16

Mushroom effigies in world archaeology from rock art to mushroom-stones

Giorgio Samorini

Abstract The prehistoric ejjigies of mushrooms are of two kinds painted or engraved on the rock or carved on the stone constituting the so-called mushroom-stones n In the most cases the mushroom represented are of the entheogenic kind ie they induce modified states of consciousness spiritually and religiously intelpreted The mushroom effigies engraved or painted on the rock are generally inserted in ritual and initiatory scenes and the mushroomshystones pertain to specific sacred spaces

The oldest mushroom effigies have been identified within the Saharian Epi-Palaeolithic paintings ofthe Round Heads phase dated back to 7000-5000 BC Other mushroom effigies in palaeolithic contexts have been found in the rock paintings of Fuente de Selva Pascal Spain dated back to 6000-4000 BC and in the Siberian rock engravings produced by ProOshyEschimoaleutic tribes Beside few neolithic findings mushroom effigies have been identified in the Bronze Age rock art ofScandinavia England and Southern France

Concerning the mushroom-stones their size may be quite variable the Mesoamerican ones mainly belonging to the Pre-classic Maya culture are in average 30 cm high In Eurasia mushroom-stones with big size are found from the kuda-kallu of Kerala South India J-2 m high and constituted by 5 big engraved stones to the mushroom-stones - the biggest so far known - recently identified in Thrace that are 4 m high and more and that have been obtained through engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks The comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones - of which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows an analogy in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent and give evidence to the Thracian mushroom-stones as an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the Indo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the Vedic Soma to the Thracian god Sabatius and to the original figure ofthe Hellenic Dionysos

The origins of the relationship between man and mushrooms are lost in the night of the times This relationship is studied by a multidisciplinary scientific domain the ethnomycology Depending on the kind of function held by the human relationship with the mushrooms it is possible to recognize six areas of competence I) ethnomycology of edible mushrooms 2) toxicological ethnomycology 3) medicinal ethnomycology 4) magic ethnomycology 5) ethnomycology of psychoactive mushrooms 6) manufacturing ethnomycology (Samorini 2001 3)

Concerning the psychoactive mushrooms the ethnomycology makes use of many humanistic disciplines from anthropology to philology from history of religions to archaeology The origins of the human experience with the psychoactive mushrooms and more generally with the visionary sources - vegetal or animal - inducing a deep modified state of consciousness appears to be very old Concerning the mushrooms the archeological data individuated the oldest cases during the epi-Palaeolithic times among collector-hunting populations but the origins could be older

Considering the world prehistoric and protohistoric times - which is the theme of the present article - it is possible to recognize four classes of archaeological findings in association with mushrooms specially if we consider the whole mushroom kingdom starting from the Basidiomycetes - the higher mushrooms constituted by a stem and a cap - to the lower mushrooms like ergot (Claviceps spp) and molds (Aspergillus Penicillium etc) 1) Effigies of mushrooms identified in rock art painted or engraved on the rock 2) Effigies of mushrooms carved on immovable or mobile rock giving the so-called mushroom-stones

17

3) Effigies of mushrooms in other sources of plastic art like clay or metal objects 4) Biological remains of which for the mushrooms very few cases are known

In tbe present article Ill focus the attention to the first two classes of archaeological findings

Concerning the findings of tbe third class mushroom-like forms represented in clay amber copper gold objects have been found in many countries and their frequency significantly increase while reaching the historic times But in the most cases dealing with findings for which it is not possible to go back up to their original functional context it is difficult to demonstrate the intentionality of the representation of the mushroom symbolism Concerning the biological findings bio-archaeological analysis showed the presence of ergot in the anthropic sites starting from 18000 BP in the Middle East and 5400 BP in Europe (Aaronson 1989 Boyd 1986 Gluza 1984) Ergot is a lower mushroom which infects the wild and cultivated graminaceous spikes Its hard sclerotia are highlighted as little horns on the ripen spikes ricb in toxic or psychoactive alkaloids their history accidentally or intentionally interlace with the history of the prehistoric man collector and later cultivator of these graminaceous plants (Samorini 1992) Significant is the finding of ergot sclerotia in the stomachs of the Grauballe Man and the Tolund Man belonging to Danish sites dated back to the 500 BC (Helbaek 1950)

Rock art Sahara Desert

Before turning into a desert the Sahara region was cut across by rivers and lakes and was covered by a lush plant life and populated by human tribes These peoples left behind a rich variety of rock paintings that have been preserved by the desertification and consequential dehydration of the area

The ethnomycological documentation I have identified belongs to the characteristic Round Heads period (Samorini 1989 1992b) The absolute chronology of this pictorial epoch is still uncertain although it is generally estimated to have been between 9000 and 7000 BP Very recently radiocarbon analysis suggested the dates between 5950 BC and 4810 BC for someone of the Tassili paintings (Hachid et aI 2010) The highest concentration of the Round Heads rock paintings is found in Tassili (Algeria) they can also be found in Tadrart Acacus (Libya) Ennedi (Chad) and more sporadically in Djebel Ouenat (Egypt) (Sansoni 1994)

One of the most significant and comprehensive scenes is found in a rock-shelter of the Tin-Tazarift site (South Tassili) it portrays a series of masked individuals lined up and in hieraticdancing position encircled by long and waving geometrical design festoons of various kinds which quite likely have a very specific meaning now lost on us (fig 1) Each dancer is holding a mushroom-shaped object in his right hand surprisingly two dotted parallel lines are depicted starting from the point of contact between the hand and the mushroom-like object which reach the central point above the head Two borns originate from the head The dou6ie line could denote an indirect connection or an immaterial fluid passing between the object held in the hand (or the act of holding it in ones hand) and the human mind This association fits in well with a mycological interpretation if one keeps in mind the universal mental value (often mystical-spiritual in nature) of experiences involving psychotropic mushrooms It has been suggested that in Palaeolithic and post-Palaeolithic art the dotted lines could intend to represent immaterial things while the continuous lines could intend to represent material things (Dowson 1989 Samorini 1995)

In a shelter in Tin-Abouteka again in Tassili a pattern appears at least twice connecting mushrooms with fish a unique symbolic association among the ethnomycological cults (fig 2) Two mushrooms are portrayed across from each other and perpendicular to the fish drawings at about the height of the caudal region Further up other fish can be seen with similar features and size as the others but without the two mushrooms at the sides

18

This ethnomycological cult shows a certain richness in the repetition of the figures so as to suggest a definite associated conceptual structure Two southern Tassili paintings from the Aouanrhat and Matalem-Amazar sites (fig 3 4) are such examples both about 80 cm in height with the mask and stance typical of the period (bent legs and arms folded downwards) Another common characteristic which largely helps to identify them consists of the presence of mushroom-like objects that come out of the forearms and thighs while others are grasped in the hands In the Matalem-Amazar figure these objects are dotted all around the outline of the body

In these cases too the mushroom-like elements represent the same symbol as was found in various scenes from the Round Heads period and are interpreted here just as mushrooms These elements have been read by many authors as the tips of arrows rowing boats (Mori 1975) vegetables even flowers (Lhote 1973 210 251) or as unidentifiable enigmatic symbols The shape that more closely matches that of the cult object in question is the mushroom more than likely of the psychotropic kind whose socio-sacred use is marked in the scenes showing its harvest and offering as well as in the expressive dance rituals in the phosphene geometric work and in the visionary productions from Tassili

The fungiform symbolism seems to be represented in two different ways as a realistic object held in the hands of the figures (usually masked or with special head-dresses) or as an element coming out of the body

The Round Heads artwork is strewn with figures of various degrees of anthropomorphism with a fungiform head Some have a pointed cap-head or with a papilla others hold a leaf or branch in their hand In many cases archaeologists themselves labelled the figures as having fungiform heads (tete-champignon) without actually attaching any ethnomycological symbolic value to it ie without making a direct reference to mushrooms This is the case for example of the paintings found in the Algerian region of Immidir north of the Hoggar mountain range These paintings may very well belong to the Round Heads period (Muzzolini et al 1991)

Several data suggest the existence of an ancient cult with a complex variety of psychoactive botanical species accompanied by associated mythological representations It is not easy to devise a hypothesis about the mushroom species that are portrayed-their biochemical characteristics are partly at the root of the kind of mental experience they provide-as they belong to a flora that is no longer present in todays barren Sahara basin The paintings let one infer the presence of at least two species one of small size often with papilla on the very top and with similar characteristics to most of the currently known hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms while the other is oflarger size (like Boletus or Amanita)

The pollen analyses carried out on Tassili highlighted the kind of mountain vegetation that would have been found there during the Round Heads period consisting of various conifers and oak (AAVV 1986 97) it can be assumed that the depicted mushrooms were part of this belt of forest and that at least the larger sized ones relied heavily on some of these tree species (symbiotic mushrooms)

Verified these paintings belong to a Palaeolithic more specifically to an epishyPalaeolithic culture for the first time we come across evidence of the use of psychoactive mushrooms in the Stone Age Thus the hypothesis by Wasson et al (1986) that the knowledge of sacred mushrooms originated in the Stone Age appears to have been confirmed

Selva Pascuala Spain Recently it has been proposed a mycological interpretation for a rock painting belonging

to the prehistoric Spanish Levantine and localized in the area of Cuenca in the region of Castilla-La Mancha (Akers et a 2011) It is a painting in a rock-shelter of the Selva-Pascuala site near the village of Villar del Humo at 200 km South-East from Madrid and which 1 had the opportunity to personally observe The panel which is object of our attention is located in

19

rock-shelter n 3 which is called Fuente de Selva Pascuala because in the proximity of an old fuente that is an old spring (fig 5)

Two quadrupeds are depicted a horned bovide and a deer - this last not well preserved - both with excellent stylistics features together with some anthropomorphs intent in the hunting with bows on the left some paintings are not intelligible The color is red and the quadrupeds are painted in full body In the right lower side of the panel a linear series of 13 objects with a definitely mushroom-like shapes are painted with the same red color (fig 6) Originally they where 8-10 cm high in 11 of these objects it is possible to recognize a vertical low part and a rounding higher part possibly depicting the stem and the cap of the carpophores of the higher mushrooms In the other two objects the cap is no more visible In a pair of objects a bifurcation has been painted at the base of the stem which had led to suspect an intentional anthropomorphization of these objects (Alonso 1983-4) in another pair of the same symbols the stem is depicted in a zigzag-shape

This series of objects has been previously interpreted as anchor-like symbols (Acosta 1968) as lberic inscription ( lorda Cerda 1975) or it has been classified as indefinite schematic art a kind of art which has been differentiated by many scholars from the Levantine art this latter with more naturalistic futures (Beltran 1979) Nevertheless it appears unquestionable that the painters of the mushroom-like objects and of the quadrupeds were the same and that the different subjects of the whole panel were in mutuals associations of which the meaning is hardly intelligible to us

It has been point out (Akers et al 2011) that the relationship between the mushroom elements and the bovide could indicate a knowledge by the painters of the Fuente de Selva Pascuala of the ecological association existing between the bovine dung and numerous species of psychoactive mushrooms of the psilocybian kind mainly belonging to the Psilocybe and Panaeolus genera and which have as specific habitat just the bovine dung (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) For this reason the authors of the ethnomycological interpretation of the painting have focused the attention on a psychoactive coprophilous mushroom recently discovered in the Iberian region Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzman amp Castro 2006) Nevertheless I personally estimate uncertain the proposed taxonomical identification verified the chorography of the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms is significantly changed during the millennia due to the retrenclunent and the migration of the wild quadrupeds herds and of the domestication of someone of these quadrupeds fwthermore in the most part of the quadrupeds dungs grow mushrooms of this kind like is the case for example of Panaeolus alcidis Mos a coprophilous species associated to the cervides (Moser 1984) which is the second species of quadruped painted in Selva Pascuala panel The bovide and the deer are painted in an equidistant manner from the series of mushroom-like objects a consideration which - if the intentional relationship quadrupedcoprophilous mushroom is real - doesnt offer useful information on the species of quadruped It has furthermore to be taken in consideration that there exist mushroom coprophilous species which grow indifferently on the dungs of both the quadrupeds and that we are today more inclined to associate the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms to the bovines because of their millenary domestication in disadvantage to the wild cervides

Concerning the dating of the panel of Fuente de Selva Pascuala the archaeologists indicate today a date which go from the Mesolithic to the Middle Neolithic that is between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ruiz et al 2009) Is should therefore be matter of the oldest representation of mushrooms in Europe so far known

