> 6 months: 210

< 6 weeks and 6-12

weeks:900

3-6 months and > 6

months: 134

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:



� United Kingdom

� Germany

� Belgium

� Spain

� Finland

The Netherlands



A significant rise in Leonardo mobility figures in 2005 compared to 2004. A

decrease of numbers in BAND mobility (Netherlands-Germany).

Explanation:

For the Leonardo increase:

� Budget increase for mobility in 2005

� Consolidation of the programme, increased capacity in schools

� New possibility of larger projects

For the BAND decrease:

� More stringent grant criteria

� Condition of innovation, no repeat of projects


The first three stay the same over the years. Spain and Finland are risers in the list

of countries. Spain took over Italy’s position (which was at 4 in 2004). Finland is

new in the top five in 2005: at place 5.

Explanation:

UK, Germany and Belgium are border countries, close by, language problems are

not severe and cultural differences are not too great. Germany’s second position is

also effected by the BAND programme: Netherlands-Germany exchange.

Economic sectors in whichthe Netherlands would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

The Netherlands would like to stimulate international mobility in particular in the

following three sectors:

� The technical sector: this is an important sector for European orientation and

exploitation;

� The health and care sector, because of the shortage of placements in the

Netherlands and because of the relevance of international experience and

international and intercultural competences for this sector;

� Arts and crafts: this sector is underrepresented until now. The

‘Hoofdbedrijfsschap Ambachten’ (a National organisation for arts and crafts

branches) supports/develops policy to stimulate VET learners in these branches

to go abroad for placements.

The Netherlands


Norway

429

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Norway



1 Initial vocational education and training inNorway

1.1 IVET programmes

In Norway, upper secondary education (including IVET) has been reformed

substantially in 1994. With this reform general and vocational upper secondary

education has become more integrated and is now often provided by the same

upper secondary education schools. Compulsory education is comprehensive

(lasting 10 years up till the age of 16 years). With the reform all students aged

16-19 years old, have got the statutory right to three years of upper secondary

education, to obtain an upper secondary education offer and to be placed in one

of the three programmes of their preference. For pupils who do not accept the

offer, a public follow-up service is provided. However, 90% of the students are

admitted to their first choice and equally 90% of the students leaving compulsory

education do enter upper secondary education.

The reform also entailed a ‘staging’ of upper secondary education, which is spit

into a foundation course, advanced courses I and advanced courses II. The

foundation courses are divided over 15 study areas, of which 3 are considered

general2 and 12 of vocational orientation. These study areas are:

� General and business study;

� Music, dance and drama;

� Sport and physical education;

� Health and social care;

� Arts, crafts and design;

� Agriculture, fishing and forestry;

� Hotel and food-processing trades;

� Building and construction trades;

� Technical building trades;

� Electrical trades;

� Engineering and mechanical trades;

� Chemical and processing trades;

� Woodworking trades;

� Sales and services trades;

� Media and communication.

Advanced courses I and II become more and more specialised and cover therefore

a multitude of (specialised) study areas. Irrespective whether students have chosen

a general or a vocational path, they visit upper secondary schools during the first

two years of their education. After the second year, pathways are differentiated.

Those who chose a general path stay on for another year at school to obtain their

diploma.

Norway


2 Which three study areas are considered to be general does not become clear from the documentation.

Students who have chosen a vocational path, mostly change school after the

second year to enter a two year apprenticeship training within an enterprise or

public organisation. This is know as the so-called 2+2 model. However, in the case

that there is an insufficient number of apprentice places in a particular sector or

branch, schools are obliged to offer them a third year at school, where school

workshops and practical assignments replace the apprenticeship training. Both the

2+2 model and the alternative school-based practical training lead to the trade or

journeyman’s certificate3 . This certificate does not provide entry into higher

education, but those who wish to obtain this entry can follow an additional 6

months of ‘bridging’ education.

It is a bit complicated to get accurate figures about the participation in upper

secondary education and in particular IVET. IVET students that leave school after

two years to start their apprenticeship system do no longer appear in the

educational statistics. Shapiro (2004) states that if they are included, participation

in IVET is about 49% of total participation in upper secondary education. More

recent figures of the Norwegian statistical bureau provide the following picture:

� Approximately 170,000 students were enrolled in upper secondary education in

2004 (which is in line with the 161,926 reported in the Eurydice monograph for

2000/01);

� In 2004 there were about 29,000 apprentices (which concerns apprentices

contracts being in force);

� In 2004 30,000 students were enrolled in a general basic course as against

about 40,000 students in a vocational course.

The goal of both the government and Norwegian parliament is that at least 50% of

those entering upper secondary education will choose a vocational path. If the

enrolment figures for 2004 in basic course are indicative, this goal has been

reached. In principle it is possible to choose advanced level I and II courses

outside the branch in which the foundation course was taken, but in practice these

options seem to be limited (though enlarging the possibilities for horizontal transfer

is one of the aims for further reforming the education system in order to meet up

with the 2010 goals for education and training).

Norway


3 The difference between a trade or journeyman’s certificate is marginal. The latter mainly exists in the more traditional crafts, the former in the otheroccupational areas.


In recent years the locus of control for primary and secondary education has been

devolved from the central government to the county and municipal authorities. The

latter are mainly responsible for primary and lower secondary education (integrated

basic education), while the former are responsible for upper secondary education,

including vocational education according to the 2+2 model. This means the

counties and municipalities bur also schools and teachers have obtained quite

some autonomy to decide –within the set framework of statutes and national

curricula – to choose teaching material and methods. Overall the National Board of

Education (established in 2000 as a state institution under the final responsibility of

the Ministry of Education and Research) is responsible for curriculum development,

examinations in lower and upper secondary education, educational research and

development and specific task with regard to the use of ICT in education and

information provision. For vocational upper secondary education, the National

Board uses extensive consultation with the social partners for performing these

tasks (see next section).

Each county now has an Education office, which is representing the central

government -in particular the Ministry of Education and Research- in the counties

and the municipalities. The main responsibilities of the Education offices are

administration, quality development, information and guidance and reporting,

inspection and supervision of existing legislation.

Since 1986, funding of education has also been decentralised. All counties and

municipalities receive a lump-sum that covers all (former) expenditures of the

central government in areas like education, health services (hospitals excepted)

and culture. Counties and municipalities have considerable autonomy in their

expenditure decisions.

Education in all public institutions is free of charge. In upper secondary education,

students have to pay for their own textbooks and learning materials. Private

institutions that are recognised by the government and receive public funding, are

expected to cover 15% of their total costs from students fees. The share of private

upper secondary schools in the total provision is however small. In the school year

2000-2001 there were in total 503 upper secondary schools of which the majority

were run by the counties (428 schools or 85%) were run by the counties, while

14% (69 schools) were private schools and the remaining 1% or 6 schools were

run by the state. Students attending upper secondary education can get financial

support through the State Educational Loan Fund.

Norway


For enterprises that take on apprentices (in the context of the 2+2 model) there are

financial incentives to help them cover the costs incurred. The grant consists of

two parts:

� A basic grant that should cover the costs during the year of training (about

€ 8.000 per apprentice per year of full time training);

� A quality assurance grant for those apprentices that have passed the practical

part of the trade or journeyman’s certification.

For enterprises that cooperate in training offices or training circles, in order to be

able to provide workplace training for apprentices, incentives are available in the

form of operating grants for these offices or circles for the duration of the whole

apprenticeship period.

Norway



Involvement of the social partners in IVET has quite a tradition in Norway. On the

one hand, the social partners have been extensively consulted with regard to the

1994-reform of upper secondary education and in particular with regard to the

introduction of the 2+ 2 model (which took place both through their formal

representation in the relevant bodies at national and regional bodies and through

their informal cooperation with various administrative and political structures at the

national and regional level). On the other hand, there are various formalised bodies

at national and regional level with regard to IVET in which the social partners are

thoroughly represented. At the national level the following bodies can be

distinguished:

� The National Council for Vocational Training (or RFA after its Norwegian

abbreviation). This Council gives the Ministry advice on all important questions

concerning IVET (and CVT as well). Other major responsibilities of the RFA are: i)

to create a framework for the recognised trades/occupations and to approve

new recognised trades/occupations and ii) creating a structure and developing

guidelines for the training council system (both at national and regional level).

� Vocational Training Councils, which represent expertise in different sectors and

recognised trades/occupations. At present there are 20 of such Vocational

Training Councils. These Councils provide both the Ministry/National Board of

Education and the RFA with advice on IVET in the sectors for which they are

responsible. They are responsible for the development of curricula for existing

and new trades/occupations, for the development of the final qualification

standards, for the submission of experts opinions on the recognition of previous

educational qualifications and compulsory internships, for advice on the

recognition of ‘foreign’ qualifications and for the development of papers for the

theoretical part of the examinations for apprentices as well as the guidelines of

the practical part of these examinations.

� National Appeal Bodies. When candidates fail the trade or journeyman’s

examination an dif they do not agree with the decision of the county-based

examination board, they can appeal to the National Appeal Body for their

particular trade/occupation. National Appeal Bodies exist of a member from the

employer’s side, a member of the employee’s side (coming from or proposed by

the Vocational Training Councils) and an ‘independent’ member, often a

specialist teacher from the relevant field. The number of National Appeal Bodies

can vary and can exceed 20, since in some trades/occupations there is such a

variation that several appeal bodies per trade/occupation are needed.

Norway


At regional (or county) level, the following bodies are distinguished:

� The Vocational Training Committee. These committees are appointed by the

regional parliaments for a period of four years. The Committees are advisory

boards for the counties and have as their main responsibility the implementation

of IVET on behalf of the county authorities. More specifically their tasks are: i) to

give advice on the overall provision of IVET in the county in order to meet local

needs; ii) to arrange apprenticeship places and to place students in training

enterprises; iii) to approve the training enterprises and to supervise the training

that takes place as well as having the authority to withdraw the right to train

apprentices (quality assurance); iv) to approve the apprenticeship contract

(which has to be drawn up between apprentice, enterprise and school); v) to

ensure that the examinations are held in accordance with the requirements.

Furthermore, the Committees have the responsibility for appointing the

examination boards (though the county officially appoints those for a period of

four years) and for issuing the trade and journeyman’s certificates.

� The Examination Boards. Each county has (in principle) at least one board for

each trade/occupation, though in cases where trades/occupations have few

candidates in a particular county, joint boards can be established. Each board

has two members: both with formal competences as well as work experience

(ideally) in the relevant trade.

Norway



4.1 Introduction































4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Norway

Norway has specific national or regional policies to stimulate or support mobility in

initial vocational education and training.

Norway



� Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund. To support educational stays abroad

(including work/learning placements).

� Basic (= Primary and Secondary) Education and Training Policy. To increase

international cooperation in education and training.

� Norwegian policy on internationalisation in education in the perspective of the

Lisbon Strategy 2005. To increase mobility in education and training in general,

and particularly at tertiary level.

� OK-Int (Vocational Training Offices’ Internationalisation Programme in

Mid-Norway) Initiative. Stimulating and facilitating international placements of

IVET apprentices.

Involvement of Ministries The Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research is actively involved in policy

making on transnational mobility in initial vocational education and training. The

first initiative was taken in (approx.) 1990.

Five specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility


Leonardo da Vinci Upper secondary

IVET students &

apprentices, VET

students in tertiary

education, IVET

teachers &

instructors

Ministry of

Education &

Research, via the

EC

Approx 1 mill euro

for grants (+ adm

costs)

NordPlus Junior Stimulate the

interest for and

increase knowledge

about other Nordic

cultures, languages

and living conditions

Primary & Lower

Secondary schools

Schools and other

training institutions

in Upper secondary

Education and

Training (including

IVET), staff, students

and apprentices

The Nordic Council Approx. 2,5 mill euro

in total for all the

Nordic countries

“Gjør det” (“Do it” /

“Tue es”). Bilateral

exchange/placement

programme

Norway - Germany

Give young people

within initial

vocational training,

young

workers/apprentices

and

instructors/teachers

the chance to

practice and to train

their professional

skills in the other

country

Training institutions,

apprentices / IVET

students and

teachers

Ministry of

Education and

Research

Approx 1,1 mill NOK

(140,000 euro)

Norway



Bilateral cooperation

in education

Norway - France

General promotion

of cooperation in the

education sector,

including ensuring

training of

Norwegian

apprentices in

France (Hotel and

catering,

Mechanical trades)

Norwegian

apprentices and

their training

institutions

Ministry of

Education and

Research

4 mill NOK (approx

0,5 mill €)

“Linking Up”,

Mobility programme

similar to the

Leonardo da Vinci

programme,

between Norway on

the one hand and

the 12

pre-accession

countries on the

other

Stimulate and

promote

cooperation in the

education sector (as

a non-EU nation

Norway was/is

excluded from

bilateral mobility

with the

pre-accession

countries under the

Leonardo

programme).


apprentices / IVET

students and

teachers

Ministry of

Education and

Research

Approx 1,5 mill NOK

(200,000 euro) in

2003

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Norway






High involvement Norway indicates that the national government (Ministry of Education and

Research) and the national qualification authorities (Directorate of Education and

Training) are highly involved in IVET mobility.

The national government is involved in

� policy making

� decision making

� financing

The national qualification authorities are involved in


� decision making

Norway


Medium involvement Quite a number of Norwegian institutions have a medium involvement in IVET

mobility.

National education council (SRY = The National Council for Vocational Education

and Training) is involved in

� policy making

� decision making

Employers’ organisations (NHO = Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise) and

Trade unions (LO = Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions) are involved in

� policy making

Employers: public and private organisations and companies (individual enterprises)

are involved in



Branch organisations (several national branch organisations) and Trade unions

(Union of Education Norway) are involved in

� policy making


� decision making

Branch organisations (regional/county), Training Offices owned by the branches)

are involved in




VET institutions (High number of Upper secondary schools) are involved in


� decision making

� financing



VET institutions (several enterprises approved for apprenticeship training) are

involved in

� decision making

� financing


Low involvement Norway indicates that the regional governments (County authorities/Education and

Training department, and County Vocational Training Committee), the Student

Association (Norwegian School Students’ Union) and the Student Association

(National Union of Students in Norway) have a low involvement in IVET mobility.

Norway


No involvement Municipal governments and the Chamber of Commerce are not involved in mobility

in initial vocational education and training.







High benefits Norway indicates that Vet institutions and IVET participants highly benefit from

mobility.

Benefits for the VET institutions (VET upper secondary schools, regional Training

Offices and enterprises with apprentices) sending participants on placements:

1. Improved recruitment to study areas where foreign placements are offered

2. Improvement of own VET delivery (methods, tools, practice)

3. Improvement of own VET staff competencies

4. New impulses, ideas and knowledge about VET in other countries

5. New networks / partners outside Norway for long-term cooperation


1. Personal: Improved foreign language skills, new friends, better self confidence

2. New insights in culture of placement country, especially on gender issues and

culture of work

3. New professional knowledge and skills - Interesting and useful

4. Smooth transfer from training to work

5. Less hesitation regarding working in an international context

Intermediate benefits It is stated that two actors have intermediate benefits.


1. New impulses, ideas and knowledge of markets

2. New contacts in the sending country


1. Improved recruitment to sector/branch/trade

2. Updating of enterprises regarding technologies and markets

3. New networks / partners outside Norway for long-term cooperation

No answer has been given about benefits for employers hiring employees with

transnational mobility experience, because no data are available on this point.


Norway




relevance in Norway. No obstacle is ranked as highly relevant in Norway.

Medium relevance � Lack of autonomy of VET institutions to make decisions on transnational

mobility







friendships

� Lack of labour / tight labour market (SMEs don’t wish to send apprentices)


procedures
















organisations




60% of results based on empirical research evaluation and statistical reports

Norway



In Norway mobility actors applied the following solutions to overcome obstacles:

� Regional cooperation on search for work placements;

� Introduction of preparatory language and culture short-courses by schools and

sending organisations;

� Assistance provided by regional Training Offices and education authorities;

� Motivated individuals in VET institutions without a transnational mobility strategy

or policy make an extra effort in preparing and managing the projects;

� Budgets for international actions at the IVET schools are gradually increasing;

� Application procedures for VET institutions (to county authorities) are gradually

becoming smoother;

� The problem of IVET participants who do not see the benefits of transnational

mobility is decreasing due to better information provided by the school

counsellors;

� On the obstacle that IVET participants lack courage for placements abroad

Norway indicates that there is variation between trades and gender – girls are in

general more courageous than boys;

� The problem of general lack of interest among IVET participants is decreasing

due to better information provided by the school counsellors;

� On the obstacle that IVET participants lack finances for a placement abroad

Norway adds that indeed available budgets are too small to cover all applicants.

Norway added an extraobstacle to the list of 25 in thequestionnaire

For outgoing mobility: lack of financial resources for preparations (particularly

SMEs), lack of non-English language skills, lack of labour / tight labour market

(SMEs don’t wish to send apprentices).

For incoming mobility: high cost country, difficult language, very small companies

without capacity to cater for foreign students.

Norway’s suggestion to diminish these obstacles: preparatory grants should be

available for new applicants.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Norway.

IVET participants in Norway The total numbers of IVET participants in Norway is 117,226

(Including school-based and apprenticeship, 1st October 2005. Preliminary data.)

Norway




Outgoing mobility ánd Incoming mobility are monitored.

The organisation gathering statistical data on mobility in Norway is the Leonardo

da Vinci Agency (also for other programmes) and individual programmes.

Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number of

outgoing mobility*

490 738 671 375


“Linking Up”, “Do it”

and Nordplus

83 400 186 116

Gender Male: 298

Female: 192

Sum: 490

Male: 370

Female: 368

Sum: 738

Male: 336

Female: 323

Sum: 659

Male: 175

Female: 192

Sum: 367

Length of stay ** < 6 weeks: 379

6-12 weeks: 100

3-6 months: 12

> 6 months: 9

< 6 weeks: 627

6-12 weeks: 91

3-6 months: 7

> 6 months: 13

< 6 weeks: 539

6-12 weeks: 116

3-6 months: 3

> 6 months: 1

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

Data based on statistical reports Leonardo da Vinci

* The number of placements under the Linking Up programme has been

registered for each year during the total programme period 2002 – 2004. Two

thirds of total placements under the programme were outside Norway. In the

table, the same distribution is presumed every year (two thirds of total

placements). For the Nordplus Junior programme, it is presumed that one out

of 15 students travel for work placement. This is based on discussion with the

contact person at the programme administration unit in Sweden.

* * All placements in “Linking Up” and “Do it” are less than 6 weeks. The same is

presumed for placements under the Nordplus Junior programme.


Germany

Spain

Slovak Republic

Lithuania

France and United Kingdom

364

201

162

147

143


Norway


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin Norway

In general, the interest for mobility is gradually increasing among potential

participants. This is reflected in the number of applications for grants.

The figure of total mobility has decreased over the last two years due to closure of

the Linking Up programme (2004). The Do It programme (from 2004) has not been

large enough to compensate for this. Decrease in numbers within the Leonardo

programme is due to reallocation of funding between the various measures,

increase of placement duration and higher financing degree. Figures are not

reflecting the interest for placements.


Generally better distribution by country. Less concentration around English

speaking countries and countries where Norwegians often go for holiday (Spain).

Increased interest for placements in the Baltic states and new member countries.

Explanation: targeted stimulation efforts from the Leonardo NA team,

diversification of grants between groups of countries. Long-term effect of

networking and positive experiences from placements under the Linking Up and

Do It programmes which have focussed on specific countries.

Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility*

93 242 199 161

LdV 51 42 61

Linking Up, Do It, Nordplus

Junior

42 200 120 116

Numbers were based on the following presumptions and estimations:

The number of incoming placements under the Linking Up programme has been

registered for the total programme period 2002 – 2004. One third of total

placements under the programme were in Norway. In the table, it was presumed

that this was the distribution every year (one third of total placements).

For the Leonardo da Vinci programme, a rough estimate is that there is one

incoming IVET student for 8 outgoing IVET students. For the Do It programme, the

number of incoming students in 2004 and 2005 was 61 and 119, respectively. For

the Nordplus Junior programme,it was presumed that there is a balance (equality)

between incoming and outgoing students and that one out of 15 students travel for

work placement. (Based on communication with the contact person at the

programme administration unit in Sweden).

Countries from where mostparticipants of incomingmobility came over the pastfour years.

No data available

Norway


Trends and developments innumbers and countries ofincoming mobility

Even though there are no (reliable) figures, the Norwegian impression is that there

are few IVET placements of non-Norwegians in Norway. They can see several

possible explanations for this:

� Norway is a high cost country and available funds for placements reach further

in other countries for the funding agency, the sending organisation and the

beneficiary.

� Norway is not an EU member state and hence is less attractive for institutions

and beneficiaries that wish to network for future collaboration and / or learn a

useful language.

� The cold climate.

� Fear of language problems, especially for those who do not speak English.

� Possibly more difficult to find appropriate and willing host enterprises in

Norway, as the number and variety of enterprises are much lower than in most

EU countries. Furthermore, the vast majority of companies are very small and

busy with little capacity to cater for IVET students. Many managers in these

companies also lack (self confidence in own) foreign language skills.

Norway


Poland

447

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Poland



1 Initial vocational education and training inPoland

1.1 IVET programme

There are two types of obligations in Poland - a school obligation and an education

obligation. Schooling becomes obligatory during the calendar year of a child’s 6th

birthday and remains mandatory until the child turns 16, but the education

obligation lasts until the completion of the age of 18. This means that children must

remain in the school system until their 16th birthday, and after that they may leave

the school system but they are obliged to continue their education until they turn

18. Pupils first attend primary school and then a lower secondary school. After

graduation from lower secondary education (typically at age 16) pupils have the

following options:

� 3-year profiled general secondary school (liceum profilowane)- providing general

education and offering tuition in individual general vocational profiles, leading to

secondary school-leaving certificate (matura); the profiled general secondary

school (liceum profilowane) is a new type of school and a new educational

pathway implemented as a result of the 1999 educational reform. This type of

school, besides general education, provides education in general vocational

profiles. Education in a liceum profilowane starts at the age of 16 and lasts 3

years. The 15 profiles of general vocational education correspond to the

categories of activities listed in the Polish Classification of Activities – PKD. The

most popular profiles chosen by pupils are: administration- 27.3% of pupils,

information management –25.9% and service –14.5%.

� 4-year technical secondary school- awarding a vocational qualification diploma.

Furthermore secondary school-leaving certificate (matura) can be obtained after

completion of the fourth grade of the school; Technical secondary schools

(technikum) enable the acquisition of both an upper secondary school-leaving

certificate (matura) and vocational qualifications to the level of technician. Pupils

start their education in technical secondary schools at the age of 16 and finish

in 4 years. The most popular vocations offered by technical secondary schools

are: accountant, mechanic, electronics specialist, and salesperson.

� 3-year supplementary technical secondary school –awarding a vocational

qualification diploma, leading up to a matura, for basic vocational school

leavers. It provides a follow-up curriculum to that of the basic vocational school.

Its goal is to bring the pupils’ education up to the intermediate level and prepare

them for the examination confirming their vocational qualifications and for the

matura exam. At completion, pupils are awarded the technikum leaving

certificate, provided they have received no fail marks at the end of the final year.

Poland


� 2-3 year basic vocational school - awarding a vocational qualification diploma;

The length of the programme depends on the vocation. The duration of

education for particular vocations is indicated in “The Classification of Vocations

for Vocational Schooling” (klasyfikacja zawodów szkolnych). The most popular

vocations in the 2-year schools are: a shop-assistant, a cook and a gardener,

and in 3-year schools: an automobile mechanic, a hairdresser and a baker.

� 2.5 year post-secondary schools- awarding a vocational qualification diploma,

for graduates from general secondary schools ( starting their operation in 2005);

� 3-year special schools preparing for work for pupils mentally or physically

handicapped – awarding a certificate confirming preparation for work.

The proportion of total curricular time spent on general subjects (e.g. Polish

language, one foreign language in basic vocational schools and two foreign

languages in secondary technical schools, history, introduction to sociology,

mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc.) and on vocational subjects (including

theoretical and practical vocational subjects) are specified in general teaching

plans, prepared by the minister of education. In the case of technical secondary

schools vocational subjects are 36% of all hours in the entire cycle of education. In

basic vocational schools vocational subjects are 53% of all hours.

The Polish VET system may be described as strongly school-based. One of the

drawbacks of the system is the low standard of practical training. Cooperation

between schools and enterprises is limited.

Practical vocational training is organised in the form of practical instruction classes

at school or vocational placements. In basic vocational schools practical training

consumes around 50% of all hours envisaged for vocational subjects. In technical

secondary schools this proportion varies from 10% to 38%. Vocational placements

lasting 4 weeks are organised once or twice in the education cycle. In general

employers show little interest in training pupils; the percentage of pupils who

receive their practical vocational training in an employer’s company is small.

Vocational examination involves two stages: the written part and the practical part.

Requirement standards for the examination confirming vocational qualifications for

those occupations which are taught in basic vocational schools and

post-secondary schools have been established and published by the Central

Examination Commission.

Those who have acquired knowledge and skills in non-formal education may

demonstrate these competencies before state examination panels and acquire a

formal qualification32. Examinations are organised by craft chambers.

There are ongoing efforts to develop a system of standards that would facilitate

comparison of qualifications, certificates and diplomas acquired in the formal as

well as the non-formal system of education. There were plans to develop national

vocational qualification standards for approx. 40 professions by the end of 2004,

including a proposal for a legal and organisational framework for the

implementation of the system.

Poland


In the Polish education system, apprenticeship training appears as a special type

of vocational education and training. It exists mainly for craft workers. In 2001,

12% of VET students accounted for this category.

Apprenticeship training aimed at acquiring a diploma of skilled worker or an

apprentice, theoretical education in the school system comprises of core curricula

for particular vocations (level of basic vocational school), vocational education

takes between 24 and 36 months. Pupils have a status of a trainee juvenile worker.

Apprenticeship training aimed at preparation for performing a particular job. The

employer defines the curriculum and practical training takes 3 to 6 months and

leads to the qualification of non-skilled worker.

The apprenticeship training in Poland is organised in small and medium

enterprises, mainly in handicrafts. The employers are usually members of a guild or

a chamber of handicrafts. A particular chamber of handicrafts or appointed guild

supervises the apprenticeship training of juvenile workers. According to data

provided by the Polish Association of Crafts, in the 2003/2004 school year, in 34.5

thousand enterprises, 85 thousand juvenile workers were undergoing

apprenticeship training in various crafts. Most of the juvenile workers (80-85%)

completed their theoretical education in basic vocational schools, and the rest,

coming mostly from rural areas and small towns, in out-of-school education.

The most common occupations were: automobile mechanic, hairdresser,

carpenter and baker. Juvenile workers who receive initial training for a given job

are entitled to compensation representing no less than 4% of the monthly average

salary in the national economy.

In 2003 about 54% of students in upper secondary were enrolled in vocational

programmes. Despite the fact that the percentage has been declining for a number

of years the participation in VET is still high, due to the popular technical

secondary stream.

Poland



The management and administration of the education system, including the VET

system, has a 4-level structure resulting from the administrative division of the

country. For IVET however, it is a 3-level structure, since the local authorities are

not involved in governing IVET.

� The educational policy is formulated and implemented centrally at the level of

the Ministry of Education and Sport. The Minister of Education and Sport, by

means of regulations and detailed arrangements, creates a legal framework for

functioning of all educational establishments, including vocational education

and training. The Minister of Education and Sport co-operates with other branch

ministers supervising vocational schools. The Minister of Education and Sport

accepts the curricula and approves the textbooks that can be used in both

general and vocational education. Furthermore, the Minister of Education and

Sport partly supervises the operation of school superintendents(kurators).

� The regional authorities (województwa) mainly play a co-ordinating role; they

supervise the implementation of the national policy and provide pedagogical

supervision. The representative of the educational authority at this level is a

school superintendent (kurator), who is appointed by the head of the regional

government (wojewoda). The regional authorities also run schools and

educational establishments of regional significance, including schools for

medical staff and social workers, public establishments for teacher training and

development, as well as teachers’ libraries. The body running a school or an

educational establishement supervises the financial and administrative aspects

of its activity i.e. budget realisation, property management, as well as issues

relating to organisation of school/educational institution’s work.

� The district authorities (powiaty) and their heads (starosta) are in charge of

managing upper secondary education (including vocational education),

post-secondary schools and special schools (primary and secondary), sports

schools and schools of sports mastery, practical and continuing education

centres, psychological and pedagogical centres.

A new system of financing the education has been introduced in 1999 as part of

the reform towards a more decentralised administration. The expenditure on

education by the local government is increasing. General subsidies from the state

budget are further distributed autonomously by local self-governments to schools.

The Ministry of Finance allocates financial resources to three levels of regional

government, which have autonomy to decide how to use the resources and they

are responsible for the funding of all schools in the given region. These financial

resources are allocated in line with the principle ‘money follows the pupil’. Private

schools get 50% of the resources (per student) allocated to state schools.

By now Poland has a decentralised funding system in which 93% of basic and

secondary VET schools (95% public) are managed by self governance.

Poland


3 Stakeholders

The institutional framework necessary for social dialogue in Poland was created in

the early 1990s. Initially, however, the prime interest of the social partners was

focused on social and economic issues. Recently their involvement in VET-related

matters has been increasing due to employers’ need to improve the quality of their

products and services as well as a requirement to increase worker labour market

mobility.

The main institutional platform for social partners’ involvement in VET at national

level is the Tripartite Commission on Socio-Economic Issues (Komisja Trójstronna

ds. Spoleczno-Gospodarczych) established by resolution of the Council of

Ministers of 15th February 1994. The Tripartite Commission is composed of

representatives of public administration, employers (e.g. Business Centre Club,

Confederation of Polish Employers, Polish Confederation of Private Employers,

Association of Polish Crafts and the National Chamber of Commerce), the largest

trade unions (NSZZ Solidarnosc, OPZZ and Trade Unions’ Forum) as well as some

sectoral trade unions. All these organisations function in 2 capacities in the VET

field: both as consultative bodies and as initiators of legal measures.

Another body for social dialogue at national level is the Central Employment Board

(Naczelna Rada Zatrudnienia) which fulfils an advisory role to the Minister of

Labour. It consists of representatives of public administration, employers’

organisations, trade unions and representatives of territorial self-governments. It is

consulted on, amongst other things, issues concerning training for unemployed

people, programmes promoting employment, planning and use of the Labour Fund

(state purpose fund).

Furthermore, social partners participate in task forces of the Education Committee

in the Polish Parliament as well as for the Ministry of National Education and Sport

in regard to the reform of the VET system. They also participate in agreements with

the Ministry, for example, in 2002 the Ministry was looking for social partners

willing to sign agreements to improve the quality of vocational education,

particularly practical education, and to broaden its technical base by taking

advantage of enterprise capacities. Between 2002/2004, the Minister signed

agreements with 10 partners, some of which had had years of collaboration

whereas for others it was a first step.

A relatively new consultation structure for VET issues are regional commissions for

social dialogue, established on the basis of the Act of 6th July, 2001. They consist of

representatives of regional administration, employers’ organisations, trade unions

and representatives of regional self-government, sometimes the representatives of

district self-governments are also invited to the meetings. The commissions meet at

least once every 3 months and discuss social and economic matters crucial for the

region, including questions of education organisation and financing.

Poland


There is an important agreement between the Ministry of Education and the Polish

Confederation of Employers (2003), which aims to support the development of a

network of enterprises that provide practical training for pupils and students, assist

schools in improving their facilities and develop professional skills of teachers

3.1 Internationalisation

Poland entered into the TEMPUS program in 1990. In 1998 Poland began

participating in the Socrates programmes and in the academic year 1998/99, 46

institutions participated in the Erasmus Programmes. By academic year 2002/03,

129 institutions were participating. Academic year 2001/2002 saw 4323 Polish

students making use of Erasmus to study abroad, whereas in the same year only

792 students came to Poland to study through the same programme. To stimulate

the mobility of students and especially to counteract the imbalance in the number

of incoming and outgoing students, the Conference of Rectors of Academic

Schools in Poland (CRASP) has developed a catalogue of programmes and

courses taught in English at Polish institutions of higher education. The Ministry of

Education has identified two areas that would help institutions profit more from the

Socrates programs: Improvement of subject matter -new content and didactic

methodology- and improved management and administration of a number of

institutions of higher education. Poland has bilateral agreements with a number of

countries for the recognition of credentials.

Since xxxxxxxxxx Poland is participating in the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Poland



4.1 Introduction































Poland


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Poland


In Poland several national policies are in place that either directly or indirectly

support and stimulate mobility in IVET. These policies are:

Education Development Strategy for 2007-2013. The aim of this policy is to

prepare for mobility in an international education space and in an international

labour market market through:

� Opening the Polish education system to pupils, students, teachers and tutors

from abroad, which will involve the development of foreign language curricula

and the creation of relevant accommodation facilities;

� Exchange programmes for pupils, students and continuing education

participants;

� Foreign mobility projects for teachers and tutors;

� Developing the system for an international recognition of vocational

qualifications, periods of study, certificates and diplomas.

� Pupils, students, teachers and tutors, continuing education learners form the

target group of this policy. The policy is funded through the state budget, ESF

OP ‘Education and Competence’ and ERDF (European Regional Development

Fund) –regional programmes.

Continuing Education Development Strategy until 2010. The objectives of this

policy are:

� Creating favourable conditions for improving vocational qualifications by those

employed in different sectors of national economy;

� Increasing access to information about vocational education and training;

� Development of examination systems, validation of vocational qualifications

acquired in formal, non-formal and informal setting, including self-learning and

work-related experiences;

� Development of the system of national vocational education standards.

� The policy targets at: Pupils and school leavers (all types of vocational schools),

continuing education learners, including employees. In addition to the state

budget and ESF projects, the policy is funded by employers and by revenues of

local governments.

National Employment Strategy for 2007-2013. The concrete objectives of this

policy are:

� Improving the quality of personnel dealing with the challenges posed by the

inevitable globalisation and competitiveness of individual economies;

� Training aimed to acquire competences and skills related to a new occupation;

� Development of the EURES network for supporting workers’ mobility.

� School leavers, employees, unemployed and job seekers are the target groups

of this policy, which is funded from the state budget and from three European

funds, namely ESF, ERDF and the Social Cohesion Fund. The total budget for

the training component is € 254 million.

Poland


Social Policy Strategy for 2007-2013. The mobility objectives of this policy are:

� Development of international contacts between young people;

� Social inclusion and vocational inclusion of immigrants.

The policy targets at youth and immigrants and is funded through the state budget

and ESF projects.

National Strategic Frame of Reference For 2007-2013 promoting economic growth

and employment2 . The more concrete mobility objective of this policy is to

promote sustainable economic growth, to increase competitiveness and

employment through the implementation of operational programmes: ‘Human

Capital‘, ‘European Territorial Community’, ‘Competitive Economy’. The policy will

target at youth, academic and research staff, border region communities and will

be funded from State budget and EU funds (ESF, ERDF, Cohesion Fund).

Involvement of Ministries In Poland both the Ministry of National Education (MEN) and Ministry of Labour

and Social Policy (MPiPS) are involved in IVET transnational mobility. Their

involvement is an interdepartmental cooperation, which concerns:

� Giving opinion on mobility in draft strategic documents of the Government;

� Initiating and giving opinion on mobility in mobility-related projects to be

implemented as part of EU-financed programmes;

� Promoting mobility and disseminating information in the form of seminars,

conferences, Internet releases and other forms.

