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Movement & physical activity

Chapter

1 Proficiency of movement 2

2 Sport participation, teamwork

and fair play 30

3 Strategic thinking: game sense,

tactics and strategies 52

4 Body systems and energy

production for physical

activity 63

5 Physical activity, fitness and

health 94

6 Safety, first aid and sports

injury management 147

1Proficiency

of movement

Chapter

Learning focusAfter completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• develop proficiency in a range of high-level movement and manipulative skills

• focus on identifying and implementing ways of improving the quality of your performance during games, physical activities and sports

• learn new skills or adapt previously learnt skills to fit a new context

• participate in peer teaching or coaching situations with a focus on skill development and improvement.

StandardsAfter completing this chapter, you should be

able to demonstrate that you can:

• demonstrate proficiency in the execution of

manipulative and movement skills during

complex activities

• demonstrate advanced skills in selected

physical activities

• participate in sports, games, recreational and

leisure activities that maintain your regular

participation in moderate to vigorous physical

activity.

All sports that we play require us to use our manipulative and movement skills.

Proficiency of movement 3

Introduction Movement, moving, physical activity — regard-less of what we call it — is a fundamental aspect of the human experience that we often take for granted. From the moment we are born, move-ment is one of our first means of expression, response and communication. As we grow, our movement patterns and basic movement skills develop progressively. Over time, they become increasingly refined and varied. Once profi-ciency in these basic, or fundamental, movement skills is acquired, increasingly complex manip-ulative skills and specialised sporting skills can be learnt through experience and practice.

Fundamental movement

skills

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are common movement or motor activities with specific observable patterns such as running, jumping, skipping, leaping, throwing, catching, bouncing, rolling and striking. Fundamental movement skills are sometimes referred to as ‘fundamental motor skills’ or, more simply, as ‘basic skills’. Whatever terminology is used, they are the foundation movements or pre-cursor patterns to the more specialised, complex skills used in games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. For example, throwing in softball and cricket, the

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baseball pitch, the javelin throw, tennis serve and netball shoulder pass are all advanced forms of the fundamental overarm throw skill. In other words, most skills used in sports and movement activities are advanced versions of these fundamental motor skills.

Many physical education experts believe that children need to be proficient in fundamental skills if optimum development of higher-level skills is to occur. Children who do not demon-strate proficiency in these skills are often less able and less willing to persist with learning more complex movement skills, and will avoid activities that expose them to failure. Ultimately, such children often reject partici-pation in physical activity as part of their life-style. Therefore, it is argued that fundamental skills must be taught explicitly in the early years of primary school. During these years, students are physically and intellectually capable of bene- fiting from instruction in the acquisition and development of fundamental movement skills, and are highly motivated and enthusiastic about learning such skills. Most comprehen-sive physical education programs in primary schools, and even some programs in the early years of secondary school, incorporate funda-mental movement skill instruction.

Once proficiency in basic fundamental move-ment skills is achieved, individuals are then able to acquire and develop proficiency in a range of more complex and specialised skills specific to different sports and physical activities.

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Workbook p. 2

Figure 1.1 Relationship between fundamental movement skills and specific sport skills (overarm throw)Figure 1.1 Relationship between fundamental movement skills and specific sport skills (overarm throw)

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4 Inside & Out

Javelin throw, baseball pitch, badminton

clear, tennis serve,gridiron pass,

overhand volleyball serve

Overhandthrow

Two-handside-arm

strike

Golf swing, hockey drive, baseball swing,

forehand drive,cut shot

Sportspecific

skills

Fundamentalmotor skills

Rudimentarymovement skills

Sport skill proficiency barrier

Infant reflexes and reactions

Figure 1.2 Fundamental movement skills

instruction and its effect on the performance

of sport-specific skills

Source: Department of Education, Vic. Fundamental Motor Skills: A Manual for Classroom Teachers, 1996.

Manipulative skillsManipulative skills are those skills that require the use of objects such as balls, bats, racquets and clubs. Proficiency in manipulative skills implies that the individual has control over the object and is able to use it to perform a particular movement or skill. Most games and sports, including tennis, hockey, golf, basketball, netball, Australian Rules football and lacrosse, require considerable manipulative skill. For example, when dribbling the ball in basketball, we are manipulating it so that it is controlled and, at the same time, we are also moving in a desired direction.

Specialised sporting skills

Specialised sporting skills are those move-ments and skills found in the wide variety of games and sports played throughout the world. Moving from the fundamental skills to these more specialised skills involves a process similar to assembling building blocks. The fun-damental skills constitute the foundations upon which the more specialised sporting skills are developed. For example, the overarm throw, catch and strike form the basis of the more specialised sports-specific skills employed in cricket, baseball and softball (see figure 1.2).

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Proficiency of movementMore often than not, when we view move-ment performances we make judgements about them. These judgements often reflect our like or dislike for what we observe. When such judge-ments are based on our feelings or impressions of the movement, we refer to them as subjective judgements. Such subjective evaluation is fine when we are spectators observing performances. However, when we are involved in teaching or coaching movement skills, or involved in the actual judging of performances (e.g. a gymnas-tics competition), we need to make objective judgements about the movement performances we witness. Such objective judgements require us to have a good understanding of what constitutes proficiency in terms of the movement performance, and to utilise methods, techniques or tools for appraising the proficiency of the movement performance.

Proficiency of movement (or skill profi-ciency) can be defined as ‘the achievement or attainment of a movement goal with maximum certainty, minimum energy expenditure, and minimum movement time’.

Maximum certainty of goal achievementOne quality of skill proficiency is movement certainty. To be ‘skilled’ implies that the individual is able to achieve the movement or performance goal with a high degree of certainty. Those individuals who can achieve the goal of the skill or movement with a high and con-sistent level of cer-tainty, on demand, and without luck playing a very large role, can be considered to have attained proficiency in the performance of the skill.

Figure 1.3 Essendon

full-forward Matthew

Lloyd has achieved a

high level of movement

certainty when it comes

to kicking for goal.

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Workbook p. 2

Workbook p. 2

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Minimum energy expenditureA second quality of movement proficiency for many skills is the minimisation of the energy required to perform the skill. This often means

the elimination of any unwanted or unnecessary movements. This is crucial for individuals in activi-ties where conservation of energy is crucial to success (e.g. a triathlete, or a gymnast involved in a physically demanding floor routine). This quality is often observ-able. Skilled performers often appear to be performing the activity easily.

Figure 1.4: Elite gymnasts

such as Australian Olympian

Lisa Skinner perform their

routines with a minimum of

unwanted or unnecessary

energy expenditure.

Minimum movement timeA third quality of movement proficiency is the reduced time it takes an individual to achieve the movement goal, or the increased speed with which it is achieved. Skilled performers in many activities are able to execute their movements more quickly and efficiently. We often hear of skilled performers seeming to have ‘more time’ in which to perform the skills of their chosen sport. This is often a function of their ability to perform movements in a reduced time frame.

Figure 1.5

Skilled cricketers

such as Ricky

Ponting often

seem to have

‘plenty of time’

in which to play

their shots — a

sign of a skilled

performer.

Appraising movement proficiency

It is possible to appraise or assess movement or skill proficiency in terms of both its process (e.g. the quality and efficiency with which the elements of the skill are performed) and its outcome (e.g. some kind of result such as a goal, or some form of measurement such as a dis-tance achieved).

In order to appraise movement proficiency, it is necessary to observe the actual movement or skill and employ some method, technique or tool for judging or assessing the level of performance. We can refer to these methods, techniques and tools as performance measures.

