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Mridang

A view of the Siddha Yoga drumfrom the perspective of the Indian

music system

——

Agostino De Marco

November 2000

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Contents

1 A brief Introduction to Indian music 1

1.1 Mythological origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 The early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.4 The last two centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and dance . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Raga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani Sangeet . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) . . . . . . 13

1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 The Siddha Yoga drum 17

2.1 The mridang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.2 The drum in the context of indian music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.3 Relation between pakhawaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian

mridangam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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2.3.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.3.2 Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.3.3 Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3.4 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 Getting started 29

3.1 Acquiring a mridang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2 Basic care and tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.3 Sitting position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4 Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Basic strokes 37

4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.1.1 The right hand open stroke Na (na;a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.1.2 The left hand open stroke Gi (;�a;ga) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.1.3 The left hand closed stroke Ka (k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.1.4 The right hand closed stroke Te (.tea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.1.5 The right hand closed stroke Ti (;�a;ta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.1.6 The bol TiT. a (;�a;taf) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.1.7 The right hand open stroke Tin (;�a;tMa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.1.8 The right hand open stroke Tun (tMua) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.2 Combined strokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.2.1 The bol Dha (;Da;a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.2.2 The bol Dhin (;�a;DMa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.2.3 The bol Kha (Ka) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2.4 The bol Dhi (;�a;Da) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2.5 The bol Dhe (;Dea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2.6 The bol Dhun (;DMua) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

CONTENTS iii

4.2.7 The bol Khun (KMua) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.3 Drum notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.4 Exercices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 Advanced material 55

5.1 Other bols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.1.1 The right hand closed stroke Ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.1.2 The right hand open stroke Dı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.1.3 The right hand closed stroke Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.1.4 The pakhawaj style Ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1.5 The left hand closed stroke bol Ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1.6 The bol Dhak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1.7 The bol TeRiKıT. a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.2 Exercices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6 The North Indian rhythmic system 61

6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.1.1 Tal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.1.2 Matra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6.1.3 Vibhag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6.1.4 Avartan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6.1.5 Sam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.1.6 Khalı . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.1.7 The bols as a system of mnemonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.1.8 Lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.2.1 T. heka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

6.2.2 Prakar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

6.2.3 Tihai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

November 2000 [email protected]

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6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7 The Kaherawa Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 81

7.1 The basic t.heka and his role in a nama san. kırtana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.2 Slow, medium, fast thekas (prakars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.3 Additional variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.4 Cadential material: tihais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.5 Other phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.6 The bhajan theka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

8 The Dadra Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 83

8.1 The basic t.heka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

8.2 Slow, medium, fast prakars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

8.3 Tihais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

9 Examples of accompanyment 85

9.1 Accompanying Jyota se Jyota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.2 Accompanying Gurudeva Amara Pyara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.3 Accompanying Sadguru Ki Arati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.4 Accompanying a nama sankirtana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.4.1 Starting a chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.4.2 Speeding up a chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.4.3 Skipping to half tempo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.4.4 Concluding a chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.5 The role of cymbals and kartal in a chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

A That – the indian modes 87

A.1 Swar – the notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

A.2 Saptak – the scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

A.3 The ten Thats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90


CONTENTS v

B Details on drum construction 93

B.1 The treble head (pudi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

B.1.1 Basic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

B.1.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

B.1.3 Quality of gajara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

B.1.4 The syhai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

B.1.5 Quality of syhai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

C A list of suppliers of Indian instruments 105


Chapter 1

A brief Introduction to Indian music

The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the world. The origins

of this system go back to the Vedas. Many different legends have grown up concerning the

origins and development of Indian classical music. Such legends show the importance that

music has to Indian culture.

Modern historical and cultural research has also given a good perspective on the field,

showing that Indian music has developed within a very complex interaction between different

peoples of different races and cultures. It appears that the ethnic diversity of present day

India has been there from the earliest of times.

The basis for Indian music is sangeet. Sangeet is a combination of three artforms: vocal

music, instrumental music and dance. Although these three artforms were originally derived

from the single field of stagecraft (see section 1.3), today these three forms have differentiated

into complex and highly refined individual artforms.

The present system of Indian music is based upon two important pillars: raga (or rag)

and tala (or tal). Raga is the melodic form while tala is the rhythmic. Raga may be roughly

equated with the Western term “mode” or “scale”. There is a system of seven notes which

are arranged in a means not unlike Western scales. However when a westerner looks closely

he sees that it is quite different what he is familiar with (see more in section 1.6).

Tala (rhythmic forms) are also quite developed. Many common rhythmic patterns exist.

They revolve around repeating patterns of beats. Tala is equivalent to the Western concept

of rhythm. Most pieces of Indian music, whether a long improvisation or a devotional song,

1

2 A brief Introduction to Indian music

have a rhythmic structure, i.e. a plan of organized beats that the players use as a foundation.

Most of Siddha Yoga music is composed in simple groups of six, eight, nine, twelve, or sixteen

beats. But given its ancient and divine origins, one should not be surprised to learn that the

Indian system of rhythm frequently uses such sophisticated and complex patterns in groups

of seven, ten, or fourteen.

The interpretation of rag and tal is not the same all over India. Today there are two

major traditions, or systems, of music. There is the North Indian (see section 1.7), and the

South Indian tradition (see section 1.8). The North Indian tradition is known as Hindustani

sangeet and the south Indian is called Carnatic sangeet. Both systems are fundamentally

similar but differ in nomenclature and performance practice. In Siddha Yoga music is fol-

lowed the Hindustani system.

Many musical instruments are peculiar to India. The most famous are the sitar and

tabla. However there are many more that the average person may not be familiar with. All

of this makes up the complex and exciting field of Indian classical music. Its understanding

easily consumes an entire lifetime.

1.1 Mythological origins

By looking at mythology one can really see the significance that Indian music (sangeet) has

to Indian society. This is illustrated in the story concerning its origin. In the Nat.ya Sastra,

which is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world (circa 2nd century B.C.), the

author Bharata writes:

Once, a long time ago, during the transitional period between two Ages it so happened

that people took to uncivilised ways, were ruled by lust and greed, behaved in angry

and jealous ways with each other and not only gods but demons, evil spirits, yakshas

and and such like others swarmed over the earth. Seeing this plight, Indra and other

gods approached god Brahma and requested him to give the people a toy (Kridaniyaka),

but one which could not only be seen but heard and this should turn out a diversion

(so that people gave up their bad ways)


1.2 Historical development 3

Although it was decided to give the celestial art of sangeet to mankind, a suitable human

had to be found who was capable of receiving this gift. Sangeet had always been in the realm

of the demigods (gandharva). A super–human of superior spiritual ability was required to

convey this celestial artform to the world of man. It fell upon the great sage Narada to

be the first mortal recipient of this divine art. Through Narada, we are indebted for the

presence of classical music.

1.2 Historical development

There are many important events in the history of Indian music. These milestones show the

development of musical thought from early history to the present day.

1.2.1 The early history

The early history of Indian music may be explained by the Indo–European theory. According

to this theory, there was a culture, or group of cultures who were so successful that they

spread throughout Europe and parts of Asia. Although no one knows where they came from,

present thought tends to place their origins somewhere in Eurasia, either north of the Black

sea or north of the Caspian. Within this family there are several major groups. Indo–Aryan

is a group which has special significance for India because this is the language and culture

which generated the Vedas and other classical texts of ancient India.

The classical music of India is said to have its roots in this culture. The connection

between Indo–European expansion and Indian music may be seen in mythology. Mythol-

ogy refers to music being brought to the people of India from a place of celestial beings.

This mythical land (Gandharva Desh) is usually equated with heaven. However, some are

of the opinion that this mythical land could actually be Kandahar in what is the modern

Afghanistan. Therefore, the myths of music being given to the world by the celestial be-

ings (gandharva) may actually represent a cultural connection with this ancient Indo–Aryan

homeland.

Further evidence may be seen in musical structure. In the first few centuries B.C.,



Indian music was based upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek

music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same

process of modulation that was found in ancient Greek music.

The link to Sanskrit is another strong indication of Indo–European roots. Many of the

earliest texts were written in Sanskrit. It is also generally believed that classical music is

derived from the Samaveda (a part of the Vedas).

The nature of music in prehistoric India may be obscure but the picture begins to become

clear in the first few centuries B.C.. Bharata’s Nat.ya Sastra (circa 200 B.C.), provides a

detailed account of stagecraft in that period. Here we find mention of seven shuddha jati

(pure modes) and eleven mixed jatis (modal forms not produced by simple modulation).

There is also a very detailed discussion of the musical instruments of the time.

The first millennium provides us with several texts which show the evolution of Indian

music. The Brihaddeshi written by Matanga (circa 700 A.D.) is very important. It is in this

work that we first find the word “rag” mentioned. Another important text is the Sangeet

Ratnakar by Sharangdev. This work, written around the thirteenth century, gives extensive

commentaries about numerous musical styles that existed at that time.

1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru

Perhaps one of the most significant milestones in the development of Indian music was the

life of Amir Khusru (born circa 1253, died 1325). He was a poet–musician who served at the

court of Sultan Allaudin Khilji (1296–1316).

There is a tendency among Indians to attribute the development of almost everything

to him. He is erroneously referred to as the inventor of instruments like the sitar and tabla

and of numerous musical forms which did not develop until many centuries after his death.

Although the extent of his contribution to Indian music is more legendary than factual,

he nevertheless symbolizes a crucial turning point in the development of Indian music. Amir

Khusru is an icon representing a growing Persian influence on the music. This influence was

felt to a greater extent in the North than in the South. The consequence of this differing

degree of influence ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of Indian music into two distinct


1.2 Historical development 5

systems: the Hindustani sangeet of the North (see section 1.7), and the Carnatic sangeet of

the South (see section 1.8).

1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen

The musical career of Tansen is another landmark in the development of Indian music. He

is significant because he symbolizes the maturing of the north Indian system as a distinct

entity from south Indian music.

Figure 1.1: Tansen (16th century)

Tansen is considered to be one of the greatest musicians that ever lived. He was the

court musician of the famous Mogul Emperor Akbar (16th century). He was so highly valued

in the court that he was called one of the “Nine Jewels” in his court. It is in the period

of Tansen that the famous catalogue of musical instruments known as Ain–i–Akbari, was

compiled by Abul Fazi for the Emperor Akbar.

The details of Tansen’s life are incomplete. He was born in a Hindu community and had

his musical training under his guru Swami Haridas. He then went to the court of the Raja

Ram Baghela, a great patron of the arts. From there he migrated to the court of Akbar.

It is said that Tansen could work miracles with his singing. This is called nada siddhi in

Sanskrit. He is supposed to have acquired such supernatural abilities through the devotion



for his guru. It is said that on occasion he could create rain by singing the monsoon raga

Megh Malhar. It is also said that he could create fire by singing raga Dipak.

Many ragas are ascribed to Tansen. Such as Mian ki Malhar, Mian ki Todi and Darbari

Kanada are the most famous. Today the followers of his style are said to belong to the Senia

Gharana (see more on gharanas, music traditions, in section 6.3).

1.2.4 The last two centuries

The eighteenth century marks the birth of many of the musical forms that we think of

today. Dadra, kheyal, thumri and a host of other forms are traceable to this period.

The early part of the 20th century brings the most recent revolution in north Indian

music. This is provided by two people: V. N. Bhatkhande and V. D. Paluskar. These two

men revolutionized the concept of Indian music. Paluskar is responsible for the introduction

of the first music colleges while Bhatkhande is responsible for the introduction of an organized

system which reflects current performance practice. Both men are also responsible for the

development and popularization of a modern musical notation.

1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and

dance

Sangeet is a word which doesn’t really translate into English. In its most general sense it is

considered synonymous with the term “music”; however it is actually a threefold artform of

vocal music, instrumental music, and dance.

Since classical dance is also a component, it is not strictly synonymous to the Western

term “music”. There is a historical reason why sangeet is composed of these three artforms.

In the Vedic and post Vedic period it was customary to perform mythological dramas. These

dramas used dancers to mime the story, instrumentalist to play the musical accompaniment,

and vocalist to tell and sing the story.

There is a standard terminology whenever one wishes to be specific. Dance is refered

to as nritya, vocal is refered to as gayaki, and instrumental is known as vadhya sangeet.


1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music 7

Figure 1.2: The statue of a dancer

1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music

Classical music in India is considered more than mere entertainment; it is a moral and

spiritual redeemer. Therefore, the divine qualities inherent in the artform imply certain

prerequisites; key among them are guru, vinaya and sadhana, i.e. teacher, humility, and

discipline.

The music guru, or teacher, is the most important prerequisite in traditional musical

pedagogy. Music is said to be a guru mukha–vidhya (i.e., knowledge which must come

from a teacher). This is considered the highest form of knowledge. Traditional pedagogy

is based upon the transfer of knowledge from the teacher (guru) to the disciple (shishya) in

an unbroken tradition (parampara). The tradition of guru–shishya–parampara extends back

countless millennia.

The second prerequisite is vinaya (humility). This also reflects the divine origins of the

artform. Classical music is said to be a worship that involves both the listener and the artist

alike. Any negative emotions such as arrogance (abhiman) becomes an impediment. This is



an impediment from both the divine aspect as well as a matter of simple pedagogy (e.g., ”If

one thinks he already knows everything, then what is there to learn?”)

The final prerequisite for a student of classical music is sadhana, or discipline and

practice. The divine origins of the artform require that the student “be prepared” to be a

recipient of this knowledge.

1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods

The music of India presents a main difference with respect to the Western music: Indian

music is melodic only. When we hear Indian music, we hear a melody played against a drone,

(usually given by a stringed instrument known as tamboura, see fig. 1.3) which is tuned to a

tonic (or home key) that never shifts throughout the piece, no matter how long it is. This is

quite different from what can be heard in a Western music piece; a melody played against a

moving series of accompanying chords with the possibility of the home key shifting several

times. The concept of a fixed key in Indian music gives the music a focus in a way that

allows the listener and player to immerse themselves deeply in the feeling of the one key. It

also means that the interest and excitement of the music will be generated by the melody,

rhythm, or words, not the underlying harmonies or modulating keys.

(a) (b) Characteristic decorations

Figure 1.3: The tamboura – the instrument giving the drone

In Indian musical thought it is said that every note represents a different emotion or

feeling, so when some notes are grouped together in a specific way, a correspondig association


1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Raga 9

is conjured up. The ancient scriptures describe nine fundamental emotions from which all

complex emotions may be produced. Just as all hues may be produced by mixing the three

primary colours, so too, all emotions are said to be derived from these principal emotions.