Siberia Prehistoric rock art associated to the knowledge and use of hallucinogenic mushrooms

has been identified in some areas of Siberia In its eastern regions further the Arctic polar circle on the banks of the Pegtymel river a rich site of petroglyphs has been found dated back

20

to the local Palaeolithic among these rock engravings it is possible to recognize images of mushroom collectors (Dikov 1971) In some scenes feminine figures are present endowed with showy and long earrings and with a big mushroom on the head characterized by a position remembering that of who while walking carrying something on the head look for equilibrium (fig 7) The squat shape and some ornamentation of the mushrooms let to suppose it concerns the fly-agaric Amanita muscaria At least 34 of these anthropomorphic figures are shaded by huge mushrooms Devlet (1982) evaluated that these big mushroom-like objects are just mushrooms and not a voluminous headdress like interpreted by some authors these strange shapes quite never are engraved against the head of the human figures in the most cases they are engraved over the head or substitute it and therefore they dont reveal any feature of an headdress

Mushroom motifs have also been found among the petroglyphs of the prehistoric settlements on the banks of the Ushokovo lake in the Kamchatka peninsula In this case the mushrooms are represented inside huts in perspective view (Dikov 1979) The Ushokovo palaeolithic culture belongs to that group of proto-Eschimoaleuthic populations from which originated the north-American palaeo-Eskimos of the lIo millennium BC

Again in Siberia in the rock art of the Ortaa-Sagol site along the Yenisei river a particular group of subjects is constituted by anthropomorphic figures - male and female shyrealized in more or less schematic styles (fig 8) Some of it have a mushroom-like head and a round medicine-bag an object identifying these figures as shamans This leather bag contained an inebriating amanita-brew The mushroom-men are frequently represented in a dancing posture (Devlet 1982)

It has been point out that the anthropomorphic figures with a mushroom-like head could represent the amanita persons the amanita girls or the manikins ie the spirits of this fungus found in the Siberian oral traditions specially among the Chukchi (Saar 1991)

Concerning the Chukchi inebriated by fly-agaric Bogoraz (1904-9) writes The amanitas appear with strange features to the drunk people For example an amanita appears with the feature of a maimed person while another is like missing stump These are not spirits they are just the amanitas The number of it correspond to the number of eaten amanitas The amanitas take hand by hand the person and lead him in the other world showing him all what is there they do the most incredible things In the images of the mushroom-men in the Pegtymel rock art it is possible to recognize correspondences to this kind of anthropomorphism This is particularly manifest in those scenes where the anthropomorphic amanitas are hand by hand with simple human figures (fig 9)

Mount Bego France An interesting representation of a likely mushroom is seen in the rock art of the

Maritime Alps of southern France (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) A mountain called Mt Bego located in the highest area of the Maritime Alps has always been considered to be sacred since ancient times On this mountain and in the nearby Valley of Marvels thousands of rock engravings are found Different stages and styles can be identified which span a period beginning in 2500 BC and running until the first decades of our own age (Lumley 1995) The main peculiarity of this rock art is the altitude of the site (2000-2500 meters) and the significant - one might say obsessive - presence of horned zoomorphic images essentially pertaining to the Bovidae A further peculiarity is that practically all these homed figures are engraved in such a manner that the horns point toward the peak of the mountain This is not a chance occurrence It has been observed that Mount Bego is one of the Maritime Alps mountains most frequently struck by lightning and it has been hypothesized that Mount Bego was selected by prehistoric peoples as a sanctuary precisely because of this meteorological characteristic It is also worth noting the zigzag form of many of the Mount Bego horns reminiscent of lightning (Marro 1944-45)

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

17

3) Effigies of mushrooms in other sources of plastic art like clay or metal objects 4) Biological remains of which for the mushrooms very few cases are known

In tbe present article Ill focus the attention to the first two classes of archaeological findings

Concerning the findings of tbe third class mushroom-like forms represented in clay amber copper gold objects have been found in many countries and their frequency significantly increase while reaching the historic times But in the most cases dealing with findings for which it is not possible to go back up to their original functional context it is difficult to demonstrate the intentionality of the representation of the mushroom symbolism Concerning the biological findings bio-archaeological analysis showed the presence of ergot in the anthropic sites starting from 18000 BP in the Middle East and 5400 BP in Europe (Aaronson 1989 Boyd 1986 Gluza 1984) Ergot is a lower mushroom which infects the wild and cultivated graminaceous spikes Its hard sclerotia are highlighted as little horns on the ripen spikes ricb in toxic or psychoactive alkaloids their history accidentally or intentionally interlace with the history of the prehistoric man collector and later cultivator of these graminaceous plants (Samorini 1992) Significant is the finding of ergot sclerotia in the stomachs of the Grauballe Man and the Tolund Man belonging to Danish sites dated back to the 500 BC (Helbaek 1950)

Rock art Sahara Desert

Before turning into a desert the Sahara region was cut across by rivers and lakes and was covered by a lush plant life and populated by human tribes These peoples left behind a rich variety of rock paintings that have been preserved by the desertification and consequential dehydration of the area

The ethnomycological documentation I have identified belongs to the characteristic Round Heads period (Samorini 1989 1992b) The absolute chronology of this pictorial epoch is still uncertain although it is generally estimated to have been between 9000 and 7000 BP Very recently radiocarbon analysis suggested the dates between 5950 BC and 4810 BC for someone of the Tassili paintings (Hachid et aI 2010) The highest concentration of the Round Heads rock paintings is found in Tassili (Algeria) they can also be found in Tadrart Acacus (Libya) Ennedi (Chad) and more sporadically in Djebel Ouenat (Egypt) (Sansoni 1994)

One of the most significant and comprehensive scenes is found in a rock-shelter of the Tin-Tazarift site (South Tassili) it portrays a series of masked individuals lined up and in hieraticdancing position encircled by long and waving geometrical design festoons of various kinds which quite likely have a very specific meaning now lost on us (fig 1) Each dancer is holding a mushroom-shaped object in his right hand surprisingly two dotted parallel lines are depicted starting from the point of contact between the hand and the mushroom-like object which reach the central point above the head Two borns originate from the head The dou6ie line could denote an indirect connection or an immaterial fluid passing between the object held in the hand (or the act of holding it in ones hand) and the human mind This association fits in well with a mycological interpretation if one keeps in mind the universal mental value (often mystical-spiritual in nature) of experiences involving psychotropic mushrooms It has been suggested that in Palaeolithic and post-Palaeolithic art the dotted lines could intend to represent immaterial things while the continuous lines could intend to represent material things (Dowson 1989 Samorini 1995)

In a shelter in Tin-Abouteka again in Tassili a pattern appears at least twice connecting mushrooms with fish a unique symbolic association among the ethnomycological cults (fig 2) Two mushrooms are portrayed across from each other and perpendicular to the fish drawings at about the height of the caudal region Further up other fish can be seen with similar features and size as the others but without the two mushrooms at the sides

18

This ethnomycological cult shows a certain richness in the repetition of the figures so as to suggest a definite associated conceptual structure Two southern Tassili paintings from the Aouanrhat and Matalem-Amazar sites (fig 3 4) are such examples both about 80 cm in height with the mask and stance typical of the period (bent legs and arms folded downwards) Another common characteristic which largely helps to identify them consists of the presence of mushroom-like objects that come out of the forearms and thighs while others are grasped in the hands In the Matalem-Amazar figure these objects are dotted all around the outline of the body

In these cases too the mushroom-like elements represent the same symbol as was found in various scenes from the Round Heads period and are interpreted here just as mushrooms These elements have been read by many authors as the tips of arrows rowing boats (Mori 1975) vegetables even flowers (Lhote 1973 210 251) or as unidentifiable enigmatic symbols The shape that more closely matches that of the cult object in question is the mushroom more than likely of the psychotropic kind whose socio-sacred use is marked in the scenes showing its harvest and offering as well as in the expressive dance rituals in the phosphene geometric work and in the visionary productions from Tassili

The fungiform symbolism seems to be represented in two different ways as a realistic object held in the hands of the figures (usually masked or with special head-dresses) or as an element coming out of the body

The Round Heads artwork is strewn with figures of various degrees of anthropomorphism with a fungiform head Some have a pointed cap-head or with a papilla others hold a leaf or branch in their hand In many cases archaeologists themselves labelled the figures as having fungiform heads (tete-champignon) without actually attaching any ethnomycological symbolic value to it ie without making a direct reference to mushrooms This is the case for example of the paintings found in the Algerian region of Immidir north of the Hoggar mountain range These paintings may very well belong to the Round Heads period (Muzzolini et al 1991)

Several data suggest the existence of an ancient cult with a complex variety of psychoactive botanical species accompanied by associated mythological representations It is not easy to devise a hypothesis about the mushroom species that are portrayed-their biochemical characteristics are partly at the root of the kind of mental experience they provide-as they belong to a flora that is no longer present in todays barren Sahara basin The paintings let one infer the presence of at least two species one of small size often with papilla on the very top and with similar characteristics to most of the currently known hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms while the other is oflarger size (like Boletus or Amanita)

The pollen analyses carried out on Tassili highlighted the kind of mountain vegetation that would have been found there during the Round Heads period consisting of various conifers and oak (AAVV 1986 97) it can be assumed that the depicted mushrooms were part of this belt of forest and that at least the larger sized ones relied heavily on some of these tree species (symbiotic mushrooms)

Verified these paintings belong to a Palaeolithic more specifically to an epishyPalaeolithic culture for the first time we come across evidence of the use of psychoactive mushrooms in the Stone Age Thus the hypothesis by Wasson et al (1986) that the knowledge of sacred mushrooms originated in the Stone Age appears to have been confirmed

Selva Pascuala Spain Recently it has been proposed a mycological interpretation for a rock painting belonging

to the prehistoric Spanish Levantine and localized in the area of Cuenca in the region of Castilla-La Mancha (Akers et a 2011) It is a painting in a rock-shelter of the Selva-Pascuala site near the village of Villar del Humo at 200 km South-East from Madrid and which 1 had the opportunity to personally observe The panel which is object of our attention is located in

19

rock-shelter n 3 which is called Fuente de Selva Pascuala because in the proximity of an old fuente that is an old spring (fig 5)

Two quadrupeds are depicted a horned bovide and a deer - this last not well preserved - both with excellent stylistics features together with some anthropomorphs intent in the hunting with bows on the left some paintings are not intelligible The color is red and the quadrupeds are painted in full body In the right lower side of the panel a linear series of 13 objects with a definitely mushroom-like shapes are painted with the same red color (fig 6) Originally they where 8-10 cm high in 11 of these objects it is possible to recognize a vertical low part and a rounding higher part possibly depicting the stem and the cap of the carpophores of the higher mushrooms In the other two objects the cap is no more visible In a pair of objects a bifurcation has been painted at the base of the stem which had led to suspect an intentional anthropomorphization of these objects (Alonso 1983-4) in another pair of the same symbols the stem is depicted in a zigzag-shape

This series of objects has been previously interpreted as anchor-like symbols (Acosta 1968) as lberic inscription ( lorda Cerda 1975) or it has been classified as indefinite schematic art a kind of art which has been differentiated by many scholars from the Levantine art this latter with more naturalistic futures (Beltran 1979) Nevertheless it appears unquestionable that the painters of the mushroom-like objects and of the quadrupeds were the same and that the different subjects of the whole panel were in mutuals associations of which the meaning is hardly intelligible to us

It has been point out (Akers et al 2011) that the relationship between the mushroom elements and the bovide could indicate a knowledge by the painters of the Fuente de Selva Pascuala of the ecological association existing between the bovine dung and numerous species of psychoactive mushrooms of the psilocybian kind mainly belonging to the Psilocybe and Panaeolus genera and which have as specific habitat just the bovine dung (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) For this reason the authors of the ethnomycological interpretation of the painting have focused the attention on a psychoactive coprophilous mushroom recently discovered in the Iberian region Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzman amp Castro 2006) Nevertheless I personally estimate uncertain the proposed taxonomical identification verified the chorography of the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms is significantly changed during the millennia due to the retrenclunent and the migration of the wild quadrupeds herds and of the domestication of someone of these quadrupeds fwthermore in the most part of the quadrupeds dungs grow mushrooms of this kind like is the case for example of Panaeolus alcidis Mos a coprophilous species associated to the cervides (Moser 1984) which is the second species of quadruped painted in Selva Pascuala panel The bovide and the deer are painted in an equidistant manner from the series of mushroom-like objects a consideration which - if the intentional relationship quadrupedcoprophilous mushroom is real - doesnt offer useful information on the species of quadruped It has furthermore to be taken in consideration that there exist mushroom coprophilous species which grow indifferently on the dungs of both the quadrupeds and that we are today more inclined to associate the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms to the bovines because of their millenary domestication in disadvantage to the wild cervides