However, before applying measures to assess or appraise a movement performance, a number of factors need to be considered. These factors can affect our judgement of the movement performance, and include the:

• individual characteristics of the performer; for example, age, size, body type, fitness level and experience

• level of performance; for example, novice or elite, or club, state or national competition

• characteristics of the skill or task; for example, whether it is open or closed, simple or complex

• performance situation; for example, practice as opposed to a game situation

• prevailing environmental conditions; for example, cold or hot, wet or dry.We also need to consider who determines

the criteria for appraisal and who sets the standards upon which to assess the proficiency of a movement. With many skills and move-ments, coaches, teachers and other experts have developed and applied what have become widely accepted standards and criteria with which to assess or judge movement and skill performance. In many competitive movement situations, the performance criteria and stand-ards are often well defined and established by a governing body specific to the activity or sport. For example, in many national and international sporting competitions (such as gymnastics and figure skating), movement requirements, categories, deductions and degrees of difficulty are all determined by national and international sporting bodies and federations.

It is also important to realise that, while most individuals will largely adhere to the principles that underpin proper technique,

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6 Inside & Out

some will modify their style to suit their bio-mechanical make-up. This explains why there are an almost infinite number of possible variations of the accepted technique. For this reason, it is important for coaches and teachers to determine whether any particular variation is basically sound or inherently weak, as distinct from labelling anything as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, or attempting to get every player to adhere to the ‘perfect’ technique. Many players will display their own particular style of a movement but, at the same time, adhere to the principles of sound technique.

Performance measuresThe appraisal of performance can be a very complex task and therefore a range of performance measures are frequently used. These performance measures include:

1. Performance observationObservation of performance can be used to appraise both the level of skill proficiency during the performance and also the outcome or result of the performance. Observation can be seen as a continuum from ‘highly objective’ to ‘highly subjective’.

An observation is completely objective

when the judges apply the same criteria to

measure a performance and to determine

its success and do not have to interpret the

performance . . . A subjective observation is a

judgement on the quality of performance and

results from a feeling, impression or an opinion

rather than some pre-determined scoring

system. (Fitzgibbon, et al., pp. 378–9)

2. Performance criteria and checklists, rubrics and rating scales

Observations of performance can be made more objective by the use of performance criteria and associated checklists, rubrics and rating scales. These enable attention to be focused on the specific criteria, qualities and/or desirable aspects of a performance. Once these criteria or qualities have been identified, categories (e.g. excellent, good, average, fair, poor) and/or rating scales (e.g. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) can be assigned and applied to the performance. To develop criteria to be used in the appraisal of movement perfor-mance, the following steps should be taken:

1. Specify the nature of the movement or skill — ascertain exactly what it is you want to appraise.

2. Establish the performance criteria you want to use — determine and list the particular aspects of the movement or skill that you will be appraising and making judgements about.

3. Practise applying the criteria — to develop the analytical skill to appraise movement performance, it is necessary to practise.Checklists and rubrics are usually developed

from performance criteria. They include a list of criteria to evaluate or appraise when we are observing a performance. Usually, if a partic-ular part of the movement or skill is performed correctly, a tick or rating is given to it. At the completion of the performance, this information can be used to help the performer rectify faults or errors and thereby improve his or her level of skill proficiency. Checklists, rubrics and rating scales can allow for self-appraisal, peer appraisal and teacher or coach appraisal of performance. The use and application of check-lists, rubrics and rating scales in relation to specific movement skills will be explored in greater detail later in this chapter.

3. Skill tests and performance achievements

Skill tests can be used to assess how well an individual can perform a skill, although such tests tend to provide an indication of the move-ment or skill outcome as opposed to the skill or movement process. There are many tests used to measure skill performance, one example being the wall target throwing test, which can be used to assess the accuracy with which indi-viduals perform the overarm throw. It is also quite a straightforward task to develop simple skills tests to assess a whole range of movement skills in a wide variety of sports (see Practical activity 1.1).

It is also possible to utilise a range of performance achievements to determine and judge the quantifiable (measurable) aspects of a movement performance. These measures can include speed, distance, time, height, weight and accuracy, and are often expressed numerically. For example, ‘Laughlan ran 13.5 seconds in the 100-metre sprint’.

4. Norm- and criterion-referenced standards and percentile ranks

Norm-referenced standards (or normative scales) are scales that allow an individual’s score

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Workbook p. 3


or result in a performance or test to be com-pared to how a representative group of subjects (usually a reference group such as a nationwide sample of students) performed in the same task or test. Criterion-referenced standards interpret an individual’s score or result in relation to a base or minimal standard score that subjects should achieve on a particular task or test. The physical fitness tests outlined in chapter 5 use both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced

standards to enable you to compare your performance with that of others.

Percentile ranking is a commonly used normative scoring scale. Percentiles indicate the percentages of a reference group that score above or below a given score on the scale. For example, ‘Siobhan achieved a score that put her at the 85th percentile’. This indicates that she has scored better than 84 per cent of those taking the test or that only 14 per cent scored better.

Test yourself and a partner on the following skill proficiency tests. Record your results and those of your partner in the table provided in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E, or else draw up a recording table of your own.

Test 1: Basketball field goal shooting

• Set out eight cone markers around the vicinity of the key, as shown in figure 1.6.

• Begin at cone one and have three shots at goal. Count the number of successful shots. Record this score.

• Proceed to the rest of the marker cones in sequence and repeat the three shots at goal. Record the number of successful attempts at each cone, and the number of successful attempts in total.

• Additionally, or alternatively, you can begin at cone one and attempt to shoot a goal. Continue taking shots until you are successful and then move onto the next cone and repeat. Count and record the total number of shots it takes you to score a goal successfully at each cone marker.

Test 2: Basketball free throw shooting

• Have ten shots at goal from the free throw line.

• Repeat three times, recording the number of successful shots in each batch of 10 shots, as well as the total number that were successful.

Test 3: Basketball ball handling and dribbling

• While dribbling the ball, run in a figure-eight shape twice around two marker cones placed 10 metres apart. Record the time taken to complete the task.

• Repeat, but this time, run and dribble in the opposite direction around the cones. Record the time taken to complete the task.

Note: These basketball skill proficiency tests can easily be adapted to other sports and skills such as shooting and passing in netball, and shooting, ball control and dribbling in soccer.

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7

3 8

21

6

Figure 1.6 Basketball field goal shooting set-up

Questions1. Obtain the results of all the other members

of your class for each of the skills tests. Calculate the group average score for each test. Use these group average scores as a benchmark for proficiency in each test.

2. Based on the benchmark proficiency score for each test, how did you perform relative to these? Which skill did you perform best on? Which skill did you do least well on?

3. Design three other simple skill proficiency tests that could be used in a sport of your choice. Be prepared to explain these tests to the rest of the class.

Practical Activity 1.1 NSkill proficiency tests

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8 Inside & Out

5. Statistical information

Statistical information obtained from activity (or games) analysis can also be used to appraise performance. The most common statistical data obtained from games analysis able to be used to assess movement performance includes:

• possession skills; for example marks, passes received

• disposal skills; for example kicks, handballs, passes given, including the effectiveness or otherwise of these

• successful and unsuccessful scoring attempts.However, other data typically collected as

part of an activity analysis, including move-ment patterns and intensities, can also be used when measuring and appraising a player’s performance.

Performance appraisal of selected motor skills

In this section we consider the appraisal of movement proficiency in a number of motor skills, ranging from a selection of some of the fundamental movement skills discussed previously through to some more specific sporting skills chosen from a number of

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different sports. In each case, either a criteria checklist or rubric has been provided as the means of appraising the movement proficiency related to the particular skill. The skills covered are the basis for a series of performance analysis and coaching activities outlined in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E.

Selected fundamental motor

skills

In the mid 1990s, the Victorian Department of Education commissioned the development of a fundamental motor skills program for primary school-aged children. This program identified a set of fundamental motor skills, along with standards for the attainment of each skill, and the performance criteria that could be used to appraise or assess student proficiency in each skill. The Fundamental Motor Skills Manual and accompanying instructional video and posters provided assessment checklists for each of the core skills. These provide an excellent template for the development of similar checklists for other, more complex, specific sporting skills. Provided below are performance criteria for the catch, overhand throw, punt kick and two-handed side-arm strike.