Given this interdepartmental cooperation and the fact that in Poland there is no

separate document, which would be entirely devoted to international IVET mobility,

Poland indicates that it is difficult to say which of the two Ministries was the

initiator of policy making in the area of transnational mobility in IVET. Certain

aspects pertaining to mobility were included in the “Continuing Education

Development Strategy Until 2010” and in the “Education Development Strategy for

2007-2013”. Both these documents were initiated by the Ministry of National

Education. The approval of the Diploma Supplement form according to the

Europass formula (Ordinance of the Minister for Education and Sport of 23 July

2004, Dziennik Ustaw No. 182, item 1881) can be regarded as the first initiative in

the area of policy making for mobility in IVET.

Poland


2 It concerns a preliminary draft of this policy.

Seven specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Poland

Name of

programme


budget

Leonardo da

Vinci

Priority 1: promoting transparency

of qualifications

Priority 2: developing the quality of

VET systems and practices

Priority 3: developing relevant and

innovative e-learning content

Priority 4: continuous training of

teachers and trainers

Pupils of secondary

vocational education,

University students,

Graduates,

Young employees,

Teachers and trainers.

EU In 2006:

12,942,000

EUR

Pupils of

secondary

vocational

education

(4,529,700

EUR)

University

students

(3,882,600

EUR)

Graduates,

Young

employees

(3,235,500

EUR)

Teachers and

trainers

(1,294,200

EUR)

Development

and

dissemination

of national

vocational

qualifications

standards

To identify the qualifications

required by the employed to

perform specific occupations/

specialisations.

To prepare the descriptions of 200

national vocational qualification

standards based on the identified

requirements (in consultation with

sectoral organisations and other

stakeholders). To disseminate

national vocational qualification

standards and to conduct research

on the application of the standards

by different user groups.

Professional

associations, national

employer organisations

and national trade union

organisations.

Public employment

services at regional level

and district labour

offices, including career

planning and information

centres.

Job agencies.

Training institutions:

continuing education

centres, practical

training centres, further

training centres,

vocational schools,

tertiary education

institutions, vocational

training centres, etc.

ESF SOP -

HRD Measure

1.1.

Development

and

modernisatio

n of labour

market

instruments

and

institutions

(MPiPS)

6,650,000

PLN

Poland


Name of

programme


budget

Voluntary Labour

Regiments (OHP).

Other organisational

units: ministries and

central government

offices and their

agendas, in particular

the Central Examination

Board and Regional

Examination Boards and

institutions in charge of

regulated professions.

Development

of innovative

VET curricula

To improve the quality of vocational

education and training responsive

to the labour market needs and to

equalise the educational chances of

young people regarding access to

vocational education, based on

modular curricula.

To develop 131 modular curricula

for specific occupations and about

3,860 educational packages having

the form of guidebooks for pupils

and for teachers (separately)

Pupils and teachers of all

types of vocational

schools.

Continuing education

centres and practical

training centres.

ESF SOP -

HRD Measure

2.2.

Improving the

quality of

education

(MEN)

5,842,000

PLN for 2006

Developing

the Nursing

Sector in

Europe

To identify reasons for mobility, its

advantages and barriers, such as

lack of recognition of vocational

qualifications, and to indicate ways

in which these could be overcome,

using exampled from countries

participating in the project.

To analyse reasons for emigration,

which will help answer the question

how the shortage of qualified

nurses and midwives can be

prevented.

To prepare reports and analyses

presenting the updated information

and conclusions which will be

formulated during partner

cooperation while implementing the

project.

Nurses and midwives

from four countries:

Poland, Italy, Slovenia

and the Czech Republic

European

Commission

as part of the

European

Year of

Workers’

Mobility

Poland


Name of

programme


budget

Partnership of

Eastern

European

cities –

towards

effective

workers’

mobility

To promote workers’ mobility in the

single European market .

Representatives of local

governments from

Poland, Czech Republic

and Hungary.

European

Commission

as part of the

European

Year of

Workers’

Mobility

To coordinate the activities of

institutions responsible for

combating unemployment and

stimulation of enterprise.

To create an innovative form of

stimulating the single market via a

four-language website generating

job adverts from Poland, the Czech

Republic and Hungary.

To prepare young workers from

partner cities, local and business

governments to be able to

cooperate effectively as partners.

To work out lasting cooperation

models related to labour market

organisation.

To prepare, and distribute among

local government institutions and

community organisations, a

multimedia presentation entitled:

‘Conditions of employing foreigners

working in partner cities’.

Pupils from lower

secondary schools in

Œwidnica eligible to take

part in the competition

‘My Idea of Future Work‘

To publish, and distribute in partner

cities, a leaflet entitled: ‘Workers’

mobility in the EU and partnership

between cities – guidebook for

local government representatives

and civil society institutions’.

To sign the ‘Pact’ which will secure

joint activities on the local labour

markets.

Poland


Name of

programme


budget

‘Catch a job’

project

To introduce issues related to

vocational and geographical

mobility through raising awareness

and disseminating information

about benefits of taking up a job in

a new occupation and of working

abroad.

To prepare a radio programme by

Radio Kraków SA, entitled ‘Catch a

job’. This is a programme specially

addressed to those who intend to

take up lawful employment in EU

countries in the near future.

Job seekers abroad

Labour Office in Kraków

European

Commission

as part of the

European

Year of

Workers’

Mobility

Experts of the Regional Labour

Office in Kraków will advise on how

and where to seek a job in EU

Member States, how to prepare for

it and what documents and

qualifications are needed to take up

a job abroad

European

Mobility

Roadshow

To promote the European

dimension of mobility and

knowledge about the benefits

related to spatial and vocational

mobility, raising awareness about

the rights and obligations arising

from the right of free movement of

individuals in EU/EEA countries and

to promote EURES services.

To organise (in September and

October) the passage of a bus

furnished with information materials

and PC workstations across the

countries participating in the

project.

Public employment

services from France,

Poland, Belgium,

Germany, Finland,

Latvia, Czech Republic,

Hungary and Italy.

Communities of selected

cities from the countries

participating in the

project

European

Commission

as part of the

European

Year of

Workers’

Mobility

During stopovers, EURES advisers

will provide information about the

services offered by the European

Employment Services; also jobs will

be advertised and additional events

will be organised.

Poland


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Poland






High involvement Poland indicates that four stakeholders have a high involvement in IVET


� European Union: policy making, activating and stimulating and financing;

� National government or the Ministry of Labour: policy making, activating and

stimulating, decision making and financing;

� National government or the Ministry of Education: policy making, activating and

stimulating, decision making and financing;

� National Leonardo da Vinci Agency: activating and stimulating.

Medium involvement A range of stakeholders has a medium involvement in transnational mobility in IVET

in Poland:

� Regional and Municipal governments: activating and stimulating, financing;

� Employer organisations and employers (companies): activating and stimulating,

financing, approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants;

� Branch organisations: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and


� Chambers of commerce: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and


� VET institutions: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and accrediting

placements and coaching of participants;

� Student associations: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and

accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

Low involvement Trade unions in Poland are involved in IVET transnational mobility, but on a low

level. The try to activate and stimulate mobility.






Poland has not only indicated for each of the group of potential beneficiaries what

the experienced benefits are, but also for each benefit (within a group of

beneficiaries) whether these benefits were high, intermediate or small.

Poland


High benefits The following benefits are considered to be high benefits for each of the group of

potential beneficiaries:

� VET institutions sending participants on placements: Improved prestige and

status of a given institution among other VET providers and potential clients.

� Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement:

Attracting new staff who will strengthen the company’s existing potential.

� Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience: Opportunity

to start cooperation in future projects.

� IVET participants: i) confirmation of acquiring new vocational competences and

experiences and ii) Improved foreign language communication skills.

� Branch organisations: Promotion of a given sector on the international scene.

Intermediate benefits Poland mentions the following intermediate benefits for the different groups of

beneficiaries:

� VET institutions sending participants on placements: i) Increased competition on

the educational services market and ii) Making the practical aspects of a given

training programme more attractive.

� Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement:

Transfer of new experiences – for the employers.

� Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience: Opportunity

to observe competitors and see innovations.

� IVET participants: Testing one’s skills in an new environment.

� Branch organisations: i) levelling differences in the vocational qualifications of

staff and ii) obtaining information about actual requirements in employing staff.

Little benefits Though small, in addition the different group of beneficiaries experience the

following benefits:

� VET institutions sending participants on placements: i) establishing new

institutional and personal contacts and ii) external evaluation of the quality of

participants’ preparedness to perform in a different environment.

� Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement: i)

increased profitability of the company and ii) opportunity for promoting the

company in other countries.

� Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experience: i) levelling

differences in the qualifications of staff, ii) improving work conditions and iii)

implementing the company strategy.

� IVET participants: i) verifying if the parent IVET institution satisfactorily prepares

participants to perform in the European labour market and ii) opportunity to

make contacts which could help find a job in the future.

� Branch organisations: i) establishing new business contacts and ii) enhancing

work conditions and future prospects for the sector.

Poland



Poland indicates that few obstacles are considered to have little or hardly

relevance. Twelve obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another ten obstacles

have an intermediate relevance.


procedures





organisations




mobility





Medium relevance � Lack of cooperation between ministries



� Employers do not know how to handle an transnational placement


� A placement abroad does not fit in the home school curriculum\





friendships




80% of results indicated by empirical research, statistics or evaluation reports



Concrete solutions mentioned by Poland are mainly embedded in existing

European programmes and initiatives such as:

� EURES network

� Europass

� EYWM projects


� Socrates

Poland



� A substantial number of solutions to overcome specific obstacles have been

proposed by Poland:

� Supplementing IVET curricula with the required knowledge and further teacher

training;

� Creating IVET networks, collecting information by career advisors at schools;

� Preparing a separate strategy for IVET;

� Setting up a coordination team, regular meeting to monitor activities;

� Increasing the number of hours of obligatory foreign language instruction,

teacher exchange involving different European countries;

� Promoting Europass in the employers’ community;

� Creating a network of institutions authorised to recognise vocational

qualifications;

� Implementing a system of national vocational qualifications;

� Developing a programme for including sectoral organisations in the promotion

of workers mobility;

� Initiating and supporting IVET mobility projects under ESF SOP-HRD;

� Promoting good European and national practices at local, regional and national

levels;

� Adopting more favourable legislations;

� Introducing flexible forms of employment and adapting labour law regulations;

� Obligating IVET institutions to prepare international mobility strategies as a form

of preparing detailed national strategy;

� Making regulations of law more flexible;

� Development of motivation systems for managers;

� Introducing independent full-time positions for staff responsible for international

projects in IVET institutions;

� Introducing modular IVET curricula allowing for a flexible adaptation of the

teaching content to the requirement of the work environment;

� Developing databases of employers willing to employ IVET participants;

� Identification of non-teaching positions in IVET institutions;

� Simplifying the document load to the required minimum;

� Developing electronic circulation of documents;

� Introducing information packages in IVET institutions;

� Introducing work-related issues into foreign language curricula;

� Introducing foreign language instruction into theoretical VET curricula;

� Radio and TV programmes discussing issues of mobility;

� Publication of information materials;

� Organisation of intensive language training for participants with the participation

of language teachers from the target country;

� Scholarships for the poorest participants;

� Favourable regulations of law;

� Developing solutions facilitating geographical and vocational mobility, e.g.

ensuring children care;

� Setting up mobility teams at schools;

� Adapting curricula to address mobility needs.

Poland


Other solutions proposed More in general, Poland proposes the following solutions to overcome obstacles

for mobility:

� Including research on IVET mobility in the statistics published by the Central

Statistical Office;

� Development of bilateral cooperation concerning mobility between IVET

institutions;

� Development of a coherent migration policy, similarly to other EU countries;

� Development of programmes relating to the recruitment of qualified labour from

abroad;

� Preparing a diagnosis of the IVET mobility situation as a study which is regularly

updated on an annual basis.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Poland.

IVET participants in Poland Total number of IVET participants: 1,415,800 participants of IVET in the school

forms at all levels – lower secondary to tertiary.


In Poland outgoing mobility is only monitored for the Leonardo da Vince

Programme (National Agency). Incoming mobility is not monitored.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility*

1,799 1,885 5,120 5,657

* Numbers include all levels of (I)VET. The total numbers of (I)VET participants in

mobility under Leonardo are (slightly) lower. Especially in 2004 and 2005

mobility numbers under Leonardo are considerably lower. This could be due to

the fact that mobility of “workers” might be included as well (see also section on

explanations for trends).

Poland



Programme:

Leonardo da Vinci

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

IVET: 1 159* IVET: 1 276* IVET: 2 783* IVET: 3 676*

Gender ** Male: 839 (IVET:514)

Female: 960 (IVET:

645)

Male: 932

(IVET: 615)

Female: 953 (IVET:

661)

no data available no data available

Sector** Agriculture: 141

Technique: 128

Economics: 31


Agriculture: 217

Technique: 83

Economics: 4



Length of stay** < 6 weeks: 1 134

6-12 weeks: 264

3-6 months: 298

> 6 months: 103

< 6 weeks: 980

6-12 weeks: 293

3-6 months: 490

> 6 months: 122


Results indicated by statistics of Leonardo da Vinci

* Numbers for IVET include pupils of secondary vocational education and

university students

** Numbers by gender, sector and length of stay include all target group: pupils of

secondary vocational education, university students, graduates and young

employees, teachers and trainers




France

United Kingdom

Italy

Spain

1 400*

238

207

206

88

Results indicated by statistics of Leonardo da Vinci

* Numbers include pupils of secondary vocational education and university

students


There is an increase in outgoing mobility.

Explanation: Freedom of movement within the EU, wish to test one’s skills and

capabilities, opportunity to take up a paid job, initiative (encouragement) on the

part of those who have already left the country and are working/studying abroad.


Not a real change in priority of countries, but the number of participants going to

these countries have increased.

Explanations given: Labour market opened for Poles, large number of emigrants

who have settled in a given country, good standards of living in a given country,

Polish workers are highly valued.

Poland


Portugal

469

Introduction





are:

















only questions about to obstacles experienced with regard to transnational

mobility in IVET and the way in which they had been solved, but also addressed

issues of national and regional or sectoral policies and programmes in IVET, the













presented.

Portugal



1 Initial vocational education and training inPortugal

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Portugal is 9 years, starting at age 6 until age 15 (there is

legislation underway for an extension to 12 year). Compulsory education consists

of basic education, which is divided into three cycles of three years each. Basically

the first two cycles can be interpreted as being primary education and the third

cycle as being lower secondary education.

At the end of basic education, pupils can opt for two directions: general education

or vocational training. The general education route, known as Science-humanities

courses, prepares young people for entry into tertiary education and provides a

secondary education diploma. The vocational route provides in principle a double

qualification (depending on the particular programme option taken) and gives

students both a secondary education diploma and a vocational qualification with

which they can enter the labour market.

There are two vocational training sub-systems, one within the educational system

and one under the labour market policy regime. Enrolling in the latter type of

vocational training is, however, not part of the intended regular route. Labour

market training is primarily intended for those young people who left the

educational system without the necessary qualifications.

Initial vocational training within the educational system, comprises various

vocational courses, some of which seem to be more intended as adult vocational

training then as IVET for young people entering at the age of 15 after completion of

basic education. The options are:

� Youth education and training courses (Cursos de Educação e Formação de

jovens): these courses aim at the conclusion of schooling of 6, 9 or 12 years and

simultaneously, prepare young people for the entry into the labour market with

academic and professional qualifications. Pupils who conclude these courses

are awarded an academic certification equivalent to the 6th , 9th or 12th year of

schooling and a level 1, 2 or 3 vocational qualification certificate. Given the

nature of the courses (they can be taken as part of basic education), the partially

are within lower secondary education. Only courses taken and concluded after

the 9th year of schooling (in this case the courses concluded at the 12th year of

schooling) are therefore part of upper secondary IVET.

� Technological courses (Cursos Tecnológicos), which serve the dual purpose of

equipping students for entry into working life and progression to further studies,

qualifying them for post-secondary technological specialisation courses as well

as university or polytechnic courses. They confer a diploma of secondary

education and a level 3 vocational qualification certificate;

Portugal


� Vocational courses (Cursos Profissionais): these courses are designed to

provide initial qualification training for entry into the labour market, but they also

provide upon completiong an educational certification equivalent to secondary

education, which enables those who graduate to progress into to further

studies. Graduates also receive a level 3 vocational qualification certificate;

� Specialised art courses (Cursos Artístico Especializado), that, on completion

and depending on the study area, enable young people both to progress into

further studies and to enter the labour market with a vocational level 3

qualification. Graduates receive in principle, also the secondary education

diploma.

� Second chance courses in basic and secondary education (Cursos do Ensino

Recorrente (Ensino Básico Recorrente e no Ensino Secundário Recorrente):

these courses are intended to provide a second learning opportunity to access

schooling for people who did once go to school, but for one reason or another

did not complete it, and a first opportunity for those who never went. Theses

courses are organized according to a study plan and lead to a degree, diploma

or a certificate equivalent to general education certification. Though it is

perceived as being part of the vocational training system in Portugal, it is not

very likely that it is really part of IVET given the nature of the programmes and

its potential target group.

� Technological Specialisation courses (Cursos de Especialização Tecnológica).

Technological specialisation courses are post-secondary, non-tertiary training

courses that may be taken in the same or a related vocational area in which a

trainee has previously obtained a level 3 vocational qualification. This vocational

pathway aims at providing a level 4 vocational qualification (the so-called

technological specialisation diploma) and also allows the progression into

further studies, e.g. specific courses in higher education (in accordance with the

regulations on special conditions for admission to higher education).

The vocational training programmes that are actually part of the labour market

system, are:

� Apprenticeship courses (Cursos do Sistema de Aprendizagem): apprenticeship

courses constitute an alternance-based initial vocational training scheme that

can lead to certification corresponding with the level 1, 2, 3 or 4 vocational

qualifications that can be obtained through vocational training within the

educational system.

� Initial qualification courses (Cursos de Qualificação Inicial) are designed to

develop personal, social and vocational skills among first job-seekers, and

facilitate their transition into working life.

� Youth education and training courses (Cursos de Educação e Formação de

jovens) aim at the conclusion of schooling of 6, 9 or 12 years and,

simultaneously, preparing young people for the entry into the labour market with

academic and professional qualifications. They are awarded a academic

certification equivalent to the 6th , 9th or 12th year of schooling and a level 1, 2

or 3 vocational qualification certificate.

Portugal


Apart from the initial qualification courses, vocational training programmes in the

context of labour market policies, are equivalent to ‘regular’ vocational training

programmes within the educational system. The main difference is that labour

market vocational training is perceived as an apprenticeship type of training and

that the responsibility resides with the Ministry of Labour (see also next section).

Next to the labour market vocational training programmes mentioned above,

labour market vocational training also encompasses sector-specific training

courses:

� Training for the tourism sector, provided by Hotel and Tourism Training Centres

and run by the Tourism Training Institute. The courses can vary from 1-year to

3-year courses.

� Agricultural vocational training under the responsibility of the Ministry of

Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries. Training is delivered through a

network of Agricultural Training Centres.

� Health sector training for health care professionals under the responsibility of

the Ministry of Health.

The IVET programmes within the educational system (including the upper

secondary part of the youth education and training courses) that lead to a level 2

vocational qualification, last 3 years and basically have the same structure. They

encompass a socio-cultural component that is common to all courses and takes

1,000 hours, a scientific component that is common to all courses in the same area

and takes 500 hours and a technical component that varies from course to course

and includes a mandatory period of workplace training. This component takes

1,600 hours, 420 of which are devoted to workplace training.

Labour market vocational training programmes or apprenticeship programmes are

run by the Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (IEFP). Duration of the

programmes depends on the qualification level to be achieved; a level 3

qualification requires, for instance, 4,000 to 4,500 hour of training. The

programmes encompass in principle the same components as the programmes

within the educational system. Workplace learning has to constitute at least 30%

of the total curricular time and is complemented by simulated workplace learning.

Apprenticeship pathways are organised within the following training areas:

Secretarial Management/Administration and Administrative Work; Trade; Beauty

Care; Fisheries - Maritime and Agricultural Activity; Agricultural and Animal

Production; Floriculture and Gardening and Silviculture and Game; Food

Industries; Environmental Protection; Handicrafts, Handicrafts - Goldsmith;

Materials - Glass; Materials - Ceramics; Banking and Insurance; Textiles, Clothing,

Footwear and Leather goods; Building and Civil Engineering; Electronics and

Automation; Electricity and Energy; Electricity and Energy - Refrigeration and

Air-conditioning; Electricity and Energy - Energy; Hotel and Catering; Tourism and

Leisure; Mining, Audiovisual and Media Production - Printing; Chemical

Engineering, Computer Science; Materials - Wood and Furniture; Materials - Cork;

Motor Vehicle Construction and Repair - Vehicle Maintenance and Repair;

Metallurgy and Machinery – Constructional.

Portugal



The governance of Portugal’s education and training system can be characterised

as a mixture of centralised and decentralised structures. It is centralised in terms of

major policy measures and main curricular, pedagogical and financial directives. At

these levels no regional policy structures are involved2 . It is decentralised in the

sense that regional structures are installed as well (more strongly so for IVET falling

under the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour ad Solidarity) and the IVET

providers have a certain administrative and managerial autonomy.

The education system is administered by the Ministry of Education’s (ME), regional

and local departments, and by education establishments. At national level, the

General Directorate of Innovation and Curricular Development is responsible for

the planning and coordination of each educational’s level management and

administration. The General Directorate of Vocational Training is responsible for the

integration of education and vocational training.

At the regional level, the five Education Regional Directorates carry out the

responsibilities of the ME in terms of guidelines and coordination. Local

administrations carry out some responsibility for coordination. Secondary schools

enjoy administrative and managerial autonomy.

The (work related) training system is the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and

Social Solidarity. Administration of the training systems under this Ministry is

carried out by the Institute of Employment and Vocational Training (IEFP after its

Portuguese abbreviation). The IEFP, which has a tripartite management structure,

has five regional delegations responsible for the running of the Directly-managed

Vocational Training Centres. These centres are IEFP operational units responsible

for programming, preparation, implementation, support and evaluation of

vocational training schemes. This network consists of 33 centres, plus 2 vocational

rehabilitation centres. Another type of Vocational training centre are the

Jointly-managed Training Centres, which are jointly managed by IEFP and

employers’ or trade union associations. There is presently a network of 29 centres.

IVET, irrespective whether it is part of the educational system or part of the labour

market system, is mainly funded from public sources. In the case of the IVET

programmes within the educational system, funding comes from the Ministry of

Education (or: the national budget) and from the European Social Fund. Depending

on the type of programme, the contribution from ESF can be quite substantial.

Public providers get fully reimbursed from public financial sources, private

providers get partially reimbursed from the social security budget.

In the case of the IVET programmes within the labour market system, funding

comes from the Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity (or: the national budget) as

well as the ESF. Employers who take on trainees can apply for cost sharing and/or

can be financially reimbursed.

Portugal


2 Exceptions are the autonomous regions of Madeira and the Azores.

3 Stakeholders

There is a legal provision (comprehensive law on the education system) for social

partner involvement in vocational education and training in Portugal. The social

partners feature regularly and extensively at different administration levels and in

almost all official bodies responsible for vocational education and training planning

and implementation. In terms of national social partnership bodies, the social

partners contribute to formulation of overall policy, subsequent agreements and

the carrying them forward.

Social partners are represented in various advisory and consultative bodies, like:

� The Economic and Social Council, which is responsible for consultation on and

coordination of economic and social policies;

� The Standing Committee on Social Dialogue, which is the body that promotes

social dialogue and partnership. Vocational training policies and goals are

defined in its agreements;

� The National Education Council, which is the forum for dialogue and debate in

what concerns the educational system. Its primary function is to comment and

advise on draft legislation submitted to it by parliament and government.

� The IEFP (Institute of Employment and Vocational Training), which helps to carry

forward vocational training policies at national and regional levels. The social

partners are represented on the Board of Directors, Audit Board, Regional

Advisory Councils and Vocational Training Centre Advisory Councils.

� The National Apprenticeship Commission, which is involved in the organisation

and control of the National Apprenticeship System.

� The Standing Committee on Vocational Certification. Through their

representation on this standing committee, social partners are involved in the

coordination of the National Vocational Certification System. They also take part

in the Specialised Technical Commissions that are attached to the standing

committee for particular activity areas. These specialised commissions are key

forums for discussing and monitoring developments in occupational

certification.

� The Employment and Vocational Training Observatory, which focuses on

identifying, preventing and resolving employment and vocational training related

problems.

Other public agencies and bodies in which the social partners are represented are:

� The Institute for Quality in Training, with a representation the General Council.

This institute focuses on identification of training and skills needs and on

improving training standards.

� The Institute for the Management of the European Social Fund, in which social

partners are represented on the General Council. The institute is responsible for

monitoring FSE implementation.

� The Operational Programme for Employment, Training and Social Development

and PRODEP III (Programme for Educational Development in Portugal).

Portugal


� The National Agency for Community Programmes Socrates and Leonardo da

Vinci.

� The Tourism Training Institute.

The role of the social partners in developing and implementing IVET policies and

strategies can therefore be characterised as quite influential.


Portugal’s education system promotes transnational mobility by encouraging

Portuguese students to travel abroad and by welcoming foreign students. Apart

from individual mobility, mobility in the framework of Community programmes,

such as Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci is encouraged. There are also exchange

initiatives associated with the school partnerships in the sphere of Comenius

Language Projects, in which student exchange is a component of the project.

Transnational mobility is facilitated in education generally, as Portuguese

legislation provides for recognition of studies, diplomas and other qualifications

obtained abroad. Recognition of diplomas, certificates and other titles attesting to

completed vocational training by EU citizens who wish to work in Portugal is

regulated by Community directives and sectoral directives for certain occupational

areas, as well as by domestic legislation transposing the community procedures. A

fundamental condition of recognition is that there is national regulation of the

respective occupation.

The National Europass Centre has became part of the National Agency for

Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci Programmes recently. It coordinates the

management of Europass documents, provides information and advice to the

public and publicises the benefits that this new community framework offers all

citizens, which has been widely publicised nationally.

In the sphere of the European Mobility Strategy and for the purpose of attracting

researchers to Europe and encouraging their mobility in the European Research

Area, Portugal is active in the European Network of Mobility Centres (the

ERA-MORE network). At national level it comprises a network of 15 Mobility

Centres located throughout the country. A National Portal (www.astrolabium.pt),

was set up in close collaboration with the European Mobility Portal

(http://europa.eu.int/eracareers). These provide information about grants and

scientific employment opportunities in Europe, while the Network of Mobility

Centres offers researchers and their family’s personalised support.

Portugal



4.1 Introduction































Portugal


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Portugal


Apart from participation in European programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci,

there seem to be no other particular policies in Portugal aimed at stimulating and

supporting transnational mobility in IVET, though more in general educational

policies seem to support internationalisation, which might have an impact on

transnational mobility in IVET (see also previous section). Portugal also indicated

that there are international exchanges, which are partly supported by the

embassies of the countries receiving the participants and/or international

organisations (other than the European programmes).

Involvement of Ministries Portugal indicates that it is primarily the Portuguese Ministry of Labour and Social

Solidarity that is involved in policy making wit regard to IVET transnational mobility.

An involvement that partially runs through the IFEP that in its turn is involved in the

EURES network (see also previous section) and that hosts the National Reference

Point for Vocational Qualifications and is also involved in the European network of

these reference points.

Portugal


Two specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility


Leonardo da Vinci Transnational

mobility, with

specific actions for

the exchange of

young people in

several areas.

Students of

secondary level

schools and

vocational training

(in specific actions).

EU and National

Agency of Socrates

and Leonardo da

Vinci Programmes

(managed by

Education Ministry,

Labour and Social

Solidarity Ministry

and Science and

Technology

Ministry).

Comenius action of

the Socrates

programme

Transnational

mobility of young

people, promoting

traineeships in

schools and

business

companies.

Students of

secondary

education and

vocational training

schools.

EU and National

Agency of Socrates

and Leonardo da

Vinci Programmes

(managed by

Education Ministry,

Labour and Social

Solidarity Ministry

and Science and

Technology

Ministry).

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Portugal






High involvement Portugal indicates that only the European Union, through the Leonardo and

Socrates programme, has a high involvement in transnational mobility in IVET in

Portugal. This influence is effectuated through the roles of policy making, activating

and stimulating, financing and approving and accrediting placements.

Portugal


Low involvement Low involvement in IVET transnational mobility is indicated for the following

stakeholders in Portugal:

� National government:

– Ministry of Education: policy making;

– Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity: policy making;

– Ministry of Science and Technology: policy making;

� Employers’ organisations: activating and stimulating;

� Trade unions: activating and stimulating;

� VET institutions (through their national association): activating and stimulating.

Concerning the involvement of other stakeholders, such as the National Education

Council, employers and branch organisations, reliable data are not available for

Portugal.






Specific studies concerning the benefits of transnational mobility in IVET are not

available in Portugal and also other sources with (more or less) reliable information

appear not to be readily available. Nevertheless, it is estimated that the benefits of

IVET transnational mobility are high for each of the groups involved.

VET institutions sending participants on placements:

1. Enriching the learning environment

2. Increasing the quality of the teaching/learning process

3. Acquiring new perspectives for learning situations

4. Increasing knowledge about Europe

5. Increasing their institutional credibility


1. Cultural interchange

2. Making Europe of citizens

3. Enlarging individual perspectives

4. Individual learning of new situations

5. Increasing opportunities for employment

Employers receiving IVET participants in a transnational mobility placement:

1. Reception of new working experiences and knowledge

2. Increasing knowledge about European models of IVET

3. Acquiring new perspectives for working situations



Portugal



1. Enriching work capacity of employees group


3. Employees with higher motivation


5. Open way to European organizations


1. Enriching the work capacity of employees in the branch


3. Employees with higher motivation




Portugal indicates that twelve obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another

nine obstacles have an intermediate relevance.


procedures





organisations








Medium relevance � Lack of cooperation between ministries




mobility










friendships

Portugal


Solutions proposed toovercome the obstacles:

� Increase information for and mobilization of local actors.

� Enhance networks among all potentially interested organizations

� Make mobility a priority in IVET policy

� More emphasis on and a better ‘marketing’ of IVET

� Clearly discuss and explain the benefits and advantages

� Decentralization of mobility projects to local/regional level

� Provide various involved actors with better information and technical support

� Training and technical assistance

� Set quite clear goals and formulate expected results

� Make mobility an (explicit) option in the curriculum

� Improve selection of quality placements

� Reduce bureaucracy procedures in general

� More and better information

� Second language as an educational priority

� Favour less rich countries in allocating and approving budgets







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Portugal.

IVET participants in Portugal In 2003 in total 298,857 participants were enrolled in IVET (29% of total enrolment

in upper secondary education).


Outgoing mobility in Portugal is monitored by the National Leonardo/Socrates

Agency.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

866 1051 945

(provisional, no final

figures yet)

1342

(provisional, no final

figures yet)

Portugal



Romania

483

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Romania



1 Initial vocational education and trainingin Romania

1.1 IVET programme

Compulsory education in Romania has recently been extended to 10 years (age

6-16, since 2003/2004) and now includes primary (4 years), lower secondary (4

years) and 2 years of upper secondary education.

At the end of lower secondary pupils choose between different routes:

� Theoretical high school, which provides general upper secondary education and

lasts 4 years. Upon successful completion students obtain the Matura and have

access to tertiary education;

� Technical high schools providing technological education (general secondary

education with a large vocational component) which also lasts 4 years. Students

can obtain here also their Matura. If so, they have access to tertiary education.

They can also continue in post-secondary (post-high) school education in order

to obtain a level 4 vocational qualification. Successful completion of this

technological route provides students with a level 3 vocational qualifications.

� The vocational route, which prepares students for the labour market or for further

studies at Arts and Trades Schools, which have emerged as a consequence of

mergers between apprenticeship schools offering 2-year VET programmes and

vocational schools offering 3-year VET programmes. Those enrolling in the Arts

and Trade schools can obtain a level 1 vocational qualification at the end of

compulsory education or they can continue their studies for a level 2 or 3

vocational qualification (which takes an additional 1 to 3 years of study).

In 2003/2004 a new curriculum, designed according to the vocational training

standards and based on transferable credits has been introduced in the last two

years of compulsory education (first 2 years of upper secondary). The new

curriculum embraces the development of core and vocational competencies

including career orientation. This structure goes beyond the traditional way of

vocational training (limited training to specialised skills) and focuses on broader

skills.

The Romanian IVET system has a relatively low integration of school learning and

enterprise training. At present, systematic contacts among schools and

enterprises, at least in the case of some training profiles and especially in rural

areas, are inexistent. Practical placements in enterprises are often performed in

groups of students under the supervision of an instructor, and are therefore not an

insertion in the world of work.

The participation in IVET appears to be steadily declining. Whereas in the school

year 2000/01 almost 64% of students were enrolled in vocational programmes, this

had dropped to 51% in the school year 2002/2003.

Romania



The Romanian Ministry of Education and Research plays a predominant role in the

IVET system. It is, among others, responsible for policy and strategy development

in IVET. It is supported in this by the National Centre for the Development of

Vocational and Technical Education (NCDVTE), that was established in 1998. It is

responsible for designing, developing, implementing and revising the VET curricula,

the system of evaluation and certification of vocational training, teaching staff

training and the scientific coordination over VET development projects. It is also in

charge of developing social partnership in IVET at national, regional and local level.

At the county level the Ministry of Education and Research is represented by the

County School Inspectorates that are responsible for the quality of the provision of

IVET, for establishing the availability of IVET and for approving school-based

curricula (up to 30% in Arts and Trade school and up to 25% in technical high

schools).

The IVET providers themselves have the responsibility for their personnel

(evaluation), ensuring the quality of the teaching and learning processes and

developing the local development-based or school-based curriculum.

Financing of IVET Traditionally public funding of education is centralised. Romania is presently

implementing funding by normative expenditure per capita, using differentiated

coefficients according to the study fields and levels as well as based on school

location (rural and urban)

Since the school year 2001/02 the system of financing public pre-university

education became more decentralised by the passing of responsibilities to local

councils, such as: school budgeting, and organising and controlling budgetary

execution, as well as the administration of all schools.

Local councils now cover the running costs and capital expenditure (including

equipment) of education units. Allocated funds were for maintenance, repairs and

electricity and heating expenses. However, the MoER is still responsible for the

largest part of the budget (that is, salaries, scholarships, teaching materials and

books).

In 2003, the MoER announced plans to further accelerate decentralisation of the

management of the education system to give school directors and boards more

autonomy over the budget.

Romania


Framework of qualifications In IVET, the vocational training standards and the school curriculum have recently

been defined according to occupational standards. Evaluation standards are

included in the vocational training standards. A final evaluation is carried out by the

National Assessment and Testing Service. The evaluation of vocational skills –

during the school year and at the completion of studies – follows the vocational

training standards devised on the bases of the occupational standards. Student

assessment is aimed at the certification of learning outcomes. At the end their

study VET graduates are issued a vocational training certificate, indicating the level

of qualifications and including a list of the acquired vocational skills, proven in the

evaluation process. There is an intention of involving social partners in the

development of the vocational training standards and in the final assessment.

Also recently a now pilot system for quality control and institutional evaluation has

been developed, based on the European Framework of quality assurance. VET

institutions are conducting self-assessment. If successful the system will be

generalised. At national level a draft Law on Quality Assurance has been designed.

There is a clear divide in Romania between urban and rural schools. The quality of

the provision is poorer in rural schools. There are considerably fewer teachers with

a teaching qualification in rural areas as compared to urban areas. More than half

the young population is located in rural areas.

