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A LONGITUDINAL INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERENT EXERCISE

MODALITIES ON SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University of North Texas in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

By

Nancy S. Diehl, B.S,

Denton, Texas

August, 1995

Diehl, Nancy S., A Longitudinal Investigation of

Different Exercise Modalities on Social Physigue

Anxiety. Master of Science (Clinical Psychology),

August, 1995, 72 pp., 5 tables, 2 figures, references,

77 titles.

Despite the physiological and psychological

benefits inherent in regular exercise, many people

choose not to participate. Reasons for not exercising

were considered in relation to social physique anxiety

(SPA), a type of social anxiety that occurs as a result

of the prospect of evaluation of one's physique. The

current study investigated longitudinal changes in SPA

as a result of involvement in different exercise

modalities (swimming, racquetball, weightlifting and

non-exercise control). Results indicated that groups

differed early in the semester, suggesting physique

anxiety is related to self-selection of exercise

participation. Social physique anxiety decreased over

time, suggesting exposure to a non-evaluative group may

result in decreased anxiety. A gender main effect was

found, which is consistent with prior research.

Clinical implications are discussed.

T7<i

MQ I /*o> ~}is~K

A LONGITUDINAL INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERENT EXERCISE

MODALITIES ON SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

University of North Texas in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

By

Nancy S. Diehl, B.S,

Denton, Texas

August, 1995

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable

assistance of Dr. Judy L. Van Raalte, Dr. Britton W. Brewer,

and Dr. Michael J. Mahoney for their assistance and support

from aiding from early in the project to its completion.

Thanks are also expressed to the Kinesiology classes

who participated in the study: the project certainly could

not have been completed without their assistance.

Appreciation and gratitude go to Dr. Trent Petrie for

his encouragement, organizational skills, and endurance

muddling through many drafts. Recognition also to Dr.

Kenneth Sewell and Dr. Kelli Koltyn for their insightful

input.

Finally, the author wishes to give special thanks to

Dr. Patrick Diehl... for everything.

111

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Exercise outside of class (minutes), Body Mass Index (BMI), and Social Physiques Anxiety Scores for Men (n = 49) . . .53

2. Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Exercise outside of class (in minutes), Body Mass Index (BMI), and Social Physiques Anxiety Scores for Women (n = 53) . . 54

3. Correlations between SPAS scores for the control group 5 5

4. Means and Standard Deviations for the SPAS in this study and from Hart, Leary, and Rejeski, 1989 56

5. Means and Standard Deviations of SPAS scores across Times and Conditions 57

IV

A LONGITUDINAL INVESTIGATION OF DIFFERENT EXERCISE

MODALITIES ON SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY

Introduction

Industrialization has dramatically changed the

experience of human living. Most people tend to believe

that life has been made significantly easier, and that all

of the so-called progress has been positive. However, as

machines have taken over most manual labor including

switching channels on the television, the population has

become increasingly sedentary (ACSM, 1993; Blair, 1988).

Many people simply perceive exercise as hard work for

minimal reward, even though the positive effects of

exercise, both physiologically and psychologically, have

been well documented.

Although several recommendations concerning exercise

involvement exist (Bouchard, Shephard, Stephens, Sutton, &

McPherson, 1990; Dubbert, 1992), those presented by the

American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) have been

particularly influential and are frequently used in research

settings. The ACSM suggested that physical activity (i.e.,

exercise) of 20-30 minutes at least three times per week at

60%-90% of age estimated maximum heart rate can result in

desired physical and psychological benefits (ACSM, 1990).

Although the 1990 ACSM recommendation has been widely

accepted as the lower limit at which the majority of

1

2

physical and psychological benefits of exercise can take

place, some exercise is more beneficial than no exercise.

In fact, the newest ACSM guidelines recognize the importance

of regular physical activity. They read "Every American

adult should accumulate 3 0 minutes or more of moderate

intensity physical activity over the course of most days of

the week...Activities that can contribute to the 30 minute

total include walking up stairs, gardening, raking

leaves,..." (ACSM, 1994, p. 7). These guidelines suggest

gains may occur at much lower levels of physical fitness or

exercise than espoused by the 1990 version. For example,

studies of older adult populations have shown physiological

and psychological benefits from seated exercise (McMurdo &

Rennie, 1993; Netz, Tenebaum, & Sagiv, 1988).

Physical and Physiological Benefits of Exercise

Regular exercise has been found to improve physical

health throughout the lifespan, specifically reducing the

risk of coronary heart disease, osteoporosis and certain

cancers, decreasing hypertension and percentage of body fat,

improving metabolism, and aiding in controlling diabetes.

Although most research has been conducted on subjects in the

18-30 year age range, recent efforts have established the

benefits of exercise in older adults (McMurdo & Rennie,

1993; Netz et al., 1988) as well as children (Hinkle, 1992).

Regular exercise has been found to reduce the risk of

coronary heart disease (Adams, Yanowitz, & Fischer, 1981;

3

Landry, 1985; Oberman, 1985) which is the foremost cause of

death in the United States ("Public Health," 1993). In

fact, a meta-analysis of the controlled trials of cardiac

rehabilitation in post myocardial infarction patients showed

a 20% reduction in mortality rate associated with regular

exercise (Froelicher, 1990). Exercise also reduces

atherosclerosis, or fatty streaks in the inner lining of the

arteries (Wood & Stefanick, 1990), and improves the

metabolism of carbohydrates and fats (Lennon et al., 1983).

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, also has been

identified as a serious health problem that can be reduced

by exercise (Blair, Goodyear, Gibbons, & Cooper, 1981). The

expected rate of hypertension in Western societies is 15-25%

overall, and as high as 50%-60% in persons over age 60

(Kaplan, 1986). In sportsmen and sportswomen aged 14-37,

however, the prevalence was only one percent (Krai,

Chrastek, & Adamirova, 1966). In addition, regular physical

activity helps reduce the insulin requirements for Type 1

(insulin dependent) and improves glucose tolerance in Type 2

(non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus (Rosenthal,

Haskell, Solomon, Widstron, & Reavan, 1983; Vranic &

Wasserman, 1990).

Exercise has been placed on the short list of lifestyle

habits that reduce the risk of osteoporosis (Harrison &

Chow, 1990). Without habitual activity, bone mass may

decrease. Although genetic predisposition plays a large

4

role in the development of osteoporosis, there are lifestyle

changes such as optimal exercise and nutrition that can help

prevent this disease.

The impact of AIDS on the United States population has

resulted in increased awareness and attention to immune

functioning and related diseases. According to Simon

(1984), there is no question that exercise can affect

immunologic functioning. Although the evidence continues to

be somewhat controversial, it appears that exercise

strengthens the immune system, and can even decrease the

likelihood of lymphatic system cancers (Calabrese, 1990).