They are called nava rasa and are shown in table 1.1 below. These emotions form the

aesthetic foundation for sangeet.

Shringar LoveHasya ComicKaruna SadnessRaudra FuriousVeera HeroicBhayanak TerribleVibhats DisgustingAdbhuta WondermentShanta Peace

Table 1.1: The Nine Moods (Nava Rasa)

Music requires an acoustic vehicle to convey these emotions. This acoustic vehicle is

known as raga. Raga may be thought of as the melodic foundation upon which classical

Indian music is based. During the last few centuries it was customary to anthropomorphize

the raga in the form of gandharvas (demigods) and apsaras (celestial nymphs).

The divine quality of music contained in the system of ragas is perhaps best illustrated

in nad siddhi. This is the ability to perform miracles by singing or playing certain ragas.

The most famous miracle–working musician was Tansen (see section 1.2.3).

1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to Raga

The raga is the most important concept that anyone involved in listening or playing Indian

music should understand. The Hindi/Urdu word “rag” is derived from the Sanskrit raga

which means “colour”, or “passion”. It is linked to the Sanskrit word ranj which means “to

colour”. Therefore ragmay be thought of as an acoustic method of colouring the mind and



the heart of the listener with an emotion. There are hundreds of ragas in Hindustani and

Carnatic music, each with particular connotations such as steadfastness, devotion, majesty,

stillness, etc.

Figure 1.4: A Ragmala painting depicting a Ragini

This is fine as a general concept but what is it musically? It is not a tune, melody,

scale, mode, or any concept for which an English word exists. It is instead a combination of

different characteristics which define the rag. It is important to understand that a raga is

not exactly a scale, for there are different ragas that have the same scale. What differentiates

one from the other is the way the notes are used.

The characteristics of a raga are:

• There must be the notes of the rag. They are called the swar. This concept is similar

to the Western solfege.

• There must also be a modal structure. This is called that in North Indian music and

mela in Carnatic music.

• There is also the jati, i.e. is the number of notes used in the rag.


1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani Sangeet 11

• There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana /

avarohana.

• Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of signifi-

cance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi (or

King) and samavadi (or Queen).

• There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad or

swarup.

In addition to the main characteristics of rag, there are some other less important ones.

For instance ragas have traditionally been attributed to particular times of the day. They

have also been anthropomorphized into families of male and female rags: raga, ragini (see

fig. 1.4), putra raga, etc.

Over the centuries raga have been ascribed to certain demigods. A natural consequence

of such anthropomorphism is that there be a familial relationship between them. Therefore,

in the past few centuries there arose a complicated system of rags (male rags), raginis (female

rags), putra rags (sons of rags), etc. This was the basis for a system of classification before

the advent of modern musicology. Today the that, i.e. the indian system of modes, is the

basis for the modern classification of raga(see more in appendix A).

1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani

Sangeet

The north Indian system of music is known as Hindustani Sangeet. It covers an area that

extends roughly from Bangladesh through northern and central India into Pakistan and as far

as Afghanistan. The usual interpretation states that the Hindustani system may be thought

of as a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and Persian performance practice.

The advent of Islamic rule over northern India caused the musicians to seek patronage in

the courts of the new rulers. These rulers, often of foreign extraction, had strong cultural and

religious sentiments focused outside of India; yet they lived in, and administered kingdoms



Figure 1.5: The geography of musical styles in India

which retained their traditional Hindu culture. Several centuries of this arrangement caused

the Hindu music to absorb musical influences from the Islamic world, primarily greater

Persia.

There are a number of musical instruments that we associate with Hindustani Sangeet.

The most famous is the sitar and tabla. Other less well known instruments are the sarod,

sarangi and a host of others. Some of the major vocal forms associated with Hindustani

Sangeet are the kheyal, gazal, and thumri. Other styles which are also important are the

dhrupad, dhammar, and tarana. This is just a small sampling for there are many other vocal

styles.

Most of the concepts mentioned here and in next chapters are from the Hindustani

sangeet since this is the system adopted in Siddha Yoga music.


1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) 13

Figure 1.6: A veena player

1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic

Sangeet (an outline)

Carnatic Sangeet, or also Karnatik Sangit, is the south Indian system of music. It has a rich

history and a very sophisticated theoretical system. South Indian performers and composers

have, gained a world class reputation by singing and playing instruments such as veena

(vina), gottuvadyam, violin, and mridangam.

In the West, Carnatic Sangeet is not as well known as Hindustani Sangeet (north Indian

music). Whenever Westerners think of Indian music, they immediately think of Ravi Shankar

and the sitar. Although South Indian music is extremely sophisticated, there has not emerged

an artist with the widespread recognition that North Indians, like Ravi Shankar, have been

able to generate.

Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra

Pradesh and Carnatica. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian

culture.

Purandardas (1480-1564) is considered to be the father of Carnatic Sangeet. He is

given credit for the codification of the method of education, and is also credited with several

thousand songs.



Venkat Mukhi Swami (17th century) is the grand theorist of Carnatic music. He was

the one who developed the melakarta system. This is the system for classifying south Indian

rags.

Carnatic music really acquired its present form in the 18th century. It was during

this period that the so–called “trinity” of Carnatic music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and

Muthuswami Dikshitar composed their famous compositions. In addition to the “trinity”,

numerous other musicians and composers enriched this tradition.

Carnatic music has a very highly developed theoretical system. It is based upon a

complex system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal). These describe the intricacies of the melodic

and rhythmic forms respectively.

The melodic foundation is the ragam (rag). Ragam is basically the scale. Similarly to

the north Indian system, the seven notes of the scale are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni.

However, unlike a simple scale there are certain melodic restrictions and obligations. Each

ragam has a particular way that it moves from note to note.

The ragams are categorised into various modes. These are referred to as mela, and

there are 72 in number. The mela are conceptually similar to the that of North Indian music

(see more in appendix A). There is however, a major difference. South Indian scales allow

chromatic forms that are not allowed in Hindustani sangeet. For instance it is perfectly

acceptable for the first three notes (i.e., Sa, Ri, Ga), to all be roughly one semitone apart.

It is these permissible forms which allow there to be so many mela.

The thalam (tal) is the rhythmic foundation to the system. The south Indian tals are

defined by a system of clapping and waving, while this is much less important in the north.

North Indian musicians define their tala by their t.heka (combinations of bols, or syllables, or

strokes).

Nomenclature is one of the biggest differences between North and South Indian music.

It is normal for a particular raga or tala to be called one thing in the North and something

totally different in the South. It is also common for the same name to be applied to very

different raga and tala. It is theses differences in nomenclature that have made any theoretical

reconciliation difficult.


1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet 15

Vocal music forms the basis of South Indian music. Although there is a rich instrumen-

tal tradition that uses Saraswati vina, venu and violin, they revolve around instrumental

renditions of vocal forms.

There are a number of sections to the Carnatic performance. Varanam is a form used

to begin many south Indian performances. The word varanam literal means a description

and this section is used to unfold the various important features of the ragam. The kritis

are fixed compositions in the rag. They have well identified composers and do not allow

much scope for variation. However such compositions are often preceded by alapana. The

alapana offers a way to unfold the ragam to the audience, and at the same time, allow the

artist considerable scope for improvisation. The niruval and the kalpana swara also provide

opportunities to improvise. Another common structure are the ragam, thanam, and, pallavi.

South Indian performances are based upon three major sections. These are the pallavi,

anupallavi, and charanam.

The rich tradition of South Indian music is one of the worlds gems. The high perfor-

mance standards and the well organised theoretical foundation put it on par with anything

that world has seen, either East or West.

1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic

Sangeet

The reasons for the differentiation between North and South Indian music are not clear.

The generally held belief is that North Indian music evolved along different lines due to an

increased exposure to the Islamic world. This results from nearly 800 years of Islamic rule

over northern India.

Unfortunately, evidence suggests that this answer is a gross over–simplification. For

instance, the state of Kerala in southern India has an extremely large Muslim population,

but virtually no identification with north Indian music. By the same token, the Islamic

influence over Orissa (north) was negligible, yet the artistic forms are clearly identifiable as

Hindustani. Although there is a poor correlation between the geographical distribution of



Hindus / Muslims and the two musical systems, there is an almost exact correlation between

the Indo–European / Dravidian cultures and the two musical systems.


Chapter 2

The Siddha Yoga drum

2.1 The mridang

The percussion instrument mainly used in Siddha Yoga chants and music, see fig. 2.1,

is a drum whose origins date back thousands of years. This drum is known with various

names. One of these is pakhawaj; another one is mridang.

(a) The system ofbolts

(b) The treble head (c) The bass head

Figure 2.1: The mridang used in Siddha Yoga chants

Strictly speaking the mridang is an entire category of barrel shaped, double headed

drums. In its classical form, the instrument known as the Mridang or Mridanga, is referred

to in ancient Sanskrit works and is also pictured in the paintings on the walls of the famous

17

18 The Siddha Yoga drum

Ajanta caves. Similar drums have been found in Indus Valley excavations dating back 4

millenia. It is thus clearly a very ancient invention, and its acoustical perfection must be

considered a remarkable testimony to the inventiveness and musical taste of its progenitors.

The classical pakhawaj is the north Indian version of mridang, see fig. 2.2(a). In southern

India instead the mridang evolved in a drum known as mridangam, or carnatic mridangam,

see fig. 2.2(b).

(a) North indian pakhawaj (b) South indian mridangam

Figure 2.2: Two examples of mridang

The classical pakhawaj does not present metal parts but is laced with rawhide. The

lacing fixes the drum heads to the wooden shell. Wooden pegs, known as gatta, are inserted

between the straps and the shell for the purpose of tuning. The sliding of the tuning pegs

induces tension variations in both the drum heads.

The drum heads, known as pudi, are the peculiar part of the pakhawaj among the other

drums of the mridang class. The treble head, fig. 2.3,

Figure 2.3: The treble head of a pakhawaj


2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 19

has basically three parts: (i) the outer weaving (gajara or pagri), (ii) the membranes, (iii)

the black spot (syahi, or shyai) in the center. The bass (bigger) head is in principle similar

to the treble one except that there is a temporary application of flour and water instead of

the black permanent spot. Details on the construction of pudi are reported in appendix B.

The Siddha Yoga drum, usually called mridang also, is a modern evolution of the original

ancient pakhawaj. In this “screw–type” pakhawaj the system of straps is replaced by a system

of metal hooks fixed to the shell by bolts, see fig. 2.1(a). This makes possible the tuning

of a single head, sometimes without using a hammer for the fine tuning of the treble head,

while letting unchanged the tension of the other head. Acting on the screws with a wrench,

each of the drum heads can be tuned.

2.2 The drum in the context of indian music

Pakhawaj is the most common north Indian representative of the class of mridang. It was

once common throughout north India. In the last few generations this drum has been

replaced by tabla in performance music forms, fig. 2.4(b).

(a) Tabla (b) A north Indian classical music perfor-mance with tabla accompaniment

Figure 2.4: Tabla is today the preferred percussion instrument for therhythmic accompanyiment of Hindustani classical music

A Tabla set is formed by a small wooden drum called danya and a larger metal one called



banya. It is said that tabla was developed by cutting a pakhawaj into two pieces.

2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar

There are several styles of pakhawaj playing. The most well known and important is for the

accompaniment of dhrupad and dhammar singers.

Dhrupad is perhaps the oldest style of classical singing in north Indian music today. The

heyday of this style was in the time of Tansen (16th century). It is a very heavy, masculine

style performed to the accompaniment of the pakhawaj. It is known for its austere quality

and strict adherence to the rhythmic structure (tala). The moods of dhrupad may vary but

themes revolving around the victories of great kings and mythological stories are common.

Devotional themes are also very common.

Dhammar is a very old style of singing as well. This name is also applied to instrumental

renditions of vocal compositions. It has many similarities to dhrupad. The major difference

is that it is slightly more romantic. Themes of dhammar typically revolve around Krishna

and the Holi festival. In fact the dhammar is often called hori, or holi.

Pakhawaj is found in accompaniment of Orissi dancers and occasionally for kathak dance.

It is also found in a classical form from Rajasthan known as Haveli Sangeet. Pakhawaj

compositions are passed down from generation to generation. They are taught by a series of

mnemonic syllables known as bols.

2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan

Pakhawaj is very much used for Devotional music forms, like nama san. kırtana and bhajans

of Siddha Yoga.

The bhajan has a special place in India. Most bhajans were written between the 14th

through 17th centuries. They were songs sung in the praise of God through which spiritual

truths were portrayed in the simple language of the farmers, merchants and other common

people of the time.

Bhajan is an important part of the Bhakti movement born in India during the Mogul

period. Bhajan is not defined by any musical characteristics; it is simply defined by a sense


2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 21

of devotion (bhakti). Bhajans cover a broad spectrum of musical styles from the simple

musical chant (dhun, or kirtan) to highly developed versions comparable to thumri. Thumri

is a common style of light classical music with text of romantic and devotional nature, and

usually revolving around a girl’s love for Krishna. Bhajan, like thumri is, can become a style

characterized by a greater flexibility with the raga.

The poetic content of the bhajan also covers a broad spectrum. The more traditional

ones are by great poet saint such as Mirabai, Surdas, or Kabir, and are considered to be

of the highest literary quality. An important form related to bhajan is the dhun, which

sometimes is actually nothing more than a musical version of a chant.

Figure 2.5: An image of Mirabai

The structure of bhajan is very conventional. It contains a single refrain sthai and

numerous verses antara. The last antara has special significance because it contains the

name of the author.

The Kirtan or Dhun is related to the bhajan. The major difference is that bhajan is

usually performed by a soloist, while kirtan and dhun usually involve the audience. The

musical quality is consequently much simpler. The term Kirtan is used by Hindus and

Sikhs, while the term Dhun seems to be used only by Hindus, especially Gujuratis.



2.3 Relation between pakhawaj, Siddha Yoga mridang,

tabla and South Indian mridangam

Pakhawaj, tabla and mridangam form the basis for the classical percussion in India. Questions

arise as to the differences and similarities between them.

Differences may fall into four categories: construction, tone, technique, and philosophy.

