multidetector computed tomographic study of amulets

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Multidetector Computed Tomographic Study of Amulets,Jewelry, and Other Foreign Objects in Royal EgyptianMummies Dated From the 18th to 20th Dynasties

Sahar N. Saleem, MBBCh, MSc, MD* and Zahi Hawass, PhD†

Objective: The objective of this study was to study the role ofmultidetector computed tomography (MDCT) in the analysis of foreignobjects found within or on the royal Egyptian mummies.Methods: We studied MDCT images of 15 royal Egyptian mummies(1493-1156 BC) for the presence of foreign objects. We studied eachfound object for its location, morphology, dimensions, and density incorrelation with the archeologic literature.Results: We detected 14 objects in 6 mummies: a heart amulet, 3 Eye ofHorus, 4 Sons of Horus, a crowned-Osiris amulet, 2 bracelets, 2 sets ofbeads/stones, and an arrowhead that may be linked to injury. The MDCTimages suggested the material of the objects to be metal (n = 6), semipre-cious stone (n = 1), quartzlike (faience) (n = 2), and fired clay (n = 5).Placement of an amulet within the heart supports our knowledge that itsfuneral purpose was meant for the purpose of protection.Conclusions: Multidetector computed tomography offers a detailednoninvasive analysis of objects on/in mummies and differentiates funeraryobjects from those that may be related to cause of death.

Key Words: mummy, CT, amulet, funeral, royal, Egypt

(J Comput Assist Tomogr 2014;38: 153–158)

Ancient Egyptians had elaborate burial customs that they be-lieved to be necessary to aid the deceased on the journey to

the underworld. As prescribed by the Book of the Dead, themummified body was adorned with jewelry, gold, and amulets.1

The word amulet comes from the Latin word amuletum,meaning “an object that protects a person from trouble.”1,2

The ancient Egyptians used a variety of objects as amuletssuch as engraved gems, statues, and pendants that were placedbeneath the wrappings or inside the body cavities of themummy.1,2 Each amulet had an occult purpose to protect themummy and guard the deceased organs.1 The mummificationand burial process evolved throughout time, and this includedthe magic spells and the used objects. The type of material usedin funerary objects also depended on the individual wealth.1 Theroyal ancient Egyptian mummies at the Cairo Museum in Egyptare a unique and important resource for studying the funeralcustoms of their time.1,3,4

Computed tomography (CT) has been used in mummies’studies as an accurate, noninvasive method for evaluation of amummy without performing dissection.5 Multidetector computedtomography (MDCT) is an advanced CT technology that is capa-ble of performing complete noninvasive examination of the

*Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kasr Al Ainy; and †Ministryof State for Antiquities, Egypt, Cairo.Received for publication October 10, 2013; accepted October 12, 2013.Reprints: Sahar N. Saleem, MBBCh, MSc, MD, 4 St, 49 Mokattam, 11571,

Cairo, Egypt (e‐mail: [email protected]).The authors declare no conflict of interest.Copyright © 2014 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

J Comput Assist Tomogr • Volume 38, Number 2, March/April 2014

Copyright © 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Unau

mummy in a short time using thin sections.3,6 The advent ofgraphics workstations and image-processing software packagesenables reconstruction of the CT images in 2 and 3 dimensionsand provides information about surface details and materialdensities.7,8

We aimed to use MDCT to detect and study any foreignobjects placed on or within the royal ancient Egyptian mummiesdated from the 18th to 20th dynasties for a better understandingof the funerary preparations in that ancient era.

MATERIALS AND METHODSWe studied the CT images of 15 royal ancient Egyptian

mummies dated from the 18th to the early 20th dynasties (circa1493–1156 BC) placed at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Egypt,for the presence of foreign objects. Table 1 includes the identityand social status of the mummies listed in chronological order.