There also have been recent suggestions that exercise may be

protective against colon cancer in men (I-Min, Paffenbarger,

& Hsieh, 1991), and may reduce the risk of certain

reproductive cancers in women (Kohl, LaPaorte, & Blair,

1988) .

Surprisingly, exercise in obese individuals is not

directly related to weight loss (Garfinkel & Coscina, 1990).

The heterogeneous nature of obesity, however, may be

responsible for the lack of detection of a relationship. It

may be that when more homogenous groups are considered, the

relationship of exercise to a specific type of obesity will

become clear. There is strong evidence supporting the fact

that exercise can alter body composition by acting to

decrease percentage of body fat (Pacy, Webster, & Garrow,

5

1986), indicating the benefits of exercise in relation to

weight control.

There are, however, costs associated with exercise that

must be considered (Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990). Some

possible negative side effects include musculoskeletal

injuries, less time available to participate in other

hobbies or activities, and an immediate increase in the risk

of cardiac arrest and sudden death, despite the long term

reduction of this risk (Appenzeller, 1981).

Psychological benefits of exercise

In addition to the many physical and physiological

benefits, exercise has been identified as providing

important psychological benefits, such as increased ability

to effectively deal with stress (Brown, 1991; Dyer & Crouch,

1988; Holmes & Roth, 1985). Exercise may also help to

decrease depression and anxiety (Hatfield, 1991; King,

Taylor, Haskell, DeBusk, 1989; Morgan, 1985; Morgan &

O'Conner, 1988).

One of the main psychological benefits of exercise is

its effect as a moderator of life stress. Most researchers

have hypothesized that the physiological adaptation (e.g.,

cardiovascular efficiency) associated with regular exercise

influences physiological reactivity to and recovery from

stressful psychological, psychosocial, and physical events

(Plante & Rodin, 1990). Crews and Landers (1987) conducted

a meta-analysis which demonstrated that athletes had lower

6

physiological arousal in response to stress than did non-

athletes. Furthermore, athletes were able to recover faster

than were their non-athletic counterparts.

Thus, physical fitness appears to act as a buffer,

softening the negative effects of life stress. For example,

Brown (1991) found that individuals with lower levels of

physical fitness exhibited more physical ailments, even when

psychological distress was controlled, than did aerobically

fit individuals. Unfortunately, the quasi-experimental

design used (lack of random assignment) by Brown does not

allow causal relationships to be inferred. Another quasi-

experimental study conducted by Dyer and Crouch (1988) found

that undergraduates who participated in aerobic activity

over the course of a semester were better able to cope with

life stress and reported a generally more positive feeling

of well-being than non-exercisers. Adding further evidence

to the relationship between exercise and stress, Holmes and

Roth (1985) found high fitness participants had lower

elevations in heart rate when subjected to a moderately

stressful psychological test (repeating digits backward)

compared with their less fit counterparts. Wilfley and

Kunce (1986) suggest that beginning exercise moderates high

levels of stress, but as fitness improves there is a plateau

in the effect of exercise on stress.

Although the majority of the literature demonstrates

the positive effect of exercise on stress responsivity,

7

other studies have not replicated these results (Berger &

Owen, 1992b; de Geus, van Doornen, Orlebeke, 1993; Plante &

Karpowitz, 1987). A possible explanation for this

discrepancy is that Plante and Karpowitz (1987) did not

manipulate levels of exercise, but simply used an exercise

self-report measure that may have lacked accuracy, de Geus

et al. (1993) did not have acceptable levels of power and

thus may have been unable to detect an effect even if it

truly did exist. Although Berger and Owen (1992b) suggested

exercise is beneficial when done in moderation, extremely

intense exercise may negate the positive relationship

between exercise and stress.

Sime (1984) suggested that anxiety is a potential

outcome of life stress. Exercise, however, has been related

to reductions on both self-report and physiological measures

of anxiety, even following a single session of aerobic

exercise (Tuson & Sinyor, 1993). In middle-aged

psychologically healthy women, increased fitness was

associated with decreased ratings of tension and anxiety

(King et al., 1989). Since anxiety and depression covary so

strongly, it may be that the anxiety-reducing effects of

exercise are also relevant to the antidepressant effects of

exercise (Morgan, 1987).

Exercise has been shown to be as effective as cognitive

therapy in lessening symptomatology for mild to moderately

depressed adults (Freemont & Craighead, 1984). Greist et

8

al. (1979) conducted research evaluating the effectiveness

of time-limited versus time-unlimited psychotherapy versus

exercise, and found that exercise was most effective in

decreasing depressive symptomatology. These results should

be interpreted with caution due to the methodological flaws

noted by the authors in their research. Furthermore,

exercise has been shown to reduce dysphoric mood in a non-

clinical sample (King et al., 1989).

Although exercise has been shown to alleviate symptoms

of depression, the physiological aspects of aerobic exercise

may not be responsible for the changes. Most early studies

used jogging or running as the exercise manipulation, but

recent studies have shown similar effects for weight lifting

or even relaxation training. For example, jogging and

weight lifting were equally effective in reducing depression

in women over the course of an eight week period with

benefits being maintained at one year (Doyne et al., 1987).

A time out hypothesis has been suggested to explain the

beneficial effects of exercise on depression. Morgan (1985)

suggested that the positive benefits of exercise may be

related to time away from life stressors. If that were

true, the same amount of benefit would be derived from any

activity, controlling for time involved. Research, however,

has produced equivocal results regarding this hypothesis.

For example, McCann and Holmes (1984) found the effect of

exercise to be greater than that of meditation or no-

9

treatment over the course of time. Yet, Weinberg and

Jackson (1988) found the effects of meditation to be equally

as effective as running, but not as effective as other

athletic activities (swimming, tennis, and racquetball) in a

single session study.

Although the ACSM provides guidelines for exercise, it

is unclear whether any specific activity or type of

activities may be more effective (and potentially more

enjoyable) as a method for obtaining the physical and

psychological benefits of exercise. Similarly, there has

been a recent call in the psychological literature to

further explore and clarify the types of exercise that

enhance psychological functioning (Plante & Rodin, 1990).

The present study examined the relationship between type of

exercise and psychological gain. Although little research

has been conducted related to type of exercise, there have

been some studies that address this issue. Berger and Owen

(1988) compared swimming, body conditioning (weight

training), Hatha Yoga, and fencing. Results suggested that

only swimmers experienced more positive mood states both

before and after exercise. In a later study Berger and Owen

(1992a) investigated only the relationship between Yoga,

swimming, and a control condition, and found that mood

elevation was significantly greater for both activity

groups, when compared to the controls.

10

Although methodological flaws exist, the resounding

conclusion of the research consistently demonstrates the

important benefits of regular exercise on physical and

psychological health. Specifically, regular exercise

reduces risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, and

osteoporosis, increases metabolism of carbohydrates and

fats, and decreases stress, depression, and anxiety.

Nonetheless, many people choose not to exercise, and thus, a

primary issue is to clarify the factors associated with that

choice.