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Workbook p. 4

In groups of two or three, undertake an activity analysis of a player engaged in a sport of your choice. This can be done by observing your physical education class (or another PE or Sport Education class) engaged in playing your selected sport, by observing a match played locally, by attending an elite level match, or by viewing a video of a match.

Your analysis should focus on one player, and should include the collection of data relating to possession and disposal skills, the effectiveness with which these skills are per-formed, movement patterns such as sprinting, jogging, walking, changes of direction and any other data that you think might be relevant in terms of appraising movement performance.

Record your data using the sample tables provided in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E, or draw up your own appropriate data tables.

Questions

Using the data your group obtained from the

activity analysis of your chosen sport, prepare

a written summary about the performance of

the player you analysed.

1. What appeared to be the key possession

and disposal skills utilised by the player?

2. How effectively did your player perform

these skills?

3. What were the key movement patterns

performed by the player?

4. Based on the key skills and key movement

patterns observed, what well-developed

components of fitness do you think your

player would need to possess in order to

be able to perform successfully in this

sport?

Practical Activity 1.2 NPerformance appraisal by activity analysis

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Workbook p. 3

In groups of two or three, undertake an activity analysis of a player engaged in a sport of your choice. This can be done by observing your physical education class (or another PE or Sport Education class) engaged in playing your selected sport, by observing a match played locally, by attending an elite level match, or by viewing a video of a match.

Your analysis should focus on one player, and should include the collection of data relating to possession and disposal skills, the effectiveness with which these skills are per-formed, movement patterns such as sprinting, jogging, walking, changes of direction and any other data that you think might be relevant in terms of appraising movement performance.

Record your data using the sample tables provided in the Inside and Out Workbook, 4E, or draw up your own appropriate data tables.

Questions

Using the data your group obtained from the

activity analysis of your chosen sport, prepare

a written summary about the performance of

the player you analysed.

1. What appeared to be the key possession

and disposal skills utilised by the player?

2. How effectively did your player perform

these skills?

3. What were the key movement patterns

performed by the player?

4. Based on the key skills and key movement

patterns observed, what well-developed

components of fitness do you think your

player would need to possess in order to

be able to perform successfully in this

sport?

Practical Activity 1.2 NPerformance appraisal by activity analysis

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Workbook p. 3


Performance criteria for the catch1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the

catch2. Preparatory position, with elbows bent and

hands in front of body3. Hands move to meet the ball4. Hands and fingers positioned correctly to

catch the ball5. Catch and control the ball with hands

only6. Elbows bend to absorb the force of the ball

Performance criteria for the overhand throw1. Eyes are focused on the target throughout

the throw

2. Stand side-on to the target

3. Throwing arm nearly straightened behind

the body

4. Step towards the target, with foot opposite

throwing arm during the throw

5. Marked sequential hip-to-shoulder rotation

during the throw

6. Throwing arm follows through, down and

across the body

Performance criteria for the punt kick1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the

punt

2. Ball is held at about hip height in front of the

punting leg

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Workbook p. 4

Figure 1.7 Fundamental motor skill of the catchFigure 1.7 Fundamental motor skill of the catch

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Figure 1.8 Fundamental motor skill of the overhand throwFigure 1.8 Fundamental motor skill of the overhand throw

10 Inside & Out

3. Step forward onto the non-punting foot4. Bend the knee of the kicking leg during the

backswing for the punt5. Hip extension and knee flexion of at least

90 degrees during the preliminary punting movement

6. Guide ball down with one hand so it makes contact with the top of the punting foot

7. Forward and sideward swing of the arm opposite the punting leg

Performance criteria for the two-handed side-arm strike1. Eyes are focused on the ball throughout the

strike2. Preferred hand grips the bat above the non-

preferred hand3. Stand side-on to the target4. Bat held behind the shoulder prior to the

strike

5. Step toward the target with foot opposite preferred hand during the strike

6. Marked sequential hip-to-shoulder rotation during the strike

7. Ball contact is made opposite the front foot with arms straight

8. Follow through with bat around body

Selected specific sporting skillsPerformance criteria for the following specific or specialised sporting skills — volleyball spike, soccer throw-in, javelin throw and golf swing — are outlined below.

Performance criteria for the volleyball spike The following performance rubric (table 1.1) and accompanying sequential diagram (figure 1.11) for the volleyball spike skill were developed by the Curriculum Corporation.

Figure 1.9 Fundamental motor skill of the punt kickFigure 1.9 Fundamental motor skill of the punt kick

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Figure 1.10 Fundamental motor skill of the two-handed side-arm strikeFigure 1.10 Fundamental motor skill of the two-handed side-arm strike

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TABLE 1.1 Performance rubric for the volleyball spike

Indicators of student performance

Expected quality High Medium Low

Two-step run-up Clearly uses a two-step run-up and correctly positions feet

Uses a two-step run-up but positions only one foot for take-off

or

Uses only a one-step run-up but positions both feet for a two-foot take-off

Incorrect run-up and positioning of feet

Two-feet take-off

Uses two-arm swing and bent leg position to enable balanced simultaneous two-foot vertical take-off

Uses two-arm swing, or bent leg position, to achieve two-foot take-off

Does not use two-arm swing and does not use bent leg position and does not use two-foot vertical take-off

Spiking arm preparation

Spiking arm is clearly drawn backwards into a bent arm position

Spiking arm is clearly drawn backwards or is bent in preparation for the spike

Spiking arm is not clearly drawn backwards and is not bent in preparation for the spike

Striking arm action at ball contact

Ball is clearly struck with full extension and with arm close to the head

Ball is not struck with full extension or arm is not close to head

Ball is not struck with full extension and arm is not close to head

Hand and wrist action at ball contact

Clearly uses an open hand with spread fingers and wrist snap to contact the ball

Clearly uses an open hand with spread fingers or wrist snap to contact the ball

Does not use open hand and wrist snap to contact the ball

Source: Curriculum Corporation.

Figure 1.11 Sequential diagram of

volleyball spike skill

Source: Curriculum Corporation.

12 Inside & Out

Performance criteria for the soccer throw-inThe following performance checklist (table 1.2) and accompanying diagrams (figure 1.12) can be used to assess performance of the soccer throw-in skill.

TABLE 1.2 Performance criteria for the soccer throw-in

Movement phase Performance criteria

Preparatory phase 1. Facing the target

2. Feet shoulder-width apart or stride apart

3. Ball secured overhead with both hands

4. Fingers spread to form ‘W’ on the ball

Execution phase 1. Ball brought back behind head

2. Body arched backwards

3. Body uncoiled to release ball

4. Ball released forward by both hands

5. Both feet in contact with ground

Follow through

1. Feet remain in contact with the ground

2. Arms extended forward and downward

3. Body follows direction of throw

Figure 1.12 Diagram of soccer throw-in


Performance criteria for the javelin throwThe following performance checklist (table 1.3) and accompanying diagram (figure 1.13) could be used to assess performance of the javelin-throw skill.

TABLE 1.3 Performance criteria for the javelin throw


Preparatory phase 1. Javelin gripped behind the ledge made by the binding (cord), and the javelin runs down the length of the palm

2. Javelin is held above the shoulder

3. Elbow of throwing arm points forward

4. Palm of the throwing hand faces upward so as to provide a platform for the javelin to sit in

5. Javelin points in the direction of the run up — point slightly down

Run-up phase 1. Running on the balls of the feet

2. At appropriate point the throwing arm is extended backwards (withdrawn) with the hand at shoulder height

3. Head remains facing in the direction of throw

4. Hips are maintained at right angles to the direction of running

Transition phase (cross-over) 1. Trunk inclined backward at an angle of about 115° to the forward horizontal direction

2. Opposite leg lands on heel and braces

3. Throwing arm is still extended at shoulder height

Delivery phase 1. Opposite side of body braced (in this example, left)

2. Right leg driven upwards and forwards bringing hips to 90° to the direction of throw

3. Shoulders and chest turned square to the front

4. Elbow of the throwing arm brought forward

5. Throwing arm moves quickly with the elbow high and close to the mid line

6. Release angle of approximately 30–35 degrees.

Follow-through phase (recovery) Right leg brought forward to brace body and prevent fouling

Figure 1.13 Javelin throw

14 Inside & Out

Performance criteria for the golf swingThe following performance checklist (table 1.4) and accompanying diagram (figure 1.14) could be used to assess performance of the golf swing.