The 2 mummified fetuses (317a and 317b) were studied atthe Faculty of Medicine in Cairo University (Cairo, Egypt) usingLightSpeed (GE Healthcare) with a protocol that was previouslydescribed.9 All of the other mummies were scanned using anMDCT unit (SOMATOM Emotion 6; Siemens Healthcare) in-stalled on a truck at the Egyptian Museum (Cairo, Egypt) usinga protocol that was previously described.3

Using a separateworkstation (Leonardo; SiemensHealthcare),we inspected the CT images for the presence of any foreign objectslocated within or on the mummies. We performed 2-dimensional(2D) and 3-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of the images ofany found object using varying window width parameters andvolume-rendering techniques. We also used additional software(InVesalius 3.0 available at http://www.cti.gov.br/invesalius/) for3D processing of the CT images.

We evaluated CT images of each found object for thefollowing:

Location andmetric measurements:We determined the exactlocation of the object in relation to the mummy and performedprecise metric measurements and morphological analysis.

Attenuation values measurements: We measured the attenua-tion values of the object in Hounsfield units (HUs) by placingregions of interest (ROIs) in 4 different locations for which themean HU and the standard deviation (SD) were determined. Wesuggested the material of the object by comparing its attenuationvalue with reference standards.8 Metals were identified when anobject with a high-attenuation value (greater than 2978 HU)caused metal streaking artifacts. Metal streaking artifacts are darkstreaks along the long axis of the single high-attenuation objectwith bright streaks adjacent to the dark streaks. We reduced metalstreaks artifacts by applying the metal deletion technique (MDT)on digital imaging and communications inmedicine CT images.10

Surroundings: We inspected the surroundings of the foreignobjects for any associated or related findings such as presence ofother objects, embalming materials, or distorted anatomy.

We suggested the identity of any found object by correlatingits shape and CT features with the data written in archeologic

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thorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

http://www.cti.gov.br/invesalius/

mailto:[email protected]

TABLE 1. Identification, Social Status, and CT Evidences ofPresence of Foreign Objects in Relation to 15 Royal EgyptianMummies Dated From 18th to 20th Dynasties

Name Royal Status

No. DetectedObjects in

CT

Thutmose I* (1493-1481 BC) King 1Thutmose II (1481-1479 BC) King 0Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC) King 2Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC) King 0Tiye (1390-1353 BC†) Queen 1‡Thuya (1390-1353 BC†) Mother of

Tiye0

Yuya (1390-1353 BC†) Father of Tiye 0Akhenaten§ (1353-1336 BC) King 0Young Lady of KV 35 (1353-1336 BC) Queen║ 0317a (1336-1327 BC) Princess¶ 0317b (1336-1327 BC) Princess¶ 0Seti I (1290-1279 BC) King 4#Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC) King 1Merenptah (1213-1204 BC) King 0Ramesses III (1187-1156 BC) King 5

*The mummy that was found in Theban Tomb number 320 (TT320)and was assumed to be that of Thutmose I, but the identity was notsettled.

†Dated from the reign of Amenhoteop III.

‡A set of multiple beads/stones.

§The mummy found in Kings Valley tomb number 55.

║The wife of Akhenaten and mother of Tutankhamun.

¶Fetus, daughter of Tutankhamun.

#Objects include a set of multiple beads/stones in addition to 3amulets (heart amulet and 2 Eye of Horus).

KV indicates Kings Valley.

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literature and with photographs of similar objects placed atthe Egyptian Museum in Cairo, Egypt, or at other museums inthe world.

RESULTSWe identified 14 foreign objects in the CT images of

6 mummies, whereas no foreign bodies could be detected in rela-tion to the other 9 mummies. The largest number of objects was5 detected in the mummy of Ramesses III (Table 1).

Computed tomographic features of the found objects areincluded in Table 2:

Location of the objects in relation to the mummies: Nineobjects were found within the body cavities of the mummies,whereas the other 5 objects were detected on the body surfaceor within the wrappings of the mummies (Fig. 1).

Metric measurements: The dimensions of the objectsvaried between 5 and 120 mm.

Attenuation values: The attenuation value of the objectsranged between 1034 and 3919 HU. Table 2 includes the suggestedmaterials of the foreign objects by relating their measured attenua-tion values with reference data.8 Computed tomographic densitiessuggest that the objects are made of metal (n = 6), semipreciousstone (n = 1), quartzlike or faience (n = 2), and fired clay (n = 5).Streak artifacts in the CT images of metal objects were markedly

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reduced by applying MDT, which enabled a better detection of allof the metallic objects (Fig. 2).