The music of India is one of the oldest systems of music in the world. There is the Hindusthani

sangeet, the north Indian music system, and the Carnatic sangeet in the south. Collectively

these two limbs form the body of a musical tradition that is said to extend back several

thousand years. Although there are many similarities between the two systems there are

also differences. One of the differences is in the choice of rhythmic accompaniment.

The Carnatic sangeet of southern India prefers the mridangam. This instrument, like the

north Indian pakhawaj, is a single piece of wood that is hollowed out and has playing heads

on both sides. North Indian music prefers the pakhawaj and tabla.

2.3.1 Construction

There are a number of differences between the construction of mridangam, tabla and pakhawaj

(even if some principles of construction of pakhawaj and tabla are essentially the same). Some

of the differences are obvious and some are more subtle. The most obvious difference in

construction is that mridangam and pakhawaj use a single resonator while tabla uses two.

Therefore the tension of the left and right sides of tabla are separately controlled (actually

this happens also for the Siddha Yoga drum thanks to the system of bolts), while they

are inseparably linked in mridangam and pakhawaj. Pakhawaj, Siddha Yoga mridang and

mridangam’s single resonator also produces an acoustic coupling between the two heads.

The drumheads show major differences. For instance the mridangam is made of ex-

tremely heavy hides while the tabla, the pakhawaj and the Siddha Yoga mridang use thinner

ones. The tabla bayan has a permanent dry application while the mridangam and the clas-

sical pakhawaj have a temporary wet application of flour and water. Siddha Yoga mridang

bass head has instead an inner permanent semi–dry application.


2.3 Relation between pakhawaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam23

(a) The bass head (b) Sitting position

Figure 2.6: More details on mridangam

All these drums have a skin that does not completely cover the surface. There is a hole in

this outer covering which exposes the main membrane below. The outer annular membrane is

much more prominent in the mridangam than in the tabla, pakhawaj and mridang. There are

items placed between the main membrane and the annular membrane that further accentuate

these differences. Tabla, pakhawaj and mridang often have a string placed between the

annular covering and the main skin, while mridangam has straw. This may not appear to be

a significant difference but the purpose of these insertions is diametrically opposite. String

is placed in the north Indian drums to lift the annular membrane and reduce the dampening

effect. The mridangam instead has pieces of straw placed radially between the two skins.

This actually increases the dampening and acts as a snare.

The cumulative effects of these differences in construction create major differences in

the tone of the instrument.

2.3.2 Tone

Mridang, pakhawaj, tabla and mridangam are characterized by a rich and varied tone. Some

strokes evoke clear pitched sounds while others evoke unpitched sounds. The pitched strokes

clearly show the tonal differences between these drums.

For example the rim stroke on the treble head is a major stroke on both the mri-



dang/tabla/pakhawaj and the mridangam. Although the nomenclature varies this stroke

is usually called Na in the North and Nam in the South. If one looks at the sound fre-

quency spectrum of this stroke, on both instruments a predominant third harmonic is the

main characteristic. However, the fundamental may be seen in significant proportion in the

mridangam while it is essentially absent in the mridang/tabla/pakhawaj. Furthermore the

second harmonic tends to be evoked in the north Indian drums while it is suppressed in the

mridangam.

The open stroke is also a major stroke for both drums. This is called Tun in the North

and Deem in the South. Both strokes are characterized by a very prominent fundamental.

However there is a significant difference in the second harmonic of the frequency spectrum.

The open stroke of the left hand is called Ga in tabla, Gi in mridang and pakhawaj

and Thom in the South for mridangam. It shows a tremendous difference between these

instruments. Tabla has a very pronounced fundamental (harmonic) and a long sustain.

There are much fewer harmonics in this stroke. Conversely the pakhawaj, the Siddha Yoga

mridang and south Indian mridangam have a much more complex harmonic spectrum and

a significantly reduced sustain.

2.3.3 Technique

The fingering technique is a very important consideration in this discussion. Tabla has a

distinct leaning toward the delicate fingering while Pakhawaj, mridang and the mridangam

have a balance between the powerful and delicate techniques. A brief look at the history of

the instruments shows why.

The evolution of both the pakhawaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla, and mridangam may

be traced to an archetypical mridang. This instrument had a close association to the an-

cient mythological dramas. This association meant that the drums would sometimes have to

support both masculine and feminine characters. The delicate movements of the dance are

known as lasya while the more powerful masculine movements are known as tandava. Pow-

erful techniques were developed to accentuate the masculine roles while delicate techniques

were developed to support the feminine roles.


2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 25

In the last several centuries the drumming technique in north Indian music has bifur-

cated. The more powerful and aggressive techniques have been relegated to the pakhawaj

while the delicate techniques have been relegated to tabla. Yet there was no bifurcation of

technique in the South. The powerful and aggressive techniques exist alongside the delicate.

In Siddha Yoga mridang both delicate and aggressive techniques are retained so that

they can properly accompany the various Siddha Yoga chants in all their moods and speeds.

2.3.4 Philosophy

There is another area of difference between the north and south Indian percussion styles. This

reflects a basic philosophic difference between North and South Indian music. For example in

performance music, tabla or pakhawaj provide the rhythmic base for the entire performance.

Since the main performer will constantly refer to the drum, it is essential that there be

a conventionally established pattern that may be universally understood. This pattern is

called theka. Too much variation from the established theka may lead to a breakdown in

communication and thus compromise the entire performance. In the old days, vocalists and

instrumentalists would not allow their drummers to play anything except theka. Today there

is much greater freedom, still the basic responsibility remains.

The role of the mridangam in south Indian music is much different. The mridangam

does not have to provide the rhythmic base for the performance. Such a base is provided by a

conventionally established pattern of claps and waves. Half of the audience in a south Indian

performance may be clapping along with the performers. With so many people providing

the base there is a greater freedom given to the mridangam player. The consequence of not

having to provide a base means that there is no such thing as a theka, therefore different

accompanying rhythms may be used according to the artistic discretion of the performers.

2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants

There are two types of chanting in Siddha Yoga centers and ashrams: swadhyaya, the chant-

ing of sacred texts, and nama san. kırtana, or fast chants. The text chants, like the Guru



Gıta, Rudram, and Shiva Mahimna are taken from the ancient scriptures of India and are

usually sung in simple melodies at a medium pace, and accompanyed by harmonium and

tamboura (see fig. 2.8).

Figure 2.7: Playing for a Siddha Yoga fast chant

Nama san. kırtana, which means “the divine repetition of the name of God”, are the

chants that usually use the drum in addition to the harmonium and tamboura. These chants

exclaim one or more of the names of God over and over, usually in a call and response

fashion. They most often begin at a slow or moderate tempo and speed up gradually. Many

nama san. kırtana are based on specific ragas, and the melodies are more involved than those

in the text chants. The role of the drum in a nama san. kırtana is to maintain the tempo so

that everyone may sing in time together.

There are also other instruments that are played to provide rhythmic support during

a Siddha Yoga fast chant. They include hand cymbals, see fig. 2.9(a), and kartal, a pair of

wooden blocks with small metal jingles mounted on it, see fig. 2.9(b). These instruments

are played simply beating them together.


2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 27

Figure 2.8: Harmonium and Tamboura

(a) Cymbals (b) Kartal

Figure 2.9: Other rhythmic instruments used in Siddha Yoga fastchants



28

Chapter 3

Getting started

3.1 Acquiring a mridang

Buying a mridang from India is the first thing that most people think of. This is the preferred

course if someone is actually going to India. It is important not to go to the shop by oneself

unless the craftsman or the shop owner is well known. The chances of getting a good drum

at a reasonable price are unlikely if one goes without someone who knows the instruments

and the shopkeeper very well.

If one is not actually going to India, things are more difficult. It is not practical to

do retail business by correspondence. Therefore, one should think about purchasing such

an instrument in his or her country or continent (in the case of North America or Europe).

Transportation times in the West are typically only a few days as opposed to Indian weeks or

months. Chances for damage are tremendously reduced. Should there be damage, it is easier

to exchange or obtain compensation. There is really one disadvantage when dealing with

western firms: cost. A mridang in America or Europe costs many times what comparable

merchandise costs in India. In any case, all things considered, it is usually better to deal

with western firms: the difference in cost is worth the headhache of trying to do business

overseas. There is a list of suppliers in the Appendix C of this volume.

Familiarizing with the parts of the drum makes many things easier. It allows to com-

municate with importers and musicians. It also gives necessary background to get started.

Major parts of the mridang are shown in fig. 3.1. These parts are: (i) the heads (pudi), (ii)

29

30 Getting started

the wooden shell (lakadi), (iii) the bolts.

Figure 3.1: Main parts of a mridang

Let us make a closer look at the pudi, fig. 3.2. The four parts that one has to be

concerned with are: (i) the black spot (syahi), (ii) the main membrane (sur or maidan), (iii)

the anular membrane (kinar or chat), and (iv) the leather braid (gajara or pagri).

Figure 3.2: Parts of the drumhead

There are many decisions which must be made during the time of purchase. It would

be impossible to predict all of the options, but here are a few common ones.


3.2 Basic care and tuning 31

There are various types of lacing and tightening arrangements. Not all of them are of

the same quality. One may find rawhide, leather, rope and turnbuckles.

In traditional pakhawaj method of lacing the rawhide is used, fig. 3.3. As the name

implies, rawhide is a skin that has a minimal chemical treatment after it was removed from

the animal: usually only the addition of salt as a preservative. It is readily available in

India and relatively inexpensive. It has the the disadvantage of being sensitive to changes

in humidity and temperature and it is sometimes difficult to work with.

Figure 3.3: Traditional pakhawaj lacing

The case of metal turnbuckles, or bolts, is the preferred option in Siddha Yoga drums.

They have the advantage, among the others recalled in chapter 2, of making the drum less

susceptible to changes in humidity and temperature, hence the drumheads are more stable

in their tuning.

The best mridangs usually come from the two Indian states of Maharashtra and Gujarat.

This area has a ready supply of shisham (Indian rosewood, Dalbergia sisu), which is tight

grained and very heavy. There is also a good supply of the special powder used to make

the syahi. The rawhide of traditional pakhawajs also tends to be much heavier in this area.

The availability of good materials and skilled craftsmen give these two states a very high

proportion of excellent drums.

3.2 Basic care and tuning

One of the first things that musicians have to learn is how to take care of their instruments.

The mridang requires some special consideration. This instrument is used in such a sacred


32 Getting started

and uplifting praactice as chanting that one has to take good care of him and pay him great

respect. It is said that Saraswatı, the goddess of speech, arts and learning resides in each

and every musical instrument. As a sign of respect, many musicians in India will salute

their instrument, or touch their hands to the instrument and then to their hearts, before

picking it up to play. Great care is taken to avoid stepping over any musical instrument.

The following points can be made about the care for the drum.

The most important thing is to keep the black spot (syhai) dry. It is very sensitive to

moisture. This is one of the reasons why mridang players use talcum powder when they play.

Even a small amount of sweat on the player’s hands is enough to damage the drumhead.

Using covers to protect the skin of each drumhead is a good idea when the instrument is not

being played. A dust cover is also good.

The mridang should not be exposed to extreme variations of temperature. Excessive

heat may split the skins. Sudden exposure to cold may cause moisture to condense in the

syahi and cause damage.

The drum should be stored out of traffic’s way to avoid accidental damage. It can be

stored standing upright on the big end only. A cradle, i.e. a very low wooden stand that the

drum can lie across, is a very good way as well, particularly if the ends are covered. Cradles

also help position the drum at a comfortable height for playing.

Periodic wiping of the outside will help keep the instrument looking nice. Wax polishes

and the like are not necessary and best avoided.

Great care has to be taken when transporting any instrument. Completely covering

the mridang, when it does not hinder carrying it, will help avoid accidental scratches and

scrapes.

The drum heads, especially the treble head, should be kept always in tune. There is a

common misconception that a drum like this should be loosened whenever it is not going to

be played. This is true when dealing with the poorest quality mridangs. Doing this for any

good quality drum will make it unreliable while performing.

The treble head of a mridang has a stringent requirement for pitch. In table 3.1 is

reported a list of treble head diameters and recommended tunings. There are three things


3.2 Basic care and tuning 33

that one should keep in mind about this table. The first is that the diameter is measured

from the rim, as shown in fig. 3.4, not from the braid of the drumhead. The second is that

the drum shell is sufficiently flexible to go a step in either directions, in terms of tuning: for

instance, a 6 inches head could be tuned in A flat or in F sharp instead of G. The final point

is that table 3.1 has not taken thickness of the skin into consideration. Therefore the table

is only a rough guide.

Figure 3.4: The correct way of determining the pudi size

One uses the Na or the Tin strokes (see chapter 4 for more details on the drum strokes)

to determine the pitch. The use of these strokes has the advantage of showing what the

tension is under a very small area of the rim.

Size (in) Pitch5 1/4 C5 1/2 B5 3/4 A6 G6 1/4 F6 1/2 F sharp

Table 3.1: Recommended tunings for mridang treble heads

Tuning is performed on the braid. One raises the pitch by slightly tightening the skin.

This is accomplished by acting on the bolts. Conversely, one lowers the pitch by slightly


34 Getting started

loosening the skin, again acting on the bolts in the reverse way. At times, for precise tuning,

a hammer can be used, striking the braid. It is very important that one strikes only the

gajara with the hammer. An accidental strike against the wooden lip will irreparably damage

the head.

It is important that the tension around the drum be uniform. A drum which is out of

tune has a cross pattern of pitches. As shown in fig. 3.5, there are two opposed areas of

relatively high pitch and two areas of relatively low pitch. Between them are zones where

the pitch is poorly defined. If one is having a hard time hearing the pitch it may be because

one is acting on the bolts in an area of undefined pitch.

Figure 3.5: Cross tension pattern of an off–tune pudi

The main difficulty in tuning the mridang is due to the difficulty in hearing the pitch.

Actually, complex physical and psychoacoustic phenomena occurr during the tuning process.

In the end it is just a matter of experience.


3.3 Sitting position 35

3.3 Sitting position

Correct posture is very important for studying and playing mridang. The posture will

determine the ease and difficulty that the player will have in controlling the instrument.

By far the most important thing to remember with the posture when playing the drum

is to relax. The drum should be kept as close as possible so that no excessive stretching and

straining of the arms and back are required. A cradle or a cushion for the drum is a good

thing, as it raises the drum heads so that the forearms can be more or less horizontal.