Far less than half of young people from rural areas enter upper secondary

education, and only 1% of students in higher education come from secondary

schools in rural areas.

Romania


3 Stakeholders

In recent years Romania has developed a better involvement of social partners in

developing VET education, accrediting qualifications and in adjusting VET

provisions to the labour market needs. However the added value of this social

dialogue is limited.

For example, the sectoral aspect of the social partnership is inadequate;

partnership and representation at sector level is rather weak. Also, the

school-enterprise links are not adequate in terms of practical placements contents,

minimal duration, and number of places.

Nevertheless an impressive number of bodies and institutions has been set up at

national and regional level, in which the social partners are involved and

represented (often at board level):

� The Economic and Social Council;

� The National Committee for Employment Promotion;

� Advisory Board for the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour;

� The National Board of the Agency for Employment;

� The Board of the County Agencies for Employment;

� The National Adult Training Board;

� Local Development Committees;

� Regional consortia for the development of vocational education and training;

� Count committees for authorising adult training providers.

At the local/county level, social partners have been involved in the setting up of the

Local Development Councils (LDCs) and their advisory role in IVET. LDCs also

include representatives of the County Employment Agencies. These bodies are

participating in the planning process at county level, are approving the local

component of curriculum and nominating social partners in the evaluation

commissions for IVET graduates. The chairs of the LDCs are also member of the

Regional Consortia, that further exists of representatives from the County School

Inspectorates, the County Agencies for Employment and the social partners.

Employers are involved in the validation of qualifications acquired through IVET

Romania



4.1 Introduction































Romania


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Romania


Romania has no specific politics with regard to stimulating and supporting mobility

in IVET.

Involvement of Ministries As the national authority for Romania’s participation in the education and training

programmes of the European Community, Romania’s Ministry of Education and

Research is involved in policy making with regard to IVET transnational mobility. In

this capacity it cooperates with other structures involved in the field of IVET.

One specific programme supports IVET transnational mobility in Romania

Name of

programme

Objective Target group Who funds

Leonardo da

Vinci

The main objectives of the programme are as

follows:

� to develop the competences and skills of

people, especially young people, in initial

vocational education and training; this is to be

achieved through alternance training and

apprenticeship, focusing on improving and

promoting their employability;

� to facilitate professional insertion and

reinsertion;

� to improve the quality of, and to support the

access to continuing vocational training and

life-long learning, in order to develop and

increase adaptability and to adjust to the new

organizational and technological changes;

� to promote and strengthen the contribution of

vocational training system to the process of

innovation, in order to improve competitiveness

and entrepreneurship;

� to stimulate cooperation between institutions

dealing with vocational training.

Students over 16

years old involved

in Pre-university

(Initial) Vocational

Education and

Training

European

Commission –

Directorate General

for Education and

Culture

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Romania






Romania


High involvement In Romania the following stakeholders have a high involvement in mobility in IVET:

� VET institutions (Cluster School Units): activating and stimulating and coaching

of participants;

� Leonardo Department of National Agency for Community Programs in the Field

of Education and Vocational Training: activating and stimulating; decision

making; financing and coaching of participants.

Low involvement Romania indicates that of all stakeholders only the National government (Ministry

of Education) has a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility. It fulfils the

following roles: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making,

approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

No involvement Romania indicates that quite a number of stakeholders are not involved in

transnational mobility in IVET. It concerns:




� Trade unions



Overall rather few stakeholders are involved in IVET transnational mobility in

Romania. Only two stakeholders have a high involvement and the national

government is relatively little involved in it. There are no stakeholders that have a

medium involvement.






High benefits Romania indicates that it are in particular the VET institutions that sent participants

on placements abroad, and the IVET participants themselves that benefit highly

from IVET transnational mobility.


1. Experience in managing European programmes;

2. Use of new technology and, consequently, a better training of it’s own

students;

3. Use of new pedagogic methods;

4. Creation of a partner’s network, useful for involvement in future

work-placements;

5. Improvement in the vocational and educational experience of the teachers

involved in the projects.

Romania


IVET participants:

1. Development of language skills

2. Iintercultural experience

3. Improving self-esteem

4. Use of advanced technology

5. Better use of the practical skills needed in a certain field of activity

Concerning the employers that receive IVET participants on a transnational

mobility placement, employers that hire employees with transnational mobility

experience and branch organisations, there are no reliable data in Romania

concerning the extent to which they experience benefits from IVET transnational

mobility. Employers and branch organisations are stakeholders that are not

involved in transnational mobility in Romania.


Romania indicates that eight obstacles have a high relevance, but only one

obstacle has an intermediate relevance.






organisations




Medium relevance � Deficient communication between project partners


� Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling

of procedures









friendships

� Changes in the personnel structure of the external partner

� Logistic problems (communication)

No relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET


mobility

50% of results based on empirical statistical reports Leonardo da Vinci


Romania



In Romania, two solutions are proposed to overcome specific obstacles for

mobility:

� simplification of financial procedures for project implementation and avoidance

of bureaucracy

� increase the linguistic training of students in IVET

Other, more general solutions that are mentioned, concern:

� More information should be disseminated (especially in relation with impact,

good practices, outcomes, uses of such a cultural and work experience etc.);

diversifying of the dissemination channels: web-sites, radio, discussion groups

on Internet, local/regional newspapers, teen magazines etc.;

� The development of active partnerships with involvement of social partners, and

especially, employers and employees representatives. These actors could bring

an important contribution, by developing and strengthening the relation between

education and training. As social partners do have strong relations with similar

institutions from outside Romania and could be in their interest to benefit from

the transnational experience of the mobility beneficiaries, they should be

involved in transnational mobility (at least through information regarding the

benefits, competences development, team work, intercultural experience and so

on);

� Designing of publicity materials in order to increase awareness of such

placements and of their potential role on personal development, work

competences improvement, language skills development and of the inter/multi

cultural skills development;

� Setting up local centres for assistance and counselling for Leonardo da Vinci

project promoters or the improvement of activities employed by county school

inspectors responsible for international programmes; devising of project

management guides;

� Establishment of a network of IVET centres who have experience with such

projects; such a network could create a resource centre providing information

on transnational mobility and especially on types of difficulties/obstacles

encountered and the ways in which those were addressed and solved.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Romania.

IVET participants in Romania In the school year 2002/2003 365,686 students were enrolled in IVET (end of

school year) of which 53,316 in special education (specialist vocational areas such

as sports, pedagogy, arts).

Romania




In Romania, outgoing mobility is monitored by the Ministry of Education and

Research and the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency. Incoming mobility is not

monitored.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

326 311 356* 330*

*: provisional data

Leonardo A, mobility in IVET 2002 2003 2004* 2005*

Gender Male: 171

Female: 155

Sum: 326

Male: 149

Female: 162

Sum: 311

Male: 167

Female: 189

Sum: 356

Male: 162

Female: 168

Sum: 330


Technique: 44

Economics: 54

Health & Welfare:

199

Agriculture: 11

Technique: 50

Economics: 60

Health & Welfare:

235

Agriculture: 112

Technique: 52

Economics: 48

Health & Welfare:

118


6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 311

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 356

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 330

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:


* Provisional data

Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went over the past four years.

Programme country number

Leonardo da Vinci Spain

France

Italy

Germany

United Kingdom

296

276

228

214

123


The number of mobility projects beneficiaries is increasing. As well, the number of

female students involved in such projects is increasing.

Explanation: A possible result of strong and lasting partnerships between institutions

involved and of a larger dissemination of information related to projects. IVET

institutions become more aware of the benefits of projects in terms of student’s

training, language skills improvement, new teaching methods and exchange of

experience (intercultural, team work etc.). The increase of female students could be

a result of the attention paid to equal opportunities within the LdV programme.

Romania


SlovakRepublic

495

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Slovak Republic



1 Initial vocational education and training inthe Slovak Republic

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in the Slovak Republic starts at age 6 until age 16 and

encompasses 9 years of basic education (4 years primary and 5 years lower

secondary) and 1 year of upper secondary.

Since the 1976 school reform, three streams of (upper) secondary education were

defined:

� A general academic stream, represented by grammar school (GS, gymnázium)

which often starts after 4 years primary education. Grammar school is a very

demanding general educational institution aimed at deepening the students’

theoretical knowledge and academic skills, and considered the best preparatory

program for university studies. It was originally aimed at pupils considered as

exceptionally academically gifted. The five-year GS (1 year of the specialised

language of instruction training followed by 4 years of regular study) offers

highly desired bilingual education (English, German, French, Spanish, Italian

� Specialised secondary school (SSS, stredná odborná škola traditionally)

predominantly theoretically based;

� Secondary vocational school (SVS, stredné odborné ucilište) predominantly

practically based;.

Since the 2002/2003 school year, the merging of schools was stimulated and

associated secondary schools (zdru ené stredné školy) appeared as a new name

among secondary schools.

There are two types of educational programmes:

� 4-5 years Study branch (študijný odbor), which finishes with maturita exams

� 3 years Training branch (ucebný odbor). The official document on completion of

education is a final exam certificate (vysvedcenie o záverecnej skúške) and a

certificate of apprenticeship (výucný list). Training branch graduates are

qualified workers. They are not eligible for tertiary education. Pupils very often

apply for a two years post-graduate programme ending with a “maturita” exam.

The specialised secondary schools provide general and professional education

with a firm grounding in theory. General subjects represent 42 to 45% of the

instruction time, and vocational subjects represent 55 to 58% of the instruction

time, out of which 25-30% is practical training.

Slovak Republic


Specialised secondary schools encompass the following types: secondary

industrial schools, secondary geodetic schools, secondary agricultural schools,

secondary forestry schools, secondary horticultural schools, secondary

wine-and-fruit-growing schools, secondary health schools, commercial schools,

commercial academies, hotel academies, social-law academies, schools of library

and information studies, secondary pedagogical schools, specialised schools for

girls, schools of applied art, conservatories, dance conservatories, secondary

schools of art, and specialised schools.

Secondary vocational schools generally provide for IVET in either the ‘study

branches’ or the ‘training branches’. Secondary vocational schools represent the

vocational stream of training for workers.

In the ‘study branch’ curricula, general subjects represent 25 to 50% of the

instruction time. VET subjects represent 50 to 75% of the instruction time, out of

which 35 to 40% is practical training. In the ‘training branch’ general subjects

represent 20 to 40% of the instruction time; VET subjects 60 to 80% of the

instruction time, out of which 50% is practical training.

There are specific school (VS, ucilište), affiliated with the secondary vocational

schools (SVS, stredné odborné ucilištia) which provide 2-year training courses with

adjusted curricula for low achievers from basic schools.

Typical apprenticeship training does not exist in the Slovak Republic, although

students from secondary vocational schools (training branch) are often called

apprentices. They are regular secondary school students, according to the law,

and as a rule, with no contract with employers. Their practical training is usually

school based.

Excessive specialisation and a large number of study programmes posed a serious

problem in VET in the Slovak Republic. The National Standard for Secondary VET

(adopted in 2002) has the intention to change this situation with a standard for 22

integrated groups of programmes and the development of national framework

curricula for VET. The framework curricula determine the following: the level of

education and its standard length, key competencies, and the features, targets and

content-related standards for general and vocational components of education.

The adoption of the standard has had significant effects on the development of

professional profiles and educational standards of various programmes.

Both the Slovak Republic (78%) and the Czech Republic (80%) lead the EU

countries in the share of students in upper secondary education enrolled in VET

programmes (Eurostat, 2000). The legacy of former Czechoslovakia and the

influence of German and Austrian education is still present in the current figures.

Educational reform from the 1970s benchmarked SVS enrolment up to 60%, SSS

up to 25% and GS up to 15%.

Resent measures intend to increase the general character of upper secondary.

Slovak Republic




The Ministry of Education is responsible for policy development and legislation

concerning initial vocational education and training (IVET) and continuing

vocational training (CVT).

The Ministries of the Interior, Health and Defence and Justice retain line

management of IVET schools within their disciplines.

The Council of the Minister of Education for Vocational Education is an expert

advisory body, which assists the Minister of Education in dealing with issues of

vocational education and training and continuing vocational education

The council consists of 28 members – representatives of the Ministry of Education,

State Institute of Vocational Education and Training (SIOV), National Institute for

Education, State School Inspection, and Slovak National Observatory on VET

(SNO), sectoral ministries, social partners and self-governing regional bodies.

The council has the potential to influence the policymaking process in a meaningful

way should the current practice of regular deliberations be consolidated.

2.2 Laws of influence to present IVET

The basic and secondary education system in the Slovak Republic is governed by

Act No 29/1984 on the system of primary and secondary schools (the Education

Law).

The major amendments date back to 1990. The Law No 171/1990 when secondary

schools became independent legal entities and school autonomy was reinforced.

At the same time basic schooling was extended to nine years and the mainstream

way to maturita to 13 years.

With Law No 171/1990 the Ministry of Education (MoE) assumed responsibility

through its district and regional offices for the management of basic, grammar and

specialised secondary schools and also for a small part (approximately one-sixth)

of the secondary vocational schools. The largest proportion of vocational schools

came under the line management of sectoral ministries while some secondary

vocational schools remained under the responsibility of cooperatives. The aw No

542/90 also provided for the establishment of self-governing school boards and

district and regional educational boards.

The new draft Law on Education was submitted to the government for approval in

April 2002.

Slovak Republic


It envisages the integration of secondary ‘specialised’ and secondary ‘vocational’

schools into a new type of ‘secondary specialised school’ offering four-year

courses giving access to the maturita.

Courses of a shorter duration leading to a certificate of apprenticeship will be

offered only at the specific request of enterprises and trades.

2.3 Centralisation/decentralisation

Traditionally centralised, at the moment mixed and plans for further

decentralisation

After the collapse of communism, enterprises were no longer able to employ

students of secondary vocational schools. In order to prevent the secondary

vocational school network from collapsing, the state took over the responsibility for

financing all secondary vocational school students, and secondary vocational

schools were moved away from enterprises. As a consequence secondary

vocational schools lost nearly all contact with enterprises and both types,

specialised secondary schools and secondary vocational schools, together with

grammar schools are at the present time established by regional authorities.

The Slovak Republic has 893 VET schools of which 758 are self-governed, 73

private and 62 connected to churches. Innovation of education programmes is

largely school-based. Schools may adjust 30% of the content of the curricula and

10% of the syllabi32.


Vocational schools are traditionally financed from the state budget channelled

through state regional offices.

Since 2004, funding of schools follows the “per capita” principle. Financial

resources are allocated from the Ministry of Finance, and resources for labour and

operational costs are allocated from the Ministry of Education directly to regional

authorities.

The ‘per capita’ amount is calculated depending on the type of school, number of

students, the length of the heating season, the number of integrated students with

special needs and the number of part-time students. This system motivates school

directors to make most efficient use of the school capacity.

Slovak Republic


3 Stakeholders

The development of a structure for consulting the social partners is not yet fully

consolidated.

At regional level, social partners have certain room to take part in influencing the

course of the educational process in secondary specialized and vocational

schools. Some regional tripartite councils undertake some activities in this area.

Institutionalised involvement of social partners was partly hampered by conflicts

concerning tri-partite structures and through institutional changes at the regional

level caused by the decentralisation reform.

After the government took over responsibility for the secondary vocational schools,

links with enterprises were cut. At the moment links are slowly to be revitalised and

in some sectors have already been carried out (e.g. in the economically strongest

sector of the automotive industry).

In 2003 the Ministry of Education set up a Curricular Council which should support

the creation of an effective mechanism for transfer and implementation of

innovations initiated by the labour market and employers in curricula. Members of

the Council are currently being designated from among expert working in industry

and research institutes, and representatives of trade unions and employers’

associations.


Community programmes such as Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci were made

available in the Slovak Republic in March 1998. Figures supplied by the Ministry of

Education show that in the academic year 2001/2002 four percent of the Slovak

student population spent time studying abroad primarily in the Czech Republic,

Hungary, Austria and Germany.

Slovak Republic



4.1 Introduction































Slovak Republic


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in the Slovak Republic


The Slovak Republic has specific national or regional policies to stimulate or

support mobility in initial vocational education and training.


� National Reform Program of the SR 2006-2008 (Government Resolution No

797/2006 of October 12, 2005 The National Scholarship Program (NSP) for the

support of mobility of students,

� National Competitiveness Strategy of the Slovak Republic till 2010 (the National

Lisbon Strategy) adopted by Gov. Resolution No 120/2005 of February 6, 2005)

and related Programme MINERVA

� Action Plan: Education and Employment (Gov. Resolution No 557/2005 of July

13, 2005, and subsequently budget for the National Scholarship Programme

� The European Youth Pact implementation under the conditions of the Slovak

Republic and its incorporation into the Competitiveness Strategy for the Slovak

Republic until 2010 – Action Plans

� Conception of State Policy towards Children and Youth in the Slovak Republic

until the Year 2007

� Co-financing of Leonardo students´ mobilities

� Co-financing of Erasmus students´ mobilities

Involvement of Ministries Two ministries are involved in policy making on IVET transnational mobility

� Ministry of Education

� Indirectly the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family (overall responsibility

for legislation (e.g. Labour Code) and through active labour market policy tools

i.e. school leavers practical training and retraining of employees, Ministry of

Economy)

Slovak Republic


Specific programmes supportIVET transnational mobility

The table for the Slovak Republic also presents data on higher education students´

mobility.


Leonardo da Vinci To improve skills

and competencies


young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels;

To improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing

vocational training

and the lifelong

acquisition of skills;

To promote and

reinforce the

contri-bution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation, with a

view to improving

competetiveness

and

entrepreneurship.

Young people in

IVET,

university students

European

Commission

National co-funding

Total budget for

mobility € 1,386,896

in 2005 (calculated

only for young

people in IVET incl.

higher education

students) and

€ 1,208,720 in 2006

(for young people in

IVET).

The contribution of

the SR as national

co-funding for

mobility was

1,568,000 SKK in

2005; national

co-funding of

Leonardo II

programme was 2M

SKK in 2006.

Socrates To strengthen the

European dimension

in education at all

levels and to

facilitate access to

educational

resources in Europe.

Individuals at

education

institutions

European

Commission

National co-funding

Total budget for

Erasmus student

mobility € 1,587,699

in 2005 and

€ 1,921,407 in 2006.

National co-funding

of Socrates II

programme from the

state budget was

4M SKK in 2005 and

4 650,000 SKK in

2006.

National co-funding

of Erasmus student

mobility was 10M

SKK in 2005 and

22M SKK in 2006.

Slovak Republic



Youth To promote mobility,

intercultural learning

and solidarity

among young

people.

Any young

individuals or youth

groups, persons

dealing with youth

European

Commission

National co-funding

National Scholarship

Programme of the

Slovak Republic

To support mobility

of Slovak and

foreign students,

PhD. students,

university teachers

and researchers.

Slovak and foreign

students, PhD.

students, university

teachers and

researchers

Approved and

funded by the

Government of the

SR under the

MINERVA

programme.

20M SKK

Milan Rastislav

Štefánik Scholarship

To recruit graduates

of best world

universities for the

work in public

administration.

Traineeship

placement is

included.

Citizens of the

Slovak Republic

who are enrolled to

study in the field of

economy, sociology,

law and public

administration

Approved and

funded by the

Government of the

SR under the

MINERVA

programme.

7,350,000 SKK in

2006,

14,759,000 SKK

planned for

2007-2009

Interreg IIIA Slovak

Republic - Czech

Republic 2004-2006

No other Interreg

IIIA programmes

(with other

neighbouring

countries) contain

students mobility

related measures

and consequently

projects

Visible from the

Programme

Supplement, Priority

1 measure 1:

Human resources,

social and cultural

development,

Activity 6.7 and 6.8:

Activity 6.7

Common projects

and mobility of

students and

pedagogical staff,

explicitly mentioning

short term stages.

Activity 6.8

Common projects

and mobility of

tertiary students and

researchers.

Secondary students

( “apprentices”);

Two projects within

this programme

were exactly aimed

at 6.7 activity

Bridges to Moravia

(Secondary

Vocational School,

Senica)

Project of social and

cultural cooperation

of the Secondary

Vocational School of

mechanical

engineering in

Cadca

State budget,

European Regional

Development Fund

(ERDF)

Project A

1,794,160 SKK

Project B:

780.672 SKK

In both cases

(co-financing from

ERDF 75%)

Slovak Republic



Visegrad Fund i.e. to support

exchange between

young people

i.e. students of all

levels schools of

four countries

e.g. project No.

75-2000-IVF:

CVIFIRM V4

containing mobility

of secondary school

students from SK,

HU, PL and CZ or

project of

Commercial

Academy in Kosice

Fund resources and

own often in-kind

contribution

IAESTE exchange

programme

(The International

Association for the

Exchange of

Students for

Technical

Experience)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

University students

of technology

IAESTE

AIESEC’s exchange

Programme

(Association

Internationale des

Etudiants en

Sciences

Economiques et

Commerciales)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

University students

of economic and

commercial

sciences

AIESEC

STEP exchange

programme of ELSA

(The European Law

Students’

Association)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

University students

of law, PhD students

and graduates up to

the age of 30

Receiving

organisation and

participant

0 (ELSA does not

provide grants)

IAAS exchange

programme

(International

Association of

Students in

Agriculture and

related sciences)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

Higher education

students

of agriculture

Diverse sources;

and depending on

respective case

Slovak Republic



IFSA exchange

programme

(International

Forestry Students´

Association)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

Higher education

students

of forestry

Diverse sources;

and depending on

respective case

BEST exchange

programme

(Board of European

Students of

Technology)

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

Higher education

students

of technology

Diverse sources;

and depending on

respective case

SloMSA exchange

programme

(Slovak Medical

Students´

Association,

member of

International

Medical Students

Association (IFMSA))

Organising incoming

and outgoing

mobility

Higher education

students

of medicine

Diverse sources;

and depending on

respective case

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in the Slovak Republic




High involvement The Slovak Republic indicates that the national government, the VET institutions,

the Student Associations, the Slovak Academic Association for International

Cooperation, which forms the umbrella for the National Agencies LdV and

Socrates and the Slovak Academic Information Agency are highly involved in IVET

mobility.

The ministry of Labour is involved in policy making.

The ministry of Economy in activating and stimulating

The ministry of Education is involved in

� policy making


� financing

The VET institutions (VET schools) are involved in


� decision making

� financing


Slovak Republic


The Student associations (Several HEI students associations) are involved in



The Slovak Academic Association for International Cooperation, as the umbrella for

the National Agencies LdV and Socrates:


� decision making

� and in decentralised programmes):

� financing

� approving and accrediting placements,


The Slovak Academic Information Agency is involved in

� financing


Medium involvement Regional and municipal governments are involved in financing.

Low involvement Employer organisations, Employers (public and private organisations and

companies), Branch organisations, Trade unions and the Chamber of commerce,

Craft Industry chamber and the Craft Industry Federation have a low involvement

in IVET mobility and especially in activating and stimulating.

Results based on estimation after having consulted those involved and reports from

the Ministry of Education, other government offices, Leonardo da Vinci and

Socrates


Who or which organisations benefit from transnational mobility and what do they

gain?

High benefits The Slovak Republic indicates that VET institutions and IVET participants highly

benefit from mobility.


1. Greater openness of the school towards the broader professional environment

including international labour market

2. Enhancing the quality of professional and language skills of young people in

VET with positive impact on educational staff

3. Acceleration of innovation in new fields of study, and know-how

4. Enhancing the quality of VET by more active using IT

5. Boasted activity of students

Slovak Republic


IVET participants

1. Enhancing of professional skills related to their study

2. Improving of language and social skills; experience of multiculturalism

3. Access to different know how

4. Acquiring experience and knowledge in European context

5. Strengthened self-confidence of students



1. Acquiring valuable multicultural experience with potential international labour

force

2. Establishing contacts between companies a schools

3. Indirect training - Improving language skills for the company staff

4. Opportunity to see things from a different angle

5. Acquiring of practical knowledge on market internationalisation

It is indicated that it is not known whether employers hiring employees with

transnational mobility experience or branch organisations have specific benefits.

Results based on emperical research, statistics and evaluation reports

Slovak Republic




relevance in the Slovak Republic.



organisations




procedures

� Lack of networks for exchange of knowledge of and experience with

mobility.














friendships




mobility




30% of results based on emperical research, statistics and evaluation reports


Slovak Republic



The Slovak Republic’s accession to the EU in 2004 was a solution for the legal

problems concerning permits, visa etc. To inform and support the relevant public

and promoters better more information is given each year and seminars and

exchange of good practice in mobility are organised by the National Agency

Leonardo da Vinci. In Leonardo da Vinci a permanent simplification of procedures

is going on which helps to solve the problem and obstacle of too much

bureaucracy in handling procedures. Language preparation was strengthened in

Leonardo da Vinci for overcoming the lack of language skills among IVET

participants. For those lacking language skills there is a possibility to go to the

Czech Republic or to Poland because of similarity of languages.

Other suggestions forenhancing mobility in theSlovak Republic

� Especially, secondary vocational schools lack managerial capacity for mobility.

Mobility is often organised by a language teacher as an extra activity. It is

necessary to establish coordinators of international cooperation at secondary

schools.

� Mobility should be part of regional development strategies financed from EU

structural funds and other sources.

� Mobility should be understood as an integral part of VET and the stress should

be put on the quality of professional content of placements.

4.6 Numbers






incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in the Slovak Republic.

IVET participants in theSlovak Republic

The total numbers of IVET participants in the Slovak Republic is 411,516.

(According to the Institute of Information and Prognoses of Education, 2005/2006

school year, including 219,106 full-time and 11,359 part-time secondary VET

schools students; and 115,798 full-time and 65 253 part-time higher education

students.)


Outgoing mobility is partly monitored.

Incoming mobility is partly monitored.



� Other

Slovak Republic


Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Milan Rastislav

Štefánik Scholarship

8

� AIESEC’s

Exchange

Programme

51 42 53 44

� IAESTE 26 19 21 29

� STEP 0 0 1 1

Results based on statistical reports of relevant agencies


Gender Male: 230

Female: 176

Sum: 406

Male: 173

Female: 249

Sum: 422

Male: no data

available

Female: no data

available

Male: 589

Female: 423

Sum: 1012


Technique:163

Economics: 93


Agriculture: 78

Technique:141

Economics:117


Agriculture: 108

Technique: 356

Economics: 203

Health & Welfare:

167

Agriculture: 118

Technique: 237

Economics: 293

Health & Welfare:

121


> 12 weeks: 154

< 12 weeks: 284

> 12 weeks: 138

< 12 weeks: 592

> 12 weeks: 294

< 12 weeks: 693

> 12 weeks: 319




United Kingdom

Austria

Italy

France

Results based on statistical data Leonardo da Vinci.

Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobilityin the Slovak Republic

The number of students involved in outgoing mobility is permanently increasing.

Explanation: Slovak students are eager to go for a placement abroad. The majority

of IVET mobility is financed by the Leonardo da Vinci programme, which budget for

mobility is increasing each year.

Slovak Republic



At present, a significant number of participants from the Slovak Republic choose

the Czech Republic as their target country, which will soon become the most

popular country.

Explanation: The Czech language is understandable for Slovak students. After the

accession into the EU in 2004 it is possible to organise EU mobility projects

(Leonardo da Vinci, Socrates) from the Slovak Republic to the Czech Republic

because the condition that at least one country has to be from the EU is fulfilled.

There are traditional links between Slovak and Czech schools.

Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


AIESEC’s Exchange

Programme

26 30 37 38

IAESTE 22 22 25 24

STEP 0 0 0 5

Results based on statistical reports of relevant agencies

Branches or occupationalfields of study in which theSlovak Republic would like tostimulate internationalmobility in particular

Branches with high added value like technology, ICT, commercial services and

branches with mobility developing entrepreneurial spirit. The above mentioned

fields correspond with the National Competitiveness Strategy of the Slovak

Republic till 2010 (National Lisbon Strategy). It is more difficult to organise

placements in the above mentioned fields because of the lack of supply of such

placements.

Slovak Republic


Slovenia

515

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Slovenia



1 Initial vocational education and training inSlovenia

1.1 IVET programmes

Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 or 15 and comprises of 8

or 9 years primary education. The nine year elementary curriculum has been

introduced in 1999/2000. Following this, there are four main choices at upper

secondary level:

� 4 years Gymnasium, or general secondary school. Gymnasia offer a curriculum

that includes professional or technical options. A Matura qualification is

awarded upon graduation giving access to university or higher professional

schools. Gymnasia are increasingly popular.

� 4 years Secondary technical and professional schools; providing access to the

labour market or Vocational colleges, or, through matura courses, to higher

professional schools.

� 3 years Vocational schools: either part time or under the dual system; giving

access to the labour market or further study in technical vocational schools and

master craft preparatory courses.

A graduate of a three-year vocational education programme can enter a two-year

vocational-technical programme, which ends with a vocational maturity. These

programmes lead to a qualification at the level of a secondary technical school.

They also provide the possibility of continuing studies at post-secondary

vocational colleges or at higher professional schools. This way,

vocational-technical programmes are an alternative to four-year technical

programmes.

In addition to these IVET programmes at upper secondary level there are 2 or 3

years Lower vocational schools available for students finishing primary education,

or in some cases for students who have not completed primary education; giving

access to the labour market.

The apprentice system was introduced only a few years ago and modelled

according to the German dual model. In 2002 it accounted for 1% of students in

secondary education. Popularity has not really grown since then.

The Dual Education System covers approximately 40 vocations. Contracts

between trainees and employers are approved by the Chamber of Crafts (CoC) or

the Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI), based on a three year

apprenticeship and the successful completion of an examination. Subsidies for

apprentices have been introduced: the Ministry of Economy subsidised 1,547

places through CoC (SIT 40,857/member) and 812 places through CCI (SIT

40,164/member) in 2002.

Slovenia


In the dual system, the weight of theoretical (school-based) knowledge and

practical training is 40% and 60% respectively. Theoretical education is provided

by schools, but the majority of practical training is provided by trainers in

enterprises. With the introduction of the dual system, the existing school-based

three-year vocational programmes have not been abolished. They continue to exist

as a parallel alternative. In many cases, both dual system and school-based

programmes are available.

In both cases, the dual system and school-based programmes end with a final

exam testing both theoretical and practical knowledge. The practical part of the

final examination is the responsibility of the chambers. For monitoring both parts of

the final exam, special exam commissions are appointed, consisting of

representatives of social partners, schools and some other key institutions.

Numbers in Upper secondary/General and Vocational

The part in technical and vocational streams in upper secondary is declining, to the

benefit of the general stream. In 1995: VET=76%; in 2002 VET = 63%. The

percentage is still high due to high numbers of pupils in the technical streams that

prepare for further education.

Slovenia



The Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (MOESS) is responsible for the

educational system, including schools (from basic to upper secondary), higher

education and adult learning.

The Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Affairs (MOLFSA) is responsible for

approving occupational standards on the basis of approved policy.

The Council of Experts on Vocational Education and Training (COE) provides a

forum comprising MOESS, MOLFSA, the Employment Service and other social

partners for the Government.

The Centre for Vocational Education and Training (CPI) is an advisory body that is

responsible for the development and modernisation of curricula in VET, including

technical standards work on VET, training of teachers and trainers, materials and

equipment development and similar tasks. The Centre is the National Reference

Point for VET standards, and is a member of Cedefop’s TT Net and ReferNet.

The Educational Research Institute (ERI) is responsible for research, monitoring

and evaluation of the national educational system as well as curricula, training and

teaching methods, and harmonisation with international standards. ERI has eight

Centres, including the Centre for Modernisation of Education, the Centre for

Women’s Studies, and the Centre of Applied Epistemology.

The National Education Institute (NEI) is responsible for monitoring the national

curriculum and the educational system in the pre-university (or pre-tertiary)

educational framework. NEI also evaluates and trains teachers and trainers, and

has a total of 10 offices in Slovenia.

The National Examination Centre (NEC) is a central body responsible for

developing, administering and monitoring the Matura, the main completion

certificate between secondary and tertiary education, as well as other

certifications, including foreign languages and some adult education courses.

The Chamber of Crafts (CoC) is an employer representative that is responsible for

occupational standards development as well as the organisation of VET training

and apprenticeships. The CoC regulates the so-called “O” education, which

comprises 26 professions offered on the basis of 3-year studies in 21 secondary

schools throughout Slovenia, with an enrolment of approximately 3,000 students in

2003.

Slovenia


The Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI) is an employer representative that

is responsible for occupational standards development and organisation of VET

training and apprenticeships. In addition, CCI operates the Centre for

Technological Training (CTT) and the Gea College – High School for Entrepreneurs.

The Employment Service of Slovenia (ESS) is the central labour market

organisation: it maintains a network of 59 local offices and is responsible for issues

such as labour market monitoring, operation of EURES and ESF, coordination of

national and regional human resources development plans, coordination of

services to unemployed, and similar activities.

After independence, recentralisation of the system within the confines of the new

state of Slovenia has been used to control a balanced and gradual modernisation

of the overall education system. Control remained in the hands of national

authorities but has been shared at the national level – at least as far as vocational

education and training is concerned – with the social partners. It has been a policy

during the 1990s to make social partners co responsible for vocational education

and training. In practice – and in legislation – this is done by the chambers (as the

traditional representative organisations of enterprises) that at national level

cooperate in policy and programme development.


In Slovenia all secondary VET schools are state-owned. There are 19 private

postsecondary schools. The adaptation of the financing system to allow more

autonomy to schools is regarded as a future challenge.

Slovenia


3 Stakeholders

3.1 Social partners

Employers are actively involved in developing and planning VET strategies and

policies. The Council of Higher Education includes representatives of employers

and students. The Centre for Vocational Education and Training was co founded

by the Government, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI) and the

Chamber of Crafts (CoC). The CCI and CoC are active both in developing

occupational standards as well as in managing the dual system of apprenticeships

and the examination/certification boards.

Other stakeholders, including private VET providers, are also involved, and the

government directly sponsors some private providers. There is also a regional

dimension to VET, as some vocational colleges and local communities play a role

in adapting curricula to regional needs as well as organising and financing adult

education. Employee stakeholders, i.e. trade unions, play a lesser role, which is

usually restricted to labour tribunals, monitoring of labour conditions and similar

activities.


The Government has followed a conscious policy of “Europeanisation” of the VET

curricula in the upper secondary general education programme. The curricula have

been revised to include European geography and history, the role of the European

Union, cultural heritage and similar subjects. “European classes” are being

introduced in the 2004/05 school year.

Slovenia is implementing the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). The Phare

MOCCA programme has been critical in harmonising curricula and standards.

Institutions such as the National Examination Centre or the Education Research

Institute maintain international standards and agreement. Slovenia has

implemented the provisions of the Bologna Declaration for tertiary education, and

is in the process of implementing Europass.

The Centre for Vocational Education and Training is the National Reference Point

for national vocational qualifications and standards, including databases,

catalogues, transparency and equivalency.

Slovenia



4.1 Introduction































Slovenia


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Slovenia


Slovenia only mentions the Leonardo da Vinci programme as a national policy for

stimulating transnational mobility in IVET.

Involvement of Ministries In Slovenia the Ministries of Education and Sport and of Labour, Family and Social

Affairs are involved in transnational mobility in IVET. The Ministry of Education and

Sport is the leading ministry where policy making is concerned and has been so

since 1996 in the context of the PHARE programme and the accession

negotiations. The Ministry of Labour, Family and Social Affairs is participating as a

member of the Leonardo steering committee.