Morphology: The 2D and 3D reconstructed CT imagesdelineated the morphology of the found objects (Figs. 1–6).

Identity of the found objects: The CT morphology of thefound objects in correlation with data in archeologic literatureaided in their identification.

We categorized the found objects into the following:A. Jewelry (n = 2): bracelets (Fig. 3)B. Amulets (n = 9) include 3 Eye-of-Horus amulets (Fig. 1),

4 Sons of Horus (Fig. 4), an oblong amulet that likely representsa Crowned Osiris (Fig. 5), and a heart amulet (Fig. 6).

C. Stones or beads (n = 2): 2 setsD. Other (n = 1): We detected a metallic triangular object within

the chest cavity of the mummy found in TT320. The objectresembles the shape of a projectile point (arrowhead) thatmight have caused chest injury.

Associated Findings:- The metallic arrowhead within the right hemithorax of themummy found in TT320 is surrounded by multiple smallerdense metallic fragments (Fig. 1); a metallic object (10 mmin the long axis) is also seen in the left hemithorax belowthe head of the 11th rib. The right hemithorax is filled withheterogeneous moderately dense substance (120 to 275 HU),whereas the left side of the chest is almost empty except forthe presence of a moderately dense substance (201 HU) at itsbase (Fig. 1A). The chest wall on the right side appears moder-ately thicker than that on the left side; however, no definite evi-dence of skin wound could be detected.

- The heart amulet within the chest of Seti I mummy issurrounded by moderately dense tissues (250 HU) that likelyrepresents a resin-treated linen pack and possible remnants ofheart tissues.

- A metallic amulet in the shape of the Eye of Horus is placed inthe front lower neck of the mummy of Ramesses III thatoverlies a cut wound of the structures of the throat.

DISCUSSIONFunerary jewels and amulets continued to be important

throughout the ancient Egyptian history. In the Old Kingdom,unwrapped mummies contained 10 to 15 amulets. However,the number and variety of the found objects increased with timein the Middle and New Kingdoms.1 The intact mummy of KingTutankhamun, dated from the 18th dynasty (New Kingdom),had 143 amulets scattered throughout the wrappings.4

Previous studies indicated CT examination as a valuablenoninvasive tool in mummy researches.3,5–9,11 In this study,CT enabled a precise noninvasive investigation of 15 royalmummies dated from the 18th to early 20th dynasties for thepresence of foreign objects. The CT images detected 14 foreignobjects in 6 mummies, whereas the other 9 mummies showedno related foreign objects. The largest number of found objectswas 5 in the mummy of Ramesses III. The paucity of amuletsand other found foreign objects in this study does not seem tobe the custom in this ancient Egyptian era for royal statussubjects.1 However, the funerary valuable objects in the royalmummies had been always the targets of grave robbers overthe centuries.12 Archaeological references document that allof the examined mummies in this study had been vandalized

© 2014 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins


TABLE 2. Computed Tomographic Characters and Suggested Identity Of Foreign Objects Found in CT Images in 15 RoyalAncient Egyptian Mummies Dated From the 18th to 20th Dynasties

MummyLocation of the Object inRelation to the Mummy

CT Features of the Object:Morphology, Dimensions CT Density

Suggested Identity of theFound Object

Thutmose I Right lower chest cavity A triangular dense object (20 mm in length and19.5 mm in width) within the right hemithorax*

3067 HU; SD, 4 A metallic arrowhead likelyrelated to chest injury

ThutmoseIII

At the distal right forearm A hollow cylinder with elliptical base(49.6 mm � 26.6 mm), 50 mm in height,and 9-mm tube wall thickness

3060 HU; SD, 7 Broad metallic bracelet

At the distal right forearm(distal to broad bracelet)

A hollow cylinder elliptical base (54 mm� 40 mm);4.5–9mm in height, and 5-mm tubewall thickness

3067 HU; SD, 4 Narrow metallic bracelet

Tiye Torso cavity Set of multiple round/oval objects (10–20 mm indiameter)