When one sits to play the drum, he or she can sit as if for meditation. Whatever floor–

sitting position that is comfortable is good, so that position will not be changed frequently,

as that can be difficult while playing. Half–lotus and easy–posture are very good for getting

hands at the right height.

The back should be relaxed and upright. The neck, the shoulders and upper arms are

also relaxed. Any tension in the wrists, arms or shoulders will eventually lead to strain.

3.4 Powder

It is very important to use a small amount of powder when playing. There are different kinds

and they do not all work the same. The powder should protect the syhai against water: even

a small amount of sweat may cause major damage. Moreover, for the ease of playing, the

powder should act as a lubrificant to allow free movement of the hands while in contact with

the skin. Last, the powder used should show a resistance to caking up on the drum. A build

up will choke the sound and must be removed with care.

Talcum powder is a common powder used for mridang playing. Curiously, talcum pow-

der is not at all hygroscopic yet it still affords protection against moisture. It is moderately

resistant to caking and is the best product able to mantain its lubrificating action.



36

Chapter 4

Basic strokes

This chapter contains a list of the basic strokes with their techniques. The techniques which

are described here are for right handed people. A left handed person should simply reverse

the drum and exchange the terms left and right.

In fig. 4.1 below are reported again the names of the parts of a treble drumhead, as

they are often referred to in this chapter for the clear illustration of techniques.

Figure 4.1: Treble head chart

4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes

The following is a description of the fundamental strokes to be played with the right hand

or with the left hand. An important distintion has to be made for strokes performed Khula,

“open”, or with resonance, and strokes performed bandh, “closed”, without resonance.

37

38 Basic strokes

4.1.1 The right hand open stroke Na (na;a)The open stroke Na (pronounced as in “Not”) is a common resonant stroke of the right hand.

It is produced by holding the last two fingers lightly against the syahi and using the index

finger to forcefully hit the rim (chat or kinar) of the treble head. It is important to keep the

middle finger extended so as not to hit the drum.

Figure 4.2: The open right hand stroke Na (na;a)

The correct position may be visualized by an “X” running across the drum. This cross

pattern is not imaginary but is a reflection of actual resonance characteristics. The position

of this cross is determined by the ring finger and little finger. Sliding these fingers around

will cause the position of the cross to vary. Maximum efficiency is produced when one strikes

the chat at the position where the other leg of the cross passes over the rim. Na is a resonant

sound, therefore it is called khula, and is shown in fig. 4.2.

There are several versions of this stroke, also known as Ta. They are differentiated by

the exact place of striking and whether the finger is allowed to rebound or not.

4.1.2 The left hand open stroke Gi (;�a;ga)The open stroke Gi (pronounced as in “Gear”) is a very common resonant stroke of the left

hand. It is also the easiest to execute. One simply strikes the bass head with the flat fingers.

Notice that the tips of the fingers extend inside the area of the bass head so that the striking

hand hits the the rim with the palm. It is a resonant sound, therefore it is called khula, and

is shown in fig. 4.3(a).


4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes 39

4.1.3 The left hand closed stroke Ka (k)

The closed stroke Ka (pronounced as in “Cup”) is a very common nonresonant stroke of the

left hand. It is also easy to execute. One simply strikes the bass head with the flat palm

and fingers. It is a flat slapping sound with no resonance, therefore it is called bandh, and is

shown in fig. 4.3(b).

Sometimes Ka is also calledKa, Ke, Ki or Kı.

(a) The left hand openstroke Gi (;�a;ga) (b) The left hand closed

stroke Ka (k)

Figure 4.3: Left hand fundamental strokes

4.1.4 The right hand closed stroke Te (.tea)

The closed stroke Te (pronounced as in “Test”) is a common stroke of the right hand. There

are at least four ways to play this bol. However only two are common: the Dilli (Delhi) style

and the Purbi style.

The Dilli (Delhi) way is to strike the center of the syahi with the middle finger of the

right hand. This is shown in fig. 4.4(a). The approach known as Purbi is different. One

leads off with the last three fingers of the right hand (i.e. middle, ring, and little fingers).

This technique is shown in fig. 4.4(b). Te is a bandh sound.


40 Basic strokes

4.1.5 The right hand closed stroke Ti (;�a;ta)The closed stroke Ti (pronounced as in “Tea”) is executed by striking the center of the syahi

with the index finger as in fig. 4.4(c). It is a bandh sound. This stroke may have other

names when played in longer bol combinations. Another common name for this stroke is the

bol Re.

(a) The Dilli (Delhi)style Te (.tea) (b) The Purbi style Te

(.tea) (c) The stroke Ti(;�a;ta)

Figure 4.4: Right hand closed strokes

4.1.6 The bol TiT. a (;�a;taf)

This bol, TiT. a, is made of two closed strokes of the right hand. There are at least five

techniques for executing this stroke, but here only two shall be described. One Dilli (Delhi)

and one Purbi.

The basic Dilli (Delhi) style is simple. Ti is made by striking the center of the syahi with

the middle finger (like the Dilli style Te). This is a non–resonant (bandh) stroke. T. a is made

by striking the center of the syahi with the index finger (like Ti). This too is a non–resonant

(bandh) stroke and should have a sound that is indistinguishable from Ti. This technique is

shown in fig. 4.5.

The sequence of strokes in the execution of this bol may also be reversed like in fig. 4.6.

The bol will be called TiT. a as well, or Reverse TiT. a.

The execution of the bol TiT. a in Purbi style is a little bit different. Ti is executed by


4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes 41

Figure 4.5: The sequence of strokes in the Dilli (Delhi) style TiT. a(;�a;taf)

Figure 4.6: The sequence of strokes in the Dilli (Delhi) style ReverseTiT. a

striking sharply with the last three fingers of the right hand (i.e. middle, ring, and little

fingers, like in Purbi style Te). T. a is executed by striking the center of the syahi with the

index finger (like Ti).

Figure 4.7: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style TiT. a


42 Basic strokes

The sequence of strokes in the execution of this bol may also be reversed like in fig. 4.8.

The bol will be called (Purbi style) TiT. a as well, or (Purbi style) Reverse TiT. a.

Figure 4.8: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style Reverse TiT. a

There are several variations in the bol. It is also common to find this sequence called

TeT. e, TeT. a, TiT. e.

4.1.7 The right hand open stroke Tin (;�a;tMa)

The open stroke Tin (pronounced as in “Tin can”) is a common resonant stroke of the right

hand. Its hand position is very similar to Na, but it is much softer and more delicate. This

stroke is produced by placing the last two fingers of the right hand lightly against the syahi

and striking on the border between the syahi and the maidan. As with Na, the middle finger

is extended and does not strike the drum. Great care must be taken so that the stroke is

resonant. This resonance will only come if it is a light ricochet. The exact striking position

is determined by the construction of the drum but it is usually at the border of the syahi

and maidan. This technique is shown in fig. 4.9.

Beginners often have a difficult time making Tin sound different from Na. There are

two points to keep in mind. First, the stroke must be resonant (khula). Second, it must be

played very softly.


4.2 Combined strokes 43

Figure 4.9: The open right hand stroke Tin (;�a;tMa)

4.1.8 The right hand open stroke Tun (tMua)

The open stroke Tun (pronounced as in “Tune”) is a common resonant stroke of the right

hand. The head is not muted at all but allowed to resonate freely. The head is struck in the

center of the syahi with the index finger of the right hand. This technique is shown in fig.

4.10.

Figure 4.10: The open right hand stroke Tun (tMua)

There are several variations in pronunciation. Some common examples are Tu (as in “Two”),

Thu, Thun, etc.


44 Basic strokes

Figure 4.11: Obtaining a combined stroke striking the drumheadswith both hands together

4.2 Combined strokes

Combined strokes are listed nn the following sections. They are played with both hands

together, see fig. 4.11.

4.2.1 The bol Dha (;Da;a)The bol Dha (pronounced as in “Ad hoc”) is a combination of Na and Gi, see fig. 4.12.

Figure 4.12: The bol Dha (;Da;a) = Na (na;a) + Gi (;�a;ga)

4.2.2 The bol Dhin (;�a;DMa)The bol Dhin (pronounced as in “And hinder”) is a combination of Tin and Gi, see fig. 4.13.


4.2 Combined strokes 45

Figure 4.13: The bol Dhin (;�a;DMa) =Tin (;�a;tMa) + Gi (;�a;ga)

4.2.3 The bol Kha (Ka)The bol Kha (pronounced as in “knock house”) is a combination of Na and Ka, see fig. 4.14.

Figure 4.14: The bol Kha (Ka) = Na (na;a) + Ka (k)

4.2.4 The bol Dhi (;�a;Da)The bol Dhi is a combination of Ti and Gi, see fig. 4.15.

4.2.5 The bol Dhe (;Dea)The bol Dhe is a combination of Te and Gi, see fig. 4.16.

4.2.6 The bol Dhun (;DMua)The bol Dhun is a combination of Tun and Gi, see fig. 4.17.


46 Basic strokes

Figure 4.15: The bol Dhi (;�a;Da) = Ti (;�a;ta) + Gi (;�a;ga)

Figure 4.16: The bol Dhe (;Dea) = Te (.tea) + Gi (;�a;ga)

Figure 4.17: The bol Dhun (;DMua) = Tun (tMua) + Gi (;�a;ga)

4.2.7 The bol Khun (KMua)

The bol Khun is a combination of Tun and Ka, see fig. 4.18.


4.3 Drum notation 47

Figure 4.18: The bol Khun (KMua) = Tun (tMua) + Ka (k)

4.3 Drum notation

Indian music used to be dominated by a strictly oral tradition. Only recently, from the

beginning of the 20th century, notation has risen in importance in both musical pedagogy

and musical scholarship. In India the musical system of notation in use today is known as

the Bhatkhande system, from the name of Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (see section 1.2.4)

who introduced it with his work Hindustani Sangit Paddhati in 1932.

From a practical viewpoint, notation is important as well, especially when concepts are

conveyed to people of different cultural and musical backgrounds. In this book Western

musical notation along with Indian rhythmic conventions is used whenever is possible. The

simplicity of Indian rhythmic notation sometimes would be sufficient to illustrate basic or

even more complex patterns, but the illustration also in terms of Western musical notation

seems to stimulate the non Indian readers for a faster assimilation of the rhythmic concepts.

There are serious problems when one attempts to write the Indian names of the strokes

(bols) or of combinations of strokes, in English, unless proper diacritic marks are used in the

transliteration of Devnagri script. Today even in English books on Indian music also the

Devnagri notation is often found.

The most important thing in rhythmic notation is the adopted system to describe the

timing. Here this is hndled by various marks that show the beats, or matras. The single

beat is the foundamental thing in a rhythmic pattern. Therefore:


48 Basic strokes

NaNaNaNa

represents four beats with one Na in each beat. If one whishes to specify double time then

one joins the bols with a bracket. For instance

NaNa︸︷︷︸ NaNa︸︷︷︸ NaNa︸︷︷︸ NaNa︸︷︷︸indicates eight Nas played in four matras. In this manner NaNaNa︸︷︷︸ indicates triple time,

three Nas played in one matra, and NaNaNaNa︸︷︷︸ indicates quadruple time, four Nas played

in one matra.

This system is remarkably simple. In fig. 4.19 are shown some common examples written

in both Indian and Western notation. From this figure one can notice the use of dashes (–),

which indicate rests. Rests may have different time durations. In Western notation this is

specifyed with proper symbols. In the simple rhythmic Indian notation the time duration,

or value, of a rest can be argued by the context in which it is used. For instance, when

the simple notation: “Dha ”, is found the stroke indicates one beat. In cases where a more

articulate phrase of more than one matra like: “Dha−︸︷︷︸ TiT. a︸︷︷︸ ” is found, the rest is used to fill

up, together with the Dha, the first matra. Here “−” has the same time value of Ti or T. a.

The measure is another important component of Indian musical notation. It is called

vibhag and is designated by a vertical bar. In practical terms, when one keeps the time, a

measure is also designated by either a clap or a wave of the hands. In chapter 6 the North

Indian rhytmic system will be presented and these concepts will be introduced in a more

complete way. Here, by looking at fig. 4.19, is sufficient to get familiar with the simple

bol–based Indian rhythmic system.

4.4 Exercices

In this section a number of exercises are suggested for getting familiarity with the fundamen-

tal bols. An attitude to performe different bols in succession has to be developed, together

with the correct technique for each bol, so that the hand movements required to play more

complex patterns can become natural. They are important for strengthening the finger also.


4.4 Exercices 49

The verbal repetition of the bols is very important. It is a way to memorize exercises,

patterns and t.hekas. It also helps rememberig where to put the hands for the correct stroke

execution.

TiT. a

The bol TiT. a can be used as a basic exercise for strenghtening the right hand fingers. As

first pattern practice:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Ti T. a Ti T. a TiT. a TiT. a TiT. a TiT. a

Note that the second half of this pattern is effectively played at twice the speed of

the first: in the first half one bol per beat is played; in the second half two bols per beat

are played. This exercise should be played very slowly in the beginning, keeping the pads

of the fingers pressed firmly on the drum skin between strokes. Then different speeds can

be experimented, starting slowly and keeping the bols very clear sounding. Here play the

standard TiT. a (see fig. 4.7). Actually this bol is spread over two beats in the first half and

played two times (beats 1–2 and beats 3–4). In this case the bol T. a in beats 2 and 4 could

be replaced by the bol (word) T. e (see fig. 4.4(b)). In the second half the TiT. a is considered

as a single bol of two strokes.

Another exercise for practicing with TiT. a is:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8TiT. a – TiT. a (rev.) – TiT. a (rev.) – TiT. a –

Note that TiT. a is played first as a standard TiT. a (see fig. 4.7), then as a reverse TiT. a

(see fig. 4.8). The symbol “–” indicates a rest and suggest that the exercise have to be

practiced slowly.

GiTunTunGi and GiTunKaTe

Here are two more pattern one can play with and vary:


50 Basic strokes

1 2 3 4Gi Tun Tun GiGi Tun Ka Te

See fig. 4.3(a) for Gi, and fig. 4.3(b) for Ka.

Developing the Na technique in addition to other bols

Here are some good exercises for the right hand involving Na. The two–stroke exercises are

useful for developing a clear Na technique in conjunction with those particular bols. The

four–stroke exercise are patterns that can be viewed as parts of more complex t.hekas (see

section 6.2.1 for more details).