One specific programme supports IVET transnational mobility in Slovenia


Leonardo da Vinci –

mobility projects

Encouraging

mobility

Pupils in IVET,

students, young

workers

EU € 952,000

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Sovenia






High involvement The following stakeholders have a high involvement in IVET transnational mobility

in Slovenia:

� Ministry of Labour: policy making, decision making, financing and approving


� Ministry of Education: policy making, decision making, financing and approving


� National education council: policy making, decision making, financing and

approving and accrediting placements;

� National qualification authorities: policy making, decision making, financing and

approving and accrediting placements;

� National council of VET institutions: policy making, decision making, financing

and approving and accrediting placements;

� Employer organisations: activating and stimulating and coaching of participants;

� Chamber of commerce: activating and stimulating and coaching of participants;

� VET institutions: activating and stimulating and coaching of participants;

� Regional development agencies: activating and stimulating and coaching of

participants;

Slovenia


� Employment service of Slovenia: activating and stimulating and coaching of

participants;

� Organisations for the people with special needs: activating and stimulating and

coaching of participants;

� Public Agency for Entrepreneurship and Foreign Investments: activating and

stimulating and coaching of participants;

� Chamber of Crafts: activating and stimulating and coaching of participants.

Medium involvement Trade unions and student associations have a medium involvement in IVET

transnational mobility in Slovenia. Both have the role of activating and stimulating

and coaching of participants.

In Slovenia there are no stakeholders with a low involvement in IVET transnational

mobility. It is stated that the European Union has no involvement where IVET

transnational mobility in Slovenia is regarded.






High benefits Slovenia indicates that each of the identified stakeholders (with the exception of

employers hiring employees with a transnational mobility experience, for which

data are lacking) gain high benefits from IVET transnational mobility.


1. Exchange of ideas

2. Value added to daily work

3. Improving professional skills

4. Appreciation of new culture and working environment

5. Improving language



2. Greater openness of international cooperation

3. New ideas

4. Promotion of the company

5. Improving language

IVET participants

1. Improving professional skills

2. Enhancing employability

3. Improving language and cultural skills

4. Improving international cooperation and European citizenship

5. Personal growth and the improvement of skills

Slovenia



1. Exchange of good practices


3. International cooperation

4. New sector developments

5. Enhancing employability


Slovenia indicates that three obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another five

obstacles have an intermediate relevance. A rather large number of obstacles are

indicated as having no relevance at all in Slovenia.

High relevance � Lack of interest and stimulation of transnational mobility by social partners








Low relevance � Lack of information about finding work placements, financing and handling

of procedures






organisations



mobility










friendships

Results based on empirical research, statistics and evaluation reports

Slovenia



In Slovenia the following solutions have been applied in order to overcome the

obstacles that are experienced:

� More confirmation letters from national agencies and authorities

� Better promotion of the programmes

� More training days for promoters and more concrete workshops

� Co-financing from other sources







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Slovenia.

IVET participants in Slovenia The total number of IVET participants in Slovenia was 77,314 (data from 2000).


Outgoing mobility in Slovenia is monitored for the Leonardo da Vinci programme.


Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci

mobility projects

323 364 525* 724*

* Preliminary data

Results based on statistics Leonardo da Vinci

Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went (2005 only)

Country Number

Germany

Austria

Italy

United Kingdom

Finland

59

18

14

12

11

Results based on statistics Leonardo da Vinci

Slovenia




The number of students is increasing every year as well as the duration of

placement.

Explanation: Students see the benefits of transnational mobility.


Diversity in choice of destinations is rising.

Incoming mobility Even though incoming mobility is not monitored in Slovenia, it is known that in

2005 94 IVET students came to Slovenia on a transnational placement under the

Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Slovenia


Spain

529

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Spain



1 Initial vocational education and training inSpain

1.1 IVET programmes

The Spanish educational system has gone through some major reforms over the

last decade. The first reform concerned the Education System Reform Act (LOGSE

after its Spanish abbreviation), which came into force in 1990 (replacing the first

educational reform act after the new constitution, the “Right to Education Act” of

1985). The LOGSE marked the start of a comprehensive reform of the whole

educational system (e.g. the extension of compulsory schooling, the replacement

of most of the ‘old’ types of schooling by new ones). The implementation of

LOGSE was a staged one, starting with ‘infant school’ education and primary

education and than working upwards through the system. The full implementation

of LOGSE has been completed only a few years ago.

The more recent reforms concern two acts that have been adopted by the Spanish

parliament in 2002: the Educational Quality Act and the Vocational Qualifications

and Training Act. These Acts are primarily refinements of the LOGSE and not as

much major reforms like the LOGSE was, at least not for the whole educational

system. The ‘revolutionary’ aspect of the new Vocational Qualifications and

Training Act is that it brings together all forms of initial and continuing vocational

education and training under the heading of one framework law for the first time.

Before, Spain had three distinct ‘systems’ of VET: the VET system within the formal

education system also now as the co-ordinated or regulated VET system, falling (at

national level) under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education; the

‘unregulated’ VET system focusing mainly on the unemployed (young) people,

falling under the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and the

CVET system focusing on employed people and falling under the responsibility of

the social partners. Other important elements of this new law are:

� A further strengthening of the ties between government (national as well as

regional (autonomous regions) and the social partners in further developing the

VET system (including IVET);

� A stronger emphasis on information and guidance in relation to questions

concerning IVET and qualifications for employment;

� More emphasis on the inclusion of entrepreneurial and business skills and skills

needed for self-employment;

� Inclusion of evaluation and accreditation of vocational competences, however

they have been acquired.

Due to the change of government, not all aspects of the two new laws have been

fully implemented yet.

Compulsory education in Spain starts at age 6 and lasts until age 16 and

encompasses primary education and compulsory secondary education (or lower

secondary education).

Spain


After (successful) completion of compulsory secondary education with the

secondary education certificate (typically at age 16), students have three options:

� Entering the labour market;

� Enrolling in a two year general upper secondary education programme, which

prepares students to the Bachillerato certificate that gives access to university2 ;

� Enrolling in a middle-level specific vocational programme that in general lasts

for 1.5 years, but can also take 2 years (depending on the direction) and which

leads to the Technician certificate.

The middle-level specific vocational programmes (as the higher-level specific

vocational programmes; see further on in this section) have been introduced with

the LOGSE. The middle-level specific programmes are modular and all include an

obligatory module covering practical in-company training, which can vary from 300

to 700 hour, again depending on the particular occupational direction chosen.

Since the introduction of the LOGSE, curriculum development for IVET at upper

secondary level in Spain, has been based on occupational profiles that have been

(and still are) drawn up within expert groups in which the social partners are

represented. In complete there are 20 occupational profiles for IVET in the

educational system, being:

� Farming activities;

� Physical and sports activities;

� Maritime and fishing activities;

� Administration;

� Graphic arts;

� Commerce and marketing;

� Communications, imaging and sounding;

� Building;

� Electricity and electronics;

� Mechanical production;

� Hotel and tourist industry;

� Personal image;

� Food industry;

� Wood and furniture;

� Maintenance of motor vehicles;

� Production maintenance and services;

� Chemistry;

� Health;

� Textiles, clothing and leather/fur;

� Glass and ceramics.

IVET at upper secondary level can be offered by specified vocational schools or by

schools for secondary education (lower as well as upper secondary level). In

general, in the majority of the Autonomous Regions, IVET is provided by the latter

type of institution.

Spain


2 In general, however, students who want to continue their studies at university have to sit entrance examinations in order to obtain a place.

There is a possibility to already choose a more or less pre-vocational track in the

last two years of lower secondary education. But this option is restricted to general

‘technological’3 for all students in a specific area4 , with a certain vocational

diversification that can provide room for vocational activities and experiences

(including hand-on experiences)5 .

Once students have concluded their middle-level specific vocational education,

their main option is to enter the labour market. There are some specific continuing

courses as well.

In order to enter higher-level specific vocational education (which is considered to

be tertiary education), students with a Technician certificate have 3 options:

� Re-enrol into upper secondary education in order to obtain the Bachillerato

certificate (which until 2002 was the main if not the only route);

� Sit specific (entrance) examinations;

� Take a special course that complements the knowledge and skills already

accredited by the Technician qualification (this option is to the discretion of the

Autonomous Regions).

In addition to the ‘mainstream’ IVET, there are three other options to obtain a

vocational qualification in Spain:

� Social guarantee programmes;

� Training contracts;

� School-workshops or trade learning centres.

Social guarantee programmes are specifically aimed at young people (aged 16 to

25) who have left (compulsory) education without any (vocational) qualification. The

programmes aim at providing these early school leavers with a qualification (not

necessarily nationally recognised, though the possibility of obtaining such a

qualification is not excluded) that can enhance the transition to the labour market.

Usually, these programmes consist of some vocational training (the content of

which might be derived from the curriculum of a middle-level vocational

qualification), work training and guidance and basic training (mathematics,

language and social and cultural skills). Though the concept of social guarantee

programmes is a national one, the implementation is the sole responsibility of the

Autonomous regions and therefore social guarantee programmes can differ rather

a lot between regions and even within regions. IVET institutions can provide these

programmes, but in practice often special structures at municipal level are created

to provide these programmes (cooperation between different partners such as the

municipal authorities, enterprises and/or VET institutions).

Spain


3 ‘Technological’ meaning here not the more technical direction, but vocational or occupational directions.

4 In lower secondary a distinction is made in the last two years between the areas of Arts, Natural and Health Sciences, Humanities and SocialSciences, Technology, related to the directions to be chosen in upper secondary general education.

5 In upper secondary general education there is also room for including a practical and semi-vocational dimension within the traditional subjects.

The training contracts, school-workshops and/or trade learning centres can be

perceived as apprenticeship training. The training contracts are a mixed offer

giving participants an opportunity to obtain an officially recognised qualification

through combining working and learning. The minimum length of these contracts is

six months and the maximum is two years. Theoretical training takes place either in

one of the public training centres under the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour

and Social Affairs or in training centres run by the social partners or recognised

private training centres.

The school-workshops or trade learning centres aim at improving the employment

opportunities of young unemployed people (aged 16-25 years old) through a

mixture of training and work placements. The school-workshops last at least one

year and at most two years, of which the second part is spent on work placements

(at least 6 months and at most 18 months). The trade learning centre programmes

have a duration of one year of which 6 months is spent on work placement.

Both the training contracts and the school-workshops/trade learning centres lead

to a national recognised qualification, though not a qualification of the Ministry of

Education. As indicated earlier, Spain has three sub-systems of vocational training:

IVET within the educational system, VET as part of the employment policies (for the

unemployed) and CVET falling under the responsibility of the social partners (for

the employed). A specific feature of the Spanish IVET system is that until now,

there are two national qualification structures in place. One developed under the

responsibility of the Ministry of Education and one developed under the

responsibility of the Ministry of Labour. Though there are a lot of similarities

between the two qualification frameworks, there are also differences. The

qualification framework of the Ministry of Labour, for instance, encompasses 28

occupational families, whereas the other qualification framework only distinguishes

20 occupational groups. Also the ‘qualification level’ obtained is not the same.

Where IVET qualifications gained through the education system can be

characterised as being level 3 qualifications, those obtained through IVET as part

of the employment policies can be characterised as being level 2 or even level 1

qualifications (depending on the duration of the training).

Whereas the social guarantee programmes are ‘under’ the responsibility of the

Ministry of Education and Training (they appear in the educational statistics), the

latter two types of programmes fall under the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs

that is responsible for the training for the unemployed.

Spain



In Spain IVET is decentralised towards the level of the Autonomous Regions. The

central government, that is, the Ministry of Education and Culture, sets the overall

regulations for IVET within the school system and is responsible for developing and

up-dating the occupational profiles and standards. The Autonomous Regions are

responsible for the implementation of the regulations and standards and have also

the executive and administrative management authority over IVET, including the

VET institutions. The Autonomous Regions are also responsible for regulating the

assessment of the Specific Vocational Education. IVET institutions are responsible

for the further development of the VET curricula, but strictly within the framework

and limits developed by the Autonomous Regions. As said, the Autonomous

Regions are also responsible for the development and implementation of the social

guarantee programmes.

Where apprenticeship training is concerned, the governance model is not very

different, with the exception that at national level the Ministry of Labour and Social

Affairs is the responsible body and that local authorities play a role, in that they

contribute to the funding of the school-workshops and the trade learning centres.

Where funding of IVET is concerned, again a difference has to be made between

the formal and regulated IVET system under the responsibility of the Ministry of

Education and Culture and the part of the IVET system that goes under the Ministry

of Labour and Social Affairs. In the first case (middle level specific vocational

education) the funding comes mainly from the Ministry of Education and the

Autonomous Regions. In the second case, funding is much more mixed. For the

school-workshops and trade learning centres, funding comes from the Ministry of

Labour and Social Affairs, the regional and local authorities and the ESF (which

accounts for about 50% of the total budget of these provisions). Training contracts

are funded by the Ministry of Social Affairs (theoretical part) and the employers

(practical part). Employers providing work placements for participants in this type

of programme can discount the costs of trainees being away for the theoretical

training, from the social security contribution payable for these trainees.

Spain



The Autonomous Regions are important stakeholders in IVET in Spain, given their

autonomy in education and training issues. Next to this, social partners have an

important role in IVET (development) in Spain. At a national level, they are

represented in the General Council for Vocational Training that advises the

government on vocational training issues. Most of the Autonomous Regions have

their own vocational training councils in which social partners are represented in a

similar way as in the general council. Social partners are also involved in

developing the occupational standards, both for IVET within the educational

system and for IVET falling under the employment policy. Once the possibility for

accreditation of competences acquired through work experience has been

implemented, they will also be involve in this accreditation process. Social partners

are also represented on the board of the National Institute for Qualifications.

This institute has been established already in 1999, but has become more active

and visible since the adoption of the Qualifications and Vocational Training Act in

2002. The main tasks of this institute are:

� Developing a new national qualifications framework in which all vocational

qualifications that have national recognition will be included, irrespective

whether they originate from the previous qualifications framework of the Ministry

of Education or from the previous qualifications framework of the Ministry of

Labour;

� Developing procedures and criteria for the accreditation of competences

acquired through work experience;

� To advise and inform the General Council for Vocational Training.

Spain



4.1 Introduction































Spain


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Spain


Apart from the two new educational laws that have been adopted in 2002, Spain

does not have specific policies with regard to transnational mobility in IVET.

However, the Law on Qualifications and Vocational Training (June 2002) and

Educational Quality Act (May 2006) have the specific aim to raise awareness of the

importance of transnational mobility by improving the quality of national VET

systems, strengthening links between national and European IVET systems,

encouraging language skills and awareness of opportunities in the European labour

market.

Involvement of Ministries In Spain, both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour are involved in

policy making with regard to IVET transnational mobility, though the involvement of

the Ministry of Education is stronger.

Three specific programmes that support IVET transnational mobility in Spain


Leonardo da Vinci Mobility for IVET

beneficiaries

IVET students;

University students;

young workers;

The European Union

and, in some cases,

other public or

private

organizations which

co finance the

projects.

2006 budget: 60%

financed by the

European

Commission

(14,118,000 euros)

plus 40 % financed

by Ministry of

Education and

Science, the

Autonomous

Communities and

private

organizations.

Comenius Mobility for

Secondary

Education students.

Juventud Mobility for young

people.

Apart from the programmes mentioned in the table above, Spain also mentions

Grundtvig (mobility for adults) and Erasmus (mobility for university students).

Spain


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Spain






Spain has not indicated to what extent the different stakeholders are involved in

IVET transnational mobility, but the following stakeholders are involved:

� Ministry of Labour: policy making;

� Ministry of Education: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision

making and financing;

� The governments of the Autonomous Regions: policy making, activating and

stimulating, decision making, financing and approving and accrediting

placements;

� The City Halls (Ayuntamientos): activating and stimulating, financing, approving

and accrediting placements and coaching of participants;

� Job Centres: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and accrediting


� Some companies that participate in different mobility projects by handling them

or receiving beneficiaries from other countries: activating and stimulating,

approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants;

� Trade Unions: activating and stimulating, financing, approving and accrediting


� Chamber of commerce from Soria: activating and stimulating, financing,

approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants

� VET Institutes and Schools: activating and stimulating, decision making,

financing, approving and accrediting placements and coaching of participants.






High benefits Spain indicates that both VET institutions sending participants on a transnational

mobility placement and IVET participants going on such a placement, benefit

highly from it.

Spain



1. They learn how other institutions from other countries work.

2. They meet foreign teachers, tutors and people from VET organisations,

enterprises and companies and learn other ways and processes of working

abroad.

3. They give VET institutions a European dimension.

4. They offer their students new opportunities to work and have a life experience

abroad.

5. They establish strong links with other VET institutions for future placements.

IVET participants

1. The beneficiaries learn new and different working processes, and they get the

benefits from the professional exchange with their company and workmates.

2. A placement abroad is a very interesting personal experience. They have the

chance to meet new people and make friends in another country.

3. It is a cultural experience. The beneficiaries learn a lot about other countries,

their culture and ways of life and work. They become more open-minded.

4. They improve their language skills.

5. They learn how to work in really different conditions, in another language and

they learn how to get adapted to new and challenging situations.

Intermediate benefits Intermediate benefits are reported for employers (both those receiving IVET

participants on a transnational mobility placement and those hiring employees with

transnational mobility experiences) and for branch organisations.


1. The cultural exchange.

2. They have a new employee who will learn the tasks of the job from the

beginning.

3. They can offer the company a European dimension.

4. The professional exchange.


1. They usually hire very flexible employees, used to getting adapted to new

working situations.

2. They give a wider cultural dimension to the company.

3. They get the benefits from the professional exchange and get new ideas from

the new worker.

4. They can take advantage of employing someone who has a good knowledge of

a foreign language.


1. They get qualified workers also abroad.

2. These organisations share processes and workers throughout their frontiers.

3. They get a transnational dimension.

Spain



Spain indicates that one obstacle has a high relevance, whereas another three

obstacles have a intermediate relevance.

High relevance � VET institutions meet too much bureaucracy in handling procedures

Medium relevance � Lack of promotion or support of transnational mobility by branch

� organisations




procedures








mobility













friendships


Spain



In Spain, the following solutions have been adopted to overcome the obstacles

encountered:

� The NA informs all the promoters and mobility partners about the requirements

and news in mobility policies and calls, throughout its website, dissemination

campaigns on the media , informative working sessions with potential

promoters, and providing telephone information too.

� The NA organises events involving mobility partners, promoters and

beneficiaries in order to pursue a better communication and exchange of

experiences in mobility projects between them and also with the Agency.

� The NA is trying to talk with regional authorities which do not support or

consider mobility as a priority in order to foster new initiatives on this matter.

� The NA makes great effort in promoting Europass and informing both promoters

and beneficiaries about the possibility of recognition of credits and complete

training modules.

� It is one of the NA objectives to encourage branch organisations to participate

in mobility actions. Contact seminars are foreseen to get those organisations

involved in mobility.

� The NA informs social partners, through its website, seminars and other public

events, about the importance of having a mobility experience, both personal

and professionally.

� The NA has a whole team working to help partners and promoters who do not

know how to handle a mobility project.

� The NA is trying to explain the education authorities what the importance can be

of including transnational mobility as part of the activities programmed for the

academic year. (It was stated that some educational authorities are aware of

this and help as best a they can, but that some others, especially some regional

authorities, do not cooperate so much in this matter).

� The NA is trying to foster co-financing, which would help many VET institutions

to solve most of their problems with handling a project, which takes a number of

expenses that are difficult to afford with a public budget.

� The NA is trying to control the activity of some intermediaries who do not offer

good quality in mobility because the enterprises and working placements do not

fit the beneficiaries needs.

� Informative sessions are valuable to solve the bureaucracy problems VET

institutes encounter, and also tools like LEOPASS may help in making

procedures a lot easier.

� Promoters, sending partners and also the education authorities are trying to

convince students about the benefits of a transnational working experience.

Many of the beneficiaries, though, do not take the opportunity because it is

expensive.

� The education authorities are trying to include more language learning periods

during the academic year.

� The NA encourages co-financing for mobility projects. The Ministry of Education

and other regional authorities co-finance these type of initiatives. Still, the

money is not enough to cover all the necessities.

Spain








incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Spain.

IVET participants in Spain In 2005 the total number of participants in IVET was: 276,587 (of which 45,899

were enrolled in a social guarantee programme). These figures do not include the

training contracts or the other training measures falling under the responsibility of

the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.


Outgoing mobility is monitored in Spain but incoming mobility not. Outgoing is

monitored by the Leonardo da Vinci National Agency and by some of the

Autonomous Regions.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

From 2000-2005,

the total amount of

beneficiaries is

28,401.

Further information on outgoing mobility is not provided, since reliable data are

lacking.

Spain


Spain


Sweden

545

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Sweden



1 Initial vocational education and training inSweden

1.1 IVET programmes

The distinction between IVET and general (upper) secondary education in Sweden

is difficult to make, since the Swedish education system is characterised by the

attempt to differentiate as little as possible between different directions, up to the

level of upper secondary education and -even at that level- tries to make the

education system as comprehensive as possible. For compulsory education (which

starts at the age of 7 and lasts until the age of 16) this means that all pupils attend

comprehensive school (Grundskola). After students have obtained the compulsory

school leaning certificate, they are eligible of entering upper secondary education,

provided they have obtained ‘pass grades’ in Swedish/Swedish as a second

language, mathematics and English2 . Upper secondary education consists of 17

so-called national programmes, 14 of which have a vocational character3 . The

programmes are:

� Arts;

� Business and administration;

� Child recreation;

� Construction;

� Electrical engineering;

� Energy;

� Food;

� Handicraft;

� Health care;

� Hotel, restaurant and catering;

� Industrial;

� Media;

� Natural resource use;

� Natural science;

� Social science;

� Technology;

� Vehicle engineering.

Sweden


2 For those students that do not obtain these ‘pass grades’ it is possible to follow individualised upper secondary education programmes, which areintended to facilitate transfer into a regular upper secondary education programme later on in their educational career.

3 Literature is not fully consistent on this part. The up-dated Euridyce report speaks of 3 general programmes (natural sciences, social sciences andtechnology), but in the country report for the Maastricht study, Shapiro (2004) mentions only 2 general programmes.

All programmes take three years and allow students to enter tertiary education.

The aim of the national programmes is to provide students with a broad general

education that encourages further learning. All programmes have 8 core subjects

in common, being: Swedish/Swedish as a second language, English, mathematics,

civics, religion, science, arts and sports and health. If the proposed reforms will be

implemented in 2007, history will be added as a common core subject.

Specialisation takes place in the second and third year of study. Students taking a

vocational oriented programme spent at least 15 weeks of their total study time on

learning in a workplace. The school is responsible for both procuring such places

and supervising students during their work placement. However, the practical

trainers from the enterprises have an important role in assessing the performance

of the students during their work placement.

In 2003/2004, 333,928 students were enrolled in upper secondary education

(including the individual and specially designed programmes) of which 52.8% were

enrolled in a vocationally oriented programme (176,314 students).

IVET in Sweden is school-based. Some apprenticeship schemes have existed, but

mainly on a very small scale and often run by particular branches of industry (e.g.

construction) as a means of further training of young people who have left upper

secondary education and become employed n the particular trade. In 2004 reform

proposals have been adopted aiming at improving the quality of vocational

oriented upper secondary education. These reforms will be implemented in 2007.

One of the components of these reforms is the introduction of apprenticeship

training, which will be equal to school-based vocational education. These modern

apprenticeships have been tested in pilots under the heading ‘Learning in Working

Life’. These modern apprentices differ from the traditional ones, since they do not

entail an employment relationship and participants do not receive wages.

Municipalities remain responsible for the apprentices throughout their training.

Sweden



During the 1990s, governance of education in Sweden changed radically. The

national government changed from ruling through detailed prescriptions to

governing by means of overall guidelines and goals. The responsibility for

operating schools and school staff was devolved to the municipalities. Every young

person disposing of the compulsory school certificate has a right to start upper

secondary education up till and including the year that they turn 20 years old (for

those who have not started upper secondary education by them, various adult

education provisions exist). Municipalities have the legal obligation or provide

upper secondary education, though the number of national programmes on offer

can differ between municipalities. Students have a free choice of programmes. If

their own municipality does not offer the programme of their choice, they can

either enrol in upper secondary school in a neighbouring municipality or take a

specialised programme, which can consist of a combination of courses from

different national programmes.

With the shift in the locus of control in educational governance, the Swedish state

provided municipalities with a state grant (in the form of a general equalisation

grant; starting from 1 January 1993). This state grant together with the revenues of

municipal taxes allows municipalities to perform the task assigned to them by law,

including all education from pre-school classes up to upper secondary education.

Municipalities are free to decide how much they spend on education and thus on

IVET. However, they have to regard the obligations set out in the School Act. If

they seriously disregard these obligations, central government can intervene. All

education is free of charge. This holds for all the municipal schools (and the few

that are operated under the responsibility of counties) as well as those private

upper secondary schools that have been recognised by the National Agency for

Education (Skolverket) and are therefore entitled to receive funding from the

municipalities or the state. Private upper secondary schools account for less than

5% of all upper secondary education. Students in upper secondary education

receive a monthly study grant of € 103.

Municipalities are responsible for the operating and the quality of the schools. On

the basis of the Education Act (including the curricula and syllabi for the 17

national programmes in upper secondary education), municipalities are obliged to

set out the general objectives for its schools in a school plan. Municipalities are

obliged to monitor and evaluate the school plans and to annually present a quality

report to the central government. Municipalities are also the employers of the

teaching staff.

Sweden


3 Stakeholders in Swedish IVET

Social partners in Sweden agree that all vocational training, both initial and

continuing, with the exception of in-company training, should be publicly funded,

since well-educated employees are necessary for an adaptive and innovative

economy (which is perceived as a national interest). Incentives for enterprises to

invest in IVET do therefore not exist in Sweden. Nevertheless, involvement of the

social partners in IVET seems to be substantial, though often informal and not

always visible. On the one hand, social partners are represented extensively in

various administrative bodies, especially at the regional and local level. On the

other hand, in the majority of municipalities there are so-called vocational councils

or programme councils (for upper secondary education as well as adult education).

Schools and local enterprises cooperate in these councils on issues like the

planning of workplace training (according to the legislation, municipalities have to

decide which part of a programme should be learned at a work placement),

discussing equipment investments and course counselling by professionals

outside the schools. These councils can also discuss the integration of specific

courses (as part of the national programmes) that meet the specific needs of the

local labour market. These councils are, however, not compulsory. It is considered,

as part of the reforms to be implemented in 2007, to make these councils

compulsory.

With regard to the proposed modern apprenticeship system, municipalities as well

as social partners seem to be positive. The Swedish Employer’s Confederation

emphasise the need for flexible rules, so that decisions can be taken at the local

level. The Swedish Trade Union Confederation emphasise that the issue of the

economic compensation for apprentices must be solved, in order to prevent that

apprentices are mainly hired as cheap labour.

Sweden



4.1 Introduction































Sweden


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Sweden


Sweden has presently six different policies that (indirectly) support and stimulate

transnational mobility in IVET. These policies are:

� Workplace training abroad (APU utomlands). The aim of this policy is to facilitate

workplace training abroad for students in vocationally-oriented programmes at

the upper secondary level. The policy is funded by the Ministry of Education,

Research and Culture (annual budget approx. € 300,000).

� Cooperation with developing countries (Samarbete med utvecklingsländer

(SMUL)). The aim of this policy is to facilitate exchange of students involved in

vocationally-oriented programmes at upper secondary schools in Sweden and

developing countries. It is funded by the Swedish International Development

and Cooperation Agency and by National Agency for School Improvement

(annual budget approx. € 500,000).

� National reference point for vocational qualifications (www.senrp.se) The

reference point is intended to provide information for in-coming and out-going

mobility participants and is run by Skolverket (the National Agency for

Education).

� Nordplus Junior. This policy focuses on facilitating student mobility among

those in compulsory and upper secondary education in Sweden and other

Nordic countries. Targeted at students in compulsory and upper secondary

education in Sweden and other Nordic countries. It is funded by the Nordic

Council of Ministers (annual budget: € 350,000).

� One-year abroad programme (Ett års programmen?). The aim of this

programme is to facilitate student mobility among students at the upper

secondary level who wish to spend one year in Austria, France, Germany or

Spain. It is an initiative of the Ministry of Education, Research and Culture and

focuses on providing assistance (no separate funds available).

� Scholarships for schools (Skol stipendier). This policy aims at the facilitation of

the development of international contacts between schools worldwide. Some

students have done a short portion of their work placement abroad through this

programme, but it is not a focus of the programme. The Ministry of Education,

Research and Culture funds the programme with a annual budget of € 1.4

million.

Involvement of Ministries In Sweden the Ministry of Education, Research and Culture is responsible for the

policy making with regard to IVET transnational mobility. The first initiatives in this

area were taken in 2002.

Sweden


Four specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Sweden


Leonardo da Vinci Facilitate exchange

of both students

and teachers in

vocationally-oriente

d programmes

Students and

teachers in


d programmes at

upper secondary

school, as well as

students and

trainers in other

vocational

programmes,

unemployed youth,

etc.

European

Commission

€ 2.7 million - 2006)

(€ 2.3 million - 2005)

Workplace training

abroad

Facilitate workplace

training abroad for

students in


d programmes at

upper secondary

school

Students in


d programmes at

the upper secondary

level

Ministry of

Education,

Research and

Culture

€ 300,000

SMUL (Cooperation

with upper

secondary schools

in developing

countries)

Facilitate exchange

of students involved

in


d programmes at

upper secondary

schools in Sweden

and developing

countries

Students in


d programmes at

the upper secondary

level in Sweden and

developing

countries

Swedish

International

Development and

Cooperation

Agency, and

National Agency for

School

Improvement

€ 500,000

Nordplus Junior To facilitate student

mobility among

those in compulsory

and upper

secondary

education in

Sweden and other

Nordic countries

Students in

compulsory and

upper secondary

education in

Sweden and other

Nordic countries

Nordic Council of

Ministers

€ 350,000

Sweden


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Sweden






High involvement Sweden indicates that the following stakeholders are highly involved in IVET


� European Union: policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making and

financing;

� National government (Ministry of Education, Research and Culture): policy


� VET institutions: activating and stimulating, decision making, financing,

approving and accrediting of placements and coaching of participants;

� International programme office for education and training (agency under Ministry

of Education): policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making,

financing, approving and accrediting of placements and coaching of

participants;

� Skolverket (National Agency for Education, under Ministry of Education): policy

making, activating and stimulating, decision making, financing, and approving

and accrediting of placements.

Medium involvement Four stakeholders have a medium involvement in IVET transnational mobility. They

fulfil the following roles:

� Municipal governments: financing (though this varies between municipalities);

� Branch organisations: policy making and activating and stimulating;

� Trade unions: policy making and activating and stimulating;

� National Agency for School Improvement (under Ministry of Education): policy

making, activating and stimulating, decision making, financing, approving and

accrediting of placements and coaching of participants.

Low involvement The following stakeholders have a low involvement in IVET transnational mobility:

� Regional governments: activating and stimulating;

� Employer organisations: policy making;

� Employers: public and private organisations and companies: policy making;

� Chambers of commerce;

� Student associations: activating and stimulating.

Sweden







High benefits Sweden indicates that it are in particular the IVET participants that benefit highly

from participation in transnational mobility. Although employers that receive IVET

participants on a transnational placement are considered to be benefiting highly as

well, it is indicated that assumed benefits for them, stem from the benefits to the

students.

IVET participants

1. Self confidence

2. Better language skills

3. Increased employability

4. Increased understanding of other cultures

5. Increased knowledge in their vocational area

Intermediate benefits VET institutions and employers that hire employees with a transnational placement

experience are said to experience intermediate benefits. Concerning the employers

hiring former mobility participants, the same holds as for employers receiving

mobility participants: assumed benefits for them, stem from the benefits to the

students.


1. Participating students better at meeting education targets

2. Status of VET increased

3. Increased cooperation between different vocational fields

4. Participants have more positive attitude towards school

5. Improved relationship between students and teachers

Sweden indicates that branch organisations are likely to experience little benefits,

and that as far as benefits can be assumed, they will be similar to the effects on

employers.

Sweden



Sweden indicates that three obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another

seventeen obstacles are considered to have a intermediate relevance.


procedures


� Lack of interest in learning foreign languages other than English






organisations





� VET institutions lack capacity in managing transnational mobility projects








friendships




mobility




50% of results based on empirical research and statistical reports


Sweden



In Sweden the following solutions have been applied in order to try to overcome

the specific obstacles experienced:

� Mechanisms such as Europass and ECVET;

� A strategy has been implemented in 2005 to engage branch organisations and

social partners more to increase mobility;

� Sweden has created its own mobility programme–APU-U (in order to avoid the

bureaucracy of European programmes).

Other solutions Handbook for international exchange: “Upplev och utforska – om internationella

utbyte i skolan” (Experience and investigate – all about international exchange in

schools).







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Sweden.

IVET participants in Sweden The total number of IVET participants in Sweden is approx. 150,000.


Outgoing mobility in Sweden is monitored by the following agencies:

� International Programme Office for education and Training (Leonardo and

Nordplus)

� National Agency for Education (Workplace training abroad)

� National Agency for School Improvement (Cooperation with developing

countries)

Incoming mobility is not monitored

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

approx. 1680 Approx. 1439

Sweden



Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci Procedure A

"praktik"

428 516 480 approx. 500

Cooperation with developing

countries (SMUL)

NA NA approx. 120 approx. 120

Workplace training abroad

(APU-U)

NA NA 470 480

Nordplus junior (minimum one

week, maximum 15 weeks)

NA NA 610 339

Results based on statistical reports of the various programmes and agencies

Sweden indicates that there is considerable mobility financed by IVET participants

themselves. These so-called ‘Free movers’ at the IVET level are not tracked in

Sweden but there were 23,000 outgoing free movers at the higher education level

in Sweden in 2001/02.

2002

Leonardo da Vinci

2003

Leonardo da Vinci

2004

SMUL

2005

SMUL

Gender Male: 150

Female: 278

Sum: 428

Male: 231

Female: 285

Sum: 516

Male: 49

Female: 71

Sum: 120

Male: 50

Female: 70

Sum: 120

Sector No data available No data available No data available No data available


6-12 weeks:

3-6 months: 428

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months: 516

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 120

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks: 120

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:



Country Number

United Kingdom

Italy

Germany

Estonia

The Netherlands

216

123

85

80

54


Sweden


Trends and developments innumbers of outgoing mobility.

The amalgamated data and estimates indicate relatively stable numbers of IVET

students involved in outgoing mobility.

Explanation: There appears to be an increase in response to new programmes

(APU-U and SMUL in 2004 and 2005) but not all data are available yet.


There is a consistent trend in favour of English- or Scandinavian-speaking

destination countries. Interest in outgoing mobility through established

programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci, Workplace training abroad, etc. has not

been as high as we would like, partly because of the high number of ‘free movers’

(ie, those who do mobility with their own financing, often in English speaking

countries such as Australia, New Zealand, USA and Canada). Explanation: Very

few IVET students speak a foreign language other than English.

Incoming mobility Even though incoming mobility is not monitored in Sweden, some indicative data

are available. In 2004 and 2005 approximately 450 IVET participants per year came

to Sweden for a transnational placement, of which about 400 annually under the

Nordplus Junior initiative and about 50 annually under the SMUL programme. The

available data for these programmes indicate that most of the IVET participants

came from Finland (Nordplus) and Tanzania (SMUL).