Exercise and Social Anxiety

Despite the number of benefits inherent in exercise,

approximately 40% of North Americans are completely

sedentary (Stephens, Jacobs, & White, 1985). The Canada

Fitness Survey (1983) gathered specific information on

reasons people listed for not exercising. Reasons included

lack of time due to work (about 50%), lack of interest or

motivation (over 30%), inadequate facilities (about 30%),

lack of time due to other leisure activities (about 18%),

and needing more encouragement (about 12%). It seems that

the rewards are often too distant, and the cost too

proximate. Many people listed more than one reason thus

percentages add up to more than 100%.

Leary (1992) suggested that one possible reason for not

exercising is that some individuals have self-presentational

concerns. In developing an impression of a person, one

11

takes into account the other's abilities, attributes, and

motives (Leary, 1992). Thus, it is in one's best interest

to convey the self in a way that will be acceptable, and

even appealing to others. This method of self-presentation

is not a calculated manipulative technique, but occurs even

when people are not consciously trying to make an impression

(Leary & Kowalski, 1990). Thus, at a conscious or tacit

level, people monitor their behavior based on the reactions

(real or imagined) of those around them. It is appropriate

to be somewhat in tune with the requirements of the

observing group, but attention, in the extreme, can lead to

social anxiety. Social anxiety is "anxiety resulting from

the prospect or presence of interpersonal evaluations in

real or imagined social settings" (Schlenker & Leary, 1982,

p.642), and results from the belief that one is not able to

make a good impression.

Social anxiety encompasses a plethora of distinctive

subtypes. Many people are only socially anxious when a

specific behavior is being measured. For example, it is

common for many people to become anxious when they are

forced to speak in public. This speech anxiety may even

result in stuttering or excessive sweating, which may

increase anxiety by way of a positive feedback loop. Other

people may be particularly anxious when their bodies are

being evaluated, or seen, by others (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski,

1989). Social physique anxiety is the "subtype of social

12

anxiety that occurs as a result of the prospect or presence

of interpersonal evaluation involving one's physique" (Hart

et al., 1989, p. 96).

Because they believed social physique anxiety might be

useful in explaining the exercise behaviors of sedentary

individuals, Hart et al. (1989) developed the 12 item Social

Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS). In the first of three

studies, they established the final format of the

questionnaire, investigated loadings of particular questions

on the scale, and determined a single factor structure.

Results suggested gender differences: specifically, males'

average scores were significantly lower than females'

scores. In study two, they demonstrated the construct

validity (discussed further in the methods section). Study

three examined the criterion validity by comparing the

reactions of low and high physique anxious people undergoing

an actual physical evaluation of their physique, including

an interview and a measure of body fat. Results of this

third study indicated that high scorers demonstrated greater

apprehension and tension than their less anxious

counterparts. In addition, social physique anxiety

accounted for 23% more variance in reported stress

experienced during the evaluation than was explained by

standard measures of physique and fitness, such as body

self-rating, weight, and body fat. The findings from Hart

et al.'s initial investigation suggest that social physique

13

anxiety is a measurable, meaningful construct that may help

explain why some people choose not to exercise. Since the

introduction of social physique anxiety (Hart et al., 1989)

few studies have been completed although researchers have

acknowledged the importance of the construct for explaining

exercise behavior.

One study that has been conducted examined the

relationship between location of exercise (public versus

private) and social physique anxiety in female Canadian

nursing students. In this study, Spink (1992) found that

high physique-anxious women, when compared with low

physique-anxious women, were more likely to exercise in

private than in public. Although this finding suggests that

there are situations in which highly physique anxious women

might exercise, it is difficult to find modes of exercise

that are completely private. Exercise equipment for the

home is generally expensive and likely prohibitive for most,

and exercising outside in an area perceived as deserted

might be dangerous.

Although Spink's findings (1992) are theoretically

consistent, methodological limitations did exist. The

categories of high and low physique anxiety were determined

using a mean split. It is clear that this differentiation

is somewhat arbitrary and influenced by extreme scores. A

median split or even a tertiary or quartile split would have

been more meaningful, although the latter two would have

14

resulted in decreasing the sample size even further. In

spite of these limitations, the findings do suggest that

there are differences in the behaviors of higher versus

lower physique anxious people.

McAuley and Burman (1993) further examined the

psychometric properties of the SPAS adding evidence to

support its single factor structure. Participants were

female adolescent gymnasts, who completed a demographic

questionnaire, the SPAS, and the Physical Self-Efficacy

Scale. Analyses revealed support for the SPAS' original

factor structure and further demonstrated its construct

validity through the strong inverse relationship between

physical self-efficacy and degree of social physique

anxiety. These results increased the evidence that the

Social Physique Anxiety Scale is a valid and useful measure

for adolescents as well as adults.

Crawford and Eklund (1994) examined social physique

anxiety in relation to attitudes toward exercise settings in

college females. The women viewed two videotapes of an

aerobics class, one in which participants were wearing

tights and thong leotards, and one in which they wore t-

shirts and shorts. After each viewing, subjects reported

their attitudes toward the exercise setting. Results

indicated social physique anxiety was negatively associated

with the setting emphasizing physique, and positively

related to the setting minimizing physique. High physique

15

anxiety women had more negative attitudes toward the

exercise setting in which people displayed their physique

(i.e., tights and thong leotards). Low physique anxious

women, however, preferred a setting where they could display

theirs. These results suggest that women with relatively

high physique anxiety may not participate in certain

exercise settings, thus limiting their options. Although

this study provided important additional information about

the construct and its relation to exercise, the authors

noted the importance of extending this line of investigation

to field settings.

The authors furthered their work in this area with a

sample of college women (Eklund & Crawford, 1994). They

measured SPA, weight satisfaction, percent body fat, reasons

for exercise, exercise behaviors and preferences and

attitudes toward the aerobic videos mentioned above.

Results indicated that self presentational reasons for

exercise were positively correlated with SPA. However, SPA

was not positively correlated with attitudes toward either

of the video presentations. The authors suggested that

other variables may moderate or mediate self presentational

anxiety in exercise settings.

Social anxiety theory suggests that people who are

physique anxious would be unlikely to exercise, not wanting

to subject themselves to the anxiety that they would feel in

a public exercise setting. Results of existing empirical

16

investigations add indirect support for this assertion. If,

however, social physique anxiety could be decreased, two

important related events might occur. First, these

individuals might be more willing to be seen in exercise

settings. Second, with the increased number of options,

these individuals might increase their overall level of

exercise activity. Because the effects of exercise on

psychological and physical functioning are well documented,

any increases in exercise would likely prove beneficial.

The results of these social physique anxiety studies

demonstrate the validity of the construct as well as its

potential usefulness in explaining exercise choice,

frequency, and location. What is not known, however, is the

stability of the construct and whether it can be changed

through exercise involvement. If it can ,be changed it is

important to examine the possible agents of change such as

aerobic benefit, changes in body shape or possibly

desensitization by wearing somewhat revealing exercise

attire.