TABLE 1.4 Performance criteria for the golf swing (right-handed player)


Grip and stance 1. Right-hand little finger rests across or interlocks left-hand index finger

2. ‘Vee’ formed between thumb and forefinger is directed towards right collarbone area

3. Left arm relaxed and not tense

4. Right elbow below and inside left elbow

5. Shoulders, hips, knees and feet square and parallel to target line

6. Body weight evenly distributed between the feet and through vertical line formed by shoulders, knees and centre of feet

Backswing phase 1. Body weight transferred onto right heel

2. Knees remain flexed

3. Head maintains same height level

4. Shoulder turn 90 degrees or more to spine

5. Left heel remaining on ground or slightly raised

6. Right elbow pointing down

7. Club face parallel to the left forearm

Downswing phase

1. Weight evenly distributed on both feet

2. Left foot (heel) supporting left-side weight

3. Hips returned to square position

4. Knees remain flexed, weight returning to left side

Contact phase 1. Weight evenly distributed on both feet

2. Hips rotated and open slightly towards target

3. Left arm and club shaft in straight line

4. Right elbow slightly flexed

5. Head remains facing down at ball

Follow-through phase

1. Right arm fully extended (straight)

2. Left leg extended

3. Right knee fully turned toward target

4. Right heel up, toes down

5. Head facing down towards ball tee area

6. Both arms finish flexed with hands behind head adjacent to left ear

Figure 1.14 Sequential diagram of the golf swing


SkillBOOSTER

Thinking processes

Think, pair and share

Think, pair and share is a technique that

requires individual thought and recording of

ideas, followed by a sharing of these ideas with

a partner. Each pair discusses and exchanges

their ideas and opinions. A pair response is

agreed upon and then shared with a larger

group or the class.

Using the think, pair and share technique,

identify key criteria for assessing a movement

skill from a sport or physical activity of your

choice; for example, the chosen skill and sport

might be dribbling in basketball:

Dribbling — head up; eyes scanning court

rather than looking at ball; ball pushed to

floor using pads of fingers; ball controlled at

hip height or below; control demonstrated

with both left and right hand.

Based on the ideas generated during the think,

pair and share technique, each pair of students

is to develop a rating scale or rubric, based on

these criteria, that could be used to assess the

proficiency of their chosen skill.

Qualitative analysis of human movement

The process of observing, analysing and appraising human movement performance through the use of performance criteria and checklists is a form of qualitative analysis of performance.

Coaches and teachers need to be skilled in qualitative analysis in order to be able to observe and analyse performance for the purpose of providing the most appropriate interventions for improving the performance.

Qualitative analysis usually involves four key tasks:1. Preparation 3. Evaluation/diagnosis2. Observation 4. Intervention.

The preparation task is concerned with the coach or teacher developing knowledge about the key performance features of a movement or skill, as well as the common errors that per-formers exhibit. They gather this information from scientific research, expert opinion and personal experience.

The second task, observation, involves gathering appropriate information about the performance of the movement or skill.

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There are a number of different strategies for systematic observation of human move-ment, but perhaps the most common strategy involves observation by movement phases. Put simply, this involves dividing the movement or skill into a number of phases or parts such as the preparation phase, the execution phase and the follow-through phase. Movement phases can be further divided into key elements. Key elements are distinct actions that join to make up a phase. For example, in the execution phase of a golf drive, the key elements are the weight shift, hip rotation, head position, and arm and club extension. These phases and elements can be seen in most of the skill criteria and check-lists provided previously in this chapter.

The third aspect of qualitative analysis involves the evaluation or diagnosis of the desir-able (strengths) and undesirable (weaknesses) aspects of the movement or skill performance, as well as the identification of possible ways of improving the performance (interventions).

The final task in qualitative analysis is inter-vention. This involves providing feedback and corrections, usually under practice conditions, that will lead to improved performance.

The process of qualitative analysis can be used by coaches and teachers to assist athletes and students in developing and refining the basic movement skills of throwing, striking, running, stopping, kicking and catching, as well as a range of sport-specific skills that emanate from these fundamental movement patterns.

Video analysis softwareAn important tool in extending observational power in qualitative analysis is the use of video analysis software. Recent advances in integrating video and computer technologies have made many video analysis software programs affordable for schools, sporting clubs, teachers and coaches. These integrated video and computer analysis software products allow for the observation of greater movement detail, the unlimited capacity to replay and observe the movement over and over again, as well as the ability to utilise features such as split-screen comparisons and overlays of performance. Some software products allow the placement of graphics and drawings on the video to illustrate or highlight key features and aspects of the performance.

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16 Inside & Out

Several companies that specialise in this type of software have programs and packages espe-cially designed for use in schools by teachers and students. Two of the better known are Webbsoft Technologies’ ‘Swinger’ software and Dartfish’s ‘DartTrainer’ software (figure 1.15).

Basically, these products require you to videotape the particular movement or skill per-formance with a digital video camera and then capture the video to a computer, either directly from the camera or from the videotape. You then analyse the video footage using the exten-sive range of analysis tools provided by the software program.

Figure 1.15 Video analysis software can be

an important aid in qualitative analysis and

performance appraisal.

Source: Dartfish (www.dartfish.com.au).

Improving movement and performance

Improving the quality of our movement skills is important, because proficiency in these skills allows individuals to:

• participate in many sporting, recreational and leisure-time activities

• contribute successfully to group and team activities

• engage in physical activity with safety

• gain confidence and build self-esteem from being able to perform skills efficiently and effectively.In order for individuals to develop proficiency

in movement and sporting skills, they usually rely upon a teacher (often, but not always, a physical education teacher) or coach to help them in their acquisition and development of the necessary skills. Properly qualified, skilled and/or experienced teachers and coaches possess movement and sport-specific knowledge, as well as an understanding of the principles of

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skill acquisition and biomechanics, which can be applied to the development of motor skills.

It is not always necessary to learn each new skill entirely from the beginning, since many skills are similar to one another. It is possible to adapt movements and skills from one sport to the movements and skills required in another sport or activity.

Skill acquisitionSkill can be defined as ‘the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty, often with minimum outlay of time or energy or both’ (Knapp). Skill acquisition is the movement science concerned with the processes and ways in which individ-uals acquire and learn motor skills.

As a coach or teacher (or a player), it is impor-tant to understand how individuals learn skills through the mental and physical process of skill learning. An appropriate starting point is to be aware that there are three general phases or stages of skill learning. It is important to note that these stages occur for all athletes of all ages, although some will progress through the various stages more quickly than others.

Stages of skill learningWhenever an individual is learning a new skill, the teacher or coach should know and under-stand the stages of learning through which the learner needs to progress in order to acquire the particular skill. This means being able to recognise the stage of learning the performer has already reached. The three stages of learning are:1. Cognitive or beginner stage2. Associative or practice stage3. Autonomous or automatic stage.

1. Cognitive or beginner stageIndividuals who are at the cognitive or beginner stage of skill learning need to know how to execute the skill being learned. As a teacher or coach, you can assist students or players in this stage by first demonstrating the skill a number of times so that they can get an idea of the skill, and by identifying two or three key points to focus on. If you explain more than this, it may be hard for the learner to concentrate on these points. Try to make the points as easy to understand as pos-sible. For example, you can liken a grip to shaking hands or a tennis serve to scratching your back.