Concerning the dating of the panel of Fuente de Selva Pascuala the archaeologists indicate today a date which go from the Mesolithic to the Middle Neolithic that is between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ruiz et al 2009) Is should therefore be matter of the oldest representation of mushrooms in Europe so far known

Siberia Prehistoric rock art associated to the knowledge and use of hallucinogenic mushrooms

has been identified in some areas of Siberia In its eastern regions further the Arctic polar circle on the banks of the Pegtymel river a rich site of petroglyphs has been found dated back

20

to the local Palaeolithic among these rock engravings it is possible to recognize images of mushroom collectors (Dikov 1971) In some scenes feminine figures are present endowed with showy and long earrings and with a big mushroom on the head characterized by a position remembering that of who while walking carrying something on the head look for equilibrium (fig 7) The squat shape and some ornamentation of the mushrooms let to suppose it concerns the fly-agaric Amanita muscaria At least 34 of these anthropomorphic figures are shaded by huge mushrooms Devlet (1982) evaluated that these big mushroom-like objects are just mushrooms and not a voluminous headdress like interpreted by some authors these strange shapes quite never are engraved against the head of the human figures in the most cases they are engraved over the head or substitute it and therefore they dont reveal any feature of an headdress

Mushroom motifs have also been found among the petroglyphs of the prehistoric settlements on the banks of the Ushokovo lake in the Kamchatka peninsula In this case the mushrooms are represented inside huts in perspective view (Dikov 1979) The Ushokovo palaeolithic culture belongs to that group of proto-Eschimoaleuthic populations from which originated the north-American palaeo-Eskimos of the lIo millennium BC

Again in Siberia in the rock art of the Ortaa-Sagol site along the Yenisei river a particular group of subjects is constituted by anthropomorphic figures - male and female shyrealized in more or less schematic styles (fig 8) Some of it have a mushroom-like head and a round medicine-bag an object identifying these figures as shamans This leather bag contained an inebriating amanita-brew The mushroom-men are frequently represented in a dancing posture (Devlet 1982)

It has been point out that the anthropomorphic figures with a mushroom-like head could represent the amanita persons the amanita girls or the manikins ie the spirits of this fungus found in the Siberian oral traditions specially among the Chukchi (Saar 1991)

Concerning the Chukchi inebriated by fly-agaric Bogoraz (1904-9) writes The amanitas appear with strange features to the drunk people For example an amanita appears with the feature of a maimed person while another is like missing stump These are not spirits they are just the amanitas The number of it correspond to the number of eaten amanitas The amanitas take hand by hand the person and lead him in the other world showing him all what is there they do the most incredible things In the images of the mushroom-men in the Pegtymel rock art it is possible to recognize correspondences to this kind of anthropomorphism This is particularly manifest in those scenes where the anthropomorphic amanitas are hand by hand with simple human figures (fig 9)

Mount Bego France An interesting representation of a likely mushroom is seen in the rock art of the

Maritime Alps of southern France (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) A mountain called Mt Bego located in the highest area of the Maritime Alps has always been considered to be sacred since ancient times On this mountain and in the nearby Valley of Marvels thousands of rock engravings are found Different stages and styles can be identified which span a period beginning in 2500 BC and running until the first decades of our own age (Lumley 1995) The main peculiarity of this rock art is the altitude of the site (2000-2500 meters) and the significant - one might say obsessive - presence of horned zoomorphic images essentially pertaining to the Bovidae A further peculiarity is that practically all these homed figures are engraved in such a manner that the horns point toward the peak of the mountain This is not a chance occurrence It has been observed that Mount Bego is one of the Maritime Alps mountains most frequently struck by lightning and it has been hypothesized that Mount Bego was selected by prehistoric peoples as a sanctuary precisely because of this meteorological characteristic It is also worth noting the zigzag form of many of the Mount Bego horns reminiscent of lightning (Marro 1944-45)

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

18

This ethnomycological cult shows a certain richness in the repetition of the figures so as to suggest a definite associated conceptual structure Two southern Tassili paintings from the Aouanrhat and Matalem-Amazar sites (fig 3 4) are such examples both about 80 cm in height with the mask and stance typical of the period (bent legs and arms folded downwards) Another common characteristic which largely helps to identify them consists of the presence of mushroom-like objects that come out of the forearms and thighs while others are grasped in the hands In the Matalem-Amazar figure these objects are dotted all around the outline of the body

In these cases too the mushroom-like elements represent the same symbol as was found in various scenes from the Round Heads period and are interpreted here just as mushrooms These elements have been read by many authors as the tips of arrows rowing boats (Mori 1975) vegetables even flowers (Lhote 1973 210 251) or as unidentifiable enigmatic symbols The shape that more closely matches that of the cult object in question is the mushroom more than likely of the psychotropic kind whose socio-sacred use is marked in the scenes showing its harvest and offering as well as in the expressive dance rituals in the phosphene geometric work and in the visionary productions from Tassili

The fungiform symbolism seems to be represented in two different ways as a realistic object held in the hands of the figures (usually masked or with special head-dresses) or as an element coming out of the body

The Round Heads artwork is strewn with figures of various degrees of anthropomorphism with a fungiform head Some have a pointed cap-head or with a papilla others hold a leaf or branch in their hand In many cases archaeologists themselves labelled the figures as having fungiform heads (tete-champignon) without actually attaching any ethnomycological symbolic value to it ie without making a direct reference to mushrooms This is the case for example of the paintings found in the Algerian region of Immidir north of the Hoggar mountain range These paintings may very well belong to the Round Heads period (Muzzolini et al 1991)

Several data suggest the existence of an ancient cult with a complex variety of psychoactive botanical species accompanied by associated mythological representations It is not easy to devise a hypothesis about the mushroom species that are portrayed-their biochemical characteristics are partly at the root of the kind of mental experience they provide-as they belong to a flora that is no longer present in todays barren Sahara basin The paintings let one infer the presence of at least two species one of small size often with papilla on the very top and with similar characteristics to most of the currently known hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms while the other is oflarger size (like Boletus or Amanita)

The pollen analyses carried out on Tassili highlighted the kind of mountain vegetation that would have been found there during the Round Heads period consisting of various conifers and oak (AAVV 1986 97) it can be assumed that the depicted mushrooms were part of this belt of forest and that at least the larger sized ones relied heavily on some of these tree species (symbiotic mushrooms)

Verified these paintings belong to a Palaeolithic more specifically to an epishyPalaeolithic culture for the first time we come across evidence of the use of psychoactive mushrooms in the Stone Age Thus the hypothesis by Wasson et al (1986) that the knowledge of sacred mushrooms originated in the Stone Age appears to have been confirmed

Selva Pascuala Spain Recently it has been proposed a mycological interpretation for a rock painting belonging

to the prehistoric Spanish Levantine and localized in the area of Cuenca in the region of Castilla-La Mancha (Akers et a 2011) It is a painting in a rock-shelter of the Selva-Pascuala site near the village of Villar del Humo at 200 km South-East from Madrid and which 1 had the opportunity to personally observe The panel which is object of our attention is located in

19

rock-shelter n 3 which is called Fuente de Selva Pascuala because in the proximity of an old fuente that is an old spring (fig 5)

Two quadrupeds are depicted a horned bovide and a deer - this last not well preserved - both with excellent stylistics features together with some anthropomorphs intent in the hunting with bows on the left some paintings are not intelligible The color is red and the quadrupeds are painted in full body In the right lower side of the panel a linear series of 13 objects with a definitely mushroom-like shapes are painted with the same red color (fig 6) Originally they where 8-10 cm high in 11 of these objects it is possible to recognize a vertical low part and a rounding higher part possibly depicting the stem and the cap of the carpophores of the higher mushrooms In the other two objects the cap is no more visible In a pair of objects a bifurcation has been painted at the base of the stem which had led to suspect an intentional anthropomorphization of these objects (Alonso 1983-4) in another pair of the same symbols the stem is depicted in a zigzag-shape

This series of objects has been previously interpreted as anchor-like symbols (Acosta 1968) as lberic inscription ( lorda Cerda 1975) or it has been classified as indefinite schematic art a kind of art which has been differentiated by many scholars from the Levantine art this latter with more naturalistic futures (Beltran 1979) Nevertheless it appears unquestionable that the painters of the mushroom-like objects and of the quadrupeds were the same and that the different subjects of the whole panel were in mutuals associations of which the meaning is hardly intelligible to us

It has been point out (Akers et al 2011) that the relationship between the mushroom elements and the bovide could indicate a knowledge by the painters of the Fuente de Selva Pascuala of the ecological association existing between the bovine dung and numerous species of psychoactive mushrooms of the psilocybian kind mainly belonging to the Psilocybe and Panaeolus genera and which have as specific habitat just the bovine dung (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) For this reason the authors of the ethnomycological interpretation of the painting have focused the attention on a psychoactive coprophilous mushroom recently discovered in the Iberian region Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzman amp Castro 2006) Nevertheless I personally estimate uncertain the proposed taxonomical identification verified the chorography of the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms is significantly changed during the millennia due to the retrenclunent and the migration of the wild quadrupeds herds and of the domestication of someone of these quadrupeds fwthermore in the most part of the quadrupeds dungs grow mushrooms of this kind like is the case for example of Panaeolus alcidis Mos a coprophilous species associated to the cervides (Moser 1984) which is the second species of quadruped painted in Selva Pascuala panel The bovide and the deer are painted in an equidistant manner from the series of mushroom-like objects a consideration which - if the intentional relationship quadrupedcoprophilous mushroom is real - doesnt offer useful information on the species of quadruped It has furthermore to be taken in consideration that there exist mushroom coprophilous species which grow indifferently on the dungs of both the quadrupeds and that we are today more inclined to associate the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms to the bovines because of their millenary domestication in disadvantage to the wild cervides

Concerning the dating of the panel of Fuente de Selva Pascuala the archaeologists indicate today a date which go from the Mesolithic to the Middle Neolithic that is between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ruiz et al 2009) Is should therefore be matter of the oldest representation of mushrooms in Europe so far known

Siberia Prehistoric rock art associated to the knowledge and use of hallucinogenic mushrooms

has been identified in some areas of Siberia In its eastern regions further the Arctic polar circle on the banks of the Pegtymel river a rich site of petroglyphs has been found dated back

20

to the local Palaeolithic among these rock engravings it is possible to recognize images of mushroom collectors (Dikov 1971) In some scenes feminine figures are present endowed with showy and long earrings and with a big mushroom on the head characterized by a position remembering that of who while walking carrying something on the head look for equilibrium (fig 7) The squat shape and some ornamentation of the mushrooms let to suppose it concerns the fly-agaric Amanita muscaria At least 34 of these anthropomorphic figures are shaded by huge mushrooms Devlet (1982) evaluated that these big mushroom-like objects are just mushrooms and not a voluminous headdress like interpreted by some authors these strange shapes quite never are engraved against the head of the human figures in the most cases they are engraved over the head or substitute it and therefore they dont reveal any feature of an headdress

Mushroom motifs have also been found among the petroglyphs of the prehistoric settlements on the banks of the Ushokovo lake in the Kamchatka peninsula In this case the mushrooms are represented inside huts in perspective view (Dikov 1979) The Ushokovo palaeolithic culture belongs to that group of proto-Eschimoaleuthic populations from which originated the north-American palaeo-Eskimos of the lIo millennium BC

Again in Siberia in the rock art of the Ortaa-Sagol site along the Yenisei river a particular group of subjects is constituted by anthropomorphic figures - male and female shyrealized in more or less schematic styles (fig 8) Some of it have a mushroom-like head and a round medicine-bag an object identifying these figures as shamans This leather bag contained an inebriating amanita-brew The mushroom-men are frequently represented in a dancing posture (Devlet 1982)

It has been point out that the anthropomorphic figures with a mushroom-like head could represent the amanita persons the amanita girls or the manikins ie the spirits of this fungus found in the Siberian oral traditions specially among the Chukchi (Saar 1991)

Concerning the Chukchi inebriated by fly-agaric Bogoraz (1904-9) writes The amanitas appear with strange features to the drunk people For example an amanita appears with the feature of a maimed person while another is like missing stump These are not spirits they are just the amanitas The number of it correspond to the number of eaten amanitas The amanitas take hand by hand the person and lead him in the other world showing him all what is there they do the most incredible things In the images of the mushroom-men in the Pegtymel rock art it is possible to recognize correspondences to this kind of anthropomorphism This is particularly manifest in those scenes where the anthropomorphic amanitas are hand by hand with simple human figures (fig 9)