NaTe

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Te – Na – Te –

See fig. 4.2 for Na, and fig. 4.4(b) for Te. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na Te Na Te Na Te Na Te

and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na Te Na Te NaTe NaTe NaTe NaTe

NaTun


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Tun – Na – Tun –

See fig. 4.10 for Tun. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na Tun Na Tun Na Tun Na Tun


4.4 Exercices 51

and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na Tun Na Tun NaTun NaTun NaTun NaTun

This exercise should be played very slowly in the beginning, then experimenting different

speeds, starting slowly and keeping the open bols Na and Tun very clear sounding.

TiT. aTunNa

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Ti T. a Tun Na Ti T. a Tun Na

This exercise helps getting the feeling of tangling up the fingers. It should be played very

slowly in the beginning, then experimenting different speeds, starting slowly and keeping the

open bols Na and Tun very clear sounding and looking for the distinction from the closed bol

TiT. a.

Na–TeTun


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Te – Tun – Te – Tun –

then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Tun – Na – Tun – Na –

then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Te – Tun – Na –

and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Te Tun Na – Te Tun


52 Basic strokes

NaTunNaNa

This exercise can be practiced breaking it down in smaller parts as the previous one. The

full pattern is:

1 2 3 4Na Tun Na Na

NaTinTiT. a


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Tin – Na – Tin –

See fig. 4.9 for Tin. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Tin – TiT. a – Tin – TiT. a –

then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na – Tin – TiT. a – Na –

and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Na Tin TiT. a – Na Tin TiT. a –

Developing the technique for combined strokes

Here are some good exercises for developing the technique for combined strokes.

DhaTunNa


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dha – Tun – Dha – Tun –

then


4.4 Exercices 53

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dha Tun Na – Na Tun Na –

When this pattern has been mastered one can vary it playing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dha Tun Na – Kha Tun Na –

DhunNaDha


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dhun – Na – Dha – Tun –

then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dhun Na Dha – Tun Na Dha –

When this pattern has been mastered one can vary it playing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dhun Na Dha – Khun Na Dha –

DhiT. a


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dhi – T. a – Dhi – T. a –

Here the stroke T. a is part of the standard bol TiT. a. It could also be called T. e. Actually the

right hand plays here the bol TiT. a which is spread over four beats. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8DhiT. a – TiT. a – DhiT. a – TiT. a –

Here the right hand plays the bol TiT. a in beat 1, 3, 5 and 7. Finally play

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Dhi T. a Dhi T. a DhiT. a TiT. a DhiT. a TiT. a


54 Basic strokes

G 44

Dha–––

;Da;a–––

1,2,3,4

(a) 1 bol in 4 matras

G 44

Dha–

;Da;a–

1,2

�Dha–

;Da;a–

3,4

�

(b) 2 bols in 4 matras

G 44

Dha

;Da;a

1

�Dha

;Da;a

2

�Dha

;Da;a

3

�Dha

;Da;a

4

�

(c) 4 bols in 4 matras (single time)

G 44

DhaDha︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;Da;a

1

� �DhaDha︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;Da;a

2


3


4

� �

(d) 8 bols in 4 matras (double time)

G 44

DhaDhaDhaDha︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a

1

� � � �DhaDhaDhaDha︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a

2


3


4

� � � �

(e) 16 bols in 4 matras (quadruple time)

Figure 4.19: Rhythmic notations


Chapter 5

Advanced material

5.1 Other bols

5.1.1 The right hand closed stroke Ne

The bol Ne (pronounced as in “Nectar”) is a nonresonant stroke which is made by striking

the edge of the syahi with the last two fingers of the right hand. This stroke has numerous

names, especially when used as part of larger bol expressions. Another common name is Ra.

Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The closed right hand stroke Ne

5.1.2 The right hand open stroke Dı

The bol Dı (pronounced as in “Dee”) is a resonant stroke which is made by striking the center

of the syahi with all four fingers of the right hand. This bol is similar to the khula stroke Tun,

55

56 Advanced material

but is more accentuated. Its full resonance is achieved by immediately rebounding the hand

away from the drum surface. This stroke is known also as pakhawaj style tin. In addition it

has numerous names when appearing in other bol combinations. Other common names ones

Din, Ding, Ma, Thun. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2: The open right hand stroke Di

5.1.3 The right hand closed stroke Ma

The bol Ma (pronounced as in “Mum”) is a nonresonant stroke which is made by striking

the edge of the syahi with the all for fingers of the right hand keeping them and the palm

flat. This bol may be played differently, as a loud open sound like Di, when it is present in

other bol combinations. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.3: The closed right hand stroke Ma


5.1 Other bols 57

5.1.4 The pakhawaj style Ta

The pakhawaj style Ta is a stroke which is made by striking the treble head with the whole

hand. The entire hand is allowed to rebound except for the little finger. The little finger

remains upon an imaginary line which bisects the head. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4: The pakhawaj style Ta

5.1.5 The left hand closed stroke bol Ge

This bol is derived from the a very expressive modulated tabla bol Ga. To play Ge on the

mridang play Gi hitting the center of bass head with the tips of the middle and ring finger

(or the middle finger only). Then immediately slide the base of the palm from the rim of

the head towards the center.

5.1.6 The bol Dhak

The bol Dhak is a combination of Na and Ge.

5.1.7 The bol TeRiKıT. a

The bol TeRiKiT. a is a four stroke sequence of non resonant (bandh) taps wich are usually

played quite rapidly. Precise timing and crisp bols are required to play this phrase.

There are two basic techniques, the Dilli (Delhi) and the Purbi styles. The Delhi style

is characterized by an independent use of the middle finger. Te is played by striking the

center of the shyahi with the middle finger of the right hand. Ri is played by striking the


58 Advanced material

center of the shyahi with the index finger of the right hand. Kı is played by striking the left

hand sharply against the bass head (like Ka). T. a is played by striking the edge of the shyahi

with the last two fingers of the right hand. This sequence is illustred in fig. 5.5.

The Purbi approach is a bit different. We lead off with the last three fingers of the right

hand (i.e.middle, ring, and little fingers); this would be the Te. Ri is played by striking the

center of the syahi with the index finger. Kı is a standard left hand Ka, and the final T. a

would be played with the last three fingers. This sequence is illustred in fig. 5.6.

Figure 5.5: The sequence of strokes in the Delhi style TeRiKıT. a

Today it is very usual to mix Dilli and Purbi techniques. It is common to mix them

even within the same composition. Such mixing is done in order to get a balance of speed

and clarity.

5.2 Exercices

Not available yet.


5.2 Exercices 59

Figure 5.6: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style TeRiKıT. a



60

Chapter 6

The North Indian rhythmic system

6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts

The rhythm is fundamental to the creation of any musical system. From a historic stand-

point, rhythm structures existed in India many centuries before the word raga was ever used.

Given this historical preeminence, it is not surprising that rhythm occupies an important

position in the Indian system of music.

There are similarities between Western and Indian rhythm. Western rhythm may func-

tion at the level of beats, measures or even longer cycles. The same is true of Indian rhythm.

They can be looked at more closely at these different levels.

The Indian science of rhythm is known as tal. Today, percussion instruments have

replaced the clap in the performance, but the term still reflects its origin. The basic concepts

of tal are: talı, or bharı, khalı, vibhag, or ang, matra, bol, t.heka, laya, sam and avartan. These

concepts are discussed in the following sections.

6.1.1 Tal

The word tal literally means “clap”. The clapping of hands may be is the oldest form of

rhythmic accompaniment. Today, a system of claps, talı, and waves, khalı, forms a conceptual

common ground. It is common to the way Indian instrumentalists, dancers and vocalists

think of rhythm.

The clap of the hands is an important part of both the science and practice of North

61

62 The North Indian rhythmic system

Indian music. It has a hoary past. An elaborate system of clapping and hand movements is

mentioned in the ancient text Nat.ya Sastra (see section 1.1) where it is part of the system

of timekeeping known as kriya. The clap of the hands is very important for the conceptual-

ization of Indian rhythms. North Indian musicians use the claps to designate the measures

(vibhag) which are highly stressed. The most stressed measure is the beginning of the cycle

(sam), the most important beat in the whole cycle. The clapping of hands is also of great

practical importance in performances. It is a convenient means for the singers and other

musicians to communicate with the drum player without having to break the performance.

The clapping must not be taken only into itself because it exits along with its counterpart,

the wave. This wave or khalı is also important in designating the measures (see below).

6.1.2 Matra

The most fundamental unit of Indian rhythmic theory is the matra. This translates to

“beat”. In many cases the matra is just a single stroke. However, just as sixteenth, or

eighth–notes may be strung together to make a single beat, so too may several strokes of

the drum be strung together to have the value of one matra.

6.1.3 Vibhag

A higher level of structure with respect to the matra is the vibhag. This translates to

“measure” or “bar”. A measure may be as little as one beat or more than five; usually a

vibhag is two, three, or four matras (beats) in length.

The vibhags are described in terms of claps and waves. A vibhag, which is signified by

a clap of the hands, is said to be bharı or talı. Conversely, a vibhag which is signified by a

waving of the hand, is said to be khalı.

For example a common indian tal called Tintal, taken now as an illustration of these

concepts, has 16 beats divided into four vibhags (measures – marked by claps or waves) of

four matras (beats – indicated by number, claps or waves) each. Indian musicians say that

this tal is a “cycle divided into 4+4+4+4”. Its clapping arrangement is shown in table 6.1.


6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts 63

matras 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16tal Clap 2 3 4 Clap 2 3 4 Wave 2 3 4 Clap 2 3 4avartan This is one avartan

Table 6.1: The pattern of claps and waves defining Tintal

This brings to the concept of the overall cycle. This Indian cycle, called avartan,

represents the highest level of looking at the rhythm.

6.1.4 Avartan

The avartan, cycle, is in some ways comparable to the Western cycle (e.g. a 16 bar blues

pattern) with but a few differences. One of the biggest differences is that in Western music

the measure is considered inviolate, while in North Indian music the cycle is considered

inviolate. That is to say that a Western musician would think nothing of establishing a

16 bar pattern, break the pattern for some artistic reason and then reestablish it; however

the measures would all be the same. Conversely, Indian musicians typically will mix the

measures. For instance a common tal known as Jhaptal is four measures of (i) two–beats, (ii)

three–beats, (iii) two-beats, (iv) three-beats respectively (i.e. a cycle divided as 2+3+2+3),

however the overall 10 beat pattern, shown in table 6.2, may not be altered.

matras 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10tal Clap 2 Clap 2 3 Wave 2 Clap 2 3avartan This is one avartan

Table 6.2: The pattern of claps and waves defining Jhaptal

Avartans may be of any number of matras. The most common numbers are 16, 14, 12,

10, 8, 7, and 6. Most of the music played in Northern India today is in one of these numbers.

Although the cycle is found in Western music there is a flexibility that is not allowed in Indian

music. If one is playing a 16 beat structure, one must maintain that structure throughout.



6.1.5 Sam

The importance of the cycle gives special significance to the first beat. This beat, called sam

(pronounced like “sum”), is a point of convergence between the drum player and the other

musicians. In Sanskrit the word sam means “with”, “together”, or “common”.

One of the main functions of the sam is to establish a point of resolution. Although

improvisations and fixed compositions may begin almost anywhere in the cycle (avartan)

they almost always resolve on the sam. Whenever a cadence is indicated it will usually end

on this sam. This means that the sam may be thought of as both the beginning of some

structures as well as the ending of others.

The sam is also a pivotal point. For example in a north Indian classical music recital,

usually accompanyied by tabla, during the performance the tabla player keeps time by playing

a conventional pattern of drum strokes (t.heka) and the main musician is free to improvise.

Sometimes it is common to trade places. During this, the main musician keeps time by

playing a melodic theme (gat or sthai) over and over. This allows the tabla player to take

off and improvise. After a period the roles reverse again. The sam is important because it

is pivotal to this transition.

The sam is so important that it has its own notational symbol. In the Bhatkhande

system of notation it is noted with cross such as an “x” or an “+”. The sam is in almost all

the tals a clap of the hands.1

6.1.6 Khalı

The word khalı literally means “empty”. However in the field of north Indian music it has

a special significance. Here the word implies a wave of the hand. This wave of the hand,

along with its counterpart, the clap of the hand, talı, forms as said the basis for timekeeping

in north India.

The wave of the hand is used to designate the first matraof those measures (vibhags)

which are only moderately stresses. Therefore one almost never finds the khalı applied to

1There is only one exception and that is the case of the tal known as Rupaktal. This lone exceptiondesignates the beginning of the cycle with a wave of the hands (khalı). See section 6.2.1 for more details.



strongly stressed beats like the sam.

The khalı is especially important in symmetrical metres such as Tintal of 16 beats, or

Dadra tal of 6 beats, or Kaherava tal of 8 beats. For such symmetrical tals the khalı is

indispensable for correct orientation. For example, if there were no khalı, Tintal would be a

confusing string of four beat measures and it would be very difficult to find the beginning of

the cycle. Therefore the khalı may be thought of as an index.

The khalı, along with the talı, form a convenient method by which vocalists may com-

municate with the drum player without halting the performance. This allows communication

between the artists to continue during the performance without a break in the musical flow.

6.1.7 The bols as a system of mnemonics

The mnemonic syllable, called bol, is a very important concept in the Indian rhythmic

thought. The word bol is derived from the word “Bolna” which means “to speak”. It is a

series of syllables which correlate to the various strokes of the pakhawaj or tabla and are used

to define the tal.

Mnemonic syllables are used in pakhawaj, mridangam, and tabla. These drums are said

to reproduce inner divine sounds that can be heard in meditation. So the bols can be viewd

like matras.

There is a difference in the way that north Indians and south Indians use these syllables.

In the north the tal is actually defined by the bols while in the south they are merely a

mnemonic aid to the musician.

There are numerous example of how north Indian musicians use the bol to define the

tal. The case of Tintal is a good example. It has the bols Dha, Dhin, Na, Tin,2 arranged as

in table 6.3 below, where vibhags are marked by “x”, “0”, or numbers.

There are other tals which have the same patterns of claps (talı) and waves khalı) as

Tintal, but they are considered separate tals because the bols are different.