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An overarm throw may finish correctly with the throwing hand in the back pocket.

Demonstrate the skill a few more times so the player can visualise the skill then have the player practise the skill. After allowing the person to practise the skill for a while, point out common errors, re-emphasise the key points and then have the learner practise the skill again. Be aware that during this first stage of skill learning, the beginner’s movements often appear jerky and a large number of errors may occur.

2. Associative or practice stageDuring the associative or practice stage, the individual is beginning to get the feel of the movement and fewer errors are made. Demonstrations and feedback from teachers or coaches in this stage can be very important in helping individuals to refine their skills. It is important to note that the time spent in this stage will depend on a number of factors, such as the complexity of the skill, the level of motiva-tion of the individual, the ability of the coach to detect errors and to provide accurate feedback, and the individual’s abilities and past experi-ences. Some people may not ever progress from this stage onto the next stage of skill learning — the autonomous stage.

3. Autonomous or automatic stageIn the autonomous or automatic stage, the individual is able to complete the skill virtu-ally without conscious control. The skill could be speeded up or slowed down, depending on the requirements of the situation. Other information can now be taken in, such as the opponen t’s moves, the weather conditions and other external factors that may affect the skill.

Classification of skillsThe teacher or coach should also be knowledge-able about the different types or classifications of motor skills, as these have implications in terms of skill acquisition and practice.

One common way of classifying skills is to clas-sify them according to the extent to which the environment in which they are performed is stable and predictable throughout the perform-ance. Skills classified in this way are referred to as closed and open skills. These open and closed skill designations actually represent the end points of a continuum, with the cir-cumstances surrounding most forms of skill performance lying somewhere between high (closed) and low (open) degrees of environmental stability and predictability (figure 1.16).

Closed skillsClosed skills are those skills performed in an environment that is stable and predictable, and allows performers to plan their movements in advance. Performers executing a closed skill are in full control of the timing or speed of the skill. Examples of closed skills are a golf swing, a gym-nastics routine, taking a free throw in basket-ball and swimming in a pool. Closed skills can usually be mastered more easily because success is a matter of practising the movement and repeating it until the skill is learned. Figure 1.17 shows an example of a closed skill.

Figure 1.17: Taking a free throw in basketball

is an example of a closed skill. Lauren Jackson

shoots at the free throw line.

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closed open

Figure 1.16 Skill classifi cation continuum

closed open

Figure 1.16 Skill classifi cation continuum

18 Inside & Out

Open skillsAn open skill is a skill performed in an environ-ment that is variable and unpredictable. Open skills are usually externally paced and per-formed in a constantly changing environment. Performers therefore need to be aware of these changes and adjust their movements to suit. Examples of open skills are batting in cricket, softball or baseball, and playing team sports that have opposition, such as football, netball and hockey. Figure 1.18 shows an example of an open skill.

Figure 1.18 Taking a contested mark in football is

an example of an open skill. Here, Peter Everitt

marks over Justin Longmuir during Freemantle

Dockers v. Hawthorn at Subiaco Oval in Perth,

22 May 2005.

Open skills are often more difficult to learn, as more decisions need to be made before executing the skill. For example, receiving a pass in netball requires you to make decisions on where to move to receive the ball, at what height and speed the ball will come at you, where your opponent will be and what you will do when you receive the ball.

When learning skills it may be possible to ‘close’ the skill down, then gradually ‘open’ the skill more. Using the netball example, passing and catching the ball can be done in a closed environment by passing it to a stationary player. When that is mastered you can open the skill up by receiving the ball on the move, then adding token opposition, followed by full opposition, a lead-up game, then a full game.

Discrete, serial and continuous skillsAnother method of classifying skills is to classify them according to the way in which the movement is organised. Another method of classifying skills is according to the way in which the timing of the movements is organ-ised. Skills classified in this way are referred to as discrete, serial or continuous skill.

Discrete skills involve movements of brief duration, and they have a distinct beginning and end. Examples include throwing and kicking a ball.

Sometimes, discrete skills are linked to form more complicated actions. These types of skills are classified as serial skills. The duration of serial skills is more prolonged, but each indi-vidual movement in the series has a definite beginning and end. However, the order of the elements that make up the total skill is often crucial to performance success. Performing a gymnastics routine is an example. Such skills are best acquired by breaking the skill down into its component parts and then linking them back together.

Continuous skills have no distinct begin-ning or end. These skills or movements are often repetitive or rhythmic in nature and may continue for several minutes. Examples include running, cycling and swimming.

Factors that affect skill learningThe teacher or coach should also understand that a number of factors or influences can affect skill learning and acquisition. These factors or influences include practice, feedback and transference.

PracticePractice is the most essential element in the acquisition and development of movement and sport-specific skills. The teacher or coach should be aware of the different types of practice and should select the method that optimises the individual’s ability to learn. The main types of practice are:• massed and distributed practice• whole or part practice• mental and physical practice.

Massed and distributed practiceMassed practice involves continuous, uninter-rupted practice time, in which the athlete does not rest until the skill is acquired. This type of

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practice is most suitable for highly skilled and motivated performers. An example would be practising 50 tennis serves in succession.

Distributed practice involves short sessions interspersed with periods of rest, during which either feedback is provided or another skill is practised. Distributed practice is more suitable when the athlete is learning a new skill, when the skill is complex and/or physically demanding or when the learner’s motivation is not high.

Whole or part practiceWhole practice involves practising a skill in its entirety, whereas part practice involves breaking down the skill to practise it in parts. Some skills are best practised in their entirety; for example, a golf swing. Others, such as a basketball lay-up, might best be broken down into component parts, with each part practised in isolation, before the parts are combined and practised as a whole.

Physical and mental practiceMost of us are familiar with physical practice, which involves actually performing a skill. In contrast, mental practice involves imagining or visualising the skill in your mind. Elite athletes use such mental imagery to improve skill levels. A combination of both physical and mental practice can be beneficial to most athletes.

Further information about practice regimens will be provided later in this chapter.

FeedbackFeedback is a very important part of the skill acquisition and development process. Feedback

provides us with information about the quality of our performance. This can be in the form of knowledge of performance or knowledge of results.

Knowledge of performance is information about the actual performance itself; for example, was the skill performed correctly or with the right technique? This feedback may be pro-vided by an external source such as the coach providing information to the performer, or it may come from an internal feel for the move-ment by the performer themselves.

Knowledge of results is feedback about the outcome of the movement or performance; for example, whether a serve in tennis went in or out.

Both types of feedback are important for modifying performance and improving future performances.

Figure 1.20 A coach can provide valuable

feedback to an athlete about his or her

performance.

Motor skills

Closed Discrete Continuous SerialOpen

Variable and predictable environment

Stable and predictable environment

Externally paced

Internally pacedor timed

Examples: battling in cricket and team sports that have opposition, such as football, netball and hockey

Examples: golf swing, a gymnastics routine, taking a free throw in basketball

Movements of brief duration

Distinct beginning and end

Examples: throwing and kicking

No distinct beginning or end

Rhythmic flowing movements

Examples: running, cycling and swimming

Combination of several discrete skills to form a more complicated action

Example: performing a gymnastics routine

Figure 1.19 Summary of skill classifi cations

Motor skills

Closed Discrete Continuous SerialOpen

Variable and predictable environment

Stable and predictable environment

Externally paced

Internally pacedor timed

Examples: battling in cricket and team sports that have opposition, such as football, netball and hockey

Examples: golf swing, a gymnastics routine, taking a free throw in basketball

Movements of brief duration

Distinct beginning and end

Examples: throwing and kicking

No distinct beginning or end

Rhythmic flowing movements

Examples: running, cycling and swimming

Combination of several discrete skills to form a more complicated action

Example: performing a gymnastics routine

Figure 1.19 Summary of skill classifi cations

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20 Inside & Out

There are other types or forms of feedback that can be used by coaches, teachers and instructors.