Mount Bego France An interesting representation of a likely mushroom is seen in the rock art of the

Maritime Alps of southern France (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) A mountain called Mt Bego located in the highest area of the Maritime Alps has always been considered to be sacred since ancient times On this mountain and in the nearby Valley of Marvels thousands of rock engravings are found Different stages and styles can be identified which span a period beginning in 2500 BC and running until the first decades of our own age (Lumley 1995) The main peculiarity of this rock art is the altitude of the site (2000-2500 meters) and the significant - one might say obsessive - presence of horned zoomorphic images essentially pertaining to the Bovidae A further peculiarity is that practically all these homed figures are engraved in such a manner that the horns point toward the peak of the mountain This is not a chance occurrence It has been observed that Mount Bego is one of the Maritime Alps mountains most frequently struck by lightning and it has been hypothesized that Mount Bego was selected by prehistoric peoples as a sanctuary precisely because of this meteorological characteristic It is also worth noting the zigzag form of many of the Mount Bego horns reminiscent of lightning (Marro 1944-45)

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

19

rock-shelter n 3 which is called Fuente de Selva Pascuala because in the proximity of an old fuente that is an old spring (fig 5)

Two quadrupeds are depicted a horned bovide and a deer - this last not well preserved - both with excellent stylistics features together with some anthropomorphs intent in the hunting with bows on the left some paintings are not intelligible The color is red and the quadrupeds are painted in full body In the right lower side of the panel a linear series of 13 objects with a definitely mushroom-like shapes are painted with the same red color (fig 6) Originally they where 8-10 cm high in 11 of these objects it is possible to recognize a vertical low part and a rounding higher part possibly depicting the stem and the cap of the carpophores of the higher mushrooms In the other two objects the cap is no more visible In a pair of objects a bifurcation has been painted at the base of the stem which had led to suspect an intentional anthropomorphization of these objects (Alonso 1983-4) in another pair of the same symbols the stem is depicted in a zigzag-shape

This series of objects has been previously interpreted as anchor-like symbols (Acosta 1968) as lberic inscription ( lorda Cerda 1975) or it has been classified as indefinite schematic art a kind of art which has been differentiated by many scholars from the Levantine art this latter with more naturalistic futures (Beltran 1979) Nevertheless it appears unquestionable that the painters of the mushroom-like objects and of the quadrupeds were the same and that the different subjects of the whole panel were in mutuals associations of which the meaning is hardly intelligible to us

It has been point out (Akers et al 2011) that the relationship between the mushroom elements and the bovide could indicate a knowledge by the painters of the Fuente de Selva Pascuala of the ecological association existing between the bovine dung and numerous species of psychoactive mushrooms of the psilocybian kind mainly belonging to the Psilocybe and Panaeolus genera and which have as specific habitat just the bovine dung (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) For this reason the authors of the ethnomycological interpretation of the painting have focused the attention on a psychoactive coprophilous mushroom recently discovered in the Iberian region Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzman amp Castro 2006) Nevertheless I personally estimate uncertain the proposed taxonomical identification verified the chorography of the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms is significantly changed during the millennia due to the retrenclunent and the migration of the wild quadrupeds herds and of the domestication of someone of these quadrupeds fwthermore in the most part of the quadrupeds dungs grow mushrooms of this kind like is the case for example of Panaeolus alcidis Mos a coprophilous species associated to the cervides (Moser 1984) which is the second species of quadruped painted in Selva Pascuala panel The bovide and the deer are painted in an equidistant manner from the series of mushroom-like objects a consideration which - if the intentional relationship quadrupedcoprophilous mushroom is real - doesnt offer useful information on the species of quadruped It has furthermore to be taken in consideration that there exist mushroom coprophilous species which grow indifferently on the dungs of both the quadrupeds and that we are today more inclined to associate the psychoactive coprophilous mushrooms to the bovines because of their millenary domestication in disadvantage to the wild cervides

Concerning the dating of the panel of Fuente de Selva Pascuala the archaeologists indicate today a date which go from the Mesolithic to the Middle Neolithic that is between 6000 and 4000 BC (Ruiz et al 2009) Is should therefore be matter of the oldest representation of mushrooms in Europe so far known

Siberia Prehistoric rock art associated to the knowledge and use of hallucinogenic mushrooms

has been identified in some areas of Siberia In its eastern regions further the Arctic polar circle on the banks of the Pegtymel river a rich site of petroglyphs has been found dated back

20

to the local Palaeolithic among these rock engravings it is possible to recognize images of mushroom collectors (Dikov 1971) In some scenes feminine figures are present endowed with showy and long earrings and with a big mushroom on the head characterized by a position remembering that of who while walking carrying something on the head look for equilibrium (fig 7) The squat shape and some ornamentation of the mushrooms let to suppose it concerns the fly-agaric Amanita muscaria At least 34 of these anthropomorphic figures are shaded by huge mushrooms Devlet (1982) evaluated that these big mushroom-like objects are just mushrooms and not a voluminous headdress like interpreted by some authors these strange shapes quite never are engraved against the head of the human figures in the most cases they are engraved over the head or substitute it and therefore they dont reveal any feature of an headdress

Mushroom motifs have also been found among the petroglyphs of the prehistoric settlements on the banks of the Ushokovo lake in the Kamchatka peninsula In this case the mushrooms are represented inside huts in perspective view (Dikov 1979) The Ushokovo palaeolithic culture belongs to that group of proto-Eschimoaleuthic populations from which originated the north-American palaeo-Eskimos of the lIo millennium BC

Again in Siberia in the rock art of the Ortaa-Sagol site along the Yenisei river a particular group of subjects is constituted by anthropomorphic figures - male and female shyrealized in more or less schematic styles (fig 8) Some of it have a mushroom-like head and a round medicine-bag an object identifying these figures as shamans This leather bag contained an inebriating amanita-brew The mushroom-men are frequently represented in a dancing posture (Devlet 1982)

It has been point out that the anthropomorphic figures with a mushroom-like head could represent the amanita persons the amanita girls or the manikins ie the spirits of this fungus found in the Siberian oral traditions specially among the Chukchi (Saar 1991)

Concerning the Chukchi inebriated by fly-agaric Bogoraz (1904-9) writes The amanitas appear with strange features to the drunk people For example an amanita appears with the feature of a maimed person while another is like missing stump These are not spirits they are just the amanitas The number of it correspond to the number of eaten amanitas The amanitas take hand by hand the person and lead him in the other world showing him all what is there they do the most incredible things In the images of the mushroom-men in the Pegtymel rock art it is possible to recognize correspondences to this kind of anthropomorphism This is particularly manifest in those scenes where the anthropomorphic amanitas are hand by hand with simple human figures (fig 9)

Mount Bego France An interesting representation of a likely mushroom is seen in the rock art of the

Maritime Alps of southern France (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) A mountain called Mt Bego located in the highest area of the Maritime Alps has always been considered to be sacred since ancient times On this mountain and in the nearby Valley of Marvels thousands of rock engravings are found Different stages and styles can be identified which span a period beginning in 2500 BC and running until the first decades of our own age (Lumley 1995) The main peculiarity of this rock art is the altitude of the site (2000-2500 meters) and the significant - one might say obsessive - presence of horned zoomorphic images essentially pertaining to the Bovidae A further peculiarity is that practically all these homed figures are engraved in such a manner that the horns point toward the peak of the mountain This is not a chance occurrence It has been observed that Mount Bego is one of the Maritime Alps mountains most frequently struck by lightning and it has been hypothesized that Mount Bego was selected by prehistoric peoples as a sanctuary precisely because of this meteorological characteristic It is also worth noting the zigzag form of many of the Mount Bego horns reminiscent of lightning (Marro 1944-45)

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

20

to the local Palaeolithic among these rock engravings it is possible to recognize images of mushroom collectors (Dikov 1971) In some scenes feminine figures are present endowed with showy and long earrings and with a big mushroom on the head characterized by a position remembering that of who while walking carrying something on the head look for equilibrium (fig 7) The squat shape and some ornamentation of the mushrooms let to suppose it concerns the fly-agaric Amanita muscaria At least 34 of these anthropomorphic figures are shaded by huge mushrooms Devlet (1982) evaluated that these big mushroom-like objects are just mushrooms and not a voluminous headdress like interpreted by some authors these strange shapes quite never are engraved against the head of the human figures in the most cases they are engraved over the head or substitute it and therefore they dont reveal any feature of an headdress

Mushroom motifs have also been found among the petroglyphs of the prehistoric settlements on the banks of the Ushokovo lake in the Kamchatka peninsula In this case the mushrooms are represented inside huts in perspective view (Dikov 1979) The Ushokovo palaeolithic culture belongs to that group of proto-Eschimoaleuthic populations from which originated the north-American palaeo-Eskimos of the lIo millennium BC

Again in Siberia in the rock art of the Ortaa-Sagol site along the Yenisei river a particular group of subjects is constituted by anthropomorphic figures - male and female shyrealized in more or less schematic styles (fig 8) Some of it have a mushroom-like head and a round medicine-bag an object identifying these figures as shamans This leather bag contained an inebriating amanita-brew The mushroom-men are frequently represented in a dancing posture (Devlet 1982)

It has been point out that the anthropomorphic figures with a mushroom-like head could represent the amanita persons the amanita girls or the manikins ie the spirits of this fungus found in the Siberian oral traditions specially among the Chukchi (Saar 1991)

Concerning the Chukchi inebriated by fly-agaric Bogoraz (1904-9) writes The amanitas appear with strange features to the drunk people For example an amanita appears with the feature of a maimed person while another is like missing stump These are not spirits they are just the amanitas The number of it correspond to the number of eaten amanitas The amanitas take hand by hand the person and lead him in the other world showing him all what is there they do the most incredible things In the images of the mushroom-men in the Pegtymel rock art it is possible to recognize correspondences to this kind of anthropomorphism This is particularly manifest in those scenes where the anthropomorphic amanitas are hand by hand with simple human figures (fig 9)

Mount Bego France An interesting representation of a likely mushroom is seen in the rock art of the

Maritime Alps of southern France (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) A mountain called Mt Bego located in the highest area of the Maritime Alps has always been considered to be sacred since ancient times On this mountain and in the nearby Valley of Marvels thousands of rock engravings are found Different stages and styles can be identified which span a period beginning in 2500 BC and running until the first decades of our own age (Lumley 1995) The main peculiarity of this rock art is the altitude of the site (2000-2500 meters) and the significant - one might say obsessive - presence of horned zoomorphic images essentially pertaining to the Bovidae A further peculiarity is that practically all these homed figures are engraved in such a manner that the horns point toward the peak of the mountain This is not a chance occurrence It has been observed that Mount Bego is one of the Maritime Alps mountains most frequently struck by lightning and it has been hypothesized that Mount Bego was selected by prehistoric peoples as a sanctuary precisely because of this meteorological characteristic It is also worth noting the zigzag form of many of the Mount Bego horns reminiscent of lightning (Marro 1944-45)

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

21

In the highest part of the Valley of Marvels is found an engraved boulder which is considered to be one of the most significant finds in the entire regions rock art the boulder is commonly known as the Altars Rock and on its face is a scene of the so-called Tribal Chief The rock itself is red-crimson in color and rises above a smooth wide rocky surface covered by hundreds of engravings The rock stands like an altar on a history-seeped surface in a position that dominates the valley and so appears to be the central element of the cult associated with rock art (fig 10) It has been dated back to the first part of the Bronze Age about 1800 BC (Lumley et al 1990 45)

On the rocky altar surfaces some daggers a stair-like design a little anthropomorphic figure in a praying position and a larger anthropomorphic figure that was wrongly named the Tribal Chief-it is most probably a shaman-are engraved Let us now consider the fungiform image in the scene (fig 11) it is on the right of the large anthropomorphic figure next to the dagger or bolt of lightning hitting him on the head This object has been interpreted in turn as an abstract design a stylized bovine skull and more frequently as a dagger or other ritual weapon It is nevertheless difficult to see any kind of weapon in them There are two details that may escape the attention of an archaeologist though not the careful eye of a mycologist which lead to the possible interpretation of the object as a fungus of the Amanita muscaria species The first element regards the thickening seen in the upper part of the stem which would seem to portray the ring that runs around Amanita mushroom stem The second detail concerns a collection of eleven pointed engravings found on the top part of thecap