Most longitudinal studies examining the psychological

benefits of exercise have utilized measurement at only two

points in time (e.g., pre and post), thus limiting

researchers' ability to determine the process of change

(King et al., 1989). Another potential problem is the

selection of the measurement interval. Ford, Puckett,

Blessing, and Tucker (1989) measured effects of exercise

17

class participation on both physical measures (step test,

flexibility test, sit-up test and body composition) and

psychological measures (self-esteem and body cathexis).

During the eight week interval the groups changed only on

the number of sit-ups they were able to complete, suggesting

that the effects of exercise on the other variables may

require more time, if they exist at all. To address these

limitations, the current study proposed to explore changes

over a 15 week period using multiple measurement times.

Given the unaddressed questions surrounding social

physique anxiety, the purposes of this study were twofold.

First, the current study examined if students' levels of

social physique anxiety vary depending on the type of

exercise setting they select. Specifically, male and female

undergraduates from four different co-educational exercise

classes (cycling, swimming, racquetball, and weight lifting)

and a developmental psychology class (control) were compared

on levels of social physique anxiety at the beginning of the

semester. Because swimming requires wearing revealing

athletic wear (i.e., bathing suit), swimmers would expect

their physiques to be evaluated. Thus, people who self-

selected swimming were expected to have lower anxiety than

all other participants in this study. In addition, gender

was considered because past research has demonstrated

differences between males and females on the SPAS. It was

hypothesized that women would expected to score higher than

18

men, and swimmers would have the lowest SPAS scores. No

interaction between gender and exercise setting was

expected.

Second, the study determined the degree to which social

physique anxiety changed over the course of semester-long

involvements in different exercise settings. Marks and

Mishan (1988) demonstrated that the desensitization effects

of exposure have been effective in reducing anxiety and

avoidance in individuals with disturbed body perceptions.

Thus, the anxiety-reducing effects of exposure may be

demonstrated in relation to social physique anxiety as well.

Crawford and Eklund (1994) have suggested that differences

may exist based on the type of clothing worn by

participants. That is, wearing relatively revealing

clothing (e.g., bathing suit) may desensitize individuals to

the effects of social evaluation and thus lower anxiety

about presenting physique in a social setting. Given that

four different exercise modalities were incorporated, the

relative effects of type of exercise setting and exposure

could be addressed. It was hypothesized that the exercise

groups' social physique anxiety would decrease over the

course of the semester compared with the control group. In

addition, it was expected that swimmers would evidence the

lowest social physique anxiety at time four due to their

involvement in an aerobic exercise setting with the highest

19

level of body exposure. Gender also was considered as an

independent variable given the findings of past research.

Method

Participants

Participants were 102 undergraduates (49 males, 53

females) from a large, southern state university who

enrolled in either co-ed physical education (PE) activity

classes or a Developmental Psychology class during the Fall

semester of 1994. Prior to graduation, all students at this

university are required to complete 4 credit hours of PE

activity classes. Participants were recruited from the

following classes: bicycling (8 male, 3 female; which were

later removed from the sample- see results section),

beginning swimming (7 male, 16 female), weight lifting (20

male, 19 female), beginning racquetball (16 male, 7 female),

and Developmental Psychology (6 male, 11 female) (the

control group). Each class met two hours and 40 minutes per

week.

Although 271 participants completed the questionnaire

at the first administration only 102 completed the study

across all four times and only these individuals are

included in subsequent analyses. Those who did not complete

all four administrations did not differ from those who did

complete all four times on age, gender, race, year in

school, or social physique anxiety at the beginning of the

semester. Upon examination of a box and whisker plot and

20

age variability among experimental conditions, 4 subjects

were excluded because they were significantly older than the

rest of the sample. As determined prior to data collection,

5 control subjects who were currently enrolled in P.E.

classes for the semester also were excluded.

Most participants were between 19 and 25 years old (M =

23.33, SD = 4.38). The mean body mass for men was 23.15, SD

= 2.97; for women mean body mass was 22.59, SD = 4.46.

Participants were primarily Caucasian (n = 78) although 4

identified themselves as Asian American, 5 African American,

1 Native American, 9 Hispanic, and 4 as Other; one did not

provide information on his/her racial/ethnic background.

Participants responded to a 5 point Likert-type scale

"Compared to the usual amount you exercised in the past six

months, how much do you do now?" anchored by "much more" and

"much less." They reported exercising about the same amount

(M = 2.76, SD = 1.03) as they did during the 6 months prior

to the Fall 1994 semester, thus enrolling in a P.E. class

does not seem to indicate a change from regular exercise

habits. Respondents indicated that they participated in

exercise activities such as walking, jogging, bicycling,

weight lifting, swimming, aerobics, racquetball, dance,

rollerblading, golf, tennis, basketball, softball, and

volleyball. Participants exercised a mean of 2.84 hours

(SD= 2.52) per week outside of their PE class participation.

Most participants (71%) identified themselves as

21

recreational or weekend athletes and 19% reported they were

not athletes.

Instruments

Phvsiaue Anxiety. The 12-item Social Physique Anxiety

Scale (SPAS; Hart et al., 1989) measures the trait-like

degree of anxiety individuals experience when their physique

is, or is perceived to be, evaluated by others. On items

such as "In the presence of others, I feel apprehensive

about my physique/figure," and "I am comfortable with the

appearance of my physique/figure," individuals indicate the

degree to which the statement is characteristic of

themselves on a 5 point Likert type scale ranging from 1

"not at all" to 5 "extremely." Internal consistency

(Cronbach's alpha) and 8-week test-retest

reliability/stability were shown to be .90 and .82,

respectively, for undergraduates (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski,

1989). Support for the Social Physique Anxiety Scale's

construct validity was provided by Hart et al. (1989) in

their initial investigation. The SPAS was correlated with

public self consciousness (r = .30), fear of negative

evaluation (r = .35) , interaction anxiousness (r = .33),

body cathexis (r = -.51), and uncorrelated with social

desirability (r = -.07). Social physique anxiety also has

been found to have a strong relationship (positive

correlation) with negative perceptions of physical

22

conditioning and weight in elite figure skaters (Martin,

Wirth, & Engels, 1993; See Appendix A).

Hart, Leary, and Rejeski (1989) conducted a principal

components analysis and found support for a single factor

latent structure. McAuley and Burman (1993) conducted a

confirmatory factor analysis using adolescent females. All

items had statistically significant loadings with the

exception of item two "I would never worry about wearing

clothes that might make me look too thin or overweight."

Based on their statistical analyses (goodness of fit tests

and internal consistency of 11 item and 12 item scales),

they decided to base subsequent analyses on the better

fitting 11 item scale. For the purposes of this study, the

original 12 item scale was given to participants. However,

the same item caused some confusion with participants

commenting on the poor wording. No other items on the scale

elicited any like response. When an alpha reliability

analysis was calculated, the corrected item-total

correlation of this item was .11. This item reduced the

overall reliability of the instrument and, based on current

results as well as those of McAuley and Berman (1993), this

item was excluded from all analyses. The resulting 11 item

scale had a Cronbach's alpha reliability (at Time 1) of .,92.