Internal or kinaesthetic feedback is about the ‘feel’ of the movement. For example, a golfer can often feel whether the shot was a good one by the way the movement felt and the way his or her body flowed during its execution. On the other hand, external or augmented feedback can be provided by visual, verbal or audible signals. For example, a golfer can tell that he or she hit the ball well by the sound made on contact, by seeing the ball flying down the fairway, or by being told that the shot was a good one.

Feedback is very important if players are to improve. For feedback to be effective, it is best given as soon as possible during or after the performance and, where possible, it should be positive rather than negative. The precision of the feedback given is also very important. Many teachers and coaches give feedback such as ‘well done’ and ‘good effort’. This is good for beginners, to encourage them to continue, but more specific feedback and prescription for improving is very important. Feedback such as ‘you need to follow through more at the end of your throw’ followed by ‘try putting your throwing hand in your back pocket after you have released the ball’ is more specific and more valuable to the learner. It is vital that a teacher or coach moves around the group and provides feedback to as many individuals as possible so they feel the coach is interested in them. If you are the teacher or coach, you may like to have someone count the number of individuals to whom you give feedback and whether it was positive or negative. Feedback is one of the most powerful tools a teacher or coach has at their disposal. It is important to use it effectively so that individuals and teams can optimise their performance.

Transference

Skill transference occurs when the learning or development of one skill can be used in the acquisition and development of another skill. This is possible because we are able to ‘with-draw’ past experiences from our ‘skills bank’ and transfer them to the process of developing similar movements and skills. For example, there are certain similarities and basic principles that apply to all methods of kicking, regardless of whether it is in Australian Rules football, rugby

or soccer. There is considerable transference of the elements of kicking from one of these sports to another. Transference can also relate to the way in which individuals think about notions such as rules, use of space, positional play, and tactics and strategies. Familiarity with the use ofspace and positional play in soccer, for example, can be beneficial to hockey and lacrosse.

Figure 1.21 Skill transference occurs when the

learning or development of one skill can be used

in the acquisition and development of another

skill.

Biomechanics

Skills can be very complex to perform and, in order to understand how such movements are produced, we can turn to the science of biomechanics.

Biomechanics is the sport-science field that applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human performance. It is the study of forces and the effects of those forces on and within the human body.

Understanding biomechanics can produce the following benefits for coaches, teachers and athletes:

• optimisation of skill performance and profi-ciency by developing the most efficient and effective technique

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• the design and development of improved equipment and materials to maximise sports performance, as well as the development and modification of sports equipment to widen participation; for example, junior-size equipment to allow participation at a younger age

• the transference of skills from the practice field to the playing field; for example, batting tees, ball-throwing machines, swimming flumes, and video and computer software that allows athletes to enhance technique in practice and apply this in competition

• prevention and reduction of injuries through an understanding of injury causes and the development and application of proper technique.In this chapter we investigate the following

key biomechanical concepts:1. Force production and application —

• summation of forces

• impulse

• accuracy2. Projectile motion —

• velocity of release and angle of release 3. Balance and stability.

1. Force production and application

The performance of all movement and motor skills — including running, jumping, throwing, kicking and striking — requires muscular force being produced and applied. How effectively the force can be developed and applied often goes a long way towards determining the pro-ficiency with which the skill is performed. The following biomechanical principles are impor-tant factors to consider in force production and application.

Summation of forcesSummation of forces is necessary when a maximal effort is required; for example, in kicking a football for distance, throwing a javelin, fast bowling a cricket ball, performing the high jump or a vault in gymnastics. When performing these types of skills, many body parts are used to obtain the desired force. To achieve the best results, the individual must combine movements of these different body parts into a coordinated sequence of move-ments. This is what is meant by ‘summation of force’. Summation of force can occur in

two ways: sequential summation of force or simultaneous summation of force.

Sequential summation of force is when a sequence of body movements takes place, starting with the larger, more powerful body parts, to produce the initial force then trans-ferring this force to the next moving part and eventually finishing with the smaller, lighter body parts. To achieve the greatest possible force, each segment must contribute by developing its greatest force before the next body part comes into action. As well as developing the maximum force of each preceding body part, each subsequent body part needs a stable base to summate the force effectively (figure 1.22).

Timing

Too late

ForearmForearm

Forearm

Arm Arm Arm

Body Body Body

Too early Well timed

Fo

rce

Summation of forces

Figure 1.22 Timing of sequential summation

of forces

Fast bowling in cricket is a good example of how the sequential summation of force is used to generate the delivery. In the delivery action, there is a sequence of body movements begin-ning with the larger, heavier body parts (legs, trunk) and finishing with the smaller, lighter body parts (wrist, hand): • The first part of the delivery action is the step

forward onto the front foot. • This then provides a stable platform for the

rotation of the hips and trunk.

• Momentum is then transferred to the shoulder and the arm swing, followed by wrist flexion and the release of the ball from the hand and fingers. Figure 1.23 illustrates the concept of sequen-

tial summation of force in bowling.Simultaneous summation of force takes place

when an individual performs a high jump or a gymnastics vault. The performer carries out

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22 Inside & Out

an explosive action with maximum force over a very short period of time. The aim of this type of force production is to develop vigorous and powerful movements of the arms and legs to produce a powerful take-off.

Players who cannot throw a ball as far as you would like them to may not be carrying out summation of forces correctly. You may need to ask yourself when analysing the move-ment or skill:

• Are as many body parts as possible being used to contribute to the desired outcome of achieving the desired distance?

• Are the body parts that are larger and stronger operating before the smaller, faster muscles?

• Are the body parts being used accelerating in the correct order, so that each body part contributes to an optimal level before the next body part comes into operation?

• Is each body part stabilising around a stable base to enable each following action to accel-erate optimally?

• Are the body parts that are lighter but move more quickly used at the point of release? You may like to apply this to other skills.

ImpulseAnother means of increasing the amount of force production or momentum imparted during a movement is by applying the force for a longer period of time. This is the principle of impulse. Impulse is the force applied to an object and the length of time this force is applied. Impulse is important in many sports, including: the start of the 100-metre sprint in athletics, leaving the blocks in swimming, pitching in softball and baseball, the discus throw, and performing the push pass in hockey. For example, in discus it is beneficial to perform a circular spin before

releasing the discus rather than throwing from a standing position, so as to be able to provide greater time for the generation of muscular force.

In the 100-metre sprint, two techniques are used at the start of the race to generate greater impulse:1. pushing from the blocks to maintain a strong

forward force for as long as possible; and2. taking short, sharp steps over the first

10–20 metres, allowing the feet to push repeatedly against the track and magnifying the force applied.

AccuracyWhen we are trying to obtain maximum force, summation of force and impulse are important concepts to remember. However, in some sports maximum force is not required; rather, accuracy is most important. Accuracy in throwing and striking can be improved through the notion of ‘flattening the arc’ (figure 1.24).

Flattening of the arc in throwing activities is achieved by moving the axis of rotation (the shoulder joint) forward in the direction of the throw just prior to the time of release of the ball. The arm should straighten as the shoulder moves forward, because of the transfer of weight onto the front foot and the rotation of the trunk.

When a player serves in tennis (figure 1.24), he or she creates a flattened arc of the racquet head by the shift of body weight forward and the rotation of the body prior to the m o m e n t of contact. When a player hits a softball, the arc is flattened due to the rotation of the trunk, which moves the shoulders forward, and the transference of weight onto the front leg just prior to contact.

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Figure 1.23 The delivery action in fast bowling in cricket showing the sequential summation of force

6 Wrist flexion 5 Arm swing 4 Rotation of shoulders 3 Rotation of hips 2 Step forward 1


Out

Good

NetA

A

CB

CB

Figure 1.24 In tasks requiring

accuracy, the release point of

a projectile is vital: (a) Accuracy can

be improved by flattening the arc of the swing;

(b) In a tennis serve the correct trajectory is

obtained by striking the ball at point B.