Sweden


Switzerland

561

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Switzerland



1 Initial vocational education and training inSwitzerland

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education in Switzerland starts at age six and lasts nine years until the

end of lower secondary education (Sekundarstufe I). The structuring of compulsory

education differs between the cantons, but in the majority of the cantons primary

schools lasts six years with and additional three years of lower secondary

education (5+4 models and also 4+5 models are know in some cantons). The

options available for pupils that complete lower secondary education, depends on

the type of lower secondary education they have followed. The main types are

(with again differences between cantons and even within cantons):

� Lower secondary education with basic requirements (e.g. Realschulen,

Oberschulen) that mainly prepare for continuation of studies in vocational

education and training (Berufslehre);

� Lower secondary education with advanced requirements (e.g. Sekundarschulen,

Bezirksschulen) that prepare for the continuation of studies either at gymnasia

(Maturitätsschulen), or at intermediate vocational schools (Fachmittelschulen) or

for the more requiring programmes at full time vocational schools or within the

apprenticeship system (Berufslehre).

The options that are open upon completion of compulsory education are:

� Gymnasium (or Maturitätsschulen); this type of upper secondary education

takes 3 to 4 years (but the cumulative period should cover 12 years of education

starting from the first year of primary education) and is concluded with the

‘Maturitäts’ examination, which upon successful completion provides access to

university education;

� The intermediate vocational schools (or Fachmittelschulen); notwithstanding its

name, education in this type of institutions is considered as general upper

secondary education. The name ‘Fachmittelschulen’ has been implemented in

2004 (until then it were Diplommittelschulen). These schools prepare for further

studies (Fachhochschulen) in particular for teaching professions, professions in

the social and health care sector, the arts sector, the ICT sector and in applied

psychology. Duration of the programmes is in general 3 years. In order to obtain

the ‘Fachmaturität’, that is required for entry into higher vocational education,

students can take an additional year to prepare for the examinations, after

which they are eligible for enrolling in higher education. An alternative route is,

after having obtained the diploma of the ‘Fachmittelschule’, at least one year of

relevant work experience upon which an entry examination can be taken.

� Vocational training (‘Berufsbildung’). Depending on the particular occupation for

which the programmes train, the duration of vocational training can vary from 2

(relatively new option) up to 3 or 4 years.

Switzerland


The IVET system in Switzerland, therefore consists of vocational training. About

two third of those entering upper secondary education, choose for a pathway in

vocational training2 . The most important form of vocational training is the dual or

apprenticeship system, in which training within an enterprise is combined with

general education and more theoretical training within a vocational schools

(Berufsfachschule), during 1 tot 2 days per week. There are however other models

as well, among which full time vocational schools (e.g. Lehrwerkstätte) or models

in which the share of full time vocational training is gradually diminished as

students progress through the programme. The extent to which these alternative

models appear in practice, differs between cantons. In 2003 about 17% of all

students in vocational training in the German speaking parts of Switzerland,

attended full time vocational training; for the French speaking parts (or West

Switzerland) this was nearly 31 %, whereas for the Italian speaking cantons it was

26%.

The 2-year vocational training programme is concluded with a vocational

certificate (Berufsattest). It prepares young people for practical jobs in less

demanding occupations. The 3- and 4-year vocational training programmes are

concluded with a vocational diploma (Fähigkeitszeugnis) and prepare young

people for working independently in specific occupations and for continuation of

training in the so-called ‘Höhere Fachschulen’ (short higher vocational training).

There are over 200 different functions/occupations for which young people can be

trained (Lehrberufe)3.

Participants in the 3 to 4-year vocational programme can try to obtain a

‘Berufsmaturität’, which is an extended form of general education. They can

attempt to obtain this diploma (of which the ‘Fähigkeitszeugnis’ is an integral part)

parallel to their vocational training programme or directly after they have concluded

their vocational programme. Another option is the ‘school-independent’

preparation for the examinations. In all cases it is necessary to obtain both the

vocational diploma and the ‘maturity’ diploma for a full

‘Berufsmaturitätsabschluss’. The ‘Berufsmaturität’ provides access to the earlier

mentioned ‘Fachhochschulen’ (tertiary non-university education).

Switzerland


2 There are regional differences however. In 2004-2005, in the French and Italian speaking cantons, on average 31% of those who graduated fromupper secondary education did so from general upper secondary education, whereas in the German speaking cantons this was only 19%

3 The exact amount of different ‘Lehrberufe’ is not fully clear from the sources; one source speaks of ‘over 200 occupations’, whereas an othersource speaks of about 300 different occupations.

After several years of preparation, a new law on vocational education and training

was implemented from January 2004 onwards. With this new law, an overall legal

framework for all vocational training at upper secondary level and post-secondary

level (but outside the tertiary sector) has been established for the first time. For

IVET this means that not only ‘traditional’ dual vocational training is included, but

also the two-year vocational programmes, vocational training for agriculture and

horticulture (which previously had its own legal regulations) and the training

programmes for health and social care professions and arts, which previously fell

under cantonal responsibility. The new law incorporates the dual training

programmes as well as the other, full time, vocational programmes. The intention

of this new framework law for all vocational education and training, is to offer

differentiated learning pathways to a vocational qualification, to increase

transparency of the vocational training system and to enhance the possibilities to

switch between more practical vocational training programmes and general

education programmes. Moreover, the new law should contribute to a more

flexible IVET system (e.g.: length of studies can depend on individual needs and

possibilities; maximum of two days school-based education per week for the dual

system to be abolished).

Switzerland



Switzerland, is a federal state with 26 cantons. Cantons have the lead where the

responsibility for education is concerned, and in particular for compulsory

education. IVET, however, is a shared responsibility of the Federal government, the

cantonal governments and the organisations representing the world of work. The

new law on vocational education and training has had some impact on the division

of responsibilities between the three stakeholders, but the basic principle of shared

responsibility has not been altered. On the one hand, some cantonal

responsibilities, in particular in the area of vocational education and training in the

health care sector, the social care sector and the (performing) arts, have been

transferred from the cantonal to the federal level. On the other hand, the intention

of the law is to give more responsibilities to those levels and bodies, closest to the

actual implementation and operation of IVET. Overall the division of responsibilities

is as follows.

Federal level, i.e. the FederalOffice for VocationalEducation and Technology(Bundesambt fürBerufsbildung undTechnologie)

� Quality assurance and further development of the VET system (including

strategic policy making);

� Comparability and transparency of the VET offer across Switzerland;

� Accreditation of vocational training programmes and renewal of the training

regulations for the different training occupations/introduction of new training

occupations (including accompanying regulations);

� Funding of IVET (25% of the total costs);

� Stimulating innovations and support of specific projects;

� Initial and continuing training of teachers and trainers in IVET (task of the Swiss

Pedagogical Institute for Vocational Training; from 2007 onwards the Federal

Higher Institute for Vocational Training).

Cantonal level/regionalgovernments

� Implementation of federal policy and agreements;

� Quality assurance/inspection of the part time vocational school and the full time

vocational schools, with the vocational schools (Berufsfachschulen) being

responsible for the general and theoretical education within the apprenticeship

system and for realising the offer of full time vocational programmes;

� Responsible for the offer of occupational, educational and career counselling

through specialised offices;

� Matching supply of and demand for apprenticeship placements within

enterprises (marketing, supporting measures, etc.);

� Contribution to the further development and steering of vocational education

and training.

Labour market demand side � Definition of content of VET programmes;

� Development of new VET programmes to be included;

� Make available training places for apprentices;

� Training of apprentices for vocational qualifications.

Switzerland


Financing vocational education and training is also a shared responsibility. Under

the old legislation the Federal government contributed just under one fifth of the

total costs of IVET from their public funds. The cantons were responsible for the

majority of the funding of IVET, though of course enterprises that hired apprentices

bore part of the costs as well (for instance, the ‘salary’ of the apprentices and of

the trainers within the enterprises).

Under the new legislation, there are some alterations in the funding mechanisms.

In the first place, the Federal government will increase its contribution to 25% of

the total costs incurred by IVET. At the same time, the Federal government will

reserve 10% of its total expenditure on IVET for innovation and development

projects. The mechanism for distributing Federal funds among the cantons will also

change (final implementation in 2008): from a more input oriented funding system

towards a system that is more based on performance-based lump sums for the

cantons.

Under the new legislation, the bulk of the funding will still come from the cantons.

Not in the least, since they will remain responsible for an appropriate match

between the demand for apprenticeship places and their supply. In the case of

mismatch (in particular when demand exceeds supply) it is their discretion to come

up with measures to tackle this mismatch (e.g. additional financial incentives,

temporary subsidies, etc.). A new instrument introduced with the new law is the

establishment of so-called vocational training funds. Enterprises that do not

partake in the costs of vocational education and training (since they do not train

apprentices, even though they can benefit of trained apprentices or ‘poach’ them)

will be obliged to pay a ‘solidarity contribution’ into such funds. These funds will be

organised by branch. If branches ask for it, obligations stemming from such funds

can be declared as generally applicable for the whole branch by the Federal

government, provided that at least 30% of the enterprises within the branch,

covering at least 30% of the employees and apprentices within that branch, are

already participating in such a fund.

Switzerland



In the previous section, the main stakeholders in Swiss IVET have already been

outlined. At the Federal level it concerns the Federal Department of Education and

Research and the Federal Office for Vocational Education and Technology. The

Federal Office can dispose of different federal (advisory) committees for IVET,

among which:

� The federal VET commission that advises the Federal Office on the development

of the VET system, coordination within the VET system and the alignment of

VET policies with general education and innovation policies;

� The federal examination commission (‘Berufsmaturitätskommission’), which is

responsible for the overall quality control and coordination of the

‘Berufsmaturitäts’ examinations;

� The federal commission for vocational teachers and trainers

(‘Berufsbildungsverantwortliche’) that is responsible for the inspection of those

educational institutions that are allowed to provide diplomas that are recognised

at federal level and are also responsible for the coordination and recognition of

diplomas for vocational teachers and trainers.

At the cantonal level, the following actors are involved in IVET:

� The Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education. Education, including

IVET, is to a large extent the responsibility of the cantons in Switzerland. The

Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education is responsible for national

cooperation and coordination in educational matters;

� 26 Cantonal Offices for Vocational Education, which are responsible for all

cantonal issues concerning IVET (inspection/quality assurance of VET schools,

marketing and matching supply and demand of ‘apprenticeship places’,

contributing to the development and steering of the VET system);

� Education and career counselling services: these are organised at the cantonal

level and focus on counselling young people and adults in their educational,

occupational or career choices.

� Vocational schools that are responsible for the general and theoretical training in

the apprenticeship system as well as the offer of full time vocational education.

Switzerland


The demand side of the labour market, is highly represented in the Swiss VET

systems. Most important players are:

� Occupational organisations (Berufsverbände) that are responsible for defining

the ‘learning occupations’, the content of vocational curricula as well as the VET

offer in post-secondary education;

� Social partners, other relevant organisations (e.g. branch organisations) and

organisations offering IVET: together with the occupational organisations, these

stakeholders are responsible for the further development of the VET system;

� Enterprises: in the dual system, enterprises are key players, since they offer (on

a voluntary basis) apprenticeship places and train young people to become

qualified workers. Enterprises can do this on their own, but can also join a

cooperative organisation of 2 or more learning enterprises

(Lehrbetriebsverbände) in which individual enterprises can cooperate in order to

be able to cover the full breadth of the VET curricula. Each cooperative has one

partner that functions as the contact point for communicating with other

responsible bodies; this can be a training institution, an occupational

organisation or a branch organisation. At a federal level these cooperatives are

organised in a Swiss association, that functions both as an interest group and a

knowledge and experiences sharing organisation.

Switzerland



4.1 Introduction































Switzerland


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Switzerland


In Switzerland there are no specific policies in place for stimulating transnational

mobility in IVET. Which, however, does not mean that transnational mobility is not

taking place.

Involvement of Ministries Ministries and governmental bodies that are involved in policy making with regard

to transnational mobility in IVET are:

� The Federal Department for Education and Research that coordinates

participation in the three EU programmes for education (Leonardo da Vinci,

Socrates) and youth (Youth Programme), and which is, in that capacity the

prime responsible body;

� The Federal Office for Vocational Education and Technology;

� The Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education.

Specific programmesstimulating IVET transnationalmobility

Even though, there are no specific policies in place in Switzerland for enhancing

mobility in IVET, there are various specific programmes for stimulating such

mobility, four of which are more or less specific for some multi-national companies.


Leonardo da Vinci Providing

placements and

financial support for

young people.

Young workers after

completion of IVET

(along with students

registered in higher

education

institutions and

recent graduates of

higher education

institutions).

Mobility of persons

undergoing IVET is

currently not

possible within the

Swiss indirect

participation in LdV.

State Secretariat for

Education and

Research

CHF 180,000

(ca. € 106,000)

Switzerland



Eurodyssee Providing

placements in a

programme’s

partner region,

including language

preparation and

cultural activities.

The placements last

between 3 and 7

months.

Participating

cantons: Jura, Valais

and the cantons of

Central Switzerland

Job-seekers

between 18 and 30,

having completed a

study period or

IVET.

The respective

participating

cantons

Jura: CHF 70,000

(˜ € 41,000)

Central Switzerland:

CHF 200,000

(˜ € 117,000)

(project start)

Valais: not known

x-change Reciprocal

exchange between

companies who

swap an apprentice.

The placements

generally last 4

weeks.

8 participating

cantons in Eastern

and Southern

Switzerland

Apprentices, at the

earliest after

completion of the

first year of

apprenticeship

The respective

participating

cantons

Not known

Euregio zertifikat Placement in a

foreign company of

the Upper Rhine

region (Alsace,

Basel,

Baden-Württemberg

) during the

apprenticeship.

Once 4 weeks or

twice 3 weeks. The

participants receive

after successful

completion the

Euregio-Zertifikat.

Apprentices during

apprenticeship

The respective

participating

cantons

Not known

Switzerland



Lernzentren

(learning company,

replacing in the dual

IVET system the

stay in the company)

participates in an

exchange with ABB

Sweden.

Lernzentren counts

among its partners

ABB.

4 week stay in a

Swedish host family.

The objectives are

equal to other

placement

programmes:

personality-develop

ment, integration in

a foreign working

environment.

However no aims

are set concerning

the

professional/technic

al education.

Apprentices after

completion of the

first year of

apprenticeship

The participants pay

2000 CHF maximum

each. Lower

participation if their

families host a

Swedish apprentice.

Not known

Novartis 4 week stay in

Novartis plant in

England

One year stay in

Novartis plant in the

United States

Apprentices in

administration

IVET graduates in

laboratory

technology

Novartis Not known

Coop 6 – 8 week stay in

Southern Germany

Apprentices in wine

technology

Coop

Rieter 4 week stay in

Rieter plants in

Germany

One year stay in

Rieter plants in the

US

Apprentices

IVET graduates

Rieter

Roche One year stay in

Roche plant in the

United States

IVET graduates Roche

Switzerland


4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Switzerland






High involvement Switzerland indicates that stakeholders with a high involvement in IVET

transnational mobility are an exception. Where regional governments and

employers are concerned, it varies, depending on respectively the cantons and the

enterprises at stake, some of which are highly involved. Where regional

governments are concerned, the involvement of cantons that participate in

Eurodyssee and Euregio-Zertifikat, is characterised as high. These cantons have a

role in policy making, activating and stimulating and decision making. Other

cantons are not really involved in IVET transnational mobility. Where employers are

concerned, there are a few (international) companies that are involved in IVET

transnational mobility. Their role is a comprehensive one and concerns policy

making, activating and stimulating, decision making, financing, approving and

accrediting placements and coaching of participants.

Medium involvement The following stakeholders have a medium involvement in IVET transnational

mobility in Switzerland:

� National government - State Secretariat for Education and Research: policy


� National government - Federal Office for Professional Education and

Technology: policy making, activating and stimulating, and decision making;

Low involvement According to Switzerland, VET institutions have a low involvement in transnational

mobility. Actually, there is only one VET institution that is participating in IVET


No involvement Municipal governments, employers organisations, trade unions and student

associations are not involved in IVET transnational mobility.






High benefits Switzerland indicates high benefits for IVET participants. These benefits are:

1. Language competencies

2. Autonomy and self confidence: the trainees are proud of their experience

3. Insight into other professional techniques and working environment

4. To get to know another culture

5. Further vocational education

Switzerland


In addition to this, medium to high benefits are reported for those enterprises that

do sent ‘apprentices’ on a transnational placement (often as an additional learning

period after the official apprenticeship is completed)4 . The benefits for these

companies are:

1) Encouragement of personal and professional mobility

2) Contribution to self-development of the apprentices

3) Improvement of the apprentices’ language competencies

4) Insight into a different working environment

Switzerland adds to these benefits the following consideration: “It is noteworthy to

mention that the further development of professional skills is generally not

mentioned as a benefit of IVET mobility. This benefit only applies for placements

which are undergone right after completion of IVET because they last longer than

the IVET placements (several months instead 2 – 4 weeks).


Switzerland indicates that five obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another

five obstacles have a intermediate relevance.


procedures



organisations








Low relevance � Little emphasis on language learning in IVET






Switzerland


4 Switzerland indicates that, with the exception of the Lernzentren (one of the Swiss mobility programmes) VET institutions do not sent their studentson transnational placements.

Solutions found forovercoming the obstacles

In Switzerland, the following solutions have been found for overcoming the

obstacles:

� More information about legal procedures and dissemination of good practice

examples (although .it is indicated that as such, the difficulty of administrative

and legal issues is overestimated by companies and IVET mobility candidates.

However for young apprentices without an EU/EEA passport (e.g. former

Yugoslavian republics) a visa for a placement is required, even for short IVET

placements of 2-4 weeks, which is an obstacle for those apprentices).

� Widespread information of good practice examples (which in particular

companies like to obtain)

� VET institutions organize language courses abroad for the students.

Other suggestions forstimulating mobility

Given the features of the Swiss apprenticeship system (see also ‘additional

obstacles’), which imply that a stay of several weeks abroad means an absence

from the vocational school necessitates that apprentices either catch up the

subjects afterwards or have to go on a placement during their holidays, it is

considered of high importance to set clear learning aims for the placement and to

assure that these aims are integrated in the learning environment abroad in order

to stimulate mobility and to avoid backlogs once apprentices return.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Switzerland

IVET participants inSwitzerland

The total number of IVET participants in IVET in Switzerland (including part time

students and students enrolled in ‘Vorlehre’ and ‘Anlehre’) is 217,476 (2004;

source: Swiss Federal Statistical Office).


There is no overall monitoring of mobility figures in Switzerland. Only outgoing and

incoming mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme is monitored by the

State Secretariat for Education and Research.

Switzerland



Outgoing mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Leonardo da Vinci 23 (after IVET) 31 (after IVET) 35 (after IVET) 38 (after IVET)

Eurodyssee 10 (after IVET) 10 (after IVET) 10 (after IVET) 12 (after IVET)

Euregio zertifikat 41 39 38 17

x-change 11 13 44 31

Lernzentren, various companies

(as Coop, Novartis, Rieter,

Roche)*

Ca. 40 Ca. 40 Ca. 40 Ca. 40

Total (estimation**) 125 133 167 138

* There are smaller companies which organize placements abroad during IVET,

however no further information is available.

** Switzerland indicates that where total numbers of participants in IVET

transnational mobility is concerned, data are not really reliable.

Leonardo da Vinci

mobility placements

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male: 6

Female: 12

Male: 7

Female: 20

Male: 2

Female: 30

Male: 10

Female: 24


Technique:

-Economics: 13

Health & Welfare: 2

Arts and graphics: 2

Agriculture: 1

Technique: 2

Economics: 23

Health & Welfare: -


Agriculture: -

Technique: 4

Economics: 23

Health & Welfare: 1


Agriculture: 1

Technique: 3

Economics: 29

Health & Welfare: -


Length of stay < 6 weeks:-

6-12 weeks: 5

3-6 months: 7

> 6 months: 6

< 6 weeks:-

6-12 weeks: 5

3-6 months: 20

> 6 months: 2

< 6 weeks: -

6-12 weeks: 3

3-6 months: 19

> 6 months: 10

< 6 weeks: -

6-12 weeks: 6

3-6 months: 20

> 6 months: 8

Results based on Leonardo da Vinci data from the three agencies (for the German

speaking, the French speaking and the Italian speaking cantons).


Country Number

France

United Kingdom

Germany

Finland

Spain

41

37

11

6

5

Switzerland



The numbers are increasing, however on a low level (in 2005 90% of the mobility

was carried out by StudEx, the LdV Agency for the German speaking cantons).

Switzerland give her two remarks. On the one hand, all figures concern individual

placements. It is stated that group placements within Leonardo da Vinci are not

possible, which –according to Switzerland- explains the low figures. On the other

hand, it is indicated that apprentices in Switzerland have the possibility to spend a

certain period of their apprenticeship in another linguistic area within Switzerland.

Therefore the Swiss Government and the cantons practice already a form of

mobility which, as Switzerland correctly indicates, is not included in the MoVE-iT

study.


The choice of destination is mainly guided by the young people’s desire to work in

a foreign language (in particular English and French (German for the candidates of

Swiss Occidental Leonardo, that is the French speaking cantons). Unlike the

students and university graduates who do not hesitate to go for technical and

professional reasons to Germany (or France for the French speaking Swiss).

Incoming mobility

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005

Indirect participation of three

regional agencies in LdV:

beneficiaries are young workers

after having undergone initial

vocational training

0 2 (after IVET) 5 (after IVET) 0

Eurodyssee 10 (after IVET) 10 (after IVET) 10 (after IVET) 12 (after IVET)

Euregio zertifikat 62 88 85 88

x-change 11 10 42 36

Lernzentren, different

companies

Ca. 30 Ca. 30 Ca. 30 Ca. 30

Total (estimated) 113 140 172 166

Like with outgoing mobility, Switzerland indicates that where total numbers of

participants in incoming mobility IVET transnational mobility is concerned, data are

not really reliable. According to Switzerland, incoming mobility is very low, if not to

say, hardly existent. The explanation for this is that, according to Switzerland, the

dual IVET system is less known in other European countries (with the exception of

Germany and Austria). However, these remarks do seem to pertain more to the

questions concerning a further detailing of the incoming mobility figures (broken

down according to gender, sector and length of stay) and concerning the countries

from which IVET participants came to Switzerland. With regard to the latter

question, it is indicated that language might influence the choice for the particular

part of Switzerland to which IVET participants want to go (French speaking IVET

participant having a preference for French speaking cantons and German speaking

IVET participants having a preference for the German speaking cantons).

Switzerland


Turkey

579

Introduction





are:
































presented.

Turkey



1 Initial vocational education and training inTurkey

In Turkey participation rates in education are low: 16% of 18 years olds (males:

18.5% and females: 13.4%) and 19.4% in the 15-24 age group (males: 22.5% and

females: 16.2%). Males have on average 6.8 years of education while female have

5.3 and 12.5% of the population (7,5 million people) is illiterate (4,7% of men and

20.1% of women). Nearly 60% of the labour force is composed of basic education

graduates or people who dropped out of basic education.

1.1 IVET programmes

Compulsory education was extended to 8 years in 1997 by combining elementary

school and lower secondary school into basic education. A law in 2001 (Law 4702)

provided the framework for extending basic education to 12 years, starting in

2004. However, the implementation of this extension has been delayed, given the

enormous amount of resources that is needed, e.g. for overall curricular reform.

Secondary education (age 14 onwards) consist of a minimum of 3 years in a

general or vocational high school or 4 years in a technical high school. One

additional preparatory year in a foreign language is provided in general, vocational

and technical high schools.

The VET system in Turkey includes:

� Vocational and technical high schools providing training in over 130 occupations

and leading to the qualification of specialised worker and technician

respectively. Graduates of vocational and technical high schools may enter post

secondary vocational schools programmes in the same field.

� 3-4 years of apprenticeship training, a combination of mainly practical training

provided in enterprises and theoretical training in apprenticeship schools.

� Non-formal education, defined as education, training and guidance for those

who never entered the education system or dropped out without achieving any

qualification level. Non-formal education is provided in VET and apprenticeship

training centres.

Turkish legislation conceives vocational training as a system of dual training with a

theoretical (school training) and practical (in-company training) dimension.

The time allocated for practical training in the last year of vocational and technical

high schools is about 24 hours perweek.

Students receive two days theoretical training (at least 12 hours per week,

provided by schools or by training units of enterprises) and three days practical

training at the enterprises.

Turkey


In apprenticeship training one day per week is spent in school. Apprentices receive

30% of the minimum salary by the companies and the social insurance is covered

by the State.

Regulations enacted in 1998 limit the access to higher education for VET

graduates.

As a result of this enrolment in vocational education has dropped over the years.

The system is also horizontally inflexible: it is difficult to move between tracks and

it is impossible to move from vocational to general education.

Numbers in Upper secondary/ General and Vocational

Upper secondary school enrolment (2001) is 60.3% in General education and

39.7% in Vocational education. The participation rate in vocational education at

upper secondary level is 19.4% of the 15-19 age group.

In 2000/2001, around 600,000 people were enrolled in VET: 23% in VET schools

for boys, 8% in VET schools for girls, 16% in VET schools for Commerce and

Tourism, 50% in Apprenticeship and 3% in other types of VET schools.

Turkey




Governance and policy making is centralised. The Ministry of National education

(MoNE) has the responsibility for policy, planning, development, execution,

monitoring and supervision of all types and levels of education and training

(including VET) with the exception of higher (i.e. post-secondary) education.

Four National Directorate Generals within the MoNE manage the different schools

and training centres of the VET system: the DG of Technical Education for Boys,

the DG of Technical Education for Girls, the DG of Commerce and Tourism

Education and the DG of Apprenticeship and Non-formal Training.

Other ministries organisations and institutions may also establish formal and

non-formal vocational education and training programmes at secondary level to

meet their skilled labour force needs e.g health vocational high schools connected

to the Ministry of Health, high schools connected to the Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Affairs, finance high schools connected to the Ministry of Finance and survey

high schools and meteorology high schools connected to the State Ministries. The

curricula and regulations of these institutions are prepared in co-ordination with

MoNE, which also establishes certification standards.

The Vocational and Technical Education Research and Development Centre

(METARGEM) was established in 1986 to provide the services to the Ministry of

National Education regarding planning, research, curriculum development and

testing and evaluation. A tripartite board governs METARGEM.

In 2001 the regulation was introduced that companies employing 20 or more staff

shall provide practical training to vocational and technical high school students in a

ratio of 5%-10% of the number of employees and enterprises offering practical

training to 10 or more students have to establish a training unit.

Significant disparities in education exist between urban and rural areas as well as

between Western and Eastern parts of the country.

The system seems highly centralised in policy and administration. In financial

matters part of the school’s income may be generated by the school.


Financing of education in Turkey is mainly coming from the general budget and the

largest part of this is distributed among the MoNE. In 2000 expenditure on

education was 3.4% of GDP. Schools may generate their own income (so called

“revolving funds”) raised through use of internal workshops for commercial

production; part of these funds serve as an indirect way to increase teachers’

salaries.

Turkey


3 Stakeholders

The Vocational Education Council is made up of 21 members: 16 representing the

Government, 3 from employers, 1 from employees and 1 from banking

associations. The Council takes decisions at national level concerning the

planning, development and evaluation of VET. These decisions are implemented

by the Ministry of National Education.

Social partners, and in particular professional are also consulted during the

preparation of legal documents and social partners are consulted on the Five Year

Development Plan, which is prepared by the State Planning.

In addition to this, the social partners are represented on the Provincial

Apprenticeship and Vocational Training Councils, which have been set up in each

of the 81 provinces.

Turkey



4.1 Introduction































Turkey


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in Turkey


There is no specific policy in Turkey with regard to supporting and stimulating

mobility. However, the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) encourages schools

with contributions in kind for transnational mobility in IVET to have partnerships

with similar IVET institutions in EU countries.

Involvement of Ministries The Ministry in Turkey with the most influence on policy making with regard to IVET

transnational mobility is the State Ministry responsible for State Planning

Organisation.

This is also the Ministry that was the initiator of policy making in this area. Policies

for IVET transnational mobility are subject to the Steering and Monitoring

Committee (SMC), which is the main decision-making body of the Centre for the

EU Education and Youth Programmes. The SMC is in charge of implementing the

EU education and youth programmes in Turkey. Two state ministries; the Ministry

of National Education and the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, are being

represented in SMC. It is composed of three representatives from the State

Planning Organization, one member of the Ministry of National Education, one

member of the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, one member of the Council

of Higher Education and one member of the Directorate General for Youth Sports,

one member of the Secretariat General of the EU and Director of Turkish National

Agency. SMC is the main decision-making body of the Turkish National Agency. Its

structure was based on the principle of sharing responsibilities between the

administrative unit (NA), external experts and the decision making body (Steering

and Monitoring Committee). Main tasks of the Steering and Monitoring Committee

are: to improve the functioning of the programme and to allow division of tasks

related to elaboration and approval of the National Agency Work plans and

budgets and Annual reports on the NA functioning from project selection process

and final decision on selection procedures. Furthermore the Committee is in

charge of defining strategic goals for the programme in Turkey. Meetings of the

Committee are foreseen to be held once a month to allow compliance with the

programme calendar for Work plans and Activities reports submission to the

European Commission.

Turkey


Three specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in Turkey


Leonardo da Vinci to improve the skills

and competencies


young people, in

initial vocational

training at all levels;

this may be

achieved inter alia

through work-linked

vocational training

and apprenticeship

with a view to

promoting

employability and

facilitating

vocational

integration and

reintegration;

to improve the

quality of, and

access to,

continuing

vocational training

and the lifelong


and competencies

with a view to

increasing and

developing

adaptability,

particularly in order

to consolidate

technological and

organizational

change;

Establishments or

training

organisations,

including

universities, which,

in accordance with

national laws and/or

practices, design or

undertake


further vocational

training, refresher

vocational training

or retraining,

irrespective of what

they may be called

in the participating

countries;

research centres

and organisations

responsible for

vocational training

surveys and

analyses;

undertakings,

particularly SMEs,

and the craft trade

sector, or private or

public firms,

including

businesses active in

the vocational

training field;

professional

organisations,

including chambers

of commerce etc;

the social partners;

local and regional

bodies and

organisations;

In 2004: € 4.8 Million

In 2005: € 7 Million

In 2006: € 8.3 Million

Turkey



to promote and

reinforce the

contribution of

vocational training

to the process of

innovation, with a

view to improving

competitiveness and

entrepreneurship,

also in view of new

employment

possibilities; special

attention will be paid

in this respect to

fostering

co-operation

between vocational

training institutions,

including

universities and

undertakings,

particularly SMEs.

non-profit

associations,

voluntary

organisations and

non-governmental

organisations

(NGOs).

Comenius to enhance the

quality and reinforce

the European

dimension of school

education, in

particular by

encouraging

transnational

cooperation

between schools,

to contribute to the

improved

professional

development of staff

directly involved in

the school

education sector,

to promote the

learning of

languages and

intercultural

awareness.

all institutions

involved in school

education;

bodies responsible

for school education

systems and

policies at local,

regional and

national level, to

associations

working in the field

of school education,

social partners,

companies, trade

organisations etc.

EU 2004: € 2 Million

2005: € 3 Million

2006: € 5 Million

Turkey



SVET (Strengthening

Vocational

Education and

Training)

contributing to the

determination of

vocational

competencies in

accordance with

developing needs of

the labour market;

providing VET in a

modular and flexible

framework based on

competencies;

providing

participative and

transparent testing

and assessment,

based on national

qualifications.

Teachers and pupils

in IVET

EU Commission

(MEDA)

€ 2.1 Million

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in Turkey






High involvement Turkey indicates that three stakeholders have a high involvement in IVET

transnational mobility. These stakeholders and their tasks are:

� European Union : policy making, activating and stimulating, decision making

and financing;

� Branch organisations : policy making, activating and stimulating, decision

making and coaching of participants;

� VET institutions : activating and stimulating and coaching of participants.

Turkey


Medium involvement The following five stakeholders have a medium involvement in IVET transnational

mobility:

� National government, that is the State ministry: policy making, activating and

stimulating, decision making, financing, approving and accrediting placements

and coaching of participants;

� National government, that is the Ministry of Labour: policy making, activating

and stimulating, decision making, approving and accrediting placements and


� National government, that is the Ministry of Education: policy making, activating

and stimulating, decision making, approving and accrediting placements and


� Trade unions: activating and stimulating;

� Private companies (intermediary organizations): activating and stimulating and

coaching of participants.

Low involvement Turkey indicates that employers organisations and employers have a low

involvement in IVET transnational mobility. As far as they play a role this concerns

activating and stimulating. Other stakeholders that have a low involvement are the

chambers of commerce (also activating and stimulating) and student associations

that activate and stimulate, but also coach participants.

No involvement The following stakeholders are not involved in IVET transnational mobility in

Turkey:

� Regional governments


� National education council

� National qualification authorities

� National council of VET institutions






In Turkey there are no reliable data available with regard to the extent to which

these different potential beneficiaries do actually experience benefits from IVET


Turkey



Turkey indicates that eight obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another nine







mobility





procedures









Low relevance � Lack of promotion or support of transnational mobility by branch

organisations






friendships



80% of results based on estimations after having consulted those involved


Turkey



The following solutions have been found in Turkey for overcoming the specific

obstacles to mobility:

� Several bilateral or multilateral meetings with the embassies

� Nation wide information meetings, networks, contact seminars organized by the

National Agency

� Various dissemination activities and meetings

� Preparing agenda for Steering and Monitoring Committee

� Encouraging potential promoters through LdV programme

� Necessary initiatives for Leopass

� Dissemination and information meetings in the disadvantaged regions

� Providing information for social partners and SMEs in the frame of the general

information activities, or upon request information events and preparatory

meetings especially for this target group

� inviting SMEs and social partners to the Leonardo da Vinci Advisory Board

(trade unions, employers’ organisations, chambers). Via the Advisory Board the

representatives can give direct assistance to the given target group to elaborate

the most effective information strategy

� Providing guidance and counselling by branch organization

� Awareness conferences

� Organizing training panels for project management

� Organizing partner making seminars, preparations to set up a reliable, secure

partner finding data-base

� Inform promoters about the importance of language competencies for

placements abroad through meetings with successful promoters

� Informing SMC to increase finances for placements.


Turkey indicates that the following solutions might help further reduce specific

obstacles for mobility:

� Providing supporting documents signed by head of NA

� Work-shops, Awareness conferences, publicizing leaflets, brochures etc. for

various information activities

� Stimulating promoters for dissemination through mass media

� Initiating bilateral meetings with the competent organisations to achieve efficient

co-operation (participation in continuing training sessions and in events of

vocational training, publication in the press of target groups, assessment of

needs).







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in Turkey.

Turkey



IVET participants in Turkey Total number of IVET participants in Turkey: approx. 600,000 (2000/2001).


Outgoing mobility is monitored in Turkey by the National Leonardo da Vince

Agency. Incoming mobility is not monitored.

Outgoing mobility

2002 2003 2004 2005

Total number in

outgoing mobility

NA NA 281 1572

Programme 2002 2003 2004 2005


Female:50

Sum: 261

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare

< 6 weeks:219

6-12 weeks:36

3-6 months:6

> 6 months:

Male:907

Female:430

Sum:1337

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

< 6 weeks:1226

6-12 weeks:80

3-6 months:31

> 6 months:

COMENIUS Total: 20

SVET (Strengthening Vocational

Education and Training)

Total: 235

Results based on Leopass/Rap4Leo database (Leonardo da Vinci)

Soc-Link Database (Comenius)

Ministry of National Education (SVET)

Countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went (past two years)



France

United Kingdom

Sweden

Italy

1293

83

76

54

39

Results based on data Rap4Leo database

Turkey



There is an increase in the number of pupils involved in mobility since Turkey

participated in the Leonardo da Vinci programme in 2004.