Another tal that shows a symmetry similar to Tintal is the Kaherava tal used in most

of the Siddha Yoga fast chants. It has the bols Dha, Dhin, Na, Tin, Ge, Ka arranged as in

2See chapter 4 for an introduction to the drum bols and their technique.



x 2Dha Dhin Dhin Dha Dha Dhin Dhin Dha0 4Dha Tin Tin Na Na Dhin Dhin Dha

Table 6.3: The Tintal T. heka

table 6.4. The khalı breaks the cycle in two equal parts.

Those of tables 6.3 and 6.4 are examples of t.heka which is a conventional arrangement

of bols defining the tal and subject to variations during the accompanyiment of a piece (see

more in section 6.2.1).

x 0Dha Ge Na Tin Na Ka Dhin Na

Table 6.4: The Kaherava T. heka

The situation is somewhat different in the south. South Indian tal are defined by the

clapping and waving and the syllables are merely technical mnemonics. In Carnatic music

it is not normal to have different tals sharing the same clapping / waving patterns.

It is very common for people to actually equate the bols with the strokes themselves,

however there are differences amongs the different (Hindustani) percussion instruments. For

instance there are differences between the bols of the pakhawaj and those of the tabla. One

may even find subtle differences between one school of tabla or pakhawaj (gharana) and

another. The end result is that the bol should be seen as a mere description of the technique

rather than an iron clad prescription.

However the word bol is so attached to the strokes that it has come to mean both the

verbal recitation as well as the performance of the strokes. Bols are indeed important because

they allow the drummers to remember compositions, such as t.hekas or their variations.

Musicians also use the bols to perform the mental permutations to know if an improvised



passage or “lick” will work.

6.1.8 Lay

Lay is the tempo, or speed of a piece. The Hindi term for tempo is lay and is derived from the

Sanskrit term laya. It is a very simple concept, but its application is sometimes complicated.

It goes without saying that there have to be some practical limit to usable tempi. One beat

every ten minutes would be so slow as to be musically useless. At the other end of the

spectrum, 100 beats per second would be so fast that it would be perceived as a tone and

not as a rhythm. A general breakdown of Indian lay is shown in the following table 6.5.

Lay – tempoName beats/min Englishati–ati–drut 640 very very fastati–drut 320 very fastdrut 160 fastmadhya 80 mediumvilambit 40 slowati–vilambit 20 very slowati–ati–vilambit 10 very very slow

Table 6.5: The Indian speeds of a musical piece

Table 6.5 is an idealized breakdown of lay. In practice there can be different interpretations

of speeds. For instance, vocalists use a slower definition of time than instrumentalists.

The lay or tempo usually changes throughout the performance. These changes in tempo

are inextricably linked to the various musical styles. In general we can say that only very

short pieces will maintain a fairly steady pace. Most styles will start at one tempo and then

increase in speed.



6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns

Although there are many compositional forms, or patterns of bols, there are really only two

overall classes: cyclic and cadential. These mutually exclusive classes are based upon simple

philosophies.

The cadential class has a feeling of imbalance; it moves forward to an inevitable point

of resolution, usually on the sam. Mridang turnarounds and tihai s are examples of such

forms. It is a classic case of tension/resolve.

In contrast, the cyclic class comprises material which rolls along without any strong

sense of direction. One may generally ascribe a feeling of balance and repose to this class.

These include our basic accompanying patterns, such as t.heka and prakar (ways to play a

t.heka).

The alternation between the cyclic and the cadential material is like a dynamo which

drives a performance of Indian music forward. This happens in a Siddha Yoga chant as well.

The cyclic material is the groove or rhythmic foundation upon which the other musicians

rely. The stability of the cyclic form makes it suitable for providing the musical framework

for drum accompaniment. Conversely the tension and instability of the cadenza provides

the energy to keep the performance or the chant moving.

6.2.1 T. heka

T. heka is the accompaniment pattern used for Indian music and is the most basic cyclic

form. The word t.heka literally means “support” or “a place of rest”. Whenever a drummer

is accompanying a vocalist, dancer, instrumentalist, or a chant, with tabla or mridang he will

spend most of the time playing this. T. heka is defined entirely by its function. It is the major

accompaniment pattern for north Indian music. Any structure imaginable may be found,

but a binary structure, i.e. bharı–khalı, is quite common. T. heka has become inextricably

linked to the fundamental concepts of tal. In northern India, when one speaks of Tintal,

Rupaktal, or any other tal, one is generally speaking of the t.heka. It is common for several

north Indian tals to have the same number of beats, same arrangement of the vibhags, and


6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns 69

the same timekeeping (i.e., clap/wave patterns), yet be distinguished by their t.hekas. This

is unthinkable in south Indian music.

Fig. 6.1 below shows the common Tintal t.heka.

G 164

Dha

;Da;a

(Sam)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dha

;Da;a�

Dha

;Da;a

(2)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dha

;Da;a�

G 164

Ta

ta;a

(Khalı)

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Ta

ta;a

�Ta

ta;a

(4)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Dha

;Da;a�

Figure 6.1: Tintal T. heka

In the single fig. 6.1 various concepts of Indian rhythmic theory are illustrates. The more

usual notation is shown in Sanskrit (Devnagri script) while Western elements have been

added for the benefit of the non-Indian reader. The common tal known as Tintal is composed

of four vibhags, of four matras each, for a total of 16 matras (see also tables 6.1 and 6.3). The

individual strokes are specified with the bol (i.e., Dha, Dhin, etc.) and their time value with

the usual Western musical notation. As usual the beginning of each measure is designated by

a symbol (i.e., cross, number or zero). These indicate the clapping arrangement (talı) within

the tal. The wave of the hand (khalı) at beat 9 is designated with a “0” while the claps are

designated with a number. The clap at sam, first beat of the cycle, is not designated with

“1” but with a cross. A number designates then a second clap and third clap.

The topic of the t.heka and its bols is made interesting by the differences between

pakhawaj and tabla. The former is an ancient instrument while the latter is much younger.

Hence there are many t.hekas used in tabla accompanyiment which that tabla has derived

from the progenitor, pakhawaj. It is very common to see traditional pakhawaj phrases such

as DhaDhaDinTa, or TeT. eKaTaGaDiGeNe in tabla compositions.

In general all the patterns which were composed for the pakhawaj can be played on



tabla. The contrary is not true. Some bass modulated tabla bols are extremely difficult to

obtain with a pakhawaj. These bols and their combinations with other tabla treble (open and

closed) bols are called “pure tabla bols” and are present in t.hekas that can only be played

with tabla. However, the pakhawaj compositional forms entered the tabla tradition retaining

their unmodulated character, thus maintaining their mood of somber majesty.

One very common t.heka from the pakhawaj is Chautal given in table 6.6 below.

x 2 3 4Dha Dha Din Ta KıT. a︸︷︷︸ Dha Dhin Ta Te T. e︸︷︷︸ KaTa︸︷︷︸ GaDi︸︷︷︸ GeNe︸︷︷︸

Table 6.6: The Chautal T. heka

A representation of Chautal similar to that given for Tintal in fig. 6.1 is given in fig.

6.2 below.

G 124

Dha

;Da;a

(Sam)

�Dha

;Da;a�

Din

;a;dM

�Ta

ta;a

�KıT. a︸︷︷︸k +:af

(2)

� ��Dha

;Da;a�

Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Ta

ta;a

�TeT. e︸︷︷︸.tea.fe

(3)

� �KaT. a︸︷︷︸k+:af

� ��GaDı︸︷︷︸ga;ad� ;a

(4)

� ��GeNe︸︷︷︸.geatea� ��

Figure 6.2: Chautal T. heka

It is a 12 beat tal divided in 4+4+2+2. It does not have vibhags beginning with a khalı.

This is usual in pakhawaj compositional forms where the system of clapping was different

from the one adopted today. Today a tal must have both claps and waves of the hands, while

many pakhawaj traditions did not use the concept of wave at all.

A tabla tal of 12 beats and divided also in 4+4+2+2 like Chautal, but having the khalı

on beat 9 is the tal known as Ektal. It is given in table 6.7 below. A representation of Ektal

with elements of Western music notation is also given in fig. 6.3. There are cases, such

as slow tempi, in which Ektal is further divided is 2+2+2+2+2+2 (having two khalıs, on

matras 3 and 7), and cases, faster tempi, where Ektal is considered a 6 beat tal divided into

2+2+1+1.



x 2 0 4Dhin Dhin DhaGe︸︷︷︸ TeReKeT. e︸︷︷︸ Tin Na Kat Ta DhaGe︸︷︷︸ TeReKeT. e︸︷︷︸ Dhin Na

Table 6.7: The Ektal T. heka

G 124

Dhin

;�a;DMa

(x)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�DhaGe︸︷︷︸;Da;a .gea� �

Te Re Ke T. e︸︷︷︸.tea :=e :ke .fe

� � � �Tun

tMua

(2)

�Na

na;a

�Ka

k+:a

�Ta

ta;a

�DhaGe︸︷︷︸;Da;a .gea

(0)

� �Te Re Ke T. e︸︷︷︸.tea :=e :ke .fe

� � � �Dhin

;�a;DMa

(4)

�Na

na;a

�

Figure 6.3: Ektal T. heka

Tempo is another difference between the pure tabla t.hekas and the pakhawaj forms.

Tabla t.hekas may be performed as slow as 10 to 20 beats–per–minute or as fast as 700 beats–

per–minute. In contrast the pakhawaj material is in general performed in medium–slow,

medium–fast tempo, generally between 50 and 180 beats–per–minute.

There is a tendency for t.heka to be based upon two symmetrical structures. The tal

known as Jhaptal is an example, see table 6.8. A representation of Jhaptal with elements of

Western music notation is given in fig. 6.4.

x 2 0 4Dhin Na Dhin Dhin Na Tin Na Dhin Dhin Na

Table 6.8: The Jhaptal T. heka

G 29392934

Dhin

;�a;DMa

(x)

�Na

na;a

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

(2)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Na

na;a

�Tin

;�a;tMa

(0)

�Na

na;a

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

(4)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Na

na;a

�

Figure 6.4: Jhaptal T. heka

In Jhaptal the 2+3 structure DhinNa DhinDhinNa is opposed by another 2+3 structure



TinNa DhinDhinNa.

This symmetry is also illustrated in Dadra tal, divided 3+3, see fig. 6.5.

G 64

Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Na

na;a

�Dha

;Da;a

(0)

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Na

na;a

�

Figure 6.5: Dadra T. heka

In this last example the phrase DhaDhinNa is reflected in the structure DhaTinNa.

There are however numerous t.hekas which do not exhibit this symmetrical quality. Therefore

symmetry must be considered a tendency rather than a rule. As an example of asymmetrical

division, a very common 7 beat tal divided into 3+2+2 is known as Rupaktal. His t.heka is

given in fig. 6.6.

G 392924

Tin

;�a;tMa

(0)

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Na

na;a

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

(1)

�Na

na;a

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

(2)

�Na

na;a

�

Figure 6.6: Rupaktal T. heka

The Rupaktal is interesting because it does present the sam on the first matra of the

cycle. Instead of sam the first beat is in this case “stressed” by khalı (a wave instead of a

clap). In this situation the remaining two vibhags are equally stressed by two claps giving

to this tal a peculiar pulse.

There is another observation that may be made about the structure of the t.heka in

general; there is a tendency for the bols to follow the structure of the vibhag. For instance,

looking back at the Jhaptal in the earlier example, in the division 2+3+2+3, the clapping

arrangement of Jhaptal is reflected in the bols DhinNa+DhinDhinNa+TinNa+DhinDhinNa.

However there are exceptions, like the Ektal division and vibhag / bol correlation, that show

that this is merely a tendency rather than a rule.



Finally in fig. 6.7 is shown the Kaherava t.heka of 8 beats, divided into 4+4. It represents

the tal in wich most of the Siddha Yoga fast chants are set.

G 84

Dha

;Da;a

(Sam)

�Ge

.gea�

Na

na;a

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Na

na;a

(Khalı)

�Ge

.gea�

Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Na

na;a

�

Figure 6.7: Kaherava T. heka

6.2.2 Prakar

The prakar is the variation or improvisation upon the t.heka. When a indian drummer refers

to “playing the t.heka” he is actually referring to the prakars. This is because a basic t.heka

can be too simple and dull to be used in any degree. There are a number of ways to create

these variations; yet the most widespread are the ornamentation and alteration of the bols.

Ornamentation is the most common process for generating prakars. This keeps the

performance varied and maintains the interest of the audience. The basic t.heka is a skeleton,

while the prakar puts the flesh onto it. We can illustrate this with these two examples of

Dadra, see fig. 6.8.

The difference in moods between these two examples is clear. The first example, fig.

6.8(a), has a childlike simplicity and becomes monotonous after a while. Conversely, the

second example, fig. 6.8(b), is more lively. It is important to keep in mind that this is

nothing more than the original t.heka with some ornamentation. This prakar would be mixed

in with an indefinite number of similar improvisations to keep the performance moving at a

lively pace.

Ornamentation is not the only process, for many times a prakar is formed by a complete

change in the bols. This is usually done for stylistic reasons. An example is illustrated in fig.

6.9, where the basic Kaherava, fig. 6.9(a), is compared with a prakar which is sometimes

referred to as bhajan ka t.heka, fig. 6.9(b). The relationship between this pair of Kaherava

t.hekas is very different from the relationship seen in the Dadra examples. The basic bols of



G 64

Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Na

na;a

�Dha

;Da;a

(0)

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Na

na;a

�

(a) Basic Dadra t.heka

G 64

DhaGe︸︷︷︸;Da;a .gea

(x)

� �Dhin

;�a;DMa�

Te Ke Ta Ke︸︷︷︸.tea :ke ta;a :ke

� � � �DhaGe︸︷︷︸;Da;a .gea

(0)

� �Tin

;�a;tMa

�Te Ke Ta Ke︸︷︷︸.tea :ke ta;a :ke

� � � �

(b) Dadra prakar

Figure 6.8: A variation of Dadra t.heka

Kaherava are not contained in the bhajan ka t.heka. This prakar represents a totally different

interpretation. When there is a restructuring of the bols it is sometimes called a kisma.

We have seen that prakar is the variation upon the t.heka. This may be a simple orna-

mentation or it may be a totally different interpretation of the tal.

There is an interesting relationship between the basic timekeeping and the performance.

One may find alternation between blinding bursts of speed and slow simple accompaniment.

Yet through all of these alternations, the basic rhythm usually does not change. Therefore,

this sets up a situation where we have two rhythms going on simultaneously. One rhythm

is the abstract basic tal indicated by the claps and waves. The other one is the actual

performed piece. The relationship between the performed and the abstract is referred to as

layakari. Common layakari are single–time, double–time, triple–time, etc. One can also find

interesting layakaris such as three–beats–over–two, seven–beats–over–four, etc.