2. Projectile motion — velocity of release and angle of release

Throwing, striking and kicking skills all involve objects such as balls and implements (e.g. discus, javelin) being projected into the air. This is referred to in biomechanics as projec-tile motion. A projectile’s flight path or trajec-tory is influenced by a number of factors, of which velocity (or speed) of release and angle of release are the most important.

Velocity of releaseVelocity of release is the single most impor-tant factor for achieving maximum distance of a projectile. Basically, the greater the velocity of release, the greater the distance achieved. Velocity of release is largely determined by the principles of force production (summation of force and impulse) discussed previously.

Angle of releaseWhen attempting to achieve maximum distance in throwing and kicking skills, the theoretical optimal angle of release of a projectile is 45 degrees for any given velocity of release. This angle of release provides equal components of vertical and horizontal force. However, this applies only when the height of release and height of landing are the same, and when spin and air resistance are not present. Given that this is rarely the case, the optimal angle of release for achieving maximum distance in most sporting activities is usually less than 45 degrees, with an angle of between 35 and 45 degrees being most common. Figure 1.25 shows the optimal angles of release for various sporting skills.

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Shot put

Triple jump

90°

60°

45°

30°

Range (metres)

Lawn bowling

Throw for distance

Hammer throw

Badminton serve

Front tuck somersaultHigh jump

Lay-up shot

Pole vault

Figure 1.25 Optimal angles of release and associated trajectories for various sporting skills

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Shot put

Triple jump

90°

60°

45°

30°

Range (metres)

Lawn bowling

Throw for distance

Hammer throw

Badminton serve

Front tuck somersaultHigh jump

Lay-up shot

Pole vault

Figure 1.25 Optimal angles of release and associated trajectories for various sporting skills

24 Inside & Out

3. Balance and stabilityIn sport, balance and stability can make the difference between an effective or ineffective performance. Stability is defined as ‘an object’s resistance to movement from a balanced position’. There are two types of stability:1. static stability — when an object is at rest2. dynamic stability — when an object is in

motion. The stability of an object depends on a

number of factors, including:• the area of the object’s base of support• the height of the centre of gravity of the object

above the base of support• the position of the line of gravity relative to

the base of support.

The area of the base of supportThe ‘area’ of the base of support of an object refers to the part or parts of the object in contact with the support surface. For example, the hands are in contact with the floor in a handstand, the head and hands are in contact for a headstand. The area of the supporting base of the object is directly related to its stability; the greater the area of support, the greater the degree of stability. Therefore, stability can be increased by increasing the area of the base of support. This can be achieved by making contact with more body parts or by spreading the body parts so that they cover a greater area, such as when placing the feet further apart prior to receiving a bump in football.

The height of the centre of gravity of the object above the base of supportThe centre of gravity of an object refers to the point in the object or body through which the downward force of gravity acts. Generally speaking, the higher the centre of gravity of the object above its base of support, the less stable the object. Lowering the centre of gravity of an object relative to its base of support acts to increase the stability of the object. Individuals can increase their stability by bending their knees and thereby lowering their centre of gravity.

The position of the line of gravity relative to the base of supportThe line of gravity is an imaginary vertical line passing downwards through the centre of gravity. The closer the line of gravity is to the limits of the base of support, the less the degree of stability of the object. In some sports

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and skills, athletes deliberately position the line of gravity close to the limits of their base of support so that only a small force is required to get them moving in the required direction. Swimmers and runners on the blocks lean forward in the direction of intended movement, so that when the gun goes off, they only require a small amount of force to begin moving in the required direction (figure 1.26).

Other athletes, such as sumo wrestlers (figure 1.27), who require a position of stability, attempt to do the opposite by positioning the line of gravity as far inside the base of support as possible.

Figure 1.27 Sumo wrestlers often try to

maximise their stability in order to ensure

success against an opponent who is attempting

to knock them off balance and out of the ring.

Base ofsupport

Line of gravity

Stable Unstable

Figure 1.26 Stability is lost when the line of

gravity falls outside the base of support.


Practice and training regimes

Under the skill acquisition section of this chapter we discussed practice as an essen-tial factor in enabling individuals to acquire and develop proficiency in motor skills. We learnt that practice could be massed or dis-tributed, whole or part, and mental or phys-ical. We now consider some other aspects about practice that can assist us in acquiring and developing motor and sporting skills. One of the most important elements in developing skill proficiency is that individ-uals have the ability to perform the skills of the game in game-like situations; most of us would be familiar with the old adage ‘prac-tise like you play and you are more likely to play like you practise’. Most often, skills are taught and practised (certainly to begin with) through the use of basic skill drills. Many of these drills take place in lines, lanes, circles, squares or triangles, which can result in individuals only attending to what is hap-pening in such limited situations. If there is an overemphasis on practising the skills in this way, the individual may struggle to apply these skills later on in game situations, where peripheral vision and an awareness of team-mates and opponents are required. Therefore, skills should be developed through basic skill drills to begin with and, once learned, individuals should advance their performance of these skills through intermediate skill drills, advanced drills and, eventually, game-like practice activities, so as to prepare individuals for the type of move-ments and situations that take place during actual games.

Basic skill drillsBasic skill drills are designed to allow the individual to learn and perform the skills in an environment where the individual does not have to consider outside elements such as the opposition or movement. In other words, they are performed in a more ‘closed envi-ronment’. These types of drills are often per-formed with the individual stationary or moving slowly at a walking or jogging pace. In this early phase of skill learning (refer to the section on stages of skill learning on page 11), if the individual is required to direct his or her attention to anything other

N than performing the skill itself (such as moving to provide support or taking notice of where an opponent is positioned), his or her focus can be distracted, leading to a lack of concentration on the performance of the skill.

In ball games such as basketball, Australian Rules football, soccer, netball and hockey, basic skill drills are usually set up, with the players in formations such as lines, circles, squares or triangles (figure 1.28). The ball is generally played in the direction of the arrows, with players performing the skills in a stationary position, or while walking or jogging. It is easy to imagine setting up such drills for any number and range of skills; for example, the push pass in hockey or handballing in Australian Rules football. It is important that players are fully capable of performing a skill before advancing from basic to more advanced drills.

Figure 1.28 In ball games such as basketball,

Australian Rules football, soccer, netball and

hockey, basic skill drills are usually set up with

the players in formations such as lines, circles,

squares or triangles.

Intermediate skill drillsOnce players have acquired the basics of the skill, the skill may then be practised using an intermediate skill drill. In intermediate drills, movement is the only other factor that the player must attend to. The player must learn to perform the skill with movement involved, and with the pace of the movement slowly progressing, all the while attempting to ensure

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26 Inside & Out

that the proficiency with which the skill is performed does not deteriorate. The types of movement involved should include:

• stationary to moving — performing the skill from a stationary position, playing the ball to a moving partner, or into a moving zone

• moving to stationary — performing the skill while moving, playing the ball to a stationary partner, or into a fixed zone

• moving to moving — performing the skill while moving, playing the ball to a moving partner, or into a moving zone.Intermediate skill drills can also be set up,

with the players forming lines, circles, squares or triangles. In a moving-to-moving skill drill, the ball may move in one direction and the player in another.

Advanced skill drillsAs the difficulty of the drill is increased, the aim is to make the activity more like a real game situation. With advanced drills, the chal-lenge to the player is heightened by progres-sively increasing the speed with which the drill is performed, so that it eventually reaches match tempo, by reducing the space and time the players have in which to perform the skill; by introducing other techniques into the drill; and/or by introducing opposition.

A quick method of remembering how to advance any skill drill you wish to employ is to use the acronym SSTEP to change any one or more of the following parameters (table 1.5).