Explanation: Pupils in IVET are very eager to participate in the programme,

successful information activities, government policies in order to increase the

attractiveness of vocational education.


Promoters prefer Germany, France and UK.

Explanation: Less bureaucracy for visa and work permits, similarities with Turkish

VET systems, previous EU projects in those countries, large number of Turkish

people living in Germany.

Turkey


UnitedKingdom

595

Introduction





are:
































presented.

United Kingdom



1 Initial vocational education and training inthe United Kingdom

In this part of the country report for the UK the differences between England,

Wales and Northern Ireland on the one hand and Scotland on the other, will be

taken into account. Although Wales and Northern-Ireland have by now the same

amount of legislative autonomy in various policy areas (including education) as

Scotland, the educational system in general and the IVET system in particular is

still more or less the same. Given that IVET in Wales and Northern-Ireland does not

(yet) differ much from the IVET system in England, the situation in these countries

will be addressed in the same sections. The IVET system in Scotland is described

in separate sections.

1.1 IVET programmes in the UK

IVET programmes in England,Wales and Northern-Ireland

Compulsory education starts at age five and lasts until age 162 . A “national”

curriculum applies throughout the years of compulsory education. Contrary to

many other countries, transition from lower to upper secondary education does not

take place at the end of compulsory education, but at age 14. Pupils are tested at

this age and upon successful completion of this test they receive the ‘certificate of

educational achievement’. They can then continue and complete compulsory

education choosing from different options, building (partially) sequentially upon

each other as is depicted in figure 1.

Promoting parity of esteem between general and vocational education has been a

major objective of subsequent (English) governments. Nevertheless, until 2000

most vocational courses remained free-standing courses, focusing on a specific

occupational area. In order to strengthen the link between general and vocational

education, curricular reforms were implemented in 2000, encouraging students to

take a mixture of general and vocational subjects. The success of these reforms

was modest; the great majority of vocational courses, focusing on a single

occupational area, was not affected by the reforms. The problems encountered

with the implementation of the Curriculum 2000 reforms, gave a stimulus to

proposals for a more wide-reaching reform of the whole curriculum for 14-19 year

olds (typically covering upper secondary education). Next to this, the previous

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) has been revised in 2004; it now is the

Qualification and Credit Framework (QCF), which consists of nine levels (including

the entry level; see figure 1 below) and encompasses all general,

vocationally-related and occupational qualifications, as far as these are accredited

by the specific accreditation body (which is the Qualifications and Curriculum

Authority (QCA) for England, the Department for Education, Lifelong Learning and

United Kingdom


2 In Northern Ireland, compulsory education starts at age 4.

Skills (DELLS) for Wales and the Council for Curriculum, Examinations and

Assessment (CCEA) in Northern Ireland).

In principle there are three routes after passing the examinations for the certificate

of educational achievement:

� The general education route, which gives access to university;

� The vocationally-related route that also provides access to university;

� The occupational route (National Vocational Qualifications), which can lead to

level 5 qualifications with a similar status as an under-graduate (university)

degree, but mostly provided by Further Education Colleges. NVQs do not (yet)

provide access to further studies.

Level of qualification General Vocationally-related Occupational

8 Doctorate n/a n/a

7 Masters Degree n/a n/a

6 Honours Degree Honours Degree in a vocational

subject (e.g. Engineering, Business,

Accounting)

Professional body qualifications at

level 6

5 Ordinary Degree,

Diploma of Higher

Education

Foundation Degree, Higher National

Diploma

Level 5 NVQ

4 Certificate of Higher

Education

Higher National Certificate

City & Guilds, OCR and BTEC

certificates and other awards at level 4

Level 4 NVQ

3 Advanced A Level AVCE (Vocational A level)

BTEC National Certificate/Diploma



Level 3 NVQ

2 Intermediate GCSE Grades A*- C Vocational GCSE, BTEC First

Certificate/Diploma



Level 2 NVQ

1 Foundation GCSE Grades D-G Foundation awards



Level 1 NVQ

Entry level Entry level qualifications

Figure 1: The Qualification and Credit Framework (with exemplary qualifications)

United Kingdom


Strictly spoken, the QCF does not distinguish between the three categories of

qualifications; not in the least since it is assumed that the boundaries between the

categories or not that distinct. Nevertheless, the orientation of the qualifications is

different and from the perspective of delineating the IVET system in England,

Wales and Northern Ireland, the distinction is useful.

The diagram might give the impression that it is, for instance, necessary to first

obtain a ‘general certificate of secondary education’ (GCSE) with D-G grades in

order to progress further to obtain a GCSE with A*-C levels. This is only partly the

case. The following can explain this. Most pupils aged 14-16 will opt for the GCSE

route that is, for the general education route. On average at age 16, they will

conclude compulsory education with the examinations for the GCSEs. It has been

a subject based system in the sense that pupils receive a GCSE for each subject3 .

The GCSE examinations use a grading system ranging from A* to G, with A* being

the highest level. However, independent of the grade obtained, pupils do receive a

GCSE for each subject for which they have scored at least a G. In the case they

are not able to obtain a G, they do not get a GCSE for the subject concerned. In

order to be able to continue with A-levels, in general at least five ‘good passes’

(A*-C) in GCSEs are required. As said, A-levels (which, similar to GCSEs, has been

a subject based educational pathway) in principal provide access to university. All

universities are however, free to set their own entrance requirements, but there are

some minimum requirements. As a rule of thumb, 2 to 3 A levels and a certain

number of GCSE with grades C or higher are required in order to be legible for

universities4 . The more highly esteemed universities (in particular the “old

universities”), will and can be more selective than the less highly esteemed

universities (often the former polytechnics).

Vocationally-relatedqualifications

Advanced Certificate in Vocational Education

As an outcome of the ‘Curriculum 2000’ reforms, the Advanced Certificate in

Vocational Education (ACVE) have been introduced from September 2000

onwards, gradually replacing the Advanced level General National Vocational

Qualifications (GNVQs). ACVEs were introduced in order to interest more students

in taking up vocationally oriented learning routes and to increase the parity of

esteem between vocationally-related learning and academic A-levels. The intention

was also to stimulate students to combine ACVEs with A-level subjects, for

instance by taking a ‘single award’ ACVE (in size equivalent to a traditional A level

subject) with two A levels or by combining a ‘double award’ ACVE with one

academic A level.

Similar to the academic A levels, a distinction is made between the Advanced level

and the so-called Advanced Subsidiary level (AS), which provides students with

the possibility of achieving a qualification as early as the end of the first year of

study and to reinforce the width and flexibility of post-16 programmes. Where an

A-level (both academic and vocationally-related) comprises 6 units, an AS-level

exists of 3 units.

United Kingdom


3 With the implementation of the new QCF, all qualifications that are part of the QCF will become unit-based, similar to the General NationalVocational Qualifications (GNVQs), which have been phasing out since 2005 and will have been completely abolished in 2007.

4 In general, students take 8 to 9 subjects for their GCSEs, but only about 4 subjects (on average) for their A-levels.

ACVEs are offered in the following 14 broad areas:

� Art and design;

� Land and environment;

� Business;

� Recreation and tourism;

� Travel sector;

� Construction;

� Industrial production;

� Mechanical engineering;

� Media and communications;

� Health care and welfare;

� Performing arts;

� Hospitality;

� Trade and distribution;

� Science.

Vocational General Certificates of Secondary Education

Vocational General Certificates of Secondary Education (vocational GCSEs) have

been introduced in the school year 2002-2003. The development of vocational

GCSEs has the same intention as the introduction of ACVEs. Vocational GCSEs

are, unlike the ‘academic’ GCSEs, only offered at level 3 of the QCF; at level 2

vocationally-related qualifications are ‘foundation awards’. The foundation awards

and the vocational GCSEs replace the former foundation and intermediate GNVQs.

Other vocationally-oriented qualifications

There are various other vocationally-related qualifications; it concerns a varied and

rather heterogeneous group of qualifications. On the one hand, relatively ‘narrow’

qualifications are included, focusing on a specific occupational area and often

based on the knowledge content of the relevant National Occupational Standards

(see next sub section). On the other hand, ‘broad’ vocationally-oriented

qualifications are included, which as such can prepare for entry into the labour

market, but also provide progression routes into higher education. The most

important of these ‘broad’ vocationally-related qualifications are:

� BTEC introductory, first and national qualifications; these qualifications of the

Business and Technical Education Council (a former award body) offer a mixture

of theoretical and practical work in particular occupational areas. BTEC

qualifications can be taken at level 1, 2 and 3 of the QCF and provide

progression routes into more advanced vocational courses (level 4 and

subsequently level 5);

� Oxford, Cambridge and Royal Society (OCR) national awards, certificates and

diploma’s; it concerns qualifications that are mainly designed for 16-19 year

olds. Progressions routes are similar to the once open with BTEC awards;

� City and Guilds qualifications; City and Guild offers (worldwide) more than 500

qualifications across sectors at levels 1 to 4. Qualifications are: General

Vocational Qualifications and International Vocational Qualifications (craft or

technician).

United Kingdom


Development of Specialised Diplomas

As an outcome of the more drastic reforms proposed in 2004 by the Working

Group on 14-19 Reform5 and the subsequent 14-19 Education and Skills White

Paper of the Department for Education and Skills, specialised Diplomas are

presently being developed. The intention, on the one hand, is to further strengthen

the link between academic and vocationally-related learning. Specialised Diplomas

can, for instance, encompass GCSEs and A levels, is students wish so. On the

other hand, the intention is to strengthen broad vocationally-related qualifications

and to replace the over 3,500 qualifications presently on offer by Specialised

Diplomas in 14 broad areas. These areas are:

� Engineering;

� Health and social care;

� Information and communication technology;

� Creative and media;

� Construction and the built environment;

� Land-based and environment;

� Manufacturing;

� Hair and beauty;

� Business administration and finance;

� Hospitality and catering;

� Public services;

� Sport and leisure;

� Retail;

� Travel and tourism.

The new Specialised Diplomas will be offered at foundation, intermediate and

advanced level (level 1-3). As far as they cover Key Stage 4 (that is education for

14-16 years old), the Diplomas will also include the National Curriculum core and

foundation subjects (English, math and science; ICT, personal education and

citizenship.

The development of the Specialised Diplomas is employer-led and taken up by the

Sector Skills Councils (SSCs; see also next section). Development and

implementation of the Specialised Diplomas is phased. The first five Specialised

Diplomas will be available for first teaching in 2008; the second group of five

Specialised Diplomas will be available for first teaching in 2009 and the final group

of four Specialised Diplomas follows in 2010. The aim is to realise the full

implementation (‘old programmes’ being replaced by Specialised Diplomas) by

2013.

Occupationnel qualifications National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)

The NVQs have first been introduced in 1986. One of the main policy objectives of

introducing them was to create a coherent framework for all different vocational

qualifications available at that time and to avoid duplications in existing

qualifications as well as to provide new qualifications in sectors in which vocational

qualifications were not available at that time.

United Kingdom


5 Known as the Tomlinson report, after the chair of the Working Group

NVQs are based on ‘National Occupational Standards’ that are developed by the

Sector and Skills Councils (SSCs), which are employer-led bodies, though they

also include representatives from trade unions, professional bodies and other

relevant stakeholders for the particular sector at stake. There are presently 25

SSCs that work UK-wide and that operate under the umbrella of the Sector Skills

Development Agency (SSDA).

The NVQs as such are subsequently developed by the so-called ‘Award Bodies

(responsible for awarding qualifications) on the basis of these standards. Prior to

the NVQs actually being introduced into the market they are assessed by the

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) that checks the extent to which the

developed NVQs meet the criteria QCA has set out6 .

As indicated in the diagram, NVQs are offered at five levels( which, more or less,

are similar to the levels set out in the European Framework). Only levels 1, 2 and 3

are considered as being part of upper secondary education. Levels 4 and 5 are

respectively seen as post-secondary and higher education. Though NVQs were

primarily designed for the work-based learning route, they have been more and

more offered by educational institutions (e.g. FE-colleges) on a school-based

basis, though practical training either through work placements or training in

simulated work environments.

NVQs are in fact, not the only vocational qualification on offer. There is a large

number of qualifications that have been developed on a sectoral or even a regional

basis, in order to meet specific demands. Part of these non-NVQ qualifications

have been part of the previous NQF and are also included in the QCF (in particular

BTEC, City & Guilds and OCR qualifications). The estimation is that approximately

50% of all these non-NVQ qualifications is covered by the NQF/QCF; but this is

only an estimation.

With regard to NVQs the following occupational areas are distinguished:

� Care of animals;

� Plants and the environment;

� Mining/mineral excavation;

� Building and construction;

� Engineering;

� Industrial production;

� Transport;

� Goods and services;

� Care;

� Welfare and security, communications;

� Development and reinforcement of knowledge and skills.

Per level, the previous NQF contained the following number of vocational

qualifications (both NVQ and non-NVQ):

� Level 3: 445 qualifications;

� Level 2: 430 qualifications;

� Level 1: 125 qualifications.

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6 Award Bodies can decide to develop certain NVQs and then ‘sell’ them to IVET providers, who pay a certain fee in order to be able to provide theseNVQs and to have them awarded by the award body concerned. In practice this can mean that a particular NVQ is offered by more than oneawarding body.

Apprenticeships

Though apprenticeship training did never completely disappear in England, Wales

and Northern Ireland, the ‘traditional’ employer-led apprenticeships declined in the

second half of the 20th century, due to the decreasing significance of traditional

industrial sectors in which apprenticeships had been strongest. In order to revive

work-based learning VET, Modern Apprenticeship were introduced in the

mid-1990s. Modern Apprenticeships were revised in 2002, distinguishing between

two levels -the foundation level leading to a level 2 qualification and a the

advanced level leading to a level 3/4qualification- and renamed in 2004 into

Apprenticeship (level 2) and Advanced Apprenticeship (level 3). In Wales the name

Modern Apprenticeship is still used; there the distinction still is between

Foundation Modern Apprenticeship (level 2) and Modern Apprenticeship (level 3).

In principal the (Modern) Apprenticeship prepares for NVQs.

1.2 IVET programmes in Scotland

Compulsory education in Scotland starts at age 5 and lasts until age 16. Pupils

transfer from primary education (7 years) to secondary education, typically at age

11-12. Secondary education encompasses a more or less “comprehensive” first

stage of four years (though after the first two years pupils get more electives) and,

depending on the results obtained in the first four years, is concluded with two

more years in which further specialisation takes place. This also marks the

transition from lower secondary into upper secondary education.

In April 1997 the Scottish Qualification Award (SQA) was established, replacing the

Scottish Examination Board and the Scottish Vocational Education Council. SQA

introduced in the summer of 1999 a new National Qualifications System. With this

it was attempted to bring all then existing qualifications and/ or subjects into one

single curricular, assessment and certification system irrespective of whether they

were traditionally considered to be general or vocational or work-related. The

system distinguishes between 12 levels as is depicted below. Note that the

qualification framework only covers the “qualifications” after primary education and

the strictly spoken the SQA is not responsible for higher education (it does have

responsibility for developing the Advanced Higher, including the Higher National

Certificates/Diplomas, but the degree programmes remain the responsibility of the

higher education institutions).

The whole SCQF is modularised, that is: unit based working with National Units

and National Courses. A National Course, for instance, is in general made up of

three national units and an external assessment.

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SCQF level SQA National Units, Courses

and Group Awards

Higher education SVQs SCQF level

12 Doctorate 12

11 Masters SVQ5 11

10 Honours Degree

Graduate

Diploma/Certificate

10

9 Ordinary Degree

Graduate

Diploma/Certificate

9

8 Higher National Diploma

Diploma in Higher Education

SVQ4 8

7 Advanced Higher Higher national certificate

Certificate in higher education

7

6 Higher SVQ3 6

5 Intermediate 2 Credit

Standard Grade

SVQ2 5

4 Intermediate 1 General

Standard Grade

SVQ1 4

3 Access 3 Foundation

Standard Grade

3

2 Access 2 2

1 Access 1 1

Figure 2: the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF)

The work on the SCQF has been ongoing until now. Work on the most appropriate

placing of Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs) and SVQ units has apparently

been concluded only fairly recently.

Scottish VocationalQualifications (SVQs)

The SVQs were first introduced in 1989 and comprise five levels. The SVQs are

based on the skills and competences required to do a job or a range of jobs in a

specific branch of industry. By now, all SVQs are accredited by the SQA and

offered by a range of awarding bodies, including SQA. For the rest the SVQs are

quite similar to the NVQs.

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In the UK in general, governance in various areas has a strongly decentralised

structure, with many decision making powers having been devolved the Scotland,

Wales and Northern-Ireland. Where education and training is concerned, the

Department for Education and Skills is responsible for policy making for England

and still for some aspects in this area in Wales and Northern-Ireland, though most

of the responsibilities have been devolved. In Wales the Welsh Assembly for Wales

has responsibility for education and training (through the Department of Education

and Training) and in Northern Ireland, in principle, the Northern Ireland Assembly

(through the Department of Education and the Department of Employment and

Learning)7 . The Scottish Parliament and the Scottish executive have full autonomy

for education and training in Scotland.

Where education is concerned, local authorities have for a long time been the

intermediate tier of administration between government and schools. Local

(education) authorities are still in place in England (Local Authorities (LAs), after the

LEAs were merged with the LAs) and Wales (Local Education Authorities, or LEAs),

as are Education Authorities (EAs) in Scotland. In Northern Ireland, education is a

central government function; local authorities have a consultative function through

the Education and Library Boards. The responsibilities of the local authorities have

however decreased, e.g. due to a stronger central government role in particular

areas (curriculum, assessment) and more responsibilities for schools themselves

(e.g. budget management, staff appointments). Further education colleges (FE

colleges) have by now an independent status.

Important players where governance in IVET is concerned, are in England:

� The Qualification and Curriculum Authority (England): QCA is responsible for

school curriculum, assessment and qualifications in England and for the NVQs

in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Its responsibilities include in particular

the development of school curriculum, quality assurance of national tests, and

external qualifications, regulation and accreditation of awarding bodies and

accreditation of general and vocational qualifications within the NQF/QCF; in

Northern Ireland the Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment

(CCEA) has a similar role as QCA, with the exception of NVQs, which are the

sole responsibility of QCA (in Wales as well). Learning and Skills Councils (LSC):

the National LSC is responsible for strategy development and for channelling

the state funding for all post-compulsory education in England with the

exception of higher education. This includes planning en funding FE colleges

and post-compulsory education in schools as well as work-based learning for

young people and all adult and community learning. There are 47 LSCs across

England, which form the link between government and local training provision.

The local LSCs are responsible for determining the priorities ate regional level as

United Kingdom


7 The Northern Ireland Assembly is, however, still suspended at the moment, which means that it cannot execute its (legislative) authority.

well as the rationalisation of provision. In this they liaise with the Regional

Development Agencies

� Regional Development Agencies (RDAs): though their main focus is to stimulate

regional economic development, they do have a link to training in that they are

responsible for the development of Frameworks of Regional Employment and

Skills Actions (FRESAs) together with regional delivery partners such as the

LSCs, but also the SSDA (see below).

Important players in Wales where governance in IVET is concerned are:

� Department for Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills (DELLS): fulfils the same

role as QCA for schools and school curriculum in Wales (previously the task of

the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC)),

with the exception of the NVQs;

� In Wales the link between government and local provision is established through

the regional offices of the Welsh Assembly (WA) and the Community Consortia

for Education and Training. Determination of regional priorities and (rational)

provision takes place via the Statements of Needs and Priorities, for which the

Community Consortia are consulted.

Important players at UK level are:

� Sector Skills Councils (SSCs): these employer-led bodies, with also

representatives of other stakeholders relevant for the particular sector (e.g.:

trade unions, professional bodies) are responsible for the development of

National Occupational Standards that form the basis for the occupational

qualifications as well as for the identification of skill needs in the economic

sectors they cover. There are now 25 SSCs that operate UK-wide.

� The Sector Skills Development Agency (SSDA): is responsible for the sectoral

work force development, for the overall development of occupational standards

and for licensing sector skills councils.

� Awarding bodies: these are organisations that develop the vocational

qualifications on the basis of the occupational standards set by the sectors,

which submit these qualifications to QCA in order to be included in the NQF,

which maintain these qualifications and offer them in the market so that IVET

participants have successfully completed a particular qualification than get a

certificate stating by which body the certificate has been issued. Awarding

bodies can be training providers themselves.

In Scotland the main player in the field of IVET is, besides the Scottish Parliament

and the Scottish Executive, the Scottish Qualification Authority (SQA) (Scottish

equivalent of QCA). The SQA both accredits and awards Scottish Vocational

Qualifications and is responsible for the majority of the qualifications included in

the Scottish qualification framework (excluding degrees and some professional

qualifications).

United Kingdom


Concerning the funding of IVET, it was already indicated that IVET providers

(certainly in England and Wales) have increasingly obtained substantial autonomy

in managing their own budgets. Funding structures have changed considerably

over the years as well. Presently funding of school-based IVET in England goes

through the local LSCs. The state (that is the Department for Education and Skills)

provides a budget for school-based IVET to the national LSC, which in its turn

distributes it to the local LSCs, who then distribute the budgets to the IVET

providers (mainly FE colleges and sixth form schools) on the basis of a funding

agreement in which various targets have been set out.

In Wales the funding is provided by the Welsh Assembly, who distributes

resources to the local authorities and to the DELLS (previously the National Council

(for Education and Training for Wales) or ELWA8 ) that is responsible for all post-16

learning (under which most IVET goes). In Northern Ireland nearly all school have

delegated budgets, which means that they can decide on spending the budget

themselves. Funding however, still comes from the central government.

In Scotland, the Scottish Executive provides the funding through the Scottish

Funding Council9 , that funds the self-governing FE colleges directly.

The funding of work-based IVET is more complicated and less transparent and

depending on whether or not and to what extent training is undertaken in the

context of (modern) apprenticeships or NVQs/SVQs. However, for England the

basic principle is similar to the funding of school-based IVET. FE colleges receive a

budget for the school-based component of the apprenticeship through the local

LSCs. Depending on specific conditions (e.g.: age of the apprentice, belonging to a

particular target group) LSCs can also provides employers with a financial

incentive for hiring an apprentice. Similar funding structures are in place in

Scotland and Wales.

United Kingdom


8 Relatively recently, different functions for which different functions existed in Wales (ACCAC for curricula, assessment and qualifications and ELWAfor funding of post 16 education and training) have been subsumed under the responsibility of the Department for Education, Lifelong Learning andSkills (DELLS).

9 A few years ago there were two funding Councils in Scotland; one for further education (the Scottish Further Education Council) and one for highereducation (the Scottish Higher Education Council). These have now been merged into the Scottish Funding Council.


The landscape of stakeholders in IVET is complicated in the UK. Important players

in the field have already been mentioned in the previous section. The social

partners, however, have not been mentioned extensively yet.

Traditionally the VET system in the UK is employer-led on a voluntarist model.

Trade Unions have only a limited role in this area. Important agencies in which

employers play a major role are the earlier mentioned SSDA and the Sectors Skills

Councils, which together are responsible for workplace skills development and for

defining and meeting training and qualification needs. In 2003 the English

government set out the so-called Skills Strategy (focusing on both employers and

employees) and for implementing this strategy as social partnerships for skills –the

Skills Alliance- has been set up, for the first time binding together government,

employers (Confederation of British Industry), trade unions (the Trade Unions

Congress) and all major VET delivery organisations.

In Scotland it has been outlined in the Further and Higher Education Charter for

Scotland (1993) that FE colleges are expected to establish close contacts with

employers, informing them about their work and helping them with choosing the

appropriate offer for the further development of their employees.

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4.1 Introduction































United Kingdom


4.2 National mobility policy and programmes in the UK


The UK indicates that apart from the EU programmes and actions, there are no

formal policies specifically targeted towards enhancing IVET transnational mobility.

However, two initiatives are mentioned that do promote exchange, but are more

widely targeted. It is expected that these initiatives can include IVET learners. The

two initiatives are:

� Global gateway: this initiative of the British Council (and funded by the

Department for Education and Skills) focuses on students at secondary school

level and aims to promote intercultural exchange at European and global levels

and to encourage sustainable links between schools.

� Town twinning: this initiative if self funded by municipalities and concerns a

voluntary action. It aims a promoting international links between towns and

cities across Europe and worldwide. In principle it can include a wide range of

cultural, educational and other types of exchanges.

Involvement of Ministries In England, the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) is the Ministry that is

involved in IVET transnational mobility. DfES was also the initiator in this area and

developed its first policy initiative around 1990 trough the European Work

Experience Project (which was a bi-lateral EG initiative based on the UK). Initiatives

in the other countries are taken by the Scottish Executive, the Welsh Assembly and

the Northern Ireland Assembly.

Specific programmes support IVET transnational mobility in the UK

Name of programme Objective Target group Who funds

European Youth

programme:

To contribute to the

personal and social

development of

participants by bringing

together groups of young

people from different

countries to participate in

projects, exploring

common themes of a

social, economic,

environmental or cultural

nature.

Young people in the 15 to

25 age range

It is run by the British

Council (Connect Youth)

on behalf of the

Department for Education

and Skills.

Youth exchanges Mobility projects for

groups of young people,

providing contact and

exchange of ideas with

similar groups in other

countries.

15 –25 year olds,

especially young people

with less opportunity.

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European Voluntary

service

EVS offers young people

the opportunity to

volunteer in another

country, normally for a

period of six to twelve

months. A wide variety of

placements can be found

in the social, cultural,

environmental, and sports

sector. Shorter

placements of three

weeks to six months are

available to young people

with fewer opportunities

or special needs.

18-25 year olds

Youth Initiatives:

Group initiatives

Youth-led and managed

by young people (Youth

workers or another adult

can assist but this must

diminish as the project

progresses; should take

place within their local

community and respond

to the needs and interests

of that community; may

help young people

develop and gain skills

which will help them in

their working life; have at

least 4 participants;

encourage equal

opportunities and

co-operation; have a

“European Dimension”;

show a potential for

networking and

establishing partnerships

with like-minded groups

throughout Europe; last

between three months

and one year.

15-25 year olds

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Future capital Future Capital is a

programme for young

people who have

completed European

voluntary service or

short-term voluntary

service. It is primarily

aimed at individuals, but it

also allows two young

people to apply for the

same project if they are

able to demonstrate a

relevant link.

Joint Actions Socrates, Leonardo da

Vinci, Culture 2000, Youth,

Arion exchange visits etc.

Support Measures It is the sector of the

YOUTH programme that

provides the tools to help

all those working in the

youth field to develop

projects related to the

YOUTH programme. For

example: Youth workers;

support persons (e.g.

youth advisers, assessors,

EVS supervisors, mentors,

etc.); trainers; information

workers, youth officers,

managers and policy

makers; and all those

involved in informal

education.

18-25 year olds

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Bilateral youth exchange The overall objectives and

aims of these Special

Projects ought to reflect

the current British

Council’s strategy which

is about building stronger

global relationships, whilst

helping to design and

deliver high quality

activities and products to

more people.

The projects must have a

clear trans-national

dimension and contribute

to international

co-operation in youth

matters. More specifically,

they must lead to the

creation and/or

consolidation of strong

partnerships between

youth organisations or


youth organisations and

public bodies

15-25 years old Run by the British Council

Causeway programme To contribute to the

improvements of

relationships between

young people in the UK

and Ireland by

encouraging and

supporting exchanges and

other forms of encounter

between young people

and those working on their

behalf

Run by Connect Youth

and Leargas in Ireland

United Kingdom



Language and Culture

courses for Youth

Workers

To offer an opportunity for

youth workers actively

involved, or interested, in

international youth

exchanges to meet

counterparts from partner

countries. In addition to

learning the language and

gaining an understanding

of the host countries’

culture, it is also possible

to develop partnerships

for future exchange

projects.

Commonwealth Youth

Exchange Council (CYEC)

The development of

young people and their

communities and the

promotion of international

understanding across the

Commonwealth

16-25 years old Run by CYEC – a charity

International Educational

Partnerships and Links

programmes

To raise awareness of

other cultures, break

down negative and

outmoded stereotypes,

provide examples of best

practice from around the

world, and develop lasting

ties with other countries

that will benefit our

long-term social and

economic future.

4.3 Stakeholders in IVET mobility in the UK






High involvement The UK indicates that the only stakeholder with a high involvement in IVET

transnational mobility is the British Council that activates and stimulates, takes

decisions, funds, approves and accredits placements and coaches participants.

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Medium involvement The following stakeholders have medium involvement in IVET mobility:

National government: policy making, activating and stimulating and financing;

Regional governments (in particular the Welsh Assembly and the Scottish

Executive): policy making, activating and stimulating and financing;

VET institutions (among others through the Association of Colleges).

Low or no involvement The National Union of Students is said to have a low involvement in IVET mobility,

whereas the national qualification authority, employers organisations, trade unions

and chambers of commerce are not involved in IVET transnational mobility.






High benefits The UK indicates that both VET institutions and IVET participants benefit highly

from transnational mobility.


1. Informal curriculum to widen skills and experience

2. Support to curriculum development

3. Increased international awareness of participants

IVET participants

1. In addition to specific skills and experience of specific work settings – wiser

competences

2. Increased international awareness of participants

3. Increased confidence

4. Language skills

Intermediate or little benefits Intermediate benefits are reported for employers that receive IVET participants on

a transnational placement, but the benefits as such are not further specified.

Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experiences are reported

to gain little benefits from these experiences.

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The UK indicates that eleven obstacles have a high relevance, whereas another six

obstacles have an intermediate relevance. The UK added one particular obstacle

of high relevance: many IVET students are less successful in their general

education than students who follow academic pathways, so their colleges tend to

concentrate on the immediate challenges of success and qualification.

High relevance � Problems of legal nature (permits, visa, social security rights, taxes);






� IVET participants lack courage for placements abroad;






procedures



organisations


� VET institutions lack capacity of managing transnational mobility projects






No relevance � Lack of cooperation between Ministries


mobility




In the UK the following solutions have been applied to overcome the obstacles:

� Create more accessible and open sources of information, such as an open

access portal. House of Lords report;

� The move to an integrated lifelong learning programme is being followed

through more strategically in DfES and in the devolved administrations and

could lead to a higher level of priority.

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� More flexibility between countries for learners in receipt of social security

benefits;

� Develop an institutional policy;

� Simplify EU procedures;

� Sustained effort to engage students and change culture.







incoming mobility gives a picture of mobility in IVET in the UK.

IVET participants in the UK It is not easy to give an accurate figure for the total number of participants in IVET

in the UK. On the one hand, statistics are not always collected UK wide. On the

other hand, overall participation rates in terms of the number of individuals that

have taken up a particular occupational of vocationally related qualification, not

only includes both those who follow a school-based route and a work-based route,

but also includes all age categories, which means that numbers will include also

learners/workers who are trying to obtain a qualification in the context of

continuing vocational training. Knowing that boundaries between initial and

continuing vocational education and training are becoming more and more blurred,

and that any age demarcation to distinguish between the two is arbitrary, an

estimation of the number of participants in IVET in the UK comes to about 2,5

million participants in 2001/2002.

This concerns young people in the age range from (approximately) 14 to 19 years

old; the vast majority of those participating in IVET is aged 17-19 years old. It has

to be taken into account that this number can also include IVET at post secondary

and higher education level.


Outgoing mobility in the UK is monitored by the Leonardo Mobility Unit and the

British Council. Incoming mobility is not monitored.

Outgoing mobility The total number of IVET participants involved in a work placement abroad over

the last three years, was:

� 2003: 2817;

� 2004: 3417;

� 2005: 4555.

These figures mainly concern Leonardo placements.

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The most popular countries for IVET participants to go to for a placement abroad

are:

� France

� Germany

� Spain

� Italy

� Sweden

Trends and developments inoutgoing mobility

Stable but at a relatively low base. Increasing interest in EU10 / Accession

countries e.g. Poland, Turkey, Lithuania.

Explanation: The numbers of UK IVET students travelling abroad to learn remains

low due to issues with language and additional costs incurred (related to national

policy and social security).


The number of students coming to the UK remains high.

Explanation: these students fulfil specific demands within higher education and

certain sectors (i.e. agriculture and hospitality) which remain less appealing for

employment.

Stimulating mobility Mobility is now a priority within DfES International policy. Areas include gaining

students into higher education. Within sectors that have a mobile workforce there

are clear gains: e.g. Hospitality, IT, Finance, Business Consulting, Logistics and

newer high growth sectors related to high and biotech engineering and design.

� Mobility is a priority because of the gains to the individual – learner and worker –

as well as the benefits to the company. It is also expected to support to the

knowledge economy and to maintain global competitiveness.

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Appendix I

Overviewrespondents

ReferNetquestionnaire

619

Overview of persons and organisations per country that have been consulted on behalf of theReferNet Questionnaire completion.

Austria � Mr. Peter Schlögl, ReferNet, ÖIBF- Österreichisches Institut für

Berufsbildungsforschung

� Dr. Monika Thum-Kraft

� Leonardo da Vinci National Agency

Belgium, Flanders � Mr. Marc de Vlieger, Flemish Leonardo da Vinci National Agency

� Flemish Education Council

Bulgaria � Ms. Vanya Tividosheva, National Observatory on Employment and Training

� National Agency Leonardo da Vinci - Bulgaria, Human Resource Development

Centre


� Ministry of Labour and Social Policy

� Bulgarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry

Croatia � Ms. Iskra Devcic-Torbica, Croatian Chamber of Crafts and Trades, team leader

National Observatory on Employment and Training

Cyprus � Mr. Yiannis Mourouzides, ReferNet, HRDA - Human Resource Development

Authority of Cyprus


� Ministry of Education and Culture / Directorate of Technical and Vocational

Education

� Socrates National Unit

Czech Republic � Ms. Vera Czesaná, ReferNet, National Training Fund, National Observatory of

Employment & Training

� Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports

� Ministry for Regional Development

� Regional authorities managed vocational education and training

� The Economic Chamber of the Czech Republic

� Tandem - Co-ordination Centre of Czech-German exchanges

� CZESHA - Union of Associations in Education

� Association of Confectioners

� National Agency of the Leonardo da Vinci programme

� Vocational schools

� Mr. Ales Vlk, advisor to the minister of Education, external expert of the Council

of Human Resources

Denmark � Mr. Soren Kristensen, Techne


Estonia � Ms. Ramia Allev


� Ms. Krista Loogma, Chair of the Board of the Estonian Education Forum, Head

of the Institute for Educational Research, Tallinn University

Finland � Ms. Nina Eskola, Leonardo da Vinci National Agency, head of unit

� Ms. Laura Jauhola

� Ms. Annikki Häkkilä and Mr. Kari Nyyssölä, National Board of Education (NBE)

� Mr. Mikko Nupponen, Ministry of Education

� Comenius and Nordplus Junior, Ms. Nina Rekola

� Pohjola-Norden, Ms. Arja Kuosma

� State Provincial Office of Southern Finland, Dept. for Education and Culture: Ms.