One more time the presence of little dots --either painted or engraved-on the image of the surface of a mushroom cap belonging to a religious scene denotes almost without fail the fly-agaric or the related and equally psychoactive Amanita pantherina The entire setting of the Altar Rock would seem to have shamanic connotations due to the images of mushroom and stair-like drawings (perhaps a real stairway)-key elements of basic shamanism Dufrenne (1996) has observed in the Mount Bego rock art Indo-European and Vedic religious concepts

Stonehenge England We now focus our attention to some rock engravings from the megalithic site of

Stonehenge in England They are engraved on a pair of the monoliths - by the archeologists numbered as n 4 and n 53 - constituting the two principle stone circles of the site (figs 12 13 Samorini 1995b) These stones belong to a late phase of the site being added later and date to the Wessex Culture around 1500 BC The images engraved on these rocks recorded for this time in 1953 could be even more recent In these engravings are reproduced many objects interpreted by archaeologists as sacrificial axes of the Mycenean kind The variation in the feature of the axes appears to be peculiar to the Stonehenge site and it opens the possibility of ethnomycological interpretations In Stonehenge appear to be engraved big mushrooms following the natural range of variations in the shape of the cap (from semi-spheric to flat) atd of the stem (from squat to more thin)

All too often researchers base their arguments on largely accepted opinions when interpreting unknown and repeated symbols found in archaeological documents Maybe this is to avoid hurting the feelings of the author who- sometimes over a hundred years before-first gave his interpretation or maybe it is simply due to interpretative indolence This could be the case of the Stonehenge axes

Scandinavia Mushroom effigies have been recognized in the Swedish rock art belonging to the long

Scandinavian Bronze Age A characteristic artistic and symbolic element is represented by the boat symbol of the trip into the other world undertaken by the dead Inside the boat anthropomorphic figures trees lances crosses stylized animals are present Following Kaplan

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

22

(1975 1977) someone of the images interpreted with indolence as lances indeed are stylized forms of mushrooms specifically the Amanita muscaria for example in two rock engravings of the Aby site in the Bohuslan dated to the 1100 BC In the second of these engravings the mushroom emblem is hold by an anthropomorphic figure (fig 14) The mushroom motif at the center of a boat is depicted also in a dozen of razors found in Danish archaeological sites possibly dated to 1100 BC (fig 15) In some cases the upper part of the mushroom corresponding to the cap is provided by a rayed decoration a characteristic that could indicate an energy coming out or surrounding the mushroom In other cases a hollow inside the stem appears to be designed a characteristic of the ripen forms of the fly-agaric This hallucinogenic species of mushroom is very common in the Scandinavian regions and we know the Lapp Inari shamans used it (Wasson 1968 279)

Mushroom-stones Vin9a Slovenia

Some green stone objects with characteristic mushroom features have been associated to the Vin6a Culture developed in the Balkan region during the Middle Neolithic (VI-lII millennia BC) The best preserved of these objects are those found in the archaeological site of Vin6a a village near Belgrade from which belongs the name of this old culture Following Gimbutas (1974 p 220) there are no doubts on the cultural role of these objects Dwelling areas at Vin6a yielded a number of mushrooms carved out of light green rock crystal which may have stood on domestic altars These objects wait to be studied by the ethnomycologists The Vin6a Culture belongs to the cultural-religious substratum of the Old Europe that is the group of Early Neolithic cultures of the eastern-centre Europe (7000-3500 BC) focused on the cult of a feminine divinity the Mother Goddess in its various representations of Eye-Goddess Butterfly-Goddess Snake-Goddess Toad-Goddess etc This culture spread toward south-east reaching the Macedonia and the Calcidian region

Mesoamerica More than 400 Mesoamerican objects classified as mushroom-stones are known

mainly belonging to the Mayan area the oldest ones date back to the Middle-Pre-Classic that is the I millennium BC (fig 16) These objects have been interpreted by the archaeologists as phallic symbols of fertility moon divinities cosmic symbols stones to fix the territorial boundaries pestles to crush the corn or dies for the processing of the earthenware (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Only after the discovery of the traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms preserved till our days in central Mexico (Wasson 1974) it was clarified the interpretation to be given to the mushroom-stones intentional representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms The meaning of the images carved on the stem revealed their complete meaning like that of a kneeled person in a prayer attitude and that of a toad this animal is deeply associated with the mushrooms particularly the fly-agaric (toad-stOOl) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

Made with igneous stone more rarely in lime or sandstone the mushroom-stones are in average 30 cm high and have been found from southern Mexico to Guatemala and in the western regions of El Salvador

A traditional knowledge of the fly-agaric has been observed among some Maya populations the mushroom is still revered and named with the Quicht expression itzel ocox (diabolic mushroom) The Amanita muscaria is known also by the Mayan tribes of the Coban area in Guatemala (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) and of the Mexican region of Chapas (Rotsch 1995)

More recently Guzman brought to the attention a little object belonging to the Purepechan culture - a pre-hispanic culture localized in the modem Mexican state of Michoacan - found at Cuenca de Patzcuaro in the archaeological site of Las Yacatas de

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

23

Tzintzlllltzan It could represent the most little Mesoamerican mushroom-stone so far known interpreted as the representation of a young form of Amanita muscaria (fig 17) It is 35 cm high carved on a basaltic rock on this object it could be possible to observe the intentionally engraved image of a human head or skull (Guzman 1997 Mapes et al 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) The little cavities on the upper part of the object very likely indicate the white dotted spot of the red cap of fly-agaric

Kerala India Let us move on to Asia now and notably to south India and to the state of Kerala A

megalithic prehistoric culture characterizes this land with its origins still to be clarified This civilization from the south Indian Iron Age shows dolmen menhir and other stone monuments remarkably similar to the megalithic monuments from northern Europe though very distant both geographically and chronologically

Typical megalithic monuments from Kerala are the kuda-kallu (figs 18 19) a name meaning umbrella-stones in the Malayalam language archaeologists have classified them as dating between 1000 BC and 100 AD The most important concentration of these monuments is found in the interior of the Trichur and Palghat regions north of Cochin in central Kerala (Krishna 1967)

On average the kuda-kallu measure 15-2 m in height and 15-2 m in width They are made up of four stones cut into half segments joining at the bottom and holding up a fifth stone which is flat on the side on which it is resting and convex and even in shape on the other side The entire complex would seem to resemble an umbrella or even better a huge mushroom These monuments are not graves It was suggested that they were archaic prototypes of the Buddhist stupa (Longhurst 1979)

Culturally the kuda-kallu is strongly associated with the umbrella an archaic symbol of power authority and sacredness widespread in ancient Egypt among the Assyrian and the eastern civilizations Although the connection between these stone monuments and the umbrella is plausible I have put forward the hypothesis whereby they were supposed to portray mushrooms as they are very similar in shape (Samorini 1995)

The name kuda-kallu was clearly given at a later time no doubt after the time when the monuments were erected There is no reliable evidence that it has the same meaning as the name given to it by those who built it Besides as Longhurst (1979) confirms it is more than likely that during the Asoka period some centuries after the erection of the kuda-kallu the royal umbrella was associated with the stupa for which the kuda-kallu are seen as the forerunners both from an architectural and a symbolic point of view Wasson (1968 66) makes a brief reference to the Kerala mushroom-stone although he did not actually see them

Near the kuda-kallu are other megalithic monuments menhirs dolmens stone circles and hood-stones The hood-stones are very interesting because of something I notic~d on some of them They are made up of a single stone that covers over an underground grave I observed numerous round cavities on some of them dispersed over the entire upper surface of the stone (fig 20) The point of these cavities is incontestable they served a clear decorative purpose and also highlighted a distinctive characteristic of the object that the hood-stones were meant to represent (fig 21) One more time one must take into consideration that the most practical way of representing the fly-agaric or the panther-caps white spots on stone was by scooping out round holes in the surface At this point the hypothesis that the hood-stones and the kuda-kallu were meant to specifically represent either one or both of these psychoactive mushrooms becomes much more convincing Amanita muscaria and A pantherina are present in south India in the coniferous forests of the Kodaikanal region (in Tamil Nadu) about 80 km from the megalithic sites In this same region different species of psilocybian mushrooms can be found (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

24

If the kuda-kallu really represented mushrooms they therefore represented psychoactive mushrooms that is mushrooms that allowed visions of the other side of life after death as such they were far more suitable than others (than edible mushrooms for instance) to being associated with funeral cults

The hypothesis by Wasson (1968) that identified the sacred drink and the divinity soma in the RgVeda with the fly-agaric is well-known If the kuda-kallu were trying to portray psychoactive mushrooms then this poses the question already raised by Wasson what relationship is there between the megalithic kuda-kallu cult and the soma Vedic cult There doesnt seem to be any direct connection in the sense that the kuda-kallu is not a symbol of the cult originating or influenced by the soma cult These monuments were erected by non-IndoshyEuropean populations The cult associated with the kuda-kallu developed in a period preceding the Aris contact with south India and at the times of the contact the Ari had already left behind the knowledge of the original soma and instead worshipped using substitutes

The megalithic cultures of south India and Europe share a number of common features even though there is a chronological difference between them of at least one thousand years a distance that appears to be a serious obstacle to those theories that would have the former civilization originating directly from the latter Nevertheless the similarities in some of the characteristics of the two cultures are surprising and involve the shape of the kuda-kallu itself The shape of some British and northern French dolmens brings the kuda-kallu dolmen to mind Also the whole range of European megalithic works should be subject by accurate ethnomycological research See for example the Stonhenge mushroom-like engravings over discussed

In this picture of scattered dowels of ethnomycological importance in the Eurasian archaeology we have now to insert the new Thracian finding in Greece and which gave impulse to this Congress It concerns mushroom-stones mainly obtained by engraving and smoothing big irremovable rocks reaching the 4 m high They are inside open sanctuaries dated back to the 1deg millennium BC that is to the Thracian Early Iron Age

Letting the other authors to present the Thracian mushroom-stones I only want to point out that the comparative analysis of the kuda-kallu and the Thracian mushroom-stones shyof which the oldest ones appear to be contemporary - shows surprisingly analogies in the symbolic relationships these remains intended to represent but we have to remind the 110nshyIndo-European origins of the kuda-kallu Nevertheless the-Thracian mushroom-stones appear to be an important dowel of that branched phenomenon of the lndo-European diffusion of the knowledge and the cult of the entheogenic mushrooms that should relate the pressing stones and filters of the North Pontic Catacomb Culture of the Black-Sea (dated to the first half of the no millennium BC cfr Kleijn 1984) to the Vedic Soma the Indo-Iranian Haoma the Thracian god Sabatius and the original figure of the Hellenic Dionysos

I close with a methodological consideration in the study of the ethno-geographic spreading of a cult based on the knowledge of a psychoactive source it is important to consider the possibility that this knowledge meets pre-existing autochthonous know ledges of different or same visionary sources and the consequent synergism - through conflicts and syncretism shyis at the base of the ethnological and ethnobotanical Psychopharmacological Complexes

In many cases power dispute developed between two religious visionary systems Some modern example have been studied as the symbolic-mythologic dichotomy between the peyote and the jimsonweed in the Mexican Huichol culture (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) and the synergic encounter of the Byeri and Bwiti cults among the Bantus living in the Equatorial Africa based on the two visionary plants aan and iboga (Samorini 2002-3)

The same divinities associated to the entheogenic cults undergo in the course of time the consequences of the cultural encounters evolving from the divinity associated to a sole visionary source to a more complex divinity till in some cases to be transformed in a great ecstatic divinity of the modified states of consciousness - and relating religious interpretations

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

25

- induced by all kind of visionary sources discovered or adopted by that given human culture It could be the cases - for example - of Xochipilli - the Prince of Flowers of the Aztec divine pantheon - of the Indian god Shiva and of the Greek god Dionysus (Wasson 1973 Danillou 1980) In an ethnological point of view it is therefore possible to speak of an Aztec Psychopharmacological Complex a Dyonosian Psychopharmacological Complex as of a Bantu Psychopharmacological Complex etc

We know that at a certain point of its history Dionysus was incorporated to the Eleusinian Mysteries together its differentiated psychopharmacological capacity (mainly of mycological nature) the result of the synergic fusion between the Dionysian and the Eleusinian psychopharmacological complexes (the last one mainly based on spike and poppy visionary sources) were so profound that influenced even the original Christendom and not only the Mediterranean ecstatic cults of the subsequent centuries (Samorini 2008)