1890 HU; SD, 229 Beads/stones likely madeof quartz (faience)

Seti I Right upper chest cavity A small oval object (49 mm � 26mm � 25 mm) 2670 HU; SD, 50 Heart amulet made of stonesIn the wrappings at theback of the left arm

Flat plate with projections(40 mm x 15 mm � 1mm)

3066 HU; SD, 4 Eye of Horus metallicamulet

In the wrappings of on theleft side of the backopposite L3

A small oval object (28 mm � 26 mm � 33mm)with geometric openwork designs andprocesses

3068 HU; SD, 1 Metallic amulet likely theWedjat Eye of Horus

In the wrappings betweenthe thighs

A set of 11 small barrel-shaped objects(5–6 mm in length)

3070 HU; SD, 3 Metallic beads

Ramses II Inside the left upper chestcavity

Oblong-shaped object (67 mm � 14 mm � 120mm)with an upper and lower processes

1100 HU; SD, 30 A fired clay statue likely thecrowned Osiriscarrying a scepter

Ramses III Front of the neck at C7level behind theRight s-c-m

Flat plate with processes(15 mm � 11 mm � 6 mm)

2166 HU; SD, 16 Eye of Horus amulet likelymade of quartz (faience)

Inside the left lower chestcavity

Four uninscribed/briefly inscribed figures(each approximately 100mm� 25mm� 15mm)with heads of a human, a falcon, a baboon, and ajackal from the front to the back

1034 HU; SD, 25 Figures of the 4 sons ofHorus likely made offired clay

NB measurements are provided in length, width, and depth.

*Multiple (1-2 mm) metallic fragments in the right hemithorax and a larger metallic fragment (7 mm� 18 mm� 10mm) at the head of the left 11th rib.

C7, the seventh cervical vertebra; L3, third lumbar vertebra; s-c-m, sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle.

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except for the 2 female fetuses assigned as 317a and 317b,who were initially found intact in the tomb of their fatherTutankhamun.12–16 We thus suggest that the cause of the scarcenumber of found objects in the studied mummies was likelyrelated to grave robbery.

The reconstructed CT images in multiple planes helped indetermining precisely the location of the objects in relation tothe mummies: 9 objects were found within the body cavities ofthe mummies, whereas 5 objects were located on the mummieswithin the wrappings.

Computed tomographic technology enables precise metricand attenuation measurements of the objects.3 The size of thefound objects varied markedly between 5 and 120 mm. Mea-surements of the density of an object in CTusing HU can be alsotaken as a guide to identify its composition by comparing thevalue with reference data.8 However, values are in range of varia-tion rather than absolute; HU value is not sufficient to unequivo-cally identify the material composition of an object but rather toconsiderably narrow the list of possible substances.8 The CT at-tenuation values of the objects in this study varied considerably,suggesting that they were made from different materials such asmetal, stones, quartz (faience), and fired clay. This is consistentwith what is known of the various materials used by the ancientEgyptians in the manufacture of their jewelry and amulets.1



The reconstructed CT images in multiple planes in thisstudy helped in revealing the morphology of the found objectsin relation to the mummies, which helped in suggesting theiridentity and purpose. We categorized these objects as jewelry,amulets, stones/beads, or an object that might have causedinjury.

From the predynastic period onward, mummified corpseswore jewelry ranging from shells and beads to gold and semipre-cious stones. The most common ornaments were collars, braceletsfor wrists, bands for ankles, earrings, and rings.1,2 Two categoriesof jewelry have been found in relation to ancient Egyptianmummies. The first is burial jewelry made specifically for theburial from wood covered with a thin layer of gold leaf.1 Thesecond is real jewelry used during life time of the deceased.1,4

In this study, CT images identified 2 solid metallic bracelets,likely made of gold, worn by the mummified Thutmose III. Inarchaeology texts, this type of bracelets was commonly wornduring life by both kings and queens at that time. In the litera-ture, the ancient Egyptian men even seem to have appreciatedjewelry more than the women did because there was hardly amale figure who did not wear earring, bracelets, or necklaces.17