Eija Karhatsu

France � Ms. Faïza Zaoui, ReferNet, Centre INFFO - Centre pour le développement de

l’information sur la formation permanente

� Ms. Francoise Stoeffler-Kern

Germany � Ms. Ute Hippach-Schneider, ReferNet, BIBB - Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung

� InWent, Ms. Feuerstein, Ms. Nijsten and Ms. Zantout

� IHK Aachen (Industrie - und Handelskammer), Ms. Angelika Ivens and Mr. Peter

Gier

Greece No completed questionnaire from Greece

Hungary � Mr. Tamás Köpeczi Bócz, ReferNet, Hungarian National Observatory

� Mr. Peter Tordai, Head of Unit Leonardo National Agency Hungary/Tempus

Public Foundation

� Ministry

� Social Partners


Iceland � Mr. Arnbjorn Ólafsson, ReferNet

� Iðnnemasambandi Íslands (The Icelandic Union of VET students)

� Ministry of Education, Science and Culture

� Leonardo da Vinci Unit

� Iðnskólinn í Hafnarfirði

� Iðnskólinn í Reykjavík

� Menntaskólinn í Kópavog

Ireland � Ms. Fiona Croke, Ms. Elva Duggan, Leonardo da Vinci National Agency

� Ms. Angela Lambkin, FETAC

Italy � Ms. Alessandra Pedone, ReferNet, ISFOL

� Ministry of Education, Direzione Generale per gli Affari Internazionali

dell’istruzione scolastica, Mr. Antonio Giunta La Spada and Ms. Mrs Clementina

Muritano

� Ministry of Labour, Direzione Generale per la famiglia, i diritti sociali e la

responsabilità sociale delle imprese, Coordinamento Programma Gioventù, Mrs

Paola Trifoni

� Isfol, Istituto per lo sviluppo della formazione professionale dei lavoratori, Rete

ReferNet, Mr Colombo Conti

� Indire (Eurydice Unit), Director Mr. Giovanni Biondi, contact person Mrs Erica

Cimò

� Agenzia Nazionale Leonardo Da Vinci, coordinator: Mrs Marina Rozera, contact

person Mrs Roberta Grisoni

� Agenzia Nazionale Socrates, coordinator: Mrs Fiora Imberciadori, contact

person Mrs Valentina Riboldi

Latvia � Ms. Baiba Ramina, Academic Information Centre - Latvian National Observatory

� Leonardo da Vinci National Agency

� Ministry of Education and Science, Professional education and continuing

education development department

� Ministry of Education and Science, European Affairs department


� Mobility students

Liechtenstein � Mr. Hans Axel Krämer, ReferNet

� Ministry of Education, Mrs. Corinna Beck

� Amt für Berufsbildung, Mrs. Silvia Risch-Wirth

� National Agentur Leonardo da Vinci, Mr. Stefan Sohler

� LIHK Liechtensteinische Industrie und Handelskammer, Mrs. Brigitte Haas

� GWK Gewerbe und Wirtschaftskammer, Präsident Mr. Arnold Matt

� Inform College, Mrs. Monika Forster

� LAK Liechtensteinische Alters und Krankenpflege, Mr. Paul Fäh

� Verein Holzkreislauf, Mr. Gerhard Konrad

Lithuania � Ms. Lina Vaitkute / Ms. Renata Starkiene


� Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour

� Ministry of Agriculture

� EU Leonardo da Vinci programme Co-ordination Support Foundation

� EU Socrates Co-oordination Support Foundation

� Support Foundation European Social Fund Agency

� EURES Lietuva

� Methodological Centre for Vocational Education and Training

� Association of Lithuanian Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Crafts

� Many vocational training institutions and other organisations, including

employers, were interviewed on many occasions

Luxembourg � Mr. Jos Noesen, ReferNet

� Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

� IVET institutions

Malta � Ms. Margaret Ellul, ReferNet

� Ministry of Education, Youth and Employment

� MCAST International Programmes Office, Main Campus, Corradino Hill, Paola

� Giovanni Curmi Higher Secondary School (GCHSS)

� Institute of Tourism Studies (ITS)

� Employment Training Corporation (ETC)

� Ministry of Tourism and CultureMinistry of Competitiveness and Communication

Netherlands � Ms. Annemiek Cox, ReferNet, CINOP, National Centre for Innovation of

Education and Training


� Ministry of Education, Culture and Science:

– Directorate VET: Ms. Charlotte Geurink

– Directorate International Policy: Mr. Hans Reiff

– Steering Group Internationalisation of Dutch VET ( incl. employers

organisations)

� Mr. Manfred Polzin, Association of VET Colleges (MBO-Raad)

� Ministry of Economic Affairs, Directorate International Entrepreneurship: Ms.

Rita Braam

� MKB Nederland (SME employers organisation): Mr. Kees Hoogendijk

� VET institutions:

– Mr. Norbert Rupert ROC Midden Nederland

– Ms. Lida Kappetijn ROC Zadkine Rotterdam

– approx. 30 international officers of VET institutions, consulted in a meeting

� Education Council

Norway � Halfdan Farstad, ReferNet, TI - Teknologisk Institutt

� Leonardo da Vinci National Agency Norway

� Directorate of Education and Training (website)

� Ministry of Education and Research (website)

� Confederation of Trade Unions (LO)

� Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise (NHO)

� Swedish International Programme Office for Education and Training

� InWent - Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung gGmbH (Germany)

Poland � Ms. Kinga Motysia, ReferNet, BKKK Co-operation Fund - National Observatory

� Ms. Malgorzata Rejnik, Cooperation Fund Foundation

Portugal � Mr. José Candeuas, Academus, Research Bureau

Romania � Mr. Lucian Voinea, ReferNet

� Leonardo da Vinci Department of the National Agency for Community Programs

in the Field of Education and Vocational Training

� Ministry of Education and Research

� National Centre for the Development of Vocational Education and Training

� National Adult Training Board

� Two contact persons of VET institutions

Slovak Republic � Juraj Vantuch, ReferNet, State Institute of Vocational Education/Slovak National

Observatory of Vocational Education

� NA Leonardo da Vinci Slovak Republic, Ms. Irena Fonodova

� NA Sokrates Slovakia, Ms. Viera Farkasova

� NA Youth Slovakia, IUVENTA, Mr. Matej Vanoch

� National Centre IAESTE Slovakia, Mr. Gabriel Valkay

� ELSA Slovak Republic, Mr. Lukas Tison

� AIESEC Slovak Republic, Mr. Ivan Melay

� Slovensky zivnostensky svaz (Slovak Craft Industry Federation),

Ms. Viola Kromerova

� Slovak Academic Information Agency, Ms. Kristina Sallerova

Slovenia � Mojca Cek, Centre for Vocational Education & Training

� National Agency – Cmepius

� National Institute for Vocational Education and Training

Spain � Julia Teresa Lopez, ReferNet


Sweden � Shawn Mendes, ReferNet

� Ministry of Education, Research and Culture

� Swedish National Agency for Education

� Swedish National Agency for School Improvement

� International Programme Office for Education and Training

Switzerland � Mr. Olivier Dinichert, StudEx

� Agroimplus, Hanspeter Flückiger

� S.Mitteregger, Echanges

� Eurodyssee Valais, Karine Amos

� Federal Office for Professional Education and Technology (BBT), Barbara Rieder

� Kanton Aargau, Abteilung Berufsbildung und Mittelschule, Tobias Maurer

� Kanton Basel-Stadt, Amt für Berufsbildung und Berufsberatung, Martin

Kohlbrenner

� Kaufmännischer Verband Schweiz, Ralf Margreiter

� Lernzentren, Herbert Ringele

� Lingue e stage all’estero, Andrea Togni

� Novartis, Erich Kofler

� République et Canton du Jura, Véronique Paupe

� State Secretariat for Education and Research (SBF), Verena Weber

� Swiss Institute for Vocational Education (SIBP), Regula Kuenzi-Minder

� Swiss Labour Organisation Federation (SGB), Peter Siegrist

� Swiss Occidental Leonardo, Marilyn von Kaenel

� x-change, Stefan Veigl

� By mail: top 50 companies in Switzerland: head of apprentice recruitment,

apprentice coordinators

Turkey � Mr. Musa Ceylan, Centre for EU Education and Youth Programmes (National

Agency)

United Kingdom � ReferNet, QCA - Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, Mr. Tom Leney,

Mr. Tom May, Ms. Natalia Cuddy

� Ecotec, National Agency Leonardo da Vinci, Mr. Kevin Robinson, Mr. Kursat

Levent Egriboz

� British Council, Mt. Robert Thompson

As indicated in the chapter on methodology the questionnaire has been sent to the ReferNetrepresentative or other organisations or experts who are in the best position to assess thesituation at national level. The list in this annex gives an overview of the persons andorganisations that have been consulted by the respondents with regards to completion of thequestionnaire.

Numbers

In total 161 experts and organisations have delivered input for the overview of

activities related to mobility in IVET in 33 European countries.

Countries No. of consulted experts/organisations

33 161

Type of organisations

The involved and consulted experts come from different types of organisations.

Type or organisation Number Remarks

Expert- and research

organisations

31

Ministries 28 Min. of Education: 20

Min. of Employment: 3

Other ministries: 5

(Min. of Agriculture, Min. of Regional Development, Min. of

Economic Affairs, Min. of Competitiveness and Communication,

Min. of Tourism and Culture)

National Agencies Leonardo da

Vinci

27

Other Agencies 16 Co-ordinating other Eu programmes (Socrates, Youth, Social

Funds) or bi/multilateral mobility programmes

Employers 26 Employers’ organisations, branch or sectoral organisations (like

e.g. national SME organisation, Associations of Confectioners,

Alters und Krankenpflege), employee’s organisation, Chambers of

Commerce, Industry or Crafts

Associations in Education 15

National Observatories on

Employment and Training

9 Incl. ReferNet representatives

Regional authorities and

organisations

5

Education Council 2

Students’ organisations 2

VET schools no exact

number

Many respondents have indicated that they consulted VET

providers. Number and names are not given in most cases. Some

respondents mention they mailed/called 50 VET schools. Others

indicate two or three names of VET schools they interviewed or

called for information on certain questions.

The ReferNet representatives are located in different types of organisations:

expert- and research organisations, Ministries, National Observatories on

Employment and Training.

Appendix II

EUNECparticipants

627

Discussion and reflection on the MoVE-iT reports on obstacles and

solutions to mobility in initial vocational education and training

MoVE-it conference

10 November 2006

EUNEC � Simone Barthel, president

� Mia Douterlungne, general secretary

� Wim Vansteenkiste, EUNEC secretariat

� CEF (Belgium): Alain Bultot

� Vlor (Belgium):Roos Herpelinck

� QCA (England): Nathalia Cuddy

� CEES (Spain): Antonio Frias del Val

� CNEME (Portugal): Manuel Miguèns

HCEEE (France): Claude Sauvageot (only on Thursday)

� Onderwijsraad (The Netherlands): Adrie van der Rest (only on Thursday)

� LIVA (Latvia): Inese Bunga

� EEF (Estonia): Krista Loogma

CSEN (Luxembourg): Roger Elsen

� IES (Roumenia): Matei Cerkez

New Contacts EFVET (European Forum of Technical and Vocational Education and Training)

Stefano Tirati, national coordinator for Italy of EFVET

Manfred Polzin, Raad Beroepsonderwijs Nederland, member of EFVET

Germany

� Gerald Heidegger, Prof. Dr., Director of Biat, University of Flensburg

� Wiebke Petersen, Dr., University of Flesnburg

� Peter Imhof, responsible for Education at the Representation of the State of

Baden-Württemberg to the European Union

Czech Republic

� Ales Vlk, advisor to the Minister of Education, external expert at the Council of

Human Resources

Slovak Republic

� Ivan Hromada, Second Secretary Education & Youth, Permanent

Representation of the Slovak Republic to the EU

Bulgaria

� Mrs. Iliana Taneva – chief expert at Policy in Vocational Education and Further

Training directorate, Ministry of Education and Science.

@@eunec

European Network of

Education Councils

National Delegations Vlor

CEF

(Flemish Education Council):

� Guido Coeck

� Robert Lenaerts

� Monique De Ridder

� Koen Stassen

Appendix III

ReferNETquestionnaireA study on mobility obstacles and solutions in

Initial Vocational Education and Training

Working together to accelerate mobility

631

Why the European Commission seeks yoursupport in this study

The MoVE-iT project

We have been in touch with you before about this project on obstacles to mobility.

The official new title is: MoVE-iT.

In the MoVE-iT project we try to get a picture of the obstacles to transnational

mobility in the context of Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET) and on

how these obstacles can be surmounted.

The European Commission, DG Education and Culture, has started three projects

that run in 2006. The three projects have the following objectives:










To achieve these objectives, several studies and consultations will take place in

the areas shown in the picture below.


In order to stimulate mobility, many stakeholders at different levels can play a role.

The European Commission DG EAC, is convinced that you, as ReferNet member,

are in the best position to assess the situation at national level. Ultimately, the

results of this questionnaire should support conclusions and recommendations for

stimulating mobility within the variety of VET systems in Europe.

What the study team would like to gain from this questionnaire

This questionnaire is an attempt to get a better overview of the activities related to

mobility in IVET. We are collecting information on

� National and regional policies and programmes stimulating transnational

mobility

� Stakeholders in IVET transnational mobility

� Expected benefits, for VET institutions, employers, branches, and IVET

participants

� Obstacles and Solutions

� Numbers on outgoing and incoming mobility

� Examples of good practices

� Contacts for further investigation

Definitions of key terms Transnational mobility: transnational mobility will, for the purposes of this study, be

defined as a stay abroad organised explicitly for purposes of learning. Nearly all

transnational mobility in a VET-context takes place as work placements. For

operational purposes, we have adopted the definition of Kristensen (2004) of work

placements abroad as “a shorter or longer period spent abroad in a public or

private enterprise, which has been consciously organised for learning purposes,

which implies active involvement in concrete work processes, and which can be

paid or unpaid”.

IVET stands for initial vocational education and training, it is vocational education

carried out in the initial education system, usually before entering working life.

IVET participants in this project are the students in initial vocational education and

training.

VET institutions: We use the general term VET institutions (and not IVET

institutions) for public or private institutions providing initial vocational education. In

practice many of these institutions will also provide courses in continuing

education.

How to join You are invited to visit the project web site, which contains a large number of

existing reports and data on mobility at:

http://room.projectcoordinator.net/~435bc339b0795.

Shortly after you receive this questionnaire you will be sent a link to the project

room.


Who else is involved? The project is executed by PricewaterhouseCoopers, CINOP and EVTA (European

Vocational Training Association). The core project team is supported by relevant

networks and experts in the field of employment, jurisdiction and social security.

CINOP is responsible for the research on country specific information through the

Refernet members. At CINOP Jannie Roemeling (teamleader in this project, she

took over from Martine Maes), Jittie Brandsma and Ceciel Bruin-Mosch

(researchers) and Annemiek Cox (involved in Refernet) are involved.

Questions? For further information and questions please contact:

Annemiek Cox, CINOP and ReferNet representative for The Netherlands

Email: [email protected]

Phone: +31 (0)73 6800 788

Please send the completed questionnaire to:[email protected]


1 National and regional policies andprogrammes

The European Union is not alone in stimulating transnational mobility. Various

Member States have developed policies or are developing policies to stimulate

mobility in initial vocational education and training (IVET) and have programmes to

support such mobility, either in general or aimed at cooperation with specific

(neighbouring) countries.

Through this question we try to get an up-to-date picture of national policies and

programmes (which can both be programmes from public authorities and

programmes based on private initiatives) for stimulating mobility in IVET.

1.1 National and regional policies

Are there policies at national and regional level in your country that stimulate IVET

transnational mobility? 1

Policies can both be from public authorities and based on private initiatives

Name of the

policy

Aims Target group(s) Who funds? Annual budget Is the policy still

in place?

Yes/no

Please include copies or give links of policy documents (concerning aims, target

group(s), who funds and available budget at annual basis) in print or in digital

version and refer to chapter and page.


1 We are interested in both policies for specific mobility and policies for internationalisation in general with an impact on mobility

1.2 Ministries involved

Ministries involved

Which ministries are involved in policy making of IVET transnational mobility?

� If more than one ministry is involved: Please give a brief description of any

cooperation between these ministries in the area of IVET transnational

mobility.

Which ministry is of highest influence on current mobility policy?

Which ministry was the initiator of IVET transnational mobility policy making?

� In what year did this ministry take the first policy initiative?

� Is the involvement of this ministry in IVET transnational mobility ongoing up

to this day?

Involvement of Ministry of Education

Is the Ministry of Education actively involved in the European Year of Workers’

Mobility (year 2006)?

� If yes, describe in what way.

Contact details

Is there an internationalisation-unit at the ministries mentioned?

� If yes: in which ministries?

� If yes: Please give the name and email address of contact persons.

1.3 Programmes

Please list all programmes in your country that support IVET transnational mobility

in the table below. 2 Think of programmes like:


� Other European programmes

� Governmental programmes (National level, Regional level, Municipal level)

� Co-operative (bilateral) programmes with neighbouring countries

� Programmes of sectoral or branch organisations, public and private

employment institutions and companies

� School programmes etc.


2 We are interested in both programmes for specific mobility and programmes for internationalisation in general with an impact on mobility

Name of the

programme

Programme

objectives


1.4 New programme: Life Long Learning

As you may know the Leonardo da Vinci programme is nearing its end phase and

will be replaced by a new programme.

The new Integrated Action Programme in the field of Life Long Learning comprises

sectoral programmes on school education (Comenius), higher education

(Erasmus), vocational training (Leonardo da Vinci) and adult education (Grundtvig),

and is completed by transversal measures and an additional Jean Monnet

programme focusing on European integration. The proposed budget is € 13.62

billion for the total period 2007-2013.

The objective of the new programme is to contribute through lifelong learning to

the development of the Community as an advanced knowledge society, with

sustainable economic development, more and better jobs and greater social

cohesion. It aims to foster interaction, cooperation and mobility between education

and training systems within the Community, so that they become a world quality

reference. Transnational mobility will be an essential part of the programme.

Suggestions for Life Long Learning programme

Could you give concrete suggestions for the Life Long Learning programme

concerning IVET transnational mobility?


2 Stakeholders in IVET mobility

With regard to mobility in initial vocational education and training, various

stakeholders can be distinguished, who can hold different influential positions and

perform different roles where mobility in IVET is at stake. The next question intends

to get a clearer picture of the different stakeholders in your country and their way

of involvement.

A. Please indicate the degree of involvement of each stakeholder category in IVET

mobility in your country (complete by printing the appropriate number)

B. Please indicate the source of your judgement (complete by printing the

appropriate number)

C. Please give names of the organisations involved in IVET mobility in each

stakeholder category.

D. In what way are these organisations involved in IVET mobility? (Indicate by

given the number of the ways of involvement that are applicable to each

organisation you mention)

We distinguish involvement in:

1 Policy making

2 Activating and stimulating

3 Decision making

4 Financing

5 Approving and accrediting placements

6 Coaching of participants


Stakeholders: A. Involvement in IVET

mobility:

0 = No involvement

1 = Low involvement

2 = Medium Involvement

3 = High involvement

9 = Don’t Know

B. If considered

involved this is:

1. An estimation after

having consulted

those involved

2. Indicated by

empirical research

or stated in

statistical and

evaluation reports

(please name

reports below *1)

C. Names of organisations

involved

D. Way of involvement

Please put in brackets after

each organisation:

1. Policy making

2. Activating and stimulating

3. Decision making

4. Financing

5. Approving and accrediting

placements

6. Coaching of participants

European Union 0, 1, 2, 3 or 9 1 or 2 Put names here and indicate

how they are involved

(1,2,3,4,5,6)

National government Example: Ministry of Labour

(1) Ministry of Education

(1,2,3,4)

Regional governments

Municipal governments

National education council

National qualification

authorities

National council of VET

institutions

Employer organisations

Employers: public and private

organisations and companies


Trade unions

Chamber of commerce

VET institutions

Student associations

Other specific organisations

that promote transnational

mobility:

(please name)

*1) Empirical Research, evaluation and statistical reports


Name of research,

evaluation or statistical

report

Related to which

stakeholder

Document available?

Yes/No

(Please do not attach)

Link available?

Yes/No

If available Please give link

1. Yes/No Yes/No

If yes: www.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Etc.


3 Benefits

Transnational mobility has been part of European programmes for as long as

European programmes for IVET have existed. The reasons for this are the high

expectations with regard to the benefits (or ‘value added’) at EU level (e.g.

improving language and professional skills, enhancing the employability of workers

and the movement of workers in Europe). However, the knowledge with regard to

the actual benefits of transnational mobility for those directly involved (schools,

IVET participants, employers) seems to be limited. The next question intends to

collect more detailed information on the benefits of mobility as they are

experienced in your country by the groups directly involved.

A. Please indicate the degree of benefits experienced and the top-5 benefits of

transnational mobility, as indicated by the five groups below.

B. Answers should be indicated by empirical research or stated in evaluation and

statistical reports.

A. Degree of benefits experienced

0 = No benefits

1 = Little

2 = Intermediate

3 = High benefits

9 = Don’t know

If benefits are recognised, which are

considered the top-5 benefits?

Vet institutions sending participants

on placements

1(main benefit)

2

3

4

5

Employers receiving IVET

participants on a transnational

mobility placement

1(main benefit)

2

3

4

5

Employers hiring employees with

transnational mobility experience

1(main benefit)

2

3

4

5


A. Degree of benefits experienced

0 = No benefits

1 = Little

2 = Intermediate

3 = High benefits

9 = Don’t know

If benefits are recognised, which are

considered the top-5 benefits?

IVET participants 1(main benefit)

2

3

4

5

Branch organisations 1(main benefit)

2

3

4

5

B. Empirical research, evaluations and statistical reports that underpin the above

answers

Name of research,

evaluation or

statistical report

Main target group research

1= Vet institutions

2= Employers receiving

3= Employers hiring

4= IVET participants

5= Branch organisations

Document available?

Yes/No


Link available?

Yes/No

If available Please give link

1. Yes/No Yes/No

If yes: www.

2.

3.

4.

5. Etc.


4 Obstacles and Solutions

The next question is about obstacles to IVET transnational mobility and solutions

to overcome these obstacles. We ask you to indicate the relevance of a list of

obstacles to IVET mobility to the situation in your country. Please indicate whether

your answer is based on an estimation after having consulted people and parties

involved (e.g. VET institutions, teachers, IVET participants, employers, branches) or

indicated by research, evaluations or statistical reports. This gives us an indication

of the ‘hardness of evidence’.

The section concerning solutions has the aim of gathering knowledge on solutions

applied, through which obstacles have been overcome. Please write down in a

short and practical way the solutions that have actually been found in your country.

A. Please indicate to which degree each obstacle is relevant to your country

B. Please indicate the source of your judgement under question A

C. Please indicate if solutions have been found and if yes describe the solutions

(Please give a brief description of the solutions found, an extensive project

description is not necessary).

D. Please describe other solutions you may propose (Please give a brief

description of the solutions proposed, an extensive project description is not

necessary).


Obstacle A. Relevance

0 = No

1 = Low

2 = Medium

3 = High

9 = Don’t know

B. Based on:

1. Estimation after

having

consulted

those involved

2. Indicated by

empirical

research or

stated in

statistical and

evaluation

reports (please

name reports

below *2)

C. Solutions found

0 = No

1 = Yes

If yes, give a brief

description of the

solution

D. Other solutions

proposed

(optional)

1. Problems of legal

nature, like: permits, visa,

social security rights and

taxes

0, 1, 2, 3 or 9 1 or 2 0 1

If yes: solution

found:

2. Problems with

international coverage of

insurances

3. Lack of information

about finding work

placements, financing and

handling of procedures

4. Lack of networks for

exchange of knowledge of

and experience with

mobility

5. Mobility is not a priority

of the national policy in

IVET

6. Lack of cooperation

between ministries

7. Little emphasis on

language learning in IVET


qualifications obtained in

another country

9. Lack of promotion or

support of transnational

mobility by branch

organisations



0 = No

1 = Low

2 = Medium

3 = High

9 = Don’t know

B. Based on:

1. Estimation after

having

consulted

those involved

2. Indicated by

empirical

research or

stated in

statistical and

evaluation

reports (please

name reports

below *2)

C. Solutions found

0 = No

1 = Yes


description of the

solution

D. Other solutions

proposed

(optional)

10. Lack of interest and

stimulation of

transnational mobility by

social partners

11. Employers do not see

the benefits of


12. Employers do not

know how to handle an

transnational placement

13. VET institutions do not

have a strategy or policy

on transnational mobility

14. Lack of autonomy of

VET institutions to make

decisions on transnational

mobility

15. Vet institutions lack

capacity on managing


projects

16. Vet institutions don’t

know what can be learned

from transnational

mobility

17. A placement abroad

does not fit in the home

school curriculum



0 = No

1 = Low

2 = Medium

3 = High

9 = Don’t know

B. Based on:

1. Estimation after

having

consulted

those involved

2. Indicated by

empirical

research or

stated in

statistical and

evaluation

reports (please

name reports

below *2)

C. Solutions found

0 = No

1 = Yes


description of the

solution

D. Other solutions

proposed

(optional)

18. Lack of quality

placements

19. Vet institutions meet

too much bureaucracy in

handling procedures

20. IVET participants do

not see the benefits of


21. IVET participants lack

courage for placements

abroad

22. A general lack of

interest among IVET

participants

23. IVET participants do

not have enough

language skills

24. IVET participants lack

finances for a placement

abroad

25. IVET participants are

restricted by obligations

at home like: jobs, family

and friendships

Please add any other

obstacles important to the

situation of your country

*2) Empirical Research and statistical reports


Name of research,

evaluation or

statistical report

Related to obstacle number: Document available?

Yes/No


Link available?

Yes/No

If yes, please give link

1. Yes/No Yes/No

www.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. Etc

Other suggestions for enhancing IVET mobility in your country

Please name any other way of enhancing IVET mobility in your

country, which has not been mentioned in the solutions above.


Please name other research that has been performed or reports written in relation

to IVET internationalisation and transnational mobility in your country. (This can be

research on numbers, impact, benefits, good practices etc.)

Name of research,

evaluation or

statistical report

Document available?

Yes/No


Link available?

Yes/No

If yes, please give link

1. Yes/No Yes/No

If yes: www.

2.

3.

4.

Etc.


5 Numbers





systematic basis. Through the questions below on outgoing3 and incoming

mobility, we attempt to get a comprehensive picture of mobility in IVET in Europe.

What is the total number of IVET participants in your country?

Yes/no

Are transnational mobility figures in your country monitored on

a regular basis?

� Is outgoing mobility monitored?

� Is incoming mobility monitored?

Please indicate A. who is gathering statistical data and B. the frequency of

monitoring.

Level A. Who is gathering statistics on IVET

transnational mobility in your country?

B. Frequency of monitoring

Annual/biannual/incidental

National Annual/biannual/incidental

Regional

Branch

Institutional



5.1 Outgoing mobility

What was the total number of IVET participants in your country that was actually

involved in a work placement abroad in the past four years?

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

In question 1.3 you listed the programmes that support IVET transnational mobility

in your country.

� Please list these programmes in the table below.

� Please indicate for each of the programmes the numbers of participants in

outgoing mobility over the last four years.

� Please gather data from empirical research, evaluations and statistical reports.

� Please indicate the source of data.

� Please note that some programmes overlap, therefore the total number in a year

may be less than the sum.

Programme Category Name of

the

programme

2002 2003 2004 2005 Source of

data

Leonardo da Vinci

Other European

programmes

Governmental

programmes:

National, Regional level,

Municipal

Co-operative programmes

with neighbouring

countries

Programmes of branch

organisations, public and

private employment

institutions and

companies

School programmes

Other programmes

Individual financing by

IVET participants


Please specify the numbers of participants in outgoing mobility by gender, branch

and length of stay if official documentation is available (e.g. for the Leonardo IVET

mobility projects)

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Sector Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:


6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

Please indicate sources of data of the above numbers.

Which are the five countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went over

the past four years?

Numbers

1

2

3

4

5



Trends and developments

What are the trends and developments (increase/decrease/stagnation) in the number of

students involved in outgoing mobility?

� Can you give an explanation for these trends and developments?

What are the trends and developments in outgoing mobility with regard to the choice of

country?

� Can you give an explanation for these trends and developments?

5.2 Incoming mobility

What is the total number of IVET participants from other countries actually visiting

your country on a work placement in the past four years?

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005


mobility

� Please list programmes for incoming mobility that are applicable to your

country.

� Please indicate for each of the programmes the numbers of participants in

incoming mobility over the last four years.

� Please gather data from empirical research, evaluations and statistical reports.

� Please indicate the source of data.

� Please note that some programmes overlap, therefore the total number in a year

may be less than the sum.

Programme Category Name of the

programme

2002 2003 2004 2005 Source of

data

Leonardo da Vinci

Other European

programmes

Governmental

programmes:

National level

Regional level

Municipal level

Co-operative

programmes with

neighbouring

countries


Programme Category Name of the

programme

2002 2003 2004 2005 Source of

data

Programmes of

branch organisations,

public and private

employment

institutions and

companies

School programmes

Other programmes

Individual financing

by IVET participants

Please specify the numbers of participants in incoming mobility by gender, branch

and length of stay if official documentation is available (e.g. for the Leonardo IVET

mobility projects).

2002 2003 2004 2005

Gender Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Male:

Female:

Sector Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:

Agriculture:

Technique:

Economics:

Health & Welfare:


6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:

< 6 weeks:

6-12 weeks:

3-6 months:

> 6 months:



Which are the five countries to where most participants of outgoing mobility went over

the past four years?

Numbers

1

2

3

4

5


Explanations for trends and developments

What are the trends and developments

(increase/decrease/stagnation) in the number of students

involved in incoming mobility?

� Can you give an explanation for these trends and

developments?

What are the trends and developments in incoming mobility with

regard to the countries participants come from?

� Can you give an explanation for these trends and

developments?

5.3 Stimulating mobility

In which branches or occupational fields of study would you like to stimulate international mobility in particular?

Why?


6 Examples of good practice

Please select and describe three good practices of IVET transnational mobility. We

are interested in those mobility projects or approaches which you consider as

qualitatively good.

Good practice 1:

Title:

Initiator / owner:

Organisation name:

Address:

Postal code – City

Country

Phone number

Website

Contact person:

Name:

Phone (direct):

E-mail

General information on initiative:

Description:

Use a maximum of 10 sentences giving information on:

The obstacles encountered

The way obstacles were overcome

Effective structures and approaches

The developed instruments (if applicable)

The parties involved in both countries:

Objective of the placement:

Key results and benefits of the placement:

Why is this a good practice?

Year:


Good practice 2:

Title:

Initiator / owner:

Organisation name:

Address:


Country

Phone number

Website

Contact person:

Name:

Phone (direct):

E-mail


Description:










Year:


Good practice 3:

Title:

Initiator / owner:

Organisation name:

Address:


Country

Phone number

Website

Contact person:

Name:

Phone (direct):

E-mail


Description:










Year:


7 Contacts for further investigation

7.1 VET Institutions

We are planning a further investigation into IVET mobility among VET institutions in

your country. Could you please provide us with names, addresses and contact

persons of 10 VET institutions which have experience with transnational mobility?

This could be both positive and negative experience.

Name VET

institution

Address Telephone number Name Contact

person

Telephone or

E-mail Contact

person

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

7.2 Personal stories by IVET participants

Could you provide us with 10 stories, personal experiences produced by IVET

participants in which they present their experience with transnational mobility?

Please mix stories by: Positive and negative mobility experience, gender, discipline

of study, length of stay abroad and country of stay.

Do you know of databases/websites containing personal experiences with

transnational mobility in your country?

If yes: Please give names and addresses.

Names and addresses of databases and websites


7.3 References

Finally, we are interested in which parties you have consulted to complete this

questionnaire

Parties consulted (e.g. a particular ministry, trade union, branch organisation, student group, VET institution, etc.)

Thank you very much for your contribution to this study.

We will keep you informed about the project.

On the project website you find information on the progress, news and

announcements of activities.

You are welcome to visit the site regularly.

Please send the completed questionnaire to:[email protected]

The deadline is May 30th 2006.


Appendix IV

Suggestions forthe lifelong

learningprogramme

661

Czech Republic � To simplify the procedures of the project preparation, management and

evaluation

� To make the partner search easier through creation of several databases

� To accept the preparatory meetings of project partners as eligible activity/costs

� To support creation of regional technical assistance units

Germany The following remarks refer to answers in the questionnaire of the LdV Stakeholder

Consultation Group and contain the most important items:

The concept of accreditation of promoters should be introduced:

� Accreditation of an institution for four years to run mobility projects

� Application for accreditation implies additional quality criteria (impact on the

institution, sustainability, qualification of teachers, language learning, quality

management, PR-activities etc.) and a commitment to European mobility (e.g.

like the University Charta of the Erasmus programme, a kind of policy

statement)

This accreditation implies

� Easy access for these years to mobility grants (simple application, 2 pages)

� Evaluation after three years-

� Adoption of the application form to this kind of mobility

� Better planning for organisations applying each year for a mobility grant

� Responsibility of the management of an institution rather than individuals

� Long term mobility strategy

� Less administration for promoters and NAs

� Implementation of quality criteria (impact on the institution, sustainability etc.)

� Better impact and valorisation

We support the funding of long term projects in IVET: The max. amount per

beneficiary should increase to 7.500 (increase of costs since 2000, vital for long

term placements.

� There should be funding possibilities for individuals in IVET:

� There is a demand for individual mobility. Even though we should stick to the

project type of mobility, in order to ensure the quality.

� The project type of mobility and the individual access to the program are no

contradictions if projects have the character of “free mover” projects. There do

exist good practice examples for placements.

It should be made more attractive for SME´s to participate in the programme:

� Projects up to a grant of 20.000 should be defined as a project type with a

simplified administration in all phases of the lifecycle (application, assessment of

operational and financial capacity, contract, reports).

� There should be a balance between the size of the project and the

administrative requisites. Therefore a new project type “Small Projects” is

recommended.

� Preparations should be funded as usually.

� Reimbursement of a part of the salaries of the apprentices in placements from

13 weeks duration onwards, should be discussed (Source: InWent)


Estonia IVET student exchanges of different durations between the VET institutions of

European countries

Spain � It would be important to increase the amount of money the beneficiaries get to

pay for the expenses of the placement.

� It would be desirable that the programme becomes easily to handle, not so

bureaucratic.

France � Set up for apprentices and students of secondary vocational schools, individual

grants for mobility, similar to the Erasmus grants

Ireland � When considering the new Life Long Learning Programme, it is relevant to note

that the establishment of the national framework of qualifications in Ireland

(launched in 2003) has been a most important development for the promotion of

lifelong learning in Ireland. Suggestions for the future include the creation of

opportunities for learners with FETAC awards to travel and to work and

participate in education and training abroad and to ensure the recognition of the

learning achieved and its incorporation into FETAC awards. The lifelong learning

programme must be able to support this.

� In keeping with the new title a strong recommendation from all of those

consulted is that mobility programmes should be available across all ages.

� A further observation from those involved is that there is a need to reduce the

bureaucracy and paperwork involved in the implementation of transnational

mobility programmes (particularly Leonardo da Vinci). It is felt that much

reporting is repetitive and superfluous. A recommendation is made with regard

to e-reporting, where beneficiaries should have a log on password to a site

where they do e-report and evaluation and this can be done during the

placement period, all feedback should be electronic and completed in tandem

with placement. It is felt that the amount of documentation required in hard

copy format is excessive, with one promoter suggesting that all feedback to the

NA be verbal, and that no written account should be submitted.