The resulting scale was examined using unweighted least

squares factor analysis. The scree plot of eigenvalues

indicated a single factor structure. Total scores on the 11

23

item, 5 point Likert-type scale are obtained by reverse

scoring items 1, 5, 8, and 11 and then summing all items,

and can vary from 11 (low social physique anxiety) to 55

(high social physique anxiety).

Demographic data Participants provided demographic

information, including age, gender, height, weight, and

race/ethnicity. In addition, they were asked to identify

their current level of exercise involvement in relation to

their exercise habits in the recent past. Level of exercise

involvement was defined as the average number of hours per

week participants reported exercising during the past four

weeks outside of their physical education class. Exercise,

in this context, was defined as anything subjects perceived

as exercise above and beyond the requirements of everyday

living (e.g., soccer, tennis, jogging, walking specifically

for exercise). Because the primary research question was

related to the relationship of athletic activity to physique

anxiety, exercise outside of class was a potential confound.

Data regarding exercise outside of class was gathered so

that external exercise could be statistically controlled if

there was a significant correlation between exercise time

outside of class and social physique anxiety. In addition,

a 7 point Likert-type scale was used to determine past

exercise involvement to better describe the exercise habits

of the participants. Participants rated how their current

level of athletic involvement (number of hours) related to

24

their typical level of activity in the past six months (See

Appendix B).

Design and Procedure

Using a longitudinal design, participants were

administered questionnaires at four different times

throughout the semester: the second (baseline), sixth,

tenth, and fourteenth weeks of the 15 week semester. These

administration dates were evenly distributed across the

semester, and generally did not coincide with major exam

periods.

The first administration occurred at the beginning of

the first class period during the second week of the

semester. This time was chosen because the class roster was

more stable than during the first week of the semester when

students were adding and dropping classes. At this

administration, participants were informed of the purpose

of the study, signed consent forms (See Appendix C), and

completed the demographic and exercise questionnaire as well

as the SPAS.

At subsequent administrations, participants completed

the SPAS at the beginning of the first class period of the

designated week and reported the average number of hours

(outside of class) they had exercised per week since the

previous administration (See Appendix D). The final

administration included two additional questions which were

completed after all other measures had been finished (See

25

Appendix E). Participants who were absent on scheduled

administrations completed the SPAS at the beginning of the

subsequent class. The teachers' attendance records were

used to gather information about overall class attendance.

Participants who did not attend class regularly (75% of the

time) were excluded from the analysis; only one respondent

was excluded based on this criterion. In fact, the modal

number of exercise classes missed over the course of the

semester was 3.

Results

Although data were initially analyzed using 5 quasi-

experimental conditions, one group was discarded for both

theoretical and statistical reasons. All classes were

selected on their introductory level status, yet one class

did not fit this designation. The cycling class required

expensive equipment, and those in the class indicated they

were experienced cyclers, suggesting a more advanced class.

Additionally, there were a limited number of men (n = 8) and

women (n = 3) who completed questionnaires at all four

administrations. Thus, for these reasons, data from cycling

classes were removed from the analyses.

Tables 1 and 2, respectively, present the correlations

and mean scores for male and female body mass, and SPAS

scores at each administration. Body mass is correlated with

SPAS only for women. The correlation matrix indicates that

26

there is no relationship between SPAS scores and exercise

time outside of class.

To address the first hypothesis, a 4 (Class

Designation) X 2 (Gender) analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

was calculated using body mass as a covariate and Time 1

SPAS scores as the dependent variable. The covariate, as

expected accounted for a significant portion of the

variance. No interaction (F (4, 93) =.56, p = .74) was

found. However, there was a main effect for gender (F (1,

93) = 4.48, p < .03), with females' scores (M = 33.85, SD =

9.99) being higher than males' (M = 29.18, SD = 7.66), and

for exercise setting (F (3, 93) = 2.68, p < .05). Scheffe

post hoc analyses of exercise setting revealed that the

racquetball group reported lower SPAS scores than the weight

training group; no other mean differences emerged.

To address the second research question, a 4 (Class

Designation) X 2 (Gender) X 4 (Number of administrations)

repeated measures analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was

conducted; body mass again was used as the covariate.

Analyses revealed no three or two-way interactions although

main effects for time, (F (3, 93) = 4.67, p < .01) and

gender, (F (1, 93) = 7.59, p < .01) emerged. There was no

main effect for exercise setting. Contrast analysis

(reverse Helmert) revealed that social physique anxiety was

higher at the beginning of the semester, and decreased

between Times 1 and 2, and again between Times 2 and 3; but

27

no differences occurred after Time 3. For gender, collapsed

across all four time periods, women's (M = 32.78, SD = 9.31)

SPAS scores were higher than the men's (M = 27.69, SD =

6.53).

Data were collapsed across exercise conditions to

determine if exercise per se, rather than any specific type

of activity, had an effect on social physique anxiety. The

resulting 2 (Exercise or Non Exercise Condition) X 2

(Gender) X 4 (Number of Administrations) MANCOVA indicated

no three-way or two-way interactions. The expected main

effects for gender (F (1, 97) = 4.49, E < .05), and time (F

(3, 97) = 3.98, E < .01) were found, though no main effect

was found for exercise condition.

Stability of the SPAS was evaluated across the four

measurement times by examining the correlations between SPAS

scores of the control group, given that their level of

social physique anxiety would not be expected to change over

the course of the semester. It was expected SPAS would

remain stable because no intervention occurred, and SPAS is

considered to be a trait-like measure. Thus, analysis of

data from the control group can address temporal stability

issues. Test-retest reliability and stability over time can

be noted by inspecting Table 3. The data suggest that the

SPAS is a relatively stable measure. These results,

however, should be considered cautiously as the control

group had only 17 participants.

28

Discussion

Despite the numerous physiological and psychological

benefits of exercise, many people still do not participate

in exercise (ACSM, 1993; Canada fitness survey, 1983).

Numerous theories have been offered to explain lack of

involvement in exercise (such as lack of time, interest,

motivation or inadequate facilities), yet some researchers

(e.g., Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989; Spink, 1992) recently

have suggested that social physique anxiety may be a useful

construct to consider when addressing exercise avoidance.

The current study was conducted to longitudinally examine

the relationship of social physique anxiety to involvement

in different exercise modalities. Because of the quasi-

experimental nature of this research, it was expected that

the groups (swimming, racquetball, weight training, and

control) would differ on initial levels of SPA. Results

indicated that the groups did differ but not in the

hypothesized direction. Participants in the racquetball

condition had lower SPA than those in weight training; no

other between group differences were found.