At the final stage of mummification after desiccation andevisceration, the embalmers placed objects, such as amuletsand funerary statues, inside the body cavities or wrapped them

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FIGURE 1. Two-dimensional reconstructed CT images of the torso of the mummified King Seti I (1290-1279 BC) in the frontal (A) andlateral (B) projections. The images show 3 dense foreign objects in relation to the mummy’s torso. The combination of multiplanarCT images helps in accurate determination of the location of the objects. The arrowhead points to the pot-shaped heart amulet withinthe right upper chest cavity; the short arrow points to a fenestrated Eye of Horus amulet with its characteristic oval shape andprocesses located within the wrappings behind the left humerus; and the long arrow points to a smaller Eye of Horus amulet placed withinthe wrappings at the left side of the back of the mummy.


in bandages while the priests recited prayers and burned in-cense.18 The ancient Egyptians believed that amulets functionedin a magical way to ensure a safe, healthy, and productive after-life to the deceased.1 Ancient Egyptians believed that the magiccontained in an amulet was not only from its shape but also fromits material, color, the grouping of several forms, and words saidor ingredients rubbed over it.2,19 Small representations of animalsseem to have functioned as amulets in the Predynastic Period(circa 4500-3100 BC). In the Old Kingdom (circa 2649-2150 BC),most amulets took animal or human forms, whereas amuletsdepicting recognizable deities begin to appear in the MiddleKingdom (circa 2030-1640 BC). The New Kingdom (circa1550-1070 BC) and the Third Intermediate Period (circa1070-712 BC) showed a progressive increase in the quantity andforms of the amulets. In this study, CT images helped in the iden-tification of 9 amulets and funerary statues that included a heartamulet, Wedjat Eye of Horus, statues of the 4 Sons of Horus,and an oblong-shaped amulet likely of a Crowned Osiris.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the heart (Ib) was thesource of intelligence, memory, feelings, and passion. Unlike

FIGURE 2. Computed tomographic images of the chest of the mummKing Thutmose I (1493-1481 BC). A, Axial CT image shows a dense meB, The same axial image after elimination of the artifacts using MDT shreconstructed image in the frontal projection of the lower part of the rigits tip directed upward and laterally (arrow). We suggest that this cou

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other organs, the heart was not removed during mummification.The heart amulet stands among the most important items ofmagical protection in ancient Egypt beginning in the NewKingdom; it protects the heart of the deceased.1 A heart am-ulet was usually made of semiprecious stones. Heart amuletswere placed inside the chest of the deceased above the heartafter all of the other organs had been removed.1 The CT imagesdetected a heart amulet within the chest cavity of Seti I; its CTdensity suggested that it was made of a semiprecious stone. Theamulet is wrapped with tissues likely containing remains ofthe heart; this supports our knowledge of the funeral purposeof the amulet to protect the heart in the afterlife.1,19

The Wedjat symbol represented the Eye of Horus, whichprotected the wearer against all evils by taking the power ofthe god. The Eye of Horus amulet was extremely popular withboth the living and the dead from the Old Kingdom into theGreco-Roman Period. In the New Kingdom onward, this amuletwas also placed near the eviscerating incision for protection andhealing.1,20 Two- and 3-dimensional reconstructed CT imagesrevealed 3 objects in the shape of the Eye of Horus amulet, with

y found in a tomb (TT320) that was alleged to be that oftallic object (3067 HU) that is partially obscured by streak artifacts.ows well the triangular shape of the object. C, Three-dimensionalht chest shows that the object has the shape of an arrowhead withld be a part of a weapon that probably caused death.



FIGURE 3. Three-dimensional reconstructed CT in the frontalprojection of the crossed forearms of the mummy ofKing Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC) shows a narrow bracelet(short arrow) and a broader bracelet (long arrow) at the distalright forearm. The high density of the bracelets (approximately3060 HU) suggests that they aremetallic and likely a golden jewelry.Figure 3 can be viewed online in color at www.jcat.org.