� Clearer guidelines for structures and necessary resources (including personnel

allocation) for the implementation of placements are requested. A need is cited

for additional training to administrators and managers of transnational placement

programmes. It is suggested that the present lack of structures and guidelines

make transnational placement programmes unattractive to many staff and

potential promoters. While acknowledging that National Agency one-day

seminars are beneficial and staff themselves hugely supportive, there is a lack of

understanding of the demands on teaching staff who recognise the importance of

these programmes but who have to prioritise the main responsibilities of

preparation, teaching, corrections etc. It is proposed that the National Agency

should approach the Department of Education &Science and request that

teachers involved in pilot projects or mobility be afforded greater flexibility with

the allocation of teaching hours. All mobility and transnational initiatives contribute

to upskilling staff (in cost effective way) as well as making the educational

environment a better place for learners. With a more top down approach, the

benefits of involvement would be more apparent. A formal recognition of the time

and resources involved requires Departmental involvement.


� It is suggested that Quality Assurance systems should be introduced around

transnational placement programmes, to include on going monitoring of the

projects and qualitative rather than quantitative research and feedback. Results

of other mobility initiatives should be considered when developing transnational

placement programmes. It is felt, for example, that pilot projects have

developed useful structures and materials, and that these resources should be

made available to all promoters. A web based platform would be the most

suitable method of facilitating these initiatives.

� The annual deadline and once a year application format is found to be useful by

promoters, as it imposes a necessary structure and time line on a process that

could other wise become unstructured and difficult to manage. However one

promoter recommended that, in certain circumstances, application should be

made on a two-year basis, and funding should be allocated for a two-year

period, allowing time to plan ahead. This would be appropriate within centres

where annual programmes of a similar nature (class / target group, host country)

are implemented. A two-year project funding process would allow for

addressing issues that arise during the first year project, refining and tweaking,

reinforcing the learning curve, and resulting in a more conclusive achievement.

� A recommendation was also made around funding of placements. It is felt that

these programmes should be fully funded by the Commission and should not

necessitate co-funding by the organisations involved or by the participants.

Italy � The official position of Italian Government (Ministry of labour and Ministry of

Education) for the future generation of EU Life Long Learning Programme has

been expressed in a document dated 13/11/2003 and titled “Posizione italiana

sulla futura generazione dei Programmi sull’educazione, la formazione

professionale e la gioventù”. The document, considering the success of

Leonardo and Socrates which resources don’t cover enough the huge demand

for mobility, suggests to focus on quality and effincency of Vet systems in the

EU, to facilitate the access for all to Vet systems, to open up the Vet systems to

the external world. The new Programme should follow the Decisions of the

Councils of Lisbon, Stockholm and Barcelona, and the EES (in particular related

to human capital and lifelong learning). it should support the enlargement to

Eastern Europe and Mediterranean area. The proposal for the new Programme

are: to foster the geographical and virtual training mobility, to develop

transnational experimentation in innovation and distance learning, to support

studies and evaluation of VET and occupational insertion with related

experimentations. The actions should focus on integration of education, training,

job contexts and leisure time, so that education and training can be closely

connected with economic and industrial system. The monitoring and evaluation

of the actions at national and EU level should be made at a central level

gathering all data and made available in a short time to all the actors involved.

Assessment of competences at formal and informal level should be developed

with Europass. For the mobility actions it will be important to better prepare the

individual or group experience abroad through a better financing of preparatory

visits, the elimination of taxation on grants, the reduction of residence permit

obstacles with some countries. For pilot actions of innovative transnational

projects the national structures and agencies should have a more important role


monitoring the content of the action and not only controlling bureaucratic

issues. The quality of support documentation (Guides, manuals, forms,

evaluation, intermediate and final report) should be revised.

� The costs for the transfer of innovation should also be part of dissemination

processes.

� Youth Programme should remain an independent one.

� A study commissioned for the Youth Programme in 2001 “Studio sulla

condizione e sulle politiche giovanili in Europa” focus on the need of

strengthening the European citizenship through more training opportunities for

secondary schools teachers in the Lifelong Learning Programme to better

inform the students about European Programmes. The pilot projects financed

by the EU should also be developed through a more important involvement of

young people. Participation of youth is a social right that should be a

fundamental issue for EU policy and EU Programme on LifeLong Learning. The

cooperation between EU and National institutions should be reinforced through

a periodical monitoring of Youth policies in Europe. Actions for mobility should

be also reinforced eliminating obstacles to transnational mobility (knowledge of

foreign languages, difficulties in setting abroad, social security and taxation

national different schemes). Mobility activities should be integrated with cities

twinnings projects, conferences, training courses on European citizenship,

training courses for facilitators, projects against racism and xenophobia,

European festivals, cultural events, youth tourism in Europe.

� Transnational mobility could be related with an action programme for non formal

education of youth.

Lithuania � The minimum duration of the placements should be reduced to 2 weeks, taking

into account the specificity of this target group (placements for IVT pupils are

often their 1st experience abroad; such a long separation from their families

causes psychological problems)

� Accompanying persons should be always allowed for this target group;

� Certain financial incentive should be in advance foreseen for the host

organisation so it could have at least some motivation to organise the

placements because quality of a placement crucially depends upon the host

organisation;

� Subsistence costs should be increased to this target group, because those

pupils most often do not have own funds to have better conditions and LdV

grant is not always sufficient.

� Preparatory and follow-up visits should be extra financed (not from the same

amount of administrative costs).

Luxembourg � Less bureaucracy in handling the procedures

� Simplification of the application and reporting forms

� Strengthening the EUROPASS- certification


Hungary � Quality of mobility should remain a key aspect

� Mobility should remain training related activity.

� Pupils in IVET is the most important target group in the current phase and it

should have a fundamental role in the new phase as well.

� The grant should be adjusted to the inflation regularly.

� The involvement of disadvantaged beneficiaries should be ensured (by the

following means: a higher max. of grant, more accompanying persons,

increased funding for preparation, funding for follow-up activities).

� Application form should be shorter (to avoid repetition) and more use-friendly

(wording).

� As Europass Mobility is the only Europe wide instrument in this regard, the use

of it should be compulsory.

� Those institutions that have been successfully organising mobility projects for

several years and have the necessary administrative, HR and financial

capacities could request to make a long term contract as sending institutions.

They would have to submit, in addition to the normal application form a special

one for the framework contract.

� The participation of SMEs in LdV is of great importance and it should be

encouraged, as partner institutions as well.

The Netherlands � Continuation and increased efforts for mobility in the VET sector.

� Less bureaucracy and less administrative burden in general and esp. for small

projects.

� Introduction of funding of long mobility projects (applications for e.g. four years).

� Introduction of small projects, e.g. up to 20,000 with a simplified

administration throughout the project’s lifecycle.

� Introduction of individual mobility applications (not through school or company).

� More focus on awareness and participation in SMEs: creation of a customized

(regional) support structure close by the companies, intermediaries for the

formal application and administration.

� Increased focus on quality through validation, dissemination and mainstreaming

of good results and products, publications, project leader meetings, training

opportunities.

� Increased cooperation and synergy between the fields of education,

employment and industry: between programmes (Leonardo and e.g. ESF

Objective 3 and EQUAL), between DGs (at European level) and between

ministries and programme agencies (at national level).

Austria � Integrative approach (LLL)

� Target group oriented structure of the programme

� The continuing use of existing brand names

� Decrease of regulation

� Joint procedures

� Increase the volume and improve the quality of mobility

� Increase the volume and improve the quality of co-operation between actors

� Facilitate the development of innovative practices and their transfer into other

countries

� Improve the transparency and recognition


� Greater focus on language learning, European citizenship and regional aspects

� Decentralised procedures, simpler and more user friendly

� Focus on simplification, decentralisation, flexibility, mobility and quality

Poland � There is a need for individual mobility. However, not more than 15% of a yearly

budget should be reserved for individual mobility projects.

� The use of Europass-Mobility document should be a precondition for receiving a

LdV grant. In case when obtaining a validation is possible it may be done on

the basis of thematical scope and an exam.

� Financing the preparatory visits is advisable. Such visits allow the partners to

get to know better and let the sending partner better assess the conditions of

the future placement.

� As regards periods of placements a greater flexibility should be introduced (split

placement periods, shorter periods), especially in case of employed

beneficiaries and disadvantaged groups.

� The increase of SME participation is desired, because of the sector’s important

role in economic development

Portugal � High promotion in Member States and local work of National Agencies to

organize national programmes and to explain the advantages of IVET

transnational mobility in all kind of schools and business companies;

� Regional decentralization in order to increase participation of schools/students

and companies/employees;

� Organization of transnational projects with quite clear goals and IVET expected

results;

� To create an European list of schools and business companies projects about

Life Long Learning Programme concerning IVET transnational mobility;

� Preserve workers’ rights if they want to participate on a Life Long Learning

Programme concerning IVET transnational mobility;

� To make up the business companies to lend their workers for Life Long

Learning Programme concerning IVET transnational mobility.

Slovenia � LLL program concerning IVET transnational mobility should have the

characteristics of Leonardo da Vinci program and it should continue with the

quality aspects of LdV program

Slovak Republic The LLLP in the structure agreed by the Council is not yet clearly readable for final

users – there are overlapping actions for some target groups (IVT, teachers), but

the participation of some other groups is not sufficiently clear (unemployed young

people, trainees in continuing training) etc.

Suggestions :

� To reduce paperwork in case of reliable partners with long-lasting cooperation.

NAs could conclude framework agreements (charters) with IVET schools or

other relevant players. Subsequently an one-page application form would be

sufficient (similarly to Erasmus University Charters).

� More flexibility in the duration of placements, e.g. 3 – 52 weeks for young

people in IVET;


� the maximum grant for a placement should be increased up to 6.000 EUR;

� Accompanying persons should not be limited to minors and to persons with

special needs because they contribute substantially to quality of placements

and to psychological comfort of beneficiaries even if they are 20 – 22 years old.

� There should be a possibility to accompany only a part of the duration of a

placement. In many cases, 2 weeks in the beginning of a 3-month placement

would be sufficient.

� There should be a possibility for follow-up visits and other follow-up activities.

Finland � Emphasising the importance of quality of IVET transnational mobility should not

be hampered even if volumes rise. Funding for follow-up of mobility e.g.

gathering good practices or organising follow-up events should be funded in

IVET mobility. The new partnerships project could also support mobility and

means to lower obstacles to it.

� In Europe the challenge to attract young disadvantages to the lifelong learning

path is of most importance and the new programme should take into account

forms of non-formal and informal learning as equivalent to the formal. E.g.

young people in so called youth workshops and unemployed could benefit from

a supported action. The organisations to promote these projects should get a

reasonable financial support.

� To focus on just Europe until 2013 is not a long term strategy – paths to third

country mobility should be opened within the LLL-programme systematically.

There is a demand for it in Finland.

Sweden � The new integrated lifelong learning programme would better facilitate and

encourage IVET transnational mobility if it were greatly simplified and

streamlined compared with that offered under Leonardo da Vinci Procedure A.

Specifically, the new programme should offered a shorter application form,

shorter reporting forms, etc. Sweden’s workplace training abroad programme,

which is very similar to LdV A, features a four-page application form. It is

important to decentralise authority to the school level, especially given the high

level of autonomy amongst Swedish schools.

United Kingdom � To build in an element of transnational mobility wherever possible into

government based programmes for improving the UK skills base across a wide

range of functions. This is already happening in Wales. However, this is not yet

happening at the sector level – though it is happening in quite a few regions.

� To create tailored programmes intended to benefit specific hard to reach

groups, such as certain migrants, minorities and those from low level

socio-economic groups in areas of high unemployment.

Norway � Less paper work for the applicants and beneficiaries.

� Greater flexibility / less rigid “borders” between the sub-programmes.

� Financing for preparations of placement applications for new applicants, and

particularly for SMEs.

� Funding for strengthened cultural and language preparations.

� Stronger involvement of the economic sectors / industry / social partners in the

preparations, implementation and operation of the programme.


Bulgaria � Increase of opportunities for mutual exchange mobility programmes;

� Requirements for reporting to the national authorities/administrative agencies on

the incoming mobility in the host institutions

� Preparation of annual national reports on the mobility impact

� Preparation of statistical reports on national level concerning transnational

mobility and monitoring trends and developments in the mobility process.

� Setting up integrated database on national and/or European level, containing

information about transnational mobility – number of participants, host

countries, funds, periods of placements abroad, objective of placements etc.

Turkey � Participation of third countries

� Accreditation of certificates provided through Mobilitiy

� Solving visa, work permission etc. issues which limit international mobility for

candidate countries.

� Setting up a new, secure, accredited partner finding database for mobility

projects for all participating countries.


Appendix V

IVET mobilitypromoting

programmesbeyond EU

fundingOverview of results, collected through the MoVE-iT

Refernet survey in 33 European countries

671

Overview of mobility programmes atnational level

The European Union is not the only source for stimulating transnational mobility of

apprentices and other young people in IVET. In the Refernet survey (in 33

countries) respondents were asked which national and/or regional/sectoral policies

and programmes exist or did exist in their country to stimulate internationalisation

and transnational mobility in IVET.

This table gives an overview of these programmes, actions and funding schemes

that support transnational IVET mobility, other than the European funded

programmes and actions (Leonardo da Vinci, Youth, Socrates, Comenius, Interreg,

the European Year of Workers’ Mobility etc.).

Some countries have no national programmes or any other funding for initial

vocational education and training beyond the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

For some countries the respondents have given detailed information on

programmes, aims and funding. Others indicate they have or had national or other

programmes supporting mobility and international experiences, but specific details

could not be given.

Some respondents mentioned programmes for students in higher education, these

are left out of this overview, as the MoVE-iT study is oriented at initial vocational

education and training.

Funding for these national, regional or sectoral actions concerning the IVET

mobility promotion comes from sources like the government (ministries of

education, economic affairs, employment), regional authorities, sectoral

organisations, enterprises or private funds.

For a full list per country see the 33 country reports in ‘MoVE-iT: a comparative

study on mobility in IVET in 33 European countries’ (Refernet survey report).


Country Name of programme Objective Target group Who funds

Austria Governmental

programmes

Support young people

in IVET to do

placements in EU

countries, gain

international

experiences

Young people in initial


apprentices, pupils of

VET schools

Federal Ministries of

Economics and Labour,

Federal economic

Chambers, the

communities and

special initiatives

Budget per year

Federal Ministries:

€ 60,500 for those

young people who get

no funding out of

Leonardo and

222,000 as

co-financing to reduce

the own funding of

pupils of VET schools;

Special initiatives:

varies per year.

Belgium No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

mentioned

Bulgaria Programme for

Development in

Secondary Education

2006-2015

(a policy/programme

related to

internationali-zation

with a possible impact

on mobility)

Balance between

traditional and modern

approaches in the

Bulgarian Educational

System; transparency

and planning;

sustainable

developments; project

oriented system.

The whole secondary

education area,

including vocational

education.

No indication

Croatia No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Cyprus No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Czech

Republic

Let Us Go Abroad

programme

To support the

international

co-operation of schools

All schools in the region Regional Authority of

South Moravia

Annual budget:

approx. € 220,000



Czech

Republic

Leonardo projects

support programme

To support involvement

in the Leonardo da

Vinci programme

VET schools in the

region

Regional Authority of

Moravia-Silesia

Czech

Republic

Support of international

co-operation of youth

and co financing

international study

programmes

To support the

international

co-operation incl.

mobility


Plzen region

Annual budget:

Approx. € 20,000

Czech

Republic

Programme for

development of

international


in the Zlín region

To support the

international



Zlín region

Annual budget:

Approx. € 35,000

Czech

Republic

Vysocina Fund To support involvement

in international projects


Vysocina region

Annual budget:

Approx. € 53,000

Czech

Republic

Well done! To support the

Czech-German

co-operation of youth

Young people in IVET Czech-German Future

Fund

Annual budget:

€ 80,000

Denmark The PIU-programme

(in place since 1992)

To fund and promote

placements of IVET

participants abroad

Apprentices and young

people in IVET

Employers – through

the Employers’

Reimbursement

Scheme for

Apprentices and

people in IVET (AER)

Annual budget:

Unlimited (annually

some 2,5 mill. euro

spent)

Denmark Nordplus Junior Cooperation between

upper secondary

educational

establishments in the

Nordic countries

(may also include)

apprentices and young

people in IVET for

placements and study

periods in other Nordic

countries

Nordic Council

Annual budget: approx.

900,000 euro for

Danish participation



Denmark DK – USA Cooperation in

education and training

between Denmark and

the United States

May also fund

placement and study

periods for apprentices

and young people in

IVET

Ministry of Education,

DK

Dept. of Education,

USA

Estonia Bilateral initiatives of

different VET

institutions

Transnational

cooperation, acquiring

new technologies and

developing students

’skills

Funds come from own

school’s or student’s

budget

Finland Government subsidy

and Internationalisation

services provided by

the National Board of

Education

Placements and study

periods linked with

larger networking

projects incl.

exchanges

VET Government

Annual budget:

VET: € 500 000 (2005)

VET: € 500 000 (2006)

Finland Nordplus Junior Promotes Nordic

co-operation, allocates

mobility funds mainly

for study periods

VET students and

teachers

Nordic Council of

Ministers

Annual budget:

VET: € 190 816 (2004)

VET: € 158 217 (2005)

Finland Pohjola-Norden, The

Norden Association

Promotes Nordic

co-operation, mobility

funds cover travel

expenses

Students in VET and

higher education

(polytechnics)

The Nordic Council and

The Nordic Council of

Ministers

Annual budget:

VET: € 9000 (2004)

Finland Global Education 2010 Proposal for action

programmes targeted

at educational

institutions, staff,

decision makers

End users: pupils and

students

Finland Regional strategies for

education and research

up to 2013

Boosting the

emergence of an

international

infrastructure of the

regions and increasing

international exchanges

and interaction in

secondary and higher

education institutions



France Law for the

development of social

cohesion (Januari 18th

2005)

To increase the number

of apprentices as well

as to stimulate their

mobility

Funding is provided by

the central and the

regional government

(and European funds

such as ESF)

France Bilateral programme

Secrétariat

Franco-Allemand

Youngsters, teachers Joint funding of France

and Germany

France British Council

France Regional programmes:

For example :

� Ile de France

� Rhone Alpes

� Centre

� Bretagne

Stimulating and funding

the transnational

mobility of IVET

particioants in schools

and of apprentices

Apprentices, students

and young people in

vocational schools

France Programmes of

Sectoral organisations

and branches:

� Chambers of

agriculture, of

commerce and craft

� Automobile services

branch

� Building industries

students and young


schools

Germany BAND -

Bilateral Exchange

Programme between

Germany and the

Netherlands

Development of

bilateral partnerships in

VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers

BMBF (Federal Ministry

of Education and

Research)

Annual budget:

€ 220,000

Germany Training Bridge -

Bilateral Exchange

Programme between

Germany and UK

Development of


VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers


of Education and

Research)

Annual budget:

€ 100,000

Germany Gjør det –

Bilateral Exchange

Programme between

Germany and UK

Development of


VET

Trainees in VET

Trainers


of Education and

Research)

Annual budget:

€ 275,000



Germany German Israeli

Cooperation in the

Field of Vocational


Exchange and

co-operation in the field

of Further Education

and Training

Contacts between

experts and executives

of vocational and

technical education

and training


of Education and

Research)

Annual budget:

€ 241,000

Germany TANDEM German-Czech youth

exchange

Koordinierungszentrum

Regensburg vom

Bundesministerium für

Familie, Senioren,

Frauen und Jugend,

Freistaaten Bayern,

Bundesland Sachsen

Germany German-French Youth

Work

Joint funding of France

and Germany

Germany German-Polish Youth

Work

Federal governments of

Poland and Germany

Germany Pädagogischer

Austauschdienst

(educational exchange

service)

Language learning and

cultural dialogue

IVET participants and


schools

Federal Ministry of

Foreign Affairs

Germany Parlementarisches

Patenschaftsprogramm

Visits to a community

college or a company

in the USA

Students and young

workers

German

Bundestag/Parliament

350 annual stipendia

Greece Mobility Programme

(1996 – 1999),

run as part of the

Operational Plan for

Education and Initial

Vocational Training)

Mobility and school

partnerships

Students and staff of

general and technical

education secondary

education

Hungary Human Resource

Development

Operational

Programme 2007-2013

(In)directly supporting

IVET transnational

mobility



Hungary Mobility for

Apprentices

Making the training

more practice-oriented,

enhanced relationship

between the world of

work and training,

facilitating motivation

for learning (particularly

language learning),

improvement of skills

and competences

required by the labour

market

Pupils Ministry of Education

Annual budget:

250,000 EUR (2003)

640,000 EUR (2005)

Iceland No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Ireland Youth NcompaSS, an

initiative promoting

understanding, respect

and reconciliation

between young people

in Northern Ireland and

the border region of

Ireland

To develop


people and

organisations from

differing cultural

traditions in the formal

and non formal

education sectors

which will contribute to

peace and

reconciliation in Ireland

and Northern Ireland

EU Peace II

Programme, monitoring

by Community

Foundation Northern

Ireland

Ireland East West Schools

Programme

To strengthen school

partnership and to

encourage and

friendship and

understanding between

young people in Ireland

and the UK. It is open

to primary,

post-primary and


focus on

disadvantaged areas.

Priority is given to

projects promoting

respect and

understanding of each

others’ culture.

Open to primary,

post-primary and


focus on

disadvantaged areas



Ireland IASTE, The

International

Association for the

Exchange of Students

for Technical

Experience, a

non-political,

independent and

non-governindustrial

and students

interestsmental

organisation

representing

academics, industrial

and students interests

Exchange Students, trainees and

employers

Ireland Export Orientation -

Programme Irish

Business and

Employers

Confederation,

Graduate Placement

Programme

Allowing Irish exporting

companies to develop

their international

marketing and export

capacity, providing

recent graduates with a

valuable introduction to

international business.

Third Level Graduates Sponsired by

Enterprise Ireland

Ireland IBEC

European Experience

Programme

To foster equality in

educational

opportunitiy by

providing suitable

unemployed and

underemployed

candidates with foreign

language and skills

training in Ireland and

abroad.

Non-graduates,

unemployed and

underemployed

cabdidates

Italy National Information

Plan Education and

Training ‘Ístruzione e

Formazione 2010’

To develop the national

network built for the

national initiatives

Europe of Education

and Educate for Europe

to stimulate European

citizenship through

education.

Regional school

offices, schools of the

national networks, local

authorities, secondary

schools, students

EU and Ministry of

Education



Italy Europe of Education To support and

stimulate transnational

cooperation in EU

programmes

Secondary schools Ministry of Education

Italy Learnet II Information and training

to facilitate the spread

of information about

the new European

Mobility strategies

related to EU

programmes, training

and stages

EU and Ministry of

Education and Ministry

of Labour

Italy ‘Mobilità transnazionale

degli studenti –

Delibera di Giunta

Regionale n.288/2005 e

1064/2005

To finance projects of


of secondary school

students for training

periods in Europe

Secondary schools in

Region

Emilia-Romagna

Regione

Emilia-Romagna

Budget 1 million

Italy Initiatives for the

promotion of european

integration and study

periods abroad

Financing training

period in Europe (a

school year in Austria,

Germany, UK, France;

language courses

abroad; others schools

initiatives for European

integration)

Secondary schools and

students in Region

Trentino-Alto-Adige

Regione Trentino

Alto-Adige

Italy Intercultura - Study

programmes abroad

‘Programmi di studio

allestero Intercultura’

Promotion and

organisation also

trough scholarships of

study programmes

abroad for secondary

school students.

Secondary school

students

AFS – International

ONG

Italy A school year abroad

with EF – ‘Anno di

scuola allestero con

EF’

Promotion and

organisation also

trough scholarships of

study programmes

abroad for secondary

school students

Secondary school

students

EF Education First

Latvia No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes



Liechten-

stein

No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Lithuania No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Luxem-

bourg

No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Malta No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Netherlands BAND

Bilateral Exchange

Programme

Netherlands-Germany

Encouragement of


VET and exchange of

VET students and

teachers, aimed at:

� improvement of

vocational skills, key

qualifications and

language

knowledge;

� tolerance and open

mindedness.

VET participants

VET teachers and

trainers


Culture and Science

(OCW)

Ministry of Agriculture,

Environmental

Management and Food

Quality (LNV)

On German side:


of Education and

Research)

Annual budget: in 2005

OCW: € 150,000

LNV: € 40,000

BMBF: € 220,000



Netherlands Internationalising

Vocational Education

(June 2006)

Increasing international

orientation and

capacity of SME and

giving new impulses for

imbedding

internationalisation as

integral leading

managing philosophy in


(and in higher

vocational/professional

education).

Activities: mobility;

matchmaking

mechanisms;

diminishing financial

obstacles, creating

better support for

companies and schools

on organisation and

handling procedures.

� SMEs

� VET institutions:

students, teachers,

management

� Universities for

Applied Sciences.

Joint Initiative of

government (two

ministries), MKB NL

(SME employers

organisation) and the

Dutch Trade Board.

Government: 75%

Ministry of Economic

Affairs (Directorate

International

Entrepreneurship) and


Culture and Science.

Employers/companies

(25%)

Budget: € 5 million for

three years 2007 - 2010

Netherlands ‘Expanding Borders’

and ‘Talents without

Borders’, policy and

action plan in Dutch

educational policy

(1997-2002)

To promote


strategies and policy in

VET institutions aimed

at internationalisation

as an integral element

of VET.

The programme

focused on promoting


strategies rather than

on mobility projects.

The programme no

longer exists.

VET institutions, VET

sector as a whole.

approx. 5 mil euros for

4 years

(1997-2002)

Norway NordPlus Junior Stimulate the interest

for and increase

knowledge about other

Nordic cultures,

languages and living

conditions

Primary & Lower

Secondary schools

Schools and other

training institutions in

Upper secondary


(including IVET), staff,

students and

apprentices

The Nordic Council

Annual budget:

approx. 2,5 mill euro in

total for all the Nordic

countries



Norway “Gjør det” (“Do it” /

“Tue es”). Bilateral

exchange/placement

programme

Norway - Germany

Give young people

within initial vocational

training, young

workers/apprentices

and

instructors/teachers the

chance to practice and

to train their

professional skills in the

other country


apprentices / IVET

students and teachers

Ministry of Education

and Research

Annual budget: Approx

1,1 mill NOK (140,000

euro)

Norway Bilateral cooperation in

education

Norway - France

General promotion of

cooperation in the

education sector,

including ensuring

training of Norwegian

apprentices in France

(Hotel and catering,

Mechanical trades)

Norwegian apprentices

and their training

institutions


and Research

Annual budget:

4 mill NOK (approx 0,5

mill €)

Norway “Linking Up”, Mobility

programme similar to

the Leonardo da Vinci

programme, between

Norway on the one

hand and the 12

pre-accession

countries on the other

Stimulate and promote

cooperation in the

education sector (as a

non-EU nation Norway

was/is excluded from

bilateral mobility with

the pre-accession

countries under the

Leonardo programme).


apprentices / IVET

students and teachers


and Research

Annual budget:

approx 1,5 mill NOK

(200,000 euro) in 2003



Poland Development of

innovative VET

curricula

To improve the quality

of vocational education

and training responsive

to the labour market

needs and to equalise

the educational

chances of young

people regarding

access to vocational

education, based on

modular curricula.

To develop 131

modular curricula for

specific occupations

and about 3,860

educational packages

having the form of

guidebooks for pupils

and for teachers

(separately)

Pupils and teachers of

all types of vocational

schools.

Continuing education

centres and practical

training centres.

ESF SOP - HRD

Measure 2.2. Improving

the quality of education

(MEN)

Annual budget:

5,842,000 PLN for 2006

Poland Development and

dissemination of

national vocational

qualifications standards

To identify the

qualifications required

by the employed to

perform specific

occupations/

specialisations.

To prepare the

descriptions of 200

national vocational

qualification standards

based on the identified

requirements (in

consultation with

sectoral organisations

and other

stakeholders).

To disseminate national

vocational qualification

standards and to

conduct research on

the application of the

standards by different

user groups.

Professional

associations, national

employer organisations

and national trade

union organisations.

Public employment

services at regional

level and district labour

offices, including

career planning and

information centres.

Job agencies.

Training institutions:

continuing education

centres, practical

training centres, further

training centres,

vocational schools,

tertiary education

institutions, vocational

training centres, etc.

Voluntary Labour

Regiments (OHP).

Other organisational

units

ESF SOP - HRD

Measure 1.1.

Development and

modernisation of labour

market instruments and

institutions

(MPiPS)

Annual budget:

6,650,000 PLN



Portugal There are no other

particular policies in

Portugal aimed at

stimulating and

supporting

transnational mobility in

IVET, though more in

general educational

policies support

internationalisation.

Portugal also indicated

that there are

international

exchanges, which are

partly supported by the

embassies of the

countries receiving the

participants and/or

international

organisations (other

than the European

programmes).

This general education

policies will have an

impact on transnational

mobility in IVET.

Embassies in receiving

countries and other

international

organisations

Romania No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Slovak

Republic

National Reform

Program of the SR

2006/2008

National Scholarship

Program for the support

of mobility of students

National funding

Slovak

Republic

Co financing

programme of

Leonardo

studentsmobility

Supporting students

with funding for

mobility

National funding



Slovak

Republic

Interreg IIIA Slovak

Republic - Czech

Republic 2004-2006

No other Interreg IIIA

programmes (with

other neighbouring

countries) contain

students mobility

related measures and

consequently projects

Visible from the

Programme

Supplement, Priority 1

measure 1: Human

resources, social and

cultural development,

Activity 6.7 and 6.8:

Activity 6.7 Common

projects and mobility of

students and

pedagogical staff,

explicitly mentioning

short term stages.

Activity 6.8 Common

projects and mobility of

tertiary students and

researchers.

Secondary students

( “apprentices”);

Two projects within this

programme were

exactly aimed at 6.7

activity

Bridges to Moravia

(Secondary Vocational

School, Senica)

Project of social and

cultural cooperation of

the Secondary

Vocational School of

mechanical engineering

in Cadca

State budget,

European Regional

Development Fund

(ERDF)

Annual budget:

Project A

1,794,160 SKK

Project B:

780.672 SKK

In both cases

(co-financing from

ERDF 75%)

Slovak

Republic

Visegrad Fund i.e. to support

exchange between

young people

i.e. students of all

levels schools of four

countries

e.g. project No.

75-2000-IVF: CVIFIRM

V4 containing mobility

of secondary school

students from SK, HU,

PL and CZ or project of

Commercial Academy

in Kosice,

Fund resources and

own often in-kind

contribution

Slovenia No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes

Spain Apart from the two new

educational laws that

have been adopted in

2002, Spain does not

have specific policies

or programmes with

regard to transnational

mobility in IVET



Sweden Workplace training

abroad

To facilitate workplace

training abroad for

students in

vocationally-oriented

programmes at upper

secondary school

Students in


programmes at the

upper secondary level


Research and Culture

Annual budget

300,000

Sweden SMUL (Cooperation

with upper secondary

schools in developing

countries)

To facilitate exchange

of students involved in


programmes at upper

secondary schools in

Sweden and

developing countries

Students in


programmes at the

upper secondary level

in Sweden and

developing countries

Swedish International

Development and

Cooperation Agency,

and National Agency

for School

Improvement

Annual budget

500,000

Sweden Nordplus Junior To facilitate student

mobility among those

in compulsory and

upper secondary

education in Sweden

and other Nordic

countries

Students in compulsory

and upper secondary

education in Sweden

and other Nordic

countries

Nordic Council of

Ministers

Annual budget

350,000

Sweden One year abroad

programme

To facilitate student

mobility among

students at upper

secondary level who

wish to spend one year

in Austria, France,

Germany or Spain.

Focus is on assistance

not on funding

An initiative of Ministry

of Education, Research

and Culture

No separate finds

available

Sweden Scholarships for

schools

Development of

international contacts

between schools

worldwide. Mobility and

workplace abroad is

possible but not the

programme´s focus


Research and Culture

Annual budget 1.4

mill



Switzerland No specific national

policies in place for

stimulating

transnational mobility in

IVET.

Switzerland Euregio zertifikat Placement in a foreign

company of the Upper

Rhine region (Alsace,

Basel,

Baden-Württemberg)

during the

apprenticeship. Once 4

weeks or twice 3

weeks. The participants

receive after successful

completion the

Euregio-Zertifikat.

Apprentices during

apprenticeship

The respective

participating cantons

Annual budget is not

known

Switzerland Lernzentren (learning

company, replacing in

the dual IVET system

the stay in the

company) participates

in an exchange with

ABB Sweden.

Lernzentren counts

among its partners

ABB.

4 week stay in a

Swedish host family.

The objectives are

equal to other

placement

programmes:

personality-developme

nt, integration in a

foreign working

environment. However

no aims are set

concerning the

professional/technical

education.

Apprentices after

completion of the first

year of apprenticeship

The participants pay

2000 CHF maximum

each. Lower

participation if their

families host a Swedish

apprentice.

Total amount is not

known

Switzerland Novartis 4 week stay in Novartis

plant in England

One year stay in

Novartis plant in the

United States

Apprentices in

administration

IVET graduates in

laboratory technology

Novartis

Annual budget not

known

Switzerland Coop 6 – 8 week stay in

Southern Germany

Apprentices in wine

technology

Coop

Annual budget not

known



Switzerland Rieter 4 week stay in Rieter

plants in Germany

One year stay in Rieter

plants in the US

Apprentices

IVET graduates

Rieter

Switzerland Roche One year stay in Roche

plant in the United

States

IVET graduates Roche

Turkey No national and/or

regional/sectoral

programmes.

Howeve,r the Ministry

of National Education

(MoNE) encourages

schools with

contributions in kind for

trannationa lmobility in

IVET to have

partnerships with

similar IVET institutions

in EU countries

UK Global Gateway This initiative of the

British Council aims to

promote intercultural

exchange at European

and global levels and to

encourage sustainable

links between schools

Focus on students at

secondary school level

Department for

Education and Skills

UK Town twinning: this

initiative concerns a

voluntary action. It aims

a promoting

international links

between towns and

cities across Europe

and worldwide. In

principle it can include

a wide range of

cultural, educational

and other types of

exchanges.

It aims a promoting

international links

between towns and

cities across Europe

and worldwide. In

principle it can include

a wide range of

cultural, educational

and other types of

exchanges

This initiative if self

funded by

municipalities



UK Bilateral youth

exchange

The overall objectives

and aims of these

Special Projects ought

to reflect the current

British Council’s

strategy which is about

building stronger global

relationships, whilst

helping to design and

deliver high quality

activities and products

to more people.

The projects must have

a clear trans-national

dimension and

contribute to

international

co-operation in youth

matters. More

specifically, they must

lead to the creation

and/or consolidation of

strong partnerships

between youth

organisations or


youth organisations

and public bodies

15-25 years old Run by the British

Council

UK Causeway programme To contribute to the

improvements of

relationships between

young people in the UK

and Ireland by

encouraging and

supporting exchanges

and other forms of

encounter between

young people and

those working on their

behalf

Run by Connect Youth

and Leargas in Ireland



UK Language and Culture

courses for Youth

Workers

To offer an opportunity

for youth workers

actively involved, or

interested, in

international youth

exchanges to meet

counterparts from

partner countries. In

addition to learning the

language and gaining

an understanding of the

host countries’ culture,

it is also possible to

develop partnerships

for future exchange

projects.

UK Commonwealth Youth

Exchange Council

(CYEC)

The development of

young people and their

communities and the

promotion of

international

understanding across

the Commonwealth

16-25 years old Run by CYEC – a

charity organisation

UK International

Educational

Partnerships and Links

programmes

To raise awareness of

other cultures, break

down negative and

outmoded stereotypes,

provide examples of

best practice from

around the world, and

develop lasting ties

with other countries

that will benefit our

long-term social and

economic future.