Following these considerations it has not to be excluded the possibility that the same god Sabatius before undergoing the Dionysian transformation (Wohlberg 1990) could have been a divinity already differentiated in his visionary functions and sources Furthermore caution is important in the study of the Indo-European psychopharmacological complex particularly in the elaboration of the diffusionist hypothesis associated to the knowledge of the soma to view the soma as the sole visionary source dominating in an aseptic mode the subjected autochthonous cultures risks to be a forced view in the light of the history of the visionary sources and of their ethno-geographic wanderings

References AAVV 1986 Arte preistorica del Sahara De Luca amp Mondadori Roma amp Milano Aaronson S 1989 Fungal parasites of grasses and cereals their rde as food or medicine now and in the past Antiquity 63 247-257 Acosta P 1968 La pintura rupestre esquematica en Espapa Universidad de Salamanca Salamanca Akers BP et aI 2011 A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe

Mushrooms Economic Botany 65 121-128 Alonso A 1983-84 Los conjuntos rupestres de Marmalo y CastellOn de los Machos (Villar

del Humo Cuenca) Ampnrias 45-46 8- 29 Beltran A 1979 Larte rupestre del Levante spagnolo Jaca Book Milano Bogoraz VG 1904-9 The Chukchee Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History

New York Borhegyi FS 1961 Miniature mushroom stones from Guatemala American Antiquity 26

498-504 Danitlou A 1980 Siva e Dioniso Ubaldini Editore Roma Boyd WW 1986 Rye and ergot in the ancient history of Scotland Antiquity 60 45-47 Devlet MA 1982 Petroglify Verchniego Yenisieia Akademya Nauk SSSR Moskva 2 111-~

120 Dikov NN 1971 Naskalnye zagadki drevnei Chukokti Petroglify Pegtymelya Nauka

Movska Dikov NN 1979 Origini della cultura paleoeschimese Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici

17 89-98 Doveri F 2004 Funghifimicoli italici Associazione Micologica Bresadola Trento Dowson TA 1989 Dots and dashes cracking the entoptic code in Bushman rock paintings

South AfrArchSoc Goodwin Series 684-94 Dufrenne R 1996 La vallies des Merveilles et les mythologies Indo-Europl ennes Centro

Camuno Studi Preistorici Capo di Ponte BS Duvivier P 1998 Amanita muscaria ancient history The Entheogen Review 7(2) 34-35

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

26

Furst PT amp BG Myerhoff 1966 Myth and History The Jimnsonweed Cycle of the Huichols of Mexico Antropologica 17 1-39

Gimbutas M 1974 The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe University of California Berkeley Gluza 1 1984 Neolithic cereals and weeds from the locality of the Lengyel culture at Nowa

Huta-Mogila near Cracow Acta Palaeobotanica 23 123-184 Guzman G 1983 The Genus Psilocybe 1 Cramer Valduz D Guzman G 1997 Los nombres de los hongos y 10 relacionado con elos en America Latina

Instituto de Ecologia Xalapa MtXico Guzman G amp M L Castro 2006 Observations on some known species of Psilocybe from

Spain and description of a new species Boletvn Sociedad Micolagica de Madrid 27 181shy187

Hachid M et aI 20 I 0 Premiers nsultats du projet alglro-franTJais de datation directe et indirecte des images rupestres dans la Tasili-n-Ajjer Sahara 21 27-58

Helbaek H 1950 Botanical study of the stomach contents of Tolund man Ai5roboger for Nordisk Old Kyndighed og Historic pp 328-341 Jorda Cerda F 1975 lRestos de un Culto al Toro en el Arte Levantino Zephyrus 26-27 187-216 Kaplan RW 1975 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Man 10 72-79 Kaplan RW 1977 The sacred mushroom in Scandinavia Rejoinder to W Fagg Man 12 339-340 KJeijn L 1984 The coming of the Aryans who and whence BullDeccan Coli Res1nst 43 57-69 Krishna 1LA 1967 Kerala megalithic and their builders Madras University of Madras Lhote H 1973 A la decouverte des fresques du Tassili Arthaud Paris Longhurst AH 1979 The story of the stupa New Delhi Asian Educational Services Lumley H 1995 Le Grandieuse et le Sacre Gravures rupestres protohistoriques et historiques de la region de Mount Bego Edisud Aix-en-Provence Lumley H et aI 1990 La stele gravee dite du Chef de tribu dans la region du Mont Bego Vallee des Merveilles Alpes-Maritimes LAnthropologie 94 3-62 Mapes C Guzman G amp 1 Caballero 1981 Etnomicologva Purepecha Sociedad Mlxicana de

Micologva MlXico DF Marro G 1944-45 Lelemento magico nelle figurazioni rupestri delle Alpi Marittime Atti Accademia Scienze Torino 81 91-95 Mayer kh 1977 The Mushroom Stones ofMesoamerica Acoma Books California Mori F 1975 Contributo al pensiero magico-religioso attraverso Iesame di alcune rafflgurazioni rupestri preisotriche del Sahara Valcamonica Symposium 72 344-366 Moser M 1984 Panaeolus alcidis a new species from Scnadinavia and canada Mycologia 76 551-554 Muzzolini A et al 1991 Essai de classification de peintures de lImmidir (Algerie) Sahara 4 135-140 Natarajan K amp N Raman 1983 South Indian Agaricales Vaduz Cramer Ruiz 1F et aI 2009 Cronologva del arte rupestre postpaleolvtico y datacian absoluta de

patinas de oxalato calcico Primeras experiencias en Castilla-La Mancha (2004-2007) in 1 A Lapez amp R Martvnez (cur) El arte rupestre del arco mediterraneo de la Penvnsula Iblrica Museo de Bellas Artes San Pvo Valencia pp 303-316

Saar M 1991 Ethnomycological Data from Siberia and North-East Asia on the Effect of Amanita muscaria JEthnopharm 31 157-173

Samorini G 1989 Etnomicologia dellarte rupestre sahariana (Periodo delle Teste Rotonde) Bollettino Camuno Notizie 6(2) 18-22

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

27

Samorini G 1992b The oldest representation of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world shySahara Desert 9000-7000 BP Integration 23 69-78 Samorini G 1992 Neurotossicologia delle graminacee e dei loro patogeni vegetali

Unintroduzione Annali Museo Civico Rovereto 7 253-264 Samorini G 1995 Sequenze Iineari di punti nellarte rupestre Un approccio serniotico

mediante psicograrnrni e ideograrnrni Bollettino Camuno Studi Preistorici 28 97-100 Samorini G 1995b Umbrella-stones or mushroom-stones (Kerala Southern India)

Integration 6 33-40 Samorini G 1998 Further considerations on the mushroom effigy of Mount Bego The

Entheogen Review 7(2) 35-6 Samorini G 2001 New Data from the Ethnomycology of Psychoactive Mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 3 257-278 Sarnorini G 2001 Funghi allucinogeni Studi etnomicologici Telesterion Dozza (BO) Samorini G 2002-2003 The ancestor cult Byeri and the psychoactive plant alan (Alchornea

floribunda) among the Fang of Western Equatorial Africa Eleusis ns 617 29-55 Samorini G 2008 Luso di sostanze psicoattive nei Misteri eleusini in F DAndria et al

(Eds) Uomini piante e animali nella dimensione del sacro Seminario di Studi di Bioarcheologia 28-29 giugno 2002 CNR e Universiti3 del Salento Edipuglia Bari pp 217-233

Sansoni U 1994 Le piw antiche pitture del Sahara L arte delle Teste Rotonde laca Book Milano

Wasson RG 1968 Soma Divine Mushroom ofImmortality Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Wasson RG 1973 The role of flowers in Nahuatl culture A suggested interpretation Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(8) 305-324

Was son RG 1974 Maria Sabina and her Mazatec Mushroom Velada Harcourt Brace 10vanovich New York

Was son RG et aI 1986 Persephones Quest Entheogens and the Origins of Religion Yale University New Haven

Wohlberg 1 1990 Haoma-Soma in the Word of Ancient Greece 1Psychoactive Dntgs 22 333-342

Fig I - Reliefofa painting in a rockshelter of Tin TazariJt Tassili Algeria

(AnonJ7[wCJ1l (wYPOocpuJC Oe [JpOoxooKpoundmj) Fig 2 - Painting in a rockshelter of Tin-Abouteka Tassili Algeria (ZwYPOocpuJ Of Jllo [JpOoXOOKemj)

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

28

i J

Fig 3 - Antrhopomorph painted in a rockshelter of

In-Aouanrhat Tassili Algeria

(A v8ponrojlOprp17 (Wyporpl6 UE 3poX0aKEmj)

Fig 5 - Painted rockshelter ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Vilar del Humo

Cuenca Spain

Fig 4 - Reliefofa painting ofa rockshelter of Matalem-Amazar

Tassili Algeria (A7rorV7rWU17 (wyporp6 UE 3poXOUKE7r11

Fig 6 - Detail ofthe painting ofFuente de Selva Pascuala Spain

Fig 8 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Ortaa-Saagol site Yenisei river Siberia (from Devlet 1982 p 118)

Fig 7 - Reliefofa rock engraving of the Pegtymel river Siberia (from

Dikov 197 tav IX)

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

29

o feN ~

J Fig 9 - Reliefofa rock engraving of

the Pegtymel river Siberia (from Dikov 1971 tav 1)

Fig 11 - Detai of the rock engraving

ofMount Bego France

Fig 10 - Rock engraving on the Tribe chief stone Mount Bego southern

Fig 12 - Reliefor rock engravings on

the stone n 4 of Stonhenge England

(design of the Centro Cam~lI1o

Studi Preistorici Vatcamonica)

Fmnce

uraquot VOiQ r-+~~ 0

IC~ 1

re JU

~~ ~ ~ L ~1 j l J fmiddotlr

J ~I I r ~ -1- middotrJ

k I rt~ ~q r 1rl~ Hlt

l~r middotmiddot ~l~ I or

Fig 13 - Reliefor rock engravings on the stone n 53 of Stonhenge England (design ofthe Centro Camuno Studi Preistorici Valcamonica)

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

30

~Hb~ml~ la~Irsf) Fig 14 - Reliefof rock engravings from the Eby

Bohus16n Sweden (from Kaplan 1975 jig 3)

Fig 18 - Kuda-kallu (umbrella-stone )

from Cheramangad Kerala India

Fig 20 - Hood-stone from Cheramangad Kerala

India

Fig 15 -Engraving on a

bronze razor from Danmark (from

Kaplan 1975jig la)

Fig 17 - A little mushroom-stone

from Michoacan Mexico 35 cm

high (from Guzman 1997)

Fig 21 -

Fig 16 - Mayan mushroom-stone from Guatemala

~~IIFig 19 - Kuda-kallus ( umbrella-stones )

from Aryannoor

Kerala India

Design ofa kuda-kallu (left) and a hood-stone (right) from Cheramangad Kerala

India

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

31

MUVlTIlPOtl()tl 0l-l0lrol-lUTU OTTJv 1WYKOOI-llU UpXULOAOyiu Ano Tl~ ppuxoypuqgtu~

OTU ntTplVU I-lUVlTUPlU

AnoltJ7tU(JIl(l Ta 7[pOimOplKa OJLOlwjwra jwVlTaplWV 7[OV cpeavovv m cpaC ciVat Kvpio)( bvo Clbwv (wypacpzapiva 1 EyXapaKTa ac Jpaxo 1 OKOpa aKaAlma ac 7[irpa a7[orcAOVV ro C7[Ovopa(opcva laquo7[irplva poVlTapwraquo Em 7[cpzaaorcpce 7[cpllfTWaCle ra pavlTapw 7[OV aVa7[aplmwvrat civat laquocvewycvoveraquo cibove bryA 7[pOKaAOvv flcraJoAie TOV C7fl7[ibov avvcibryarte 7[OV CPflryvcvovrat 7fVWUanKa Kat epry(Jl(poundVnKa Ta oflolwflara rwv flav1raplwV 7[OV civat EyXapaKTo 1 (wypacpzafliva ac 7[irpa YCV1Ka avvt5iovrat fIE (JI(ryvie rcAcrovpYlWV Kat flvryarte Kat ra 7[irplva flaVlrapW 7[POmbla(OVV aVYKCKplflivove lcpOVe xwpove