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its characteristic teardrop marking, within the wrappings of themummy of Seti I and on a cut throat injury in the mummifiedRamesses III. Detection of the Eye of Horus in this study on awound documents its healing symbolism in ancient Egypt.21

Computed tomographic images in this study indicated that the3 amulets of the Eye of Horus have different designs (solid orfenestrated) and variable attenuation values that indicate thatthey were made from different materials (metal and semipre-cious stones). These CT findings confirm what we knowthat the ancient Egyptians used variable designs and differentmaterials in making their amulets.1

The ancient Egyptian embalmers occasionally put figuresthat represented the 4 Sons of Horus within the body cavities

FIGURE 4. Three-dimensional reconstructed CT image in thecoronal oblique projection of the chest of the mummifiedKing Ramesses III (1187-1156 BC) shows 4 figures with differentshapes that represent the 4 Sons of Horus occupying the left lowerchest cavity. The density of the figures (1034 HU) suggests thatthey are made of fired clay.



of the mummies for protection and guarding of the organs.22,23

Computed tomographic examination in this current study iden-tified all of the figures of the 4 Sons of Horus within the chestcavity of Ramesses III. The reconstructed CT images identifiedthe different heads associated with the 4 Sons: Imsety with a hu-man head that protects the liver, Hapy with a baboon head thatprotects the lungs, Duamutef with a jackal head that protects thestomach, and Kebehsenuef with the falcon head that protects theintestine.1,21,23 The CT density indicated that these figures ofthe 4 Sons of Horus were likely made of faience or fired clay.This is in concordance with the archeologic literature that the4 sons of Horus are common in glazed faience but rarer in hardstone, gold, silver, bronze, or wax.1 In contrast to Harris andWente’s claim during their x-ray examination of the mummyof Ramesses III that there were only 3 figures,24 CT demon-strated all of the 4 Sons of Horus. Computed tomography alsoidentified an oblong-shaped figure within the chest of the mum-mified Ramesses II and suggested that it might be the fired claycrowned Osiris deity carrying scepters. The CT images alsohelped in revealing the metallic beads between the thighs ofthe mummy of Seti I and the multiple beads made of stoneswithin the torso cavity of the mummy of Queen Tiye. Thesebeads were likely placed by the embalmers for protection ofthe mummies or other occult reasons.

In this study, CT examinations helped in investigating theidentity of objects of query that were found in relation to themummies. The CT images identified a triangular metallic objectwithin the right chest cavity of the mummy found in ThebanTomb number 320 (TT320). The object has the appearance ofan arrowhead that resembles in shape the projectile points usedby the ancient Egyptians at that time.25 These CT findings are inconsistency with a previous report that suggested that an arrowwound to the chest may have been the cause of death.3 The ar-rowhead is surrounded by a moderately dense material thatcould be a blood clot; however, the CT appearance of ancientblood residues is not known. An argument against the theoryis that the triangular object is a funerary amulet embeddedin embalming material that was placed deliberately by theembalmers within the mummy’s chest. However, to the best ofour knowledge, the literature does not show that the ancientEgyptians used triangular-shaped metallic amulets. Moreover,the presence of multiple metallic fragments in the chest may

FIGURE 5. Three-dimensional reconstructed CT image in thecoronal oblique projection of the chest of the mummifiedKing Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC) shows clearly an oblong-shapedstatue with upper and lower processes; it likely represents thecrowned Osiris. The CT density of the statue (1100 HU) suggeststhat it is likely made of fired clay.

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FIGURE 6. A, Axial CT image of the upper chest cavity of the mummified King Seti I (1290-1279 BC) shows a dense object. Identificationof linen and tissue residue (likely cardiac) surrounding the amulet supports our knowledge that its funeral was meant for the protectionpurpose of the heart in the afterlife. B, Three-dimensional CT reconstructed image of the heart amulet shows its potlike shape. TheCT density of the amulet (2670 HU) suggests that is likely made of stone.


support the theory of injury during a combat rather than beingpart of a mummification process.

We conclude that MDCT enables noninvasive detection,analysis, and identification of foreign bodies found in relationto royal ancient Egyptian mummies, which enable suggestionof their identity and function. This CT study helps in protectingthe human cultural heritage, understanding the ancient Egyptianfuneral ceremonies, and differentiating funerary objects fromthose that may be related to cause of death.

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