One possible explanation for the differences in initial

levels of social physique anxiety may be found in the actual

content of the course work for each class. As results

indicated, the only difference in social physique anxiety at

Time 1 was that students in racquetball classes had

significantly less anxiety than students in weight training

29

classes. The racquetball class, in particular, focused more

on skill development than aerobic activity. Students spent

a great deal of course time listening to instructions,

observing demonstrations, and then practicing specific

skills. Pappas, Golin, and Meyer (1990) demonstrated that a

racquetball group received less aerobic benefit and more

instruction than an aerobic class, and suggested that a

self-selection process might explain differences in these

groups. Those who selected racquetball may have done so to

learn the skill rather than for the aerobic or physique

changing benefits.

Of all classes, participation in weight training seemed

the most likely to actually change one's physique as

research has demonstrated that weight training interventions

have been particularly effective in that regard (Melnick &

Mookerjee, 1991; Tucker & Mortell, 1993). In addition, body

shape satisfaction has been found to be significantly

related to social physique anxiety (r = .78; Hart, Leary &

Rejeski, 1989). Taken together, these results suggest that

individuals who chose weight lifting classes may have been

most dissatisfied with their bodies and, relatedly, had

higher anxiety about how they looked. Given these findings,

it is consistent that the weight training class reported the

highest SPA scores.

It was hypothesized that, at Time 1, the swimming class

would have the lowest physique anxiety because they chose to

30

wear a bathing suit in a social setting. The assumption was

that choosing to wear revealing clothing would suggest low

physique anxiety. Swimming, however, was not statistically

different from any of the other classes. Thus, wearing a

bathing suit in public may be more likely to cause anxiety

for some people, but not for everyone. Markee, Carey, and

Pedersen (1990) found that less clothing was related to

lesser body satisfaction. There are reasonable explanations

for swimmers having either high or low physique anxiety: the

mechanisms of social physique anxiety in this group remains

unclear.

In regard to the second hypothesis (the longitudinal

effects of exercise, social physique anxiety, and gender),

social physique anxiety did, in fact, decrease over time for

the combined group of exercise classes and controls. Social

physique anxiety was the highest at the beginning of the

semester and decreased until Time 3, when it appeared to

reach a plateau. Because no further data were gathered, the

implications of the equality between Times 3 and 4 remain

unclear. The "plateau" may have occurred because of a floor

effect, indicating that social physique anxiety may be

unlikely to drop below a certain point, or that the

magnitude of change decreases after a certain point.

This possible explanation of the plateau effect should

be considered in relation to other SPAS research with

college populations. No previous research has been

31

conducted with this population longitudinally, although Time

1 means of this study were comparable to previous research.

Because no research of this type has been conducted

previously, additional research needs to be done to

determine which explanation is valid. It is important to

consider the main effect found in the current study of SPA

decreasing over time. This decrease resulted in lower

scores than have been previously reported (See Table 4). By

Time 4, means for both men and women were lower than have

been found in prior research. Thus, SPA can change over

time, although the extent of the decrease in SPA is not yet

clear. If there is a level below which SPA is unlikely to

go (a floor), than there are implications for intervention.

It may be that there is a meaningful cut-off point below

which decreases in physique anxiety can not be changed due

to exercise behavior. This explanation suggests that if a

floor exists, the interventions may only be effective up to

a certain point.

In a related vein, it is important to consider the

mechanisms that may be responsible for the decrease in SPA

revealed in this study. Eklund and Crawford (1994)

suggested the possibility that individuals may be somewhat

desensitized to self-presentational concerns through

exposure to the exercise setting, and this exposure effect

may be partially responsible for the decrease in anxiety.

The treatment of choice for many types of anxieties is

32

either imaginal or in vivo exposure, and the effectiveness

of these strategies has been well documented (e.g., Barlow,

1988; Linden, 1981). SPA is anxiety related to perceived

evaluation by others. Consistent experiences with people in

which negative evaluational outcomes do not occur would be

likely to decrease their fear of negative evaluations by

others. Participants in each condition of the current study

were consistently exposed to the same group of people, thus

exposure seems to be a viable explanation for the physique

anxiety decrease.

Another possible explanation for the reduction in

social physique anxiety over time may be an effect of the

time of year data were collected. In September, when data

collection began, people wear lighter clothing outside of

class than they do when the weather gets cold, typically

around late October or early November (Time 3). Markee,

Carey, and Pedersen (1990) found that women's body

satisfaction increased positively relative to the amount of

clothes they were wearing. They suggested that clothing

people wear may bring peoples' view of their bodies closer

to their perception of the norm. Thus, it is possible that

lowered social physique anxiety occurred in part as a

function of change in overall body satisfaction because of

increased clothing. Additional research needs to be

conducted to investigate this potential time of year effect.

Assuming time of year is important, the reverse trend would

33

be expected from January to May, that is, anxiety would

increase as the weather warms and amount of clothing worn

decreases.

Alternatively, participation in exercise programs may

effectively decrease social physique anxiety. In this study

low statistical power confounded this explanation. Despite

selecting an exercise measure used in previous SPAS research

(Crawford & Eklund, 1994), it did not provide meaningful

information in this study. When data were collapsed across

exercise conditions and compared with the control group, no

main effect for exercise was found. When the means were

examined, however, differences existed in the hypothesized

direction (see Figure 1). The women in the control group

have an oscillating SPAS score, but the women in the

exercise condition's SPAS seems to consistently decrease

over time. For men, both groups decreased in social

physique anxiety over time (see Figure 2). This study

lacked the power to detect a possible difference that did

exist (with power for this interaction calculated to be

.11). Low power made the results of the current research

more difficult to interpret. In summary, decreasing

physique anxiety over time may be an exposure effect, an

exercise effect, a time of year effect, or some interaction

of the three. As mentioned previously, additional

controlled studies will need to be conducted to determine

the viability of each explanation.

34

As expected, women scored higher than men at the

beginning of the study, as well as when SPA scores were

collapsed over time. Only one previous study used the

Social Physique Anxiety Scale with both males and females.

Hart, Leary and Rejeski (1989) found that women scored

higher on this scale than did men. This finding makes sense

when one considers that the prevalence of clinical-level

anxiety is greater in women: DSM-IV (APA, 1994) indicates

there is a 3:2 ratio. In addition, body mass was correlated

with social physique anxiety only for women, with greater

body mass being associated with higher levels of anxiety.

Sociocultural theory suggests that looks are highly valued

in women and the media and other cultural influences exert

pressure to conform with physical ideals, especially for

women (Nemeroff, Stein, Diehl, & Smilack, 1994; Striegel-

Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). When individuals become

overly concerned about their appearance, social anxiety

seems a probable outcome (Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, &

Rodin, 1993). As social physique anxiety is a special

category of social anxiety, the sociocultural influence

seems to be significant.