Ta apxatorcpa Opolwflara flavlraplwV 7[OV avayvwpimryKav ac C7fl-7[aAWOAlelKiC ava7[apamaaCle arryv 7[cplOx1 rrye Eaxapae Kat av1KOvv aTYv cpaary rwv laquoECPWP1KWV KccpaAwvraquo XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 ro 7000 - 5000 7[X )j)Ja oflolwflara flavlraplwV Trfe 7[aAWOAlelK1e C7[ox1e cvr07[iaTYKav ac ava7[apaaraaC le ac JpaXo aTrfv ia7[avia mryv 7[cplOx1 Selva Pascal KW XPOVOAOYOVvrW 07[0 TO 6000 - 4000 7[X Kaewe KW ElJryplKie EyXapaKTce aE JpaXO ava7[apamaaEle 7[OV 7[p01Aeav 07[0 cpVAie ivvovirlbwv 7[OV OfllAovaav Trf YAwaaa Proto-eskimoshyaleutic JlMl mOo Alyoma VW)lelKa wp1para OflOlWflara flavlraplWv ravrimryKav fIE JpaxoypacpiEe Trfe E7[ox1e TOV XaAKOv mry EKavblvaJia Trfv AyyAia KW rry NOTa rwJia

Vaov acpopa mOo 7[irplva flavlrapw TO flfyEeO e rove 7[OIKiACI ra flwOaflEplKavlKa 7[OV ov1KOVV KVpiwe mov 7[pOKAamKo 7[OAmaflO rwv Mayw ixovv VIfIOe 30-40 EK Erryv Evpaaia Evro7[i(ovrat flaVlTapla flEyaAOV Wyieove 07[0 ra kuda-kallu IJT17V KEpaAa mry vOTa ivOfa 7[OV ixovv Vlfloe 1-2 fI Kat a7[orcAovvrat 07[0 5 EyxapaKTove Aieove we ra 7[irplva flavlTapW ra flEyaAVnpa yvwma iwe ~flEpa 7[OV cvro7[iIJT17Kav mry epaKry KW ixovv vIfIOe 4 fI KW 7[cpzaaorEpo Kat To o7[oia a7[oKr1aafIE fliaw xapa( rye KW C(OflaAVVarte flEyaAWv aflcraKivryrwv

Jpaxwv EVYKpmK1 avaAMry rwv flavlraplwv kuda-kallu Kal rwv 7[irPlvwv flavlraplwv rrye

epaKrye EK rwv o7[oiwv ra apxworEpa flOIQ(ovv aVyxpova ampiXVEI flw avaAoyia mle avflJO)IKfe axiaEle 7[OV avra ra flaVlTapW 7[poopi(ovrav va ava7[apaar1aovv E7[l7[Aiov ra 7[irplva pavlTapw rrye epaKrye a7[ObEIKVVovrat on civw ivae artflavrlKoe avvbcrlK6e KpiKOe a VTOV rov bwdabwTOV CPatVOflivov rrye laquoivbowpw7[aiK1eraquo bW(J7[opae Trfe yvWarte Kat Trfe AarpEioe rwv cveWYEVWV flav1raplWV ra o7[oia ea i7[PE7[C va aVCJXcriaovv ra flavlTapw kuda-kallu fiE ro cpvro Soma rwv BEbwv TO eEO rwv epaKwv EaJa(lo Kat rryv 7[pwrmv7[ry E1KOVa rov EAAryVO L1lOvVaov

Ol unupxtc TT]C 0Xpound0T]C lleCuS6 uv9pltimwv Kat lluldjCltov XUVeCat mu pu9T] CuN

atWvwv H 0Xpound0Tj UUC poundXel lleApoundTT]gei uno poundVu 8le1ll0TT]1l0VlKO COIlpoundU TT]V e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Avuwyu Ile CO ei80C TT]C ApoundlCOUpyiuc nou KUCpoundXelTj uv9pltimlVT] 0Xpound0T] Ile Co IlUKTjCU eiVat f 8uvuCov vu CVC01ll0COUV pound~l CO Jlpound ic 1) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV PpW0qlWV IlUVlCUP1WV 2) T] CO~lKOWYlldj e9VOIlUKTjCOAoyiu Kat 3) Tj ltPUPIlUKWClKij e9vOIlUKT]Colcayiu 4) Tj e9vOIlUKTjCowyiu TT] C Iluyeiuc 5) T] e9vOIlUKTjCOAoyiu CWV jIUX08pU0ClKWV IlUVlCUPlWV 6) Tj nupuywYlKT) e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu (Samorini 2001 3)

000V ultpopu 0CU jIUxoCponu IlUVlCUPlU T] e9vOIlUKTjCOwyiu XPT]0l1l0nOlpoundi nOAAouc KA680uc uv9puml0ClKWV 0nou8wv onwc TT]V uv9pwnowyiu CTj ltplwwyiu TT]V UPXULOAoyiu TT]V l0Copiu CWV 9pT]0KelWV H npopoundAeu0T] TT]C uv9pw1llVT]e ellnelpiue Ile jIUX08PU0ClKU IlUVlCUPlU Kat yCVlKOCePU Ile Cle 1lTJEe 0PUIlUCWV - ltPUClldjc ij SWlKi]e npOEAeu0T]e - nou npOKUApoundi pu9la KUCa0CU0T] lleCaPOAije TT]C auvei8T]0T]e ltpuiVeCat vu eiVat noAU nuAlU 000V ultpopa moue IlUKTjCeC CU UpxatOAOlKa 8e80IlpoundVU UVultptpouv OCl Ca nUAatOCepU UVUOVCat 0TT]V ent-I1UAatOAl91KT] enoxi] lleCU~U AUWV aulliKCWV-KUVT](WV uUu Ol unUPXEe COue 9u IlnOpOU0UV vu eivat UPXatOCepee

32

Aafl~UvoV1W un6jf11 TOV K60flO t11~ npomiddot(Otopla~ Kat 11~ npCJ)TO(OTOpla~ - nou clVat to 8poundfla amou TOU up8pou - poundLVat bUVat6V va avayvCJ)ptOtOUV tpoundOOpoundPt~ Ka11yoplpound~ tCJ)V apxatO)OytKcOV EUP11flUtCJ)V Of OXpoundO11 flf TOU~ flUK11ti~ poundtbtK6tpoundpa av OKpoundltjltcl Kavpoundl~ 6AO to ~aoLApoundtO tCJ)V flUKTjtCJ)V ~fKtVcOVta~ 0n6 tl~ Basidiomycetes - ta UljlT1AOtpoundpa flavttUpta nou anotpound)oUvtat an6 poundva flLOXO Kat poundva nLAO - ta Xafl11AOtpoundpa flavttUpta 6nCJ)~ 11 poundPUoL~l1 (Claviceps spp) Kat 11 flouXAa (Aspergillus Penicillium etc)

1) npOtoflpound~ flaVttaptcOV 0pound ~paxoypaltjllpound~ sCJ)ypaltjltOlpoundvpound~ ~ xapaYlpoundvf~ nuvCJ) OTO ~puxo

2) OflOtcOflata lavttaptcOV )a~EUlpoundVa 0pound KtV11tOU~ ij aK1V11tOU~ ~puxou~ ta Apoundy6lEVa laquonpoundtppound~ lavnuptaraquo

3) olOtcOlata laVnaplcOv 0pound ulli~ TCllypound~ 11~ nAaOtlKij~ tpoundXV11~ 6nCJ)~ aVtlKpoundLlEVa 0pound n11AO ij lpoundtaUo

4) ~tOAoYlKU unOApoundtlflata nou yta ta laVnUpla noAu A1ypound~ npoundptTCtcOOpoundl~ poundLVat yvCJ)Otpound~ LtO nap6v up8po 8a poundTCtKpoundVtpcOOCJ) 11v npoOoxij lou Otl~ bUo npcOtpound~ Kat11yoplpound~

apXatOAoytKcOV EUP11lUtCJ)v LXpoundtlKU lE ta OUlnpoundpuOlata 11~ tPL11~ Ka11yop1a~ nou altjlOpu aVtlKpoundLlEVa

anobt86lpoundva 0pound TCllAO ijApoundKtpO XpuOo poundxouv ~ppound8poundl 0pound noUpound~ XcOppound~ OlOtcOlata lavttaptwv Kat 11 OUXVOtlltU TOU~ au~uvpoundtat 600 ltjl8uvoulpound TOU~ lOTOPlKOU~ Xp6vou~ AAAU Otl~ npoundptOOotpoundppound~ npoundptTCtcOOpoundt~ nou pound~poundtUsOVtat ta OUlnpoundpuOlata bpoundv poundlvat buvat6v va ltjl8uOouv lExPt 10 apxtKO ApoundnoupytK6 nAaLOl6 tOU~ KU8cO~ poundlvat bUOKOAo va Katabpoundtx8poundL np68pound011 avanapuOtaO11~ lavnapOpoundtbOU~ OUl~OAlOlOU

OOov altjlopu Ota ~tOAOYlKU EUpijlata 11 ~tO-apxatOAoytKTj avuAuOl1 poundbf~f tllV napouOla 11~ poundPUOt~l1~ 0pound av8pcOTCtvpound~ TOn08wlpound~ ~poundKtVcOVta~ an6 18000 xp6vta nX 011

MpoundO11 AvaTOA~ Kat O11V EuPcOTCll 5400 nX (Aaronson 1989 Boyd 1986 Gluza 1984) H poundpuOl~l1 poundlvat poundva~ lUKY)ta~ nou lOAUVpoundt tl~ atwpound~ tCJ)V KUUtpoundPYpoundlcOV Kat tCJ)v

uyptCJ)v X6ptCJ)v Ta OKA11PcOnu 10U poundlvat ltJKA11PU Kat poundlltjlavlsOVtat A1yo ltJav laquoKpoundpataraquo ltJn~ UKPpound~ cOptla Ypoundluta TO~tKU i] jfUxotpona aAKaAOpoundtb1] 11 tltJTOP1a TOU~ ltJK6TCtla ~ ruxa1a poundlvat OUvultjlaltJl~ lpound 11v tltJTOp1a TOU npomiddotlltJTOptKOU av8pcOnou TOU OUUpoundKt11 Kat flpoundtpoundnpoundna TOU KaUlpoundpYY)tT] tCJ)v ltjlUtcOV autcOv LY)laVtlK1] poundlvat 11 avaKuAujf11 tCJ)v ltJKA11PCJ)ttCJ)v poundpual~l1~ ltJtO ltJ1OlUXl tOU Man Grauballe Kat Man Tolund nou avi]Kouv ltJpound TOn08w1pound~ ltJ11V ~av1a Kat xpOVOAoYOUvtat ano to 500 nX (HeJbaek 1950)

BPAXOfPAlt1gtIEl

fIptv flpoundtatpancl 0pound poundP11l0 11 npoundptOx1] Laxupa~ bWltJXtsOvtav an6 notalou~ Kat ALlvpound~ KaAunTOVtaV an6 nuKvij ~AUltJ11O11 Kat KaTOtKOUVtaV an6 av8pcOTCtvpound~ ltjlUApound~ Amot Ot MOL Ultjl11ltJav ntltJCJ) TOU~ n)-ouma notKtAta ~paxoypaltjltcOv nou poundxouv bla11P118poundt an6 ty)v poundpi] lCJ)011 Kat 11v poundnaK6Aou811 altjlu8ltitCJ)O11 11~ npoundpLOxi]~middot

H pound8VOlUKOAOytKTj tpoundKl11PtCJ)O11 nou poundXCJ) npOObtOPLltJpoundl avijKpoundt ltJ11 xapaKty)plltJuKTj npoundptobo tCJ)v LtpOyyuA6Jv KpoundltjlaA6Jv (Samorini 1989 1992b) H an6leu11 XPOVOAOY11O11 alti]~ 11~ anpoundtK6vtO11~ poundtVat aK6la a~pound~at11 unoAoyispoundtUt 6lCJ)~ lpoundta~u tOU 9000 Kat 7000 xpovla nplv ano aT]lpoundpa ITOleD np60ltjlata 11 avu)uOl1 pabtEVpoundpyou uv8paKa 14 np6tpoundlVpound tl~ l1lpoundPOl11vlpound~ lpoundta~D 5950 nX Kat 4810 nX Yla KunOtO ano ta anpoundlKovt(olpoundva poundpya (Hachid et AI 2010) H TCpoundpLOm Tassili (AAypoundpia) poundtvUt 11nAoultJt6tpoundP11 ltJpound ~paxoypaltjllpound~ 11~ npoundpl6bou tCJ)V LtpOyyuA6Jv KpoundltjlaAWV EVtOntsOvtat 6lCJ)~ Kat ltJ11V npoundptOx1] Tadrart Acacus (At~U11) Ennedi (TltJavt) Kat ltJnopabtKU ltJ11v npoundptoxij OjebeJ Ouenat (AlyuTCtO~) (Sansoni 1994)