G 84

Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�Ge

.gea�

Na

na;a

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Na

na;a

(0)

�Ge

.gea�

Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Na

na;a

�

(a) Basic Kaherava t.heka

G 84

Dhin

;�a;DMa

(x)

�NaDhin︸︷︷︸na;a ;�a;DMa

� �– Dhin︸︷︷︸– ;�a;DMa

? (�NaGe︸︷︷︸na;a .gea

� �Tin

;�a;tMa

(0)

�NaTin︸︷︷︸na;a ;�a;tMa

� �– Tin︸︷︷︸– ;�a;tMa

? (�NaKa︸︷︷︸na;a k

� �

(b) Bhajan ka t.heka (Kaherava prakar)

Figure 6.9: A variation of Kaherava t.heka

6.2.3 Tihai

The tihai , sometimes called tiya, is the most typical of the Indian cadential forms. It is

defined entirely by its structure, i.e. a tihai is essentially the repetition of a phrase three

times. This triadic structure creates a rhythmic counterpoint which produces a strong sense

of tension in a performance. The resolution on the sam provides the release. It is so important

that the majority of Indian cadenzas are based upon the tihai at some level. Fig. 6.11 is

an example of a tihai . In this example the phrase TeRiKıT. aDha– is repeated three times.

The last Dha of the last iteration corresponds to the first beat of the next cycle.

The most common philosophy for the resolution of a tihai is to resolve upon the sam.

The phrases of the tihai (referred to as pala) may be linked in two ways. One way is to use a

time interval between the three palas (phrases). This is called a dumdar tihai . Dum literally

means “breath”, but has the secondary meaning of a very small unit of time. The second

approach has no gap between phrases. This is referred to as bedum. These two approaches

are shown schematically in fig. 6.10.

The bedum tihai has a number of interesting characteristics. An example of a bedum



Figure 6.10: Structure of Dumdar and Bedum Tihai

G 164

Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Dha

;Da;a�

Dha

;Da;a

(2)

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Dhin

;�a;DMa

�Dha

;Da;a�

Ta

ta;a

(0)

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Tin

;�a;tMa

�Ta

ta;a

�

G 164

(4)


�︷︸︸︷First Iteration

� � �Dha – Te Re︸︷︷︸;Da;a – .tea :=e� @

︷︸︸︷Second Iteration

� �Ke T. e Dha –︸︷︷︸:ke .fe ;Da;a –

� � � @︷︸︸︷Third Iteration


� � � �Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�

Figure 6.11: A Dumdar tihai in Tintal

tihai is shown in fig. 6.12. The phrase TiT. aKaT. aGaDiGeNeDhaTiDha is repeated three

times without any interval between.


6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools 77

G 84

︷︸︸︷

TiT. a︸︷︷︸;�a;ta f

(x)

� �KaT. a︸︷︷︸k f

� �Phrase

GaDi︸︷︷︸Ga ;a;d� �

GeNe︸︷︷︸.gea tea� �

DhaTi︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;�a;ta

(2)

� �DhaTi︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;�a;ta� �

T. aKa︸︷︷︸f k

� �T. aGa︸︷︷︸f Ga

� �

G 84

DiGe︸︷︷︸;a;d .gea

(0)

� �NeDha︸︷︷︸tea ;Da;a

� �TiDha︸︷︷︸;�a;ta ;Da;a

� �TiT. a︸︷︷︸;�a;ta f

� �KaT. a︸︷︷︸k f

(4)

� �GaDi︸︷︷︸Ga ;a;d� �

GeNe︸︷︷︸.gea tea� �

DhaTi︸︷︷︸;Da;a ;�a;ta� �

Dha

;Da;a

(x)

�

Figure 6.12: A bedum tihai in Tintal

6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools

Gharana (lit. “family–household”) may be thought of as a school, style, or approach to the

learning of an instrument and its performing practice.

Today this is concept is peculiar to north Indian music. It is linked to the very an-

cient concept of the Guru–Shishya–Parampara (linage of teacher / disciple) but with some

interesting modern twists.

The names of the gharanas are almost always derived from a geographical location. This

is usually the city, district or state that the founder lived in. Two examples are the Gwalior

Gharana (vocal) or the Farukhabad Gharana (tabla). The gharana system as we think of it

today is not really very old. Most of the gharanas today are not more than 100–300 years

old. The modern gharanas are generally traceable to the period when the Mogul empire

collapsed. Gharanas are found throughout the North in every field of dance, vocal and

instrumental music.

Gharana has important significance for Indian musicians, singers and dancers because

it stands for a particular artistic tradition having an established artistic creditability. There

are pakhawaj, tabla, sitar, or vocal gharanas which are widely recognized and aknowledged

to be the most important because of having developed their own repertoires and individual



performing styles. The most highly esteemed performers of modern times are exponent of

one of these musical traditions.

The gharanas were formerly the important centers of learning. In the professional sense

a gharana had some of the characteristics of a guild. It was always understood that tracing

one’s lineage to a major gharana was a prerequisite for obtaining a position in the royal

courts. The gharanas were entrusted with the duty of maintaining a certain standard of

musicianship. The traditions were passed on by the descendents of the original founders and

their disciples. It was generally expected, however, that the most in–depth teaching was to

be given to the eldest son. But the family traditions were also passed on to disciples who

exhibited special talent as this helped a gharana to strengthen and expand its reputation.

In the artistic sense the gharana is somewhat comparable to a “style” or “school”. Over

the years poor transportation and communication caused the various gharanas to adopt their

own particular approach to presentation, technique and repertoire.

Today, as a result of increased communications and recordings, these traditions are no

longer isolated and restricted to particular family groups. The stylistic differences are less

discernable and more difficult to recognize as there are many performers who perform the

repertoires of various gharanas and imitate the playing styles of other performers. Even

so it is necessary for professional Indian musician to be able to identify with a particular

tradition, so that it is still difficult for aspiring artists not affiliated with a gharana to pursue

a professional career. As a matter of fact, when two Indian musicians meet, is not unusual

to hear them introducing themselves saying first the name of the gharana they belong to.

In former times the gharanas jealously guarded their traditions. Even a father is known

to have refrained from teaching his own son because he feared the son would then pass this

information on to others outside the gharana. This attitude was prevalent in the past and

it is still encountered in certain circles. This has lead to the loss of a great deal of older

repertoire which was never written down or shared with other gharana members.

In the past few decades the gharana system has had a negative impact on the standard of

musicianship. Improvements in communications have made it a professional imperative for

musicians to have as broad of a background as possible. The secretive nature of the gharana


6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools 79

Figure 6.13: Musicians from the same gharana pose proudly

system coupled with the fact that gharanas tended to specialize in only one technique or

approach is inconsistent with modern pedagogic and professional requirements. It is for

this reason that many of the aspects of this system have been abandoned in modern music

colleges in India.

Although each of the gharanas have their own minor variations, there are two major

approaches for the drum playing; Dilli and Purbi. The Dilli style derives its name from

Delhi. It is characterized by a strong emphasis on rim strokes and use of the middle finger.

The Purbi style derives its name from the Hindi word purab. Purab means “Eastern” and

reflects the fact that this style was popular in Lucknow, Benares, and other eastern parts of

the country. The Purbi style is characterized by open hand strokes and a strong emphasis

on material from pakhawaj.



80

Chapter 7

The Kaherawa Tal in Siddha Yogachants

7.1 The basic t.heka and his role in a nama san. kırtana

7.2 Slow, medium, fast thekas (prakars)

7.3 Additional variations

7.4 Cadential material: tihais

7.5 Other phrases

7.6 The bhajan theka

81


82

Chapter 8

The Dadra Tal in Siddha Yoga chants

8.1 The basic t.heka

8.2 Slow, medium, fast prakars

8.3 Tihais

83


84

Chapter 9

Examples of accompanyment

9.1 Accompanying Jyota se Jyota

9.2 Accompanying Gurudeva Amara Pyara

9.3 Accompanying Sadguru Ki Arati

9.4 Accompanying a nama sankirtana

9.4.1 Starting a chant

9.4.2 Speeding up a chant

9.4.3 Skipping to half tempo

9.4.4 Concluding a chant

9.5 The role of cymbals and kartal in a chant

85


86

Appendix A

That – the indian modes

A.1 Swar – the notes

Swar are nothing more than the seven notes of the Indian musical scale. Swar is also called

sur. At a fundamental level they are similar to the solfa of Western music. These are shown

in table A.1. Two of these swar are noteworthy in that they are immutably fixed. These two

notes are shadj (Sa) and pancham (Pa) and are referred to as achala swar. These two swar

form the tonal foundation for all the Indian classical music. The other notes have alternate

forms and are called chala swar.

There are two forms of the names of the notes. There is a full version (i.e. shadj,

rishabh, etc.) and an abbreviated version (i.e., Sa, Re, Ga, etc.). The abbreviated name is

most commonly used. This is called sargam.

Full name Abbreviation Western nameShadj Sa CRishabh Re DGandhara Ga EMadhyam Ma FPancham Pa GDhaivat Da ANishad Ni B

Table A.1: The seven indian Swar (notes)

87

88 That – the indian modes

The swar (notes) are assembled to make the scales. These scales are called saptak. The

swar have special relationships with each other. Although there are only seven notes they

repeat in the upper and lower directions. Therefore, when ascending the scale when one

reaches Ni, then the scales starts over with Sa, Re, Ga, etc. This is the upper register. By

the same token when one is decsending the scale, it does not stop at Sa but continues down

as Ni, Dha, etc.; this is the lower register.

A.2 Saptak – the scales

The word saptak has two meanings. The first is the English word “register”. The second

meaning translates to the English word “gamut” or “the series of seven notes”.

The word saptak in Sanskrit means “containing seven” and is derived from the Sanskrit word

“sapta” which means “seven”. As already said the swar Sa and Pa are immovable. This

forms our perfect fifth. Every other note has various forms. However Hindusthani sangeet

(North Indian system) and Carnatic sangeet (south Indian system) take different views as

to how many, and what these positions shall be.

In Hindusthani sangeet the movable notes have two forms. The notes: rishabh (Re),

gandhara (Ga), dhaivat (Dha), and nishad (Ni) may be either natural (shuddha) or flattened

(komal). Madhyam (Ma) is unique in that its alternate form is augmented or sharp. This

note is called tivra ma. Therefore, we find that we are actually dealing with 12 swar.

This extended concept is shown in table A.2. These are roughly comparable to the keys

on a harmonium, or piano (chromatic scale).

The situation in Carnatic sangeet (the south Indian system) is a bit more complex. In

the South the movable notes Re (Ri), Ga, Dha, and Ni may occupy one of three positions,

natural, flattened, or augmented (sharp). Ma however still only occupies two positions,

either natural or augmented position.

In the previous table is evoked a model which is somewhat similar to the Western

chromatic scale. This is not exactly correct. The Western scale is based upon the equal

tempered scale while the Indian scale is based upon pure tones. Therefore the exact level of


A.2 Saptak – the scales 89

intonations will vary.

Saptak may also mean the gamut of seven notes, or it may mean the octave being

performed (register). Unlike Western music which has an absolute frame of reference, the

North Indian system changes from instrument to instrument. The middle register, referred to

as madhya saptak, is whatever is most comfortable for that person or instrument; everything

else is reckoned from here. Therefore one register above this is referred to as tar saptak; and

the lower register is referred to as mandra saptak. Additionally, two octaves above the middle

is called ati–tar saptak; three octaves is called ati–ati–tar saptak, etc. In a similar manner

two octaves below is called ati–mandra saptak; three octaves below is called ati–ati–mandra

saptak, etc.

Full name Abbreviation Western nameShadj Sa CKomal Rishabh Re D flatShuddha Rishabh Re DKomal Gandhara Ga E flatShuddha Gandhara Ga EShuddha Madhyam Ma F

Tivra Madhyam Ma F sharpPancham Pa GKomal Dhaivat Dha A flatShuddha Dhaivat Dha AKomal Nishad Ni B flatShuddha Nishad Ni B

Table A.2: Alternate forms of the seven indian Swar (notes) in theHindustani system

The register is indicated in traditional notation by the presence or absence of dots. If

there is no dot then the middle register (madhya saptak) is presumed. The dot over a swar

indicates that it is tar saptak. Two dots over the swar indicate that it is ati–tar saptak.

Conversely, a dot below indicates that it is mandra saptak. Two dots below indicate that

the swar is ati–mandra saptak.



A.3 The ten Thats

The that is the specification as to which of the alternate forms of swar (notes) will be chosen

in a rag. Several of the swar have alternate forms: natural (shuddha), flattened (komal). The

permutations of the various forms give rise to numerous scales with vastly differing intervals.

Therefore the concept of that is essentially the same as the Western concept of a mode.

There are 32 seven–note combinations of the swar. However, only ten are conventionally

accepted as thats. These are shown in the figg. A.1, A.2, and A.3 below (where the notation

has been normalised to the tonic of C; no absolute pitch is implied).

There are problems whenever one is talking about the number of thats. Generally only

ten are acknowledged; twenty are in common usage; while 32 are possible given present

concepts of scale construction. This has created a lot of confusion in north Indian pedagogy.

Three common scales which are not part of the ten thats are Ahir Bhairav, Charukesi, or

Kiruvani.

GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(a) That Bilawal (Ionian)

GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

2�Sa

�

(b) That Khammaj (Mixolydian)

Figure A.1: The ten Thats (I)


A.3 The ten Thats 91

GSa�

Re

�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

2�Sa

�

(a) That Kafi (Dorian)

GSa�

Re

�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

2�Sa

�

(b) That Asawari (Aeolian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

2�Sa

�

(c) That Bhairav (Phrygian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(d) That Bhairav

Figure A.2: The ten Thats (II)



GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(a) That Kalyan (Lydian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(b) That Marwa

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(c) That Purvi

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

2�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(d) That Todi

Figure A.3: The ten Thats (III)


Appendix B

Details on drum construction

B.1 The treble head (pudi)

The mridang is a drum of unique tonal quality. This quality is derived primarily from the

complexity in construction of its drumheads. The drumhead, known as pudi, puddi, or purri,

is indeed so complex that it would be safe to say that no other drumhead on earth surpasses

it in this regard, though others may occasionally equal it.