Limitations

The current study was limited by a number of

methodological reasons. First, the quasi-experimental

design allowed neither for random assignment of subjects to

35

conditions, nor for control of what went on during class

time. The lack of random assignment precludes the ability

to make causal statements about the effects of different

types of activity on social physique anxiety. Although

groups were comparable on a number of demographic measures,

it was impossible to consider every potential confound.

Additionally, the level of activity and participation

was highly variable across days and treatment conditions.

The skills class (racquetball) had a much greater

educational component than did the other activity classes.

Another possible confound was the difference between course

content and course description for the weight training

class. It was anticipated that the weight training class

would consist of a brief aerobic warmup followed by weight

training. In fact, the students were able to choose to use

either or both the aerobic or anaerobic equipment (nautilus

type machines).

A second limitation concerned the relatively small

number of subjects in each condition who completed all four

administrations. For example there were only 7 male

swimmers and 7 female racquetball players. Although optimal

subject number is usually indicated by effect size and

power, a random survey of 122 treatment outcome studies

found the mean number of subjects per cell to be 40 (Lipsey,

1985). The small sample size decreased the power to detect

an actual effect, thus increasing the likelihood of Type II

36

error. Although at Time 1 there were ample subjects per

cell, the strikingly high attrition rate reduced this number

considerably. As noted in the results, over 150 of the

original 271 participants did not complete all

administrations. Although our analysis suggests that, on

demographic data, those who failed to complete the study

were not different from those who did, we again note the

limitation of relying solely on demographics to identify

such potential differences.

Finally, as was considered in the conceptualization of

this project, exercise outside of class would confound the

quasi-experimental manipulation. Our attempt to measure

exercise and control for this variable, however, was not

effective. The self-report measure of the total number of

minutes and hours exercised outside of class was unreliable,

resulting in a highly variable statistic which did not

correlate with SPAS. In general, historical self-report

measures are suspect because of the "perils of retrospective

introspection": individuals may over- or under-report for a

variety of reasons (Brewer, Van Raalte, Linder, & Van

Raalte, 1991, p. 227). For example, participants in the

current study may have had difficulty accurately remembering

their behaviors. Furthermore, participants may have felt

pressure to report exercise participation and thus

misrepresented the actual extent of their participation.

Finally, this self-report measure of out of class exercise

37

did not allow for determination of exercise intensity.

Thus, a person walking slowly for 4 minutes would be equated

with someone who is sprinting for the same amount of time.

Directions for Future Research

Because of the dearth of studies examining social

physique anxiety, directions for future research are many

and varied. Most immediately, it would be useful to

experimentally study the effects of exercise on SPA. This

approach offers the ability to more accurately manipulate

the intervention variables, exercises, and to randomly

assign participants to conditions. It would be especially

important to control for (or limit) exercise outside the

research setting, as exercise outside may confound the

effect.

Results of this study indicate that SPA decreased over

time until the 12th week of intervention, when it appeared

to plateau. Thus, it will be important to determine the

exact temporal relationship between SPA and exercise

involvement. When conducting such research it will also be

important to determine if repeated administration of the

scale results in lower scores without any intervention

(i.e., if change may be a result of demand characteristics).

Finally, sociocultural theory and the current

understanding of eating disorders suggest that SPA may play

a role in the relations among body image, social anxiety,

and eating disorders. Future research should examine the

38

relation between SPAS and eating disorders as well as the

role SPA may play in predicting eating disordered behavior.

Conclusions

Results of this investigation indicate that social

physique anxiety decreased over time and that people who

self-select different types of exercise have different

initial levels of social physique anxiety. In addition,

this study supports the findings of previous studies which

indicated that women generally are more physique-anxious

than are men. The suggestion that people have specific

exercise preferences and these preferences may be related to

physique anxiety has implications for examining physique

anxiety in relation to type of exercise setting (e.g.,

health clubs, tennis centers, etc.).

Over the long term, the SPAS may be identified as one

of many screening devices for people who may not exercise

because of physique anxiety. People with high physique

anxiety may overcome their anxiety in a group of familiar

people. Intervention may include early group meetings so

that exposure to the group will decrease the anxiety related

to exercise. Once social physique anxiety has been

decreased by participation in the intervention group

setting, generalization and maintenance issues can be

addressed.

Overall, social physique anxiety continues to

demonstrate an important role in self-presentation concerns.

39

Despite the limitation^ ol: the current research, results

suggest that social physique anxiety can be decreased, and

future research should pursue a more thorough understanding

of the mechanisms of this change.

40

APPENDIX A

SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY SCALE

41

42

S P A S

For each i tem, p lease ind icate the degree to w h i c h the s ta tement is character i s t ic or true of you.

Not at ail Slightly Moderately Very Extremely

1. I am comfor tab le with the appea rance of my

phys ique/ f igure

2. I would never worry about wea r ing clothes that

might make me look too thin or overweigh t

3. I wish I wasn ' t so upt ight about my phys ique / f igure

4. The re are t imes when I a m bo the red by thoughts that

o ther people arc eva lua t ing my weight or muscula r

deve lopment negat ively

5. W h e n I look in the mirror I feel good about my

phys ique/ f igure

6 . Unattract ive feature of my phys ique / f igure make me

ne rvous in certain social se t t ings

7. In the presence of o thers , I feel apprehens ive about

my physique/f igure

8. I a m comfor tab le with how fit my body appears to

o thers

9. It would make me u n c o m f o r t a b l e to k n o w others

were e \ a lua t ing my phys ique / f igu re

10. W h e n it c o m e s to d i sp lay ing my physique to o thers .

I a m a shy person

11. I usually feel re laxed w h e n it is obv ious that o thers

are looking at my phys ique / f igu re

12. W h e n in a bathing suit , 1 o f t en feel nervous about

the shape of my body

Please check to m a k e certa in that you have answered all 12 of the quest ions . T h a n k you.

APPENDIX B

DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE

43

44

Demographic Questionnaire

Please write your social security number here. - -

If you are currently enrolled in a physical education class, please indicate the class.

What is your age? (years)

What is your gender? (Please Circle) l=Male 2=Female

What is your class standing? (Please circle number) l=Freshman 2=Sophomore 3=Junior 4=Senior 5=Other

Do you currently have a bachelors degree? (Please circle) l=Yes 2=No If yes, please indicate the year the degree was awarded:

What is your major, or intended major?

What is your mother's highest level of education? (Please circle number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20+

grade school middle high school college graduate school school

What is your father's highest level of education? (Please circle number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20+

grade school middle high school college graduate school school

What is your racial/ethnic background? (Please circle number) l=Caucasian 2=African American 3=Hispanic 4=Asian American 5=Native American 6=Other

What is your yearly personal income? That is the money you earn yourself or college loans that you yourself take out, not money from your family. (Circle number)

0=0-$9,999 1=$ 10,000-$ 19.999 2=$20,000-$29,000 3=$30,000-539,000 4=$40,000 or more

What is your yearly family income? That is the combined income of you and your spouse (if you are married) or your partner. Or the income of your parents if they support you. If you are unsure, please estimate. (Please circle number)

0=$ 10,000-519,999 I =$20,000-529,000 2=530,000-549,000 3=550,000-569,000 4=$70,0G0 or more

What is your current weight? pounds

What is your height? feet inches

What is your idea! weight?