Opposed drillsIntroducing opposition into any skill drill will provide the stepping stone to performing the

skill in a game-like situation. Opposed drills entail the player (and the opponent for that matter) weighing up the available options and choosing the best way to perform the task. Other skills, such as tackling and evasion, are also developed alongside the focus skill.

Grid gamesGrid games are an extension of intermediate and advanced skill drills. They take place, as their name suggests, within a grid or defined area and usually involve a relatively small number of players, such as three to five players per side. An example of a grid game would include a keepings-off type passing game, which requires players from each side to make a certain number of passes while moving con-tinuously within the defined grid or area. As the players’ movements are not as defined as in a skill drill, players must make decisions on where and when to move, as in a real ‘game’ sit-uation. Such games not only encourage aware-ness of time and space but also help develop characteristics of team play, such as running to support and communication. In grid games it is also possible to limit the movement of players to certain zones within the grid or area (non-inva-sive practices). This allows players to develop positional sense, and limits the type and amount of opposition that they encounter. Grid games provide an opportunity for players to begin developing what is referred to as tactical proficiency, as opposed to skill or technical pro-ficiency, which we have been discussing up to this point.

TABLE 1.5 SSTEP parameters

Speed • the speed at which the drill is being performed

• having the player perform a number of repetitions within a set time limit or time frame

Space • changing the amount of space available to the player performing the skill

Time • changing the period of time in which the drill is being performed

• increasing the time period in which the skill has to be practised will increase the physical demands on the performer

• decreasing the time will require the performer to increase the speed of performance

Equipment • introducing different equipment, or setting up a drill with different equipment

Pressure • introducing opposition to the person performing the skill

• this can be done progressively — first with token opposition, where the performer is not challenged for possession. Second, allowing the performer to get possession and then providing opposition in the form of a tackler; and, finally, by providing full opposition where the possession is contested in a game-like manner

TABLE 1.5 SSTEP parameters

Speed • the speed at which the drill is being performed

• having the player perform a number of repetitions within a set time limit or time frame

Space • changing the amount of space available to the player performing the skill

Time • changing the period of time in which the drill is being performed

• increasing the time period in which the skill has to be practised will increase the physical demands on the performer

• decreasing the time will require the performer to increase the speed of performance

Equipment • introducing different equipment, or setting up a drill with different equipment

Pressure • introducing opposition to the person performing the skill

• this can be done progressively — first with token opposition, where the performer is not challenged for possession. Second, allowing the performer to get possession and then providing opposition in the form of a tackler; and, finally, by providing full opposition where the possession is contested in a game-like manner


Developing tactical proficiencyTactical proficiency or decision making may be defined as ‘the ability to weigh up game situations and decide on which option to take and when to take it’; for example, whether to carry the ball or pass it to a team-mate, or whether to shoot for a score or pass to a player in a better position. Tactical proficiency can be developed through activities that closely mirror game situations — so-called game play or game sense.

Game senseGame sense is an approach to coaching that uses the game as the focus of the practice session. By focusing on the game (not neces-sarily a full game but, often, a modified version of the game), players are encouraged to:

• start thinking strategically about game concepts

• become more tactically aware and able to make better decisions during the game

• develop skills within a realistic context rather than practising them in isolation

• develop a greater understanding of the game being played.By using a game sense approach, players

are challenged to think about what they are

actually doing, and why. Players are taught to use the appropriate technique at the right time and place in the pressure situation of a game. In other words, the players are challenged to perform the correct skill given the circum-stances or situations that confront them. Game sense activities involve placing players in a situation where they are forced to weigh up the choice of which skill to perform, and how to perform the skill in order to complete the drill. Game sense activities require players to perform skills while in situations that simulate those they may be exposed to in a real game. The player must adapt to the situation by being aware of his or her options, choosing the correct option and then utilising the most appropriate skill technique to execute the option.

Game sense activities train improvements in adapting skill or technical proficiency to pressure situations and improving tactical awareness, both of which are vital elements in ensuring a player is competent in a match situ-ation. Game sense activities are an essential link between the development of skill or tech-nical proficiency and being prepared to play in full-game situations. A game sense approach to developing tactical awareness and proficiency is addressed in more detail in chapter 3.

28 Inside & Out

The key ideas presented in this chapter are:

• Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are common motor or movement activities with specific observable patterns such as running, jumping, catching, throwing, kicking and striking. They are the precursor movements to the more specialised, complex skills used in games, sports and physical activities.

• The core fundamental motor skills include running, leaping, jumping, dodging, catching, throwing, kicking, bouncing and striking.

• Proficiency of movement is defined as the achievement of a movement goal with maximum certainty, minimum energy expenditure and minimum movement time.

• Movement proficiency can be appraised in terms of both its process and its outcome.

• Measures used to assess movement proficiency include: observation; checklists, rubrics and rating scales; measurements; norm- and criterion-referenced standards and percentile ranks; and statistical information.

• In order for individuals to develop proficiency in motor and sporting skills, they usually commit to a teacher or coach to help in the acquisition and development of the necessary skills.

• Teachers and coaches often possess movement and sport-specific knowledge and experience, as well as an understanding of the principles of skill acquisition and biomechanics.

• Skill acquisition is the movement science concerned with the processes and ways in which individuals acquire and learn motor skills.

• Teachers and coaches should be knowledgeable about the stages of skill learning. These stages are the cognitive stage, the associative stage and the autonomous stage.

• Teachers and coaches should also be knowledgeable about the different types of skills and the implications of this in terms of skill acquisition and practice. Skills can be classified according to whether they are open or closed, discrete, continuous or serial.

• Feedback and practice are two other important factors affecting skill learning and acquisition.

• Feedback can be in the form of knowledge of performance and/or knowledge of results.

• Practice can be of many types, including: massed and distributed; whole and part; and physical and mental.

• Biomechanics is the science that applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human movement.

• Important biomechanical concepts that can assist in the improvement of skill and movement performance include: summation of force; impulse; accuracy; the velocity and angle of release of projectiles; and balance and stability.

• Summation of force can involve either sequential summation of force or simultaneous summation of force.

• ‘Impulse’ refers to the amount of force applied to an object and the period of time over which this force is applied. It is important in many sports, including the sprint start technique in athletics, pitching in baseball and performing the push pass in hockey.

• Accuracy in throwing and striking skills is often obtained through the application of the concept of ‘flattening the arc’.

• When attempting to achieve maximum distance in throwing and kicking skills, the optimum angle of release is theoretically 45 degrees; although, in reality, it is usually somewhere between 35 and 45 degrees.

• The stability of an object depends on a number of factors, including the area of the object’s base of support; the height of the centre of gravity of the object above the base of support; and the position of the line of gravity relative to the base of support.

• Practice is the key to developing proficiency in most motor and sporting skills.

• Skills should be practised through basic skill drills to begin with, progressing through more complex intermediate and advanced drills, and, eventually, game-like practices such as grid games and game sense drills.

Chapter summary


1. Research performance criteria that could be used to assess those fundamental motor skills not specifically addressed in this chapter.

2. For a selected specific sporting skill, outline a plan of action to take a beginner from the cognitive stage through to the associative stage of skill learning.

3. For a specific sporting skill, explain how you would close this skill down so that a beginner could learn it and then how you would gradually open it up as the learner became more proficient.

4. Using a video camera, tape your class participating in a game situation. View the tape and identify as many skill classifications as you can.

5. Obtain a videotape of a sport and list the skills used to gain distance and to obtain accuracy. Describe which skills use simultaneous summation of forces and which involve sequential summation of forces.

6. Compare the way students at your athletics carnival carry out the shot-put compared to the athletes at the Olympic Games. How do the techniques differ? What biomechanical principles can be used to describe why the differences in technique occur?

7. Explain how you would ensure consistency in assessing the proficiency of a movement performance in, say, something like a gymnastics or dance routine. List the criteria you would expect judges to follow.

Extension and research activities

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