The fashioning of the pudi (drumhead) is a highly specialized craft. This craft is passed

down from father to son in a manner typical of India tradition. The apprenticeship usually

starts in childhood and is completed only when the craftsman reaches full maturity. A close

look at the construction will reveal why it takes so long to learn the craft.

In fig. B.1, one can see the various parts of the pudi. These are: the gajara (braid),

the chat (outer annular membrane), the bharti (inner annular lining), the maidan (main

resonating membrane), and syahi (black spot).

B.1.1 Basic structure

In fig. B.2(a) is shown an expanded cross section (minus the woven hoop called the gajara)

of a mridang pudi. There are basically three parts of the pudi: (i) the weaving (gajara), (ii)

the membranes (iii) the syahi, or shyai, (black spot).

The gajara is composed of several components. The gajara is the most important part

of the pudi as well as the most visible. It is a heavy ring of woven leather and rawhide,

93

94 Details on drum construction

Figure B.1: Parts of Pudi; (1) chat (annular membrane), (2) maidan(main resonating membrane), (3) syahi (black spot), (4)gajara (braid), (5) bharti (inner annular lining)

composed of thong made of thick buffalo hide, which is woven into the pudi around its

periphery. It functions as a tensioning hoop, fitting over the top of the body of the drum

and transferring tension from the lacing to the sounding skin.

The bharti is an invisible layer of skin on the inside surface of the pudi. This is important

for giving mechanical strength to the pudi.

The resonation membrane is basically made of two components, the maidan, or sur,

and the chat, or kinar. The chat is an upper annular layer of skin which covers only the

outer periphery of the sounding surface. It serves a dual purpose. On one hand it gives

mechanical strength to the weaving, but on another level, it is an important part of the

resonating membrane. The chat is important because it has great effect upon the tonal

quality of the drum. The maidan has the distinction of being the only skin which covers the

entire opening. This is therefore the most important part of the pudi.

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most

distinctive part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone.


B.1 The treble head (pudi) 95

B.1.2 Construction

Making the pudi begins by taking the rawhide of a goat and soaking it in water. Once the

rawhide is wet, excess hair and tissue is removed and the whole is allowed to dry.

Templates, known as jal, are used to mark off circles of various sizes for use on various

drums of different dimensions. The circles are then cut and the unused sections are cut into

trapezoids of varying sizes. These trapezoids will be used later.

The circular pieces of skin are now graded as to quality. The lowest grade will have

the centers removed and be used for making the outer covering of the pudi (the chat). The

medium grade is used for low cost, student grade drums, while the highest grade is used for

professional quality pudis. The skins are again soaked in water and removed.

The chat is made now. The lower quality skins are utilized by folding them in half

several times to form a triangle. The tip is cut off, so that when it is unfolded, there will be

a circle of about two to three inches in diameter that has been removed.

The chat now has to be fixed to the main playing skin (maidan). The chat is laid on

top of an intact skin so that the outer surfaces of both skins face up. Insertions are made

parallel to the edge of the skins with a small chisel. Care should be taken so that the chat

is slightly bunched up, so that on the drum all of the tension will be exerted against the

maidan, see fig. B.2(b). A piece of cord is inserted with a large needle and threaded back

and forth through the two skins as the insertions are made. Finally the two ends of the cord

are tied together.

The chat serves several very interesting functions. One of the jobs is to give strength and

durability to the pudi. The main resonating membrane undergoes a tremendous amount of

abuse where it passes over the sharp edge of the drumshell. This extra layer of skin increases

the life span of the head. Under normal use a pudi may last anywhere from 2 to 10 years.

The chat also effects the tone of the instrument. If the chat is very broad and extends

inwards to a great extent, it will decrease the sustain of the instrument. The effects of the

chat upon the tone may be illustrated in several ways. The most obvious is the manner

in which the craftsman trims the chat to give the right tone upon completion of the drum.



(a) Exploded view of the drum andthe pudi

(b) Chat (or Sur) and Maidan (or Ki-nar)

(c) A pudi at an intermediate stageof making

(d) Making the insertion slitsfor the gajara

Figure B.2: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (I)

Another is a trick used by many musicians to enhance the tone of their instruments; a string

is placed around the drum between the chat and the maidan. This may have an effect

which is sometimes subtle and sometimes great. This is a tricks which utilize the acoustic

interactions between the chat and the maidan, thus demonstrating the effect of the chat



(a) Insertion of the threethongs (tasma) and the coreof the Gajara

(b) Top view of the Ga-jara

(c) The finishing point of theGajara

Figure B.3: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (II)

upon the tone of the mridang.

The bharti is made now. The previously mentioned trapezoids are soaked in water, and

laid around the rim of the drumshell. The shorter edges face inside, see fig. B.2(c).

The chat and maidan, joined previously, are now stretched over the bharti and drumshell

and tied securely (fig. B.2(c)). There is no real attachment between the pieces of bharti,

maidan, and chat at the present stage of construction. The attachment will come with the



weaving of the gajara.

The weaving of there gajara begins by making vertical slits around the edge of the drum,

see fig. B.2(d). The bass head requires 64 slits while the treble head requires only 48. Care

must be taken that all layers of the skin have been penetrated.

Two long pieces of buffalo hide are used for the weaving. Each thong (tasma) is first

soaked in water, then lightly covered with oil. As shown in fig. B.3(a), the two thongs are

inserted into three adjacent holes up to their midpoints, thereby making four loose ends.

There must be a central core around which the gajara is woven. This is made by taking two

or three lengths of inferior quality leather thong and wrapping them around the rim, see

figg. B.3(a)and B.3(b).

The gajara the function of transferring the tension from the lacing to the maidan.

However it does so in a manner which is considerably more refined than the hoop found in

Western drums. Unlike Western drums the gajara has a buffering effect upon this tension.

This buffering is important because very little variation in tension is tolerated by the mridang.

This low tolerance is a natural consequence of the requirement for precise tunability. An

interesting feature of this buffering effect is that changing the tension on the bolts functions

as a “course tuning” while lightly hitting the gajara with a small hammer acts as the “fine

tuning”. In practice the majority of the tuning is done without any change in the tension of

the bolts at all.

The gajara also performs the necessary function of joining all three levels of skin (i.e.,

bharti, maidan, and chat) together. Finally the pudi is now removed from the shell and

the bharti is trimmed so that there is an even 1/2 inch projecting into the middle of the

pudi. The function of the bharti appears to be primarily mechanical in nature. The bharti

reinforces the maidan and keeps it from tearing under high tension.

B.1.3 Quality of gajara

The gajara is very important in determining the quality of the puddi. If one looks closely at

the gajara one will see that it weaves the bharti, maidan and chat all together. In order for

this to happen there must be holes to allow the bolt hooks to penetrate. It is this number of



penetration which effect how evenly the tension is going to be distributed. If the head is 5

inches or less, 32 penetrations is usual, otherwise the treble head uses 48 penetrations. For

a bass head, 64 penetrations are the optimum. A lower number is an indication of shoddy

workmanship.

There is an easy way to tell the number of penetrations without counting every slit in

the head. Simply count the number of slits per insertion of bolt hook. Mridang always has

16 bolt hook insertions; therefore, a 2–1 ratio corresponds to 32; 3–1 corresponds to 48; and

4–1 corresponds to 64. The illustrations in B.4, show a 2–1 relationship for the poor quality

gajara, fig. B.4(b), and 3–1 for the good quality gajara, fig. B.4(a).

The bunad is sometimes an indicator for quality. Bunad is a light goatskin which is cross

woven into the heavier buffalo hide. Many areas of India do not use bunad, therefore the

presence or absence is not necessarily significant. However if a pudi without bunad comes

from a shop or locale which normally uses them, then it is a hint that the pudi was rushed

and may not be of the highest calibre.

(a) A gajara of good quality (b) A gajara of bad quality

Figure B.4: Two gajara of different quality

B.1.4 The syhai

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most distinctive

part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone. The process that

takesto the application of the black spot to the head skin is explained below.



A base upon the maidan for the syahi is established. This is done by boiling a small

amount of mucilage (called raal, saresh or sharesh) until it becomes soft and gummy. It is

then applied to the exposed surface of the maidan to form a circle of approximately 3 1/2

to 4 1/2 inches. The circle is then allowed to dry in the sun.

Syahi masala is the key ingredient for the creation of the syahi. This is a commercially

available powder reputed to be made of soot, iron dust, and other unidentified vegetable

matter. It is said that the best syahi masala comes from Bhawnagar in the Western state of

Gujarat. To prepare the paste for syahi, a little vessel is filled with a small quantity of water

and white flour. This is heated and mixed to make a glue (lai). The glue is now mixed with

the syahi masala. The whole mixing process is done in a rubber mat made from an old inner

tube. After a thorough mixing the paste is finished.

The application of a layer involves three steps: (step 1) The syahi paste must be applied.

This is done by using the first finger of the right hand to take up a small quantity of paste.

The paste is quickly applied with a circular motion of the finger to the area previously covered

by the mucilage. Support is given to the first finger by placing the second finger over the

first. (step 2) Excess paste must be removed. This is done by scraping with a curved metallic

strip. The drum is rotated during this process so that the application is of uniform thickness.

(step 3) Polishing with a stone is the final step. Immediately after the excess paste has been

removed, a polished piece of basalt is used to rub the syahi repeatedly. The pressure is very

important; it starts gently and builds up to a considerable level. Periodically the stone is

rubbed against the cheek to deposit a microscopic amount of sweat. The polishing is very

important because it will determine the density of cracks which are visible in the syahi.

Steps 1, 2, and 3 are repeated for more layers. The diameter of each layer remains full

size until four or five layers have been applied (see fig. B.2(a)). Then the diameters are

reduced until the layers are hardly more than half an inch. A few full size layers are again

applied, followed by decreasing sizes. This process continues until the desired thickness and

shape is attained.

The finished syahi is the most distinctive part of the drum head. It has a greater

impact upon the tone than any other part. For a further understanding it is necessary to



understand how membranes resonate. A membrane stretched over a hoop with uniform

tension resonates in a most unmusical manner. It is an inharmonic spectrum with no clearly

defined fundamental. Across the world there are two approaches to modifying the drum’s

tonality. One approach is to further muddle the harmonic structure. The “snare” on a

snare drum is a well known example. This has been a common approach for many Western

drums for centuries. A completely opposite philosophy exists in efforts to give the drum

a more defined pitch. A classic approach is to attach the membrane to a resonator and

use the membrane to excite the resonator. Such an approach is found in the timpani and

conga. Of relatively recent origin (in the West) are methods involving the modification of

the membrane itself. Stories abound of conga players who take a heavy hide and sand the

periphery of the skin so that the finished drumhead is thicker in the middle and thinner

at the edge. Another example is the adhesive dots placed at the center of many marching

drums. For both cases, the increase in mass in the center serves to make the membrane

vibrate in a more harmonic fashion.

This is exactly what the syahi does. It produces a more clearly defined harmonic and

therefore a more clearly defined pitch. One of the ramifications is that a change in the drum

sound can be effected by changing the syahi. Therefore it is quite common to find mridangs

made of the same thickness skin, on the same size rim, with the same tension yet having

very different musical pitches. This is because a thick syahi will naturally resonate at a lower

frequency than a thin one.

The shape of the syahi is also very important. The syahi will always be thicker in the

center than at the edge. But if the geometry is not correct then many of the resonance modes

will not converge in a proper way. The sound will be dissonant with different strokes evoking

different pitches. This is unacceptable to Indian music which require a clearly defined tonal

base.

Moreover, the syahi is applied in numerous thin layers. However it no longer behaves

in this manner. The key to this lies in the network of cracks which permeate the syahi. It is

clear at a glance that the syahi covers a considerable area of skin. It is also obvious that the

ingredients of the syahi harden to the consistency of cement. Such a hard material covering



a substantial area of the skin should hamper the vibration. The cracks are the key to the

syahi having flexibility, even though it is composed of such a rigid material. What appears

to be a monolithic application is in reality a matrix of unconnected particles, bound firmly

to the skin but unconnected to each other. Because they are unconnected the syahi exhibits

a surprising degree of flexibility.

B.1.5 Quality of syhai

For a good syahi it is especially important that it have a tight grain of cracks, see fig. B.5.

Syahi is made of a hard material whose stiffness would impede the vibrations of the skin were

it not for a simple mechanism. The cracks represent particles which are joined only to the

skin below and merely articulate with each other. This is how the syahi is able to be flexible

even though it is composed of inflexible material. The density of the cracks represents the

degree of flexibility. A high density is very desirable because it indicates a high flexibility. A

low density is bad because it indicates a low flexibility. Figg. B.5(a)and B.5(b) show typical

examples.

(a) A syhai of good quality (b) A syhai of poor quality

Figure B.5: Two syhai of different quality

Fig. B.6 shows a drum which has major damage to the syahi. The recommended

procedure is to replace the entire pudi. In India one would simply replace the syahi; however,

this is a very labor intensive operation and is not practical in the West.

A minor damage to the syahi is indicated by an annoying “buzz” or missing particles.



Figure B.6: Major Damage to Syahi - The recommended repair forsuch damage is replacement of the pudi

Missing particles may be esthetically unpleasant but in no way effect the sound. A loose

particle on the other hand adversely effects the sound. It is often possible to fix loose particle

without resorting to major work. Unfortunately one must first find it.

(a) A normal syhai (b) A syhai with loose parti-cles

Figure B.7: Particles of syhai

One way to locate the particle is to hold the drum upside down under a strong light

then strike it. If the drum is struck in this position it is often possible to see the loose

particle with the naked eye. See figg. B.7(a) and B.7(b). This is a very good approach when

it works because you can see exactly where the loose particle is. Unfortunately it doesn’t

always work.



There is another way which always works but does not allow one to isolate a single

particle. Lightly strike the drum with a Tin stroke. Now slightly rotate the drum. Repeat

the process. If one moves around the rim in this manner it will be seen that in one rotation

there will be heavy buzz, light buzz, heavy buzz, light buzz. Now pay very close attention

to the last two fingers during this process. These two points of the light buzz described

a line which bisects the drumhead. The loose particle will be somewhere on this line. In

practice both of these techniques may be used together to isolate the particle. When the

loose particle is found one simply has to place a tiny drop of white glue or super glue to bind

it to an adjacent particle. The buzz usually disappears.


Appendix C

A list of suppliers of Indianinstruments

105

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