How comfortable do you feel when your physique/figure is being evaluated? (Please place an X on the line which best indicates your feelings)

Uncomfortable Comfortable

45

Demographic Questionnaire-2

You consider yourself to be a athlete (Please circle) l=Elite 2=lntercollegiate 3=Recreational 4=Weekend 5=Not an athlete

Over the last four weeks, what is the average number of hours and minutes per week have you spent exercising? This includes anythtng above and beyond the requirements of everyday living such as jogging, weight lifting, aerobics, walking for exercise, etc. Please round to the nearest 15 minutes.

hours minutes

When you have exercised over the last four weeks, what type of exercise have you primarily participated in? Please place a I by the most frequent, and a 2 by the second most frequent:

jogging walking bicycling swimming golf tennis racquetball badminton squash fencing aerobics wt lifting dance rollerblading yoga basketball volleyball softball soccer other

On the average, what do you perceive your rate of exertion to be on a scale of 1 (not much exertion) to 10 (maximum exertion)?

Compared to the usual amount you exercised in the past six months, how much do you do now? (Please circle) l=Much more 2=Somewhat more 3=About the same 4=Somewhat less 5=Much less

How often do you spend at least five (5) minutes stretching? (Please circle) l=Twice a day or more 2= Once a day 3=Daily 4=Weekly 5=Less than once a week

How often do you spontaneously stretch one or more joints in the context of another activity (e.g. class)? 1 =Twice a day or more 2= Once a day 3=Daily 4=Weekly 5=Less than once a week

If you are a Varsity athlete, what team are you a member of?

Is there any physical reason keeping you from exercise? (Please circle) l=Yes 2=No If yes, please explain:

APPENDIX C

INFORMED CONSENT

46

47

Informed Consent for the Study of Students in Kinesiology Classes

1/ agree to participate in the study of the effects of exercise. The information from this study will be used to further understand people's attitudes toward exercise participation. I understand that I will fill out questionnaires on four occasions during class over the course of the semester. The questionnaires will concern general information about me as well as my experiences in relation to my exercise and physical appearance. I further understand and consent to allowing the investigator to review my attendance record for this class, and this class only.

I understand there is minimal risk and/or discomfort involved with this study and that I am free to withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty. I understand that I am to complete the three follow-up questionnaires over the course of the semester. If I have any questions or problems that arise in connection with my participation in this study, I should contact Nancy Diehl, the principal investigator, or Trent A. Petrie, Ph.D., the research supervisor at the Department of Psychology at (817) 565-4718.

In addition to signing and returning a copy of the Informed Consent, I have received a copy for my records.

(Signature of Participant) (Today's Date)

APPENDIX D

LATER DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRES

48

49

Demographic Questionnaire for Times 2, 3, and 4

What is your current weight? pounds

What is your height? feet inches

What is your ideal weight? pounds

Since the last time you filled out this questionnaire, what is the average number of hours and minutes per week have you spent exercising? This includes anything you do for exercise above and beyond the requirements of everyday living such as jogging, weight lifting, aerobics, walking specifically for exercise, etc. Please round to the nearest 15 minutes.

hours minutes

APPENDIX E

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AT TIME 4

50

51

Additional Questions asked at Time 4

Compared to the beginning of the semester, how comfortable do you currently feel when your

physique is being evaluated?

Currently more Currently, more negative positive

no change

Is there any information you feel is missing from this study? If so, please add your own

comments below:

Thank you very much for your participation in this project.

APPENDIX F

TABLES

52

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57

Table 5

Means and Standard Deviations of SPAS scores (bv gender)

Time i SPAS Time 2 SPAS Time ; 1 SFAS T i rr #2. A C D i C

M SD M SD M M SD

Control

Hale 3 3 . 0 8 . 8 3 1 . 7 1 0 . 0 3 0 . 2 7 . 2 2 9 . 8 6 . 2 Female 3 3 . 4 7 . 6 34 . 4 7 . 7 3 3 . 1 8 . 2 3 4 . 1 8 . 2 Total 3 2 . 2 7 . 8 3 2 . 5 8 . 4 3 2 . 1 7 . 8 3 2 . 6 7 . 7

Racquetball

Male 2 6 . 4 6 . 4 2 6 . 4 5 . 8 2 6 . 4 6 . 0 2 5 . 8 5 . 0 Female 2 8 . 0 1 2 . 4 2 7 . 4 1 0 . 6 2 8 . 9 1 0 . 7 2 6 . 0 1 2 . 4

Total 2 6 . 9 8 . 4 2 6 . 7 7 . 3 2 7 . 1 7 . 6 2 5 . 8 7 . 7

Weight Training

. Male 3 0 . 8 7 . 7 3 0 . 4 7 . 2 2 6 . 8 8 . 5 2 6 . 4 6 . 6

Fema1e 3 7 . 5 1 0 . 9 3 5 . 3 1 0 . 1 3 4 . 2 1 1 . 3 3 3 . 8 1 2 . 0

Total 3 4 . 1 9 . 9 3 2 . 8 9 . 0 3 0 . 2 9 . 9 3 0 . 3 1 0 . 8

Swimming

Male 2 7 . 4 8 . 1 2 4 . 0 6 . 3 2 4 . 7 7 / 5 2 5 . 4 8 . 9

Female 3 2 . 4 8 . 2 3 2 . 0 8 . 0 3 1 . 2 7 . 5 3 0 . 4 8 . 4

Total 3 0 . 9 8 . 3 2 9 . 6 8 . 3 2 9 . 2 7 . 9 2 8 . 9 8 . 6

Combined

Male 2 8 . 6 7 . 4 2 7 . 9 6 . 9 2 6 . 1 6 . 4 2 6 . 2 7 . y

Female 3 4 . 0 1 0 . 6 3 2 . 7 9 . 6 3 2 . 2 9 . 8 3 1 . 4 1 0 . 9 -

Total 3 1 . 3 9 . 5 3 0 . 3 8 . 6 2 9 . 1 8 . 8 2 8 . 7 9 . 5

Note; Combined scores are the combined scores of the exercise conditions including

racquetball, weight training and swimming.

APPENDIX G

GRAPHS

58

Longitudinal SPAS Scores of Men in an Exercise versus a Control Group

O O <o </> < GL </>

34 i

32 -

30

Control group Exercise Group

1 2 3 4

Administration time (Each number is a 4 week increment)

Longitudinal SPAS Scores of Women in an Exercise versus a Control Group

O o (ft

</>

< CL CO

35 -i

34 -

33 -

32

31

Control group Exercise Group

nr 2

n r 4

Administration time (Each number is a 4 week increment)

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