JOOl ldX OlD gXl)l ~ oyylt)m O ilt)o~Od)l J3((l lt(u8 xlli

~l 0()l1 - 1(ld)3)1 JJ (t0X J)lld3W l(lm3)1 Jg130~Ugttmi 3ri iC9mdori i(r)ill1C9d8iJJ ori8JJpound1

lOdomllg (tOXdllL(t laquoiC9(JJm3)l iC9((tAAod~Tgt i(r)~ JWl JJAd JJ~] J01JJriC9D (tOl lIJ13Xd~3

(tOll 0pXlOlD J(r) IL (Jlt(JJm3)1 OlOririlt)(JJ)I 01 3ri lt mJJridom 3ri lIJli01lLlt)(JJ)I (tOll) iC9mdoli

i(r)i3li9)1iO)l13 i(r)~ mdX JJlD lIJl3~JJd)l (tOll 0i3ri3)1UiJJ 9)1UDl(JJ3d JJi J(r)1L9 J(t01L9d1

Jlt)o)lu3dommg olt)g 3ri lIJ13)iO)l131LO Oi 1JJ13iJJm J9riD1(0pound1riaD Jltg1301Ugtt(tri 0 PSSBl 01 91LO A(r)3Dlt8DlJJd01L JA(r)AOdJJlL JUD

lIJ)I ~u~qdsoqd JJDJJAd3 ILgttld~3ri(r)3A U1D lt)odoX (tOl l)llAd(tOl3(n l)luDOdm)l3 mD lIJ)I JUD1L3

JC98JJ)I ldomDodlL lIJ)I ltglriO)lAaD Ul (to)l1l)(tOdOlL (tOll JiUgttD J-llD lt)luDldUl)lJJdJJX lIJi3

lwltdX ltd31-0)lli(r)i1O)I U i(r)01L0 i(r)1 A(r)1L9dlOX(tilt i(r)1 JOlL~ 0 Od319DDld31L ldll1iOri

01 lIJi3 JO3d~IJ( (tOAri13)1UiO (tOl iltMO 3ri Od319DDld31L 13)91d1JJ~ (tOll ~mdori H JJ(opound1lilt)gt 9)1UJJriAlilIJ OriWd(r)MOiJJ uri J(r)

lt (l~Z 01 z poundL61 ~lOql) mglt)o((tO( 1JJ)I uri9)1JJ l)lliJJXIJ( (~L61 lOW) 1)lllL(tO)l 3ri J3)1dlpound1

A0(3pound1 JriXlIJ J(r) J3mJJdUaD Jlt)O((OlL 91LJJ 31(t3iurid3 (toX JJ3XlOW m 9wV

md1)l11iOri J(r) JC9pound11d)lJJ C9g3 lIJli0lt)3iurid3

lIJ)I iC9(JJm3)l iC9((tUOdl] A(r)l ogOd31L iUl 91LJJ JiUgttD J3dom91g JUD 3)1U8dpound1 J(r)1L9

O(opound1rilt)gt Olg 01 i(tOlt)3lL(r)DOdlLUiJJ JJ3X101D Itg13odmliJJri JJl JUD11L3 J13DC911Lld31L JU Jl(tJJ

3] J01JJliC9D (tOl 1l1iriudAd3l1 Ol 0(9 3D P8CO(lLO~3 (toX JJi3rip)lUiO m l1(tJJ lUZBlllV

-Ul~IBlBW 01 91LO ltmdori Ul] Jlt)od uri J(tOl lJJ)I J310]Xudg J(tOl 91LJJ (r)~ lJJliO)lD]dpound1

(tOll Di31i]3)(UiU 3ri iOO)In01i 001L t~)l dmliuri iUll D]DOodDlL u lJJi)3 JOOl JJllU191ODl

Jlll lW(r)8]d)lD]3 iUlD 91i8Opound1 0(lk3ri 3D l8uog (tOll 9)111mdul)1DdnX 9110)1 o((l Di3

(O)1l)( JJil1iCO(lLlg mdX m lD)I UiriDlIIl( m991L) (tog91d31L JUlUD1)lW lLgttuDldUlXOdOX

UlllJ)I mW1)lri Ul 3ri iC91DOlO)l3 08 (t01Ld31L J(toiltlt) olt)g m lIJ)I ( 7 pound )113) lBZBlllV-lll~ImBW

lIJX Wljmtmov JXOld31L J11 91LO J1SSBl (tOl OU9i JlLgttlmOdA(r)) 0 Ad Olt)g OriA13g9dOlL

m] ~rog lt)(1l39iaD lt)(1A0 (0l0ii3 SlmOD mri iOOiXpg OOlL JOO1L9dl 3ri i(r)i9)113 i(r)~

uiltU(1)li01L3 iUlD Oi08dm mri 13)91D(todJJ1L JJpdl1J( lt) l1ko(OlU)(mioi83 U ~ll(tV

Jd(t3(1L JllD mdllltJJrl 0lt)9 m J1d(i)X l((JJ 0((9 m HJ)I OD9

J083Arl l)lllDldul)(JJd1)X morl9d01L 3ri 1l1d1iIt O((1 J)3iO)I 139 JJI r~dOlLri Uli7lL OlD JltX01d31L

JuOd(to JUl Joiltlt) OlD (t01L)d31L mdliIt m JOdlL (1381)1 lD)( O((l 01 91LJJ UiJJlLO Oi

01 lIJli0)iO)l13 md911iOri Olt)V (Z )113) iCl13dlO( iCl)(lko(01U)I(triOi83 iUll lt)~1Jl3ri UDUli

~)(I(Opound1riOD ~)l19Oiori mri mdliIt m 3ri mdl11iJJri m JmiogtaD Jdom 0lt)9 iOlmX9((tol

lIJ~3)iJJmri3 O1gXD JJ qISSBl OlD 1(l1L B)j~lnoqV-Ull iUlD OlAlt)ltflmO)I O 3]

(~661 UlOlllBS 6861 UOSMOO) 9)11((t m (to)iO)l13lLO Oi iJJDlt)odolLri 08 JririJJdA JPX3iaD

10 C9i3 mJJriA9dlL IJ((tl (to)iO)l131LJJ JJi iODlt)odolLri JJ8 JririJJdA J31)111Dllg 10 Wl

1Lgtt181(011J(JJu-m3ri iUl 1JJX ltx181(011J(JJU iUlD 119 UiltOlLl U P8UllL(tlmg 13X3

m d111imi 1)1L9dlOX(t~ ilt)odomD

001L iC91d13lLli3 iUll uDlt)dl lllD ~)(llmi(t3tlL-lt)ll1m)ll1D(tri 9iXOD 001 lt)OXlliJJlLliaD (tOl JJ)~D

U Uilt91L0 J38dlu( i1) u]3iurid3 ~l)(lko(olU)lmi mri 31i l(D)I 13)1)ldlDl ltlOD UDUli H (IO(JJorl

00ill1C9d8iD 001 lDX IdX Ol 31 i lDl]3lJJd)1 001L (l0ir13XUiD 001 (IJJ131i 13d 001L 9dAO

0(01) Di ~ lLD39i(ID uD31iri mri 13DC)(UgOlLO JJi 3D(IodolLli 1)8 ltliliDdA ~(1L1( H mOdx olt)g (toX~30dlL

1(9m3X 01 91LV l(ldl3X 01 91LJJ Ulil1L3 OJ3riUD 9X1d1i3X OlD iCtoillltfl lIJX (l0ri13)111iJJ

Jlt)og13odmliJJri (t01 lIJ)I lt)Old3X (l01 lt)~013ri JltdlJJ1L3 JUl O3riUD 01 91LJJ i(to)jXdO (tOll

iC9ririJJdA iCO(U((9dOlL iUlririox3xmg olt)g UDli9X131LJJ U 1JJip 9XllXU(lLX3 01 ldX (tOl1~3g

OlD lt)OldmliOri JJriltXD 3D oriUlmdorimg OA3riJ3XUiO JJ 91JJdx JILl(t3doX 38l)l

( I X1 3) JJd31iltgt Juri 3D u~riJJX moA urildx3XAaD lt)(01L mri (toX 01019iJJ8ll1 (tOll iUlg3XD

iC9Xld13riUl3A ugJ3 JJdOmllg 3ri J3riuliDoxmg J3lil(dlA J3D(t0)lOri(l)l lIJX J1d)lJJri

91LO 1JJliOiC9(gtl(l)l (tOll lt)odoX UD8 lt ltx11Od31 UDllD 3D 1JJliODDllJJdOlL (tOll iUlriri(t(JJX

iUlri9lJJ ld13D mri 13)iOX131LJJ (IJSSBl (tOl m19i) YUBZBl -Utl J~X01d31L JUl O1Alt)dlmml

-oXldpound1 JJ 3D 1JJ13)1Ddpound1 JiUXD JX11)131d31L lIJX J3d319)1UiJJriUD J11 91LO mw

poundpound

JOOl ldX OlD gXl)l ~ oyylt)m O ilt)o~Od)l J3((l lt(u8 xlli

~l 0()l1 - 1(ld)3)1 JJ (t0X J)lld3W l(lm3)1 Jg130~Ugttmi 3ri iC9mdori i(r)ill1C9d8iJJ ori8JJpound1

lOdomllg (tOXdllL(t laquoiC9(JJm3)l iC9((tAAod~Tgt i(r)~ JWl JJAd JJ~] J01JJriC9D (tOl lIJ13Xd~3

(tOll 0pXlOlD J(r) IL (Jlt(JJm3)1 OlOririlt)(JJ)I 01 3ri lt mJJridom 3ri lIJli01lLlt)(JJ)I (tOll) iC9mdoli

i(r)i3li9)1iO)l13 i(r)~ mdX JJlD lIJl3~JJd)l (tOll 0i3ri3)1UiJJ 9)1UDl(JJ3d JJi J(r)1L9 J(t01L9d1

Jlt)o)lu3dommg olt)g 3ri lIJ13)iO)l131LO Oi 1JJ13iJJm J9riD1(0pound1riaD Jltg1301Ugtt(tri 0 PSSBl 01 91LO A(r)3Dlt8DlJJd01L JA(r)AOdJJlL JUD

lIJ)I ~u~qdsoqd JJDJJAd3 ILgttld~3ri(r)3A U1D lt)odoX (tOl l)llAd(tOl3(n l)luDOdm)l3 mD lIJ)I JUD1L3

JC98JJ)I ldomDodlL lIJ)I ltglriO)lAaD Ul (to)l1l)(tOdOlL (tOll JiUgttD J-llD lt)luDldUl)lJJdJJX lIJi3

lwltdX ltd31-0)lli(r)i1O)I U i(r)01L0 i(r)1 A(r)1L9dlOX(tilt i(r)1 JOlL~ 0 Od319DDld31L ldll1iOri

01 lIJi3 JO3d~IJ( (tOAri13)1UiO (tOl iltMO 3ri Od319DDld31L 13)91d1JJ~ (tOll ~mdori H JJ(opound1lilt)gt 9)1UJJriAlilIJ OriWd(r)MOiJJ uri J(r)

lt (l~Z 01 z poundL61 ~lOql) mglt)o((tO( 1JJ)I uri9)1JJ l)lliJJXIJ( (~L61 lOW) 1)lllL(tO)l 3ri J3)1dlpound1

A0(3pound1 JriXlIJ J(r) J3mJJdUaD Jlt)O((OlL 91LJJ 31(t3iurid3 (toX JJ3XlOW m 9wV

md1)l11iOri J(r) JC9pound11d)lJJ C9g3 lIJli0lt)3iurid3

lIJ)I iC9(JJm3)l iC9((tUOdl] A(r)l ogOd31L iUl 91LJJ JiUgttD J3dom91g JUD 3)1U8dpound1 J(r)1L9

O(opound1rilt)gt Olg 01 i(tOlt)3lL(r)DOdlLUiJJ JJ3X101D Itg13odmliJJri JJl JUD11L3 J13DC911Lld31L JU Jl(tJJ

3] J01JJliC9D (tOl 1l1iriudAd3l1 Ol 0(9 3D P8CO(lLO~3 (toX JJi3rip)lUiO m l1(tJJ lUZBlllV

-Ul~IBlBW 01 91LO ltmdori Ul] Jlt)od uri J(tOl lJJ)I J310]Xudg J(tOl 91LJJ (r)~ lJJliO)lD]dpound1

(tOll Di31i]3)(UiU 3ri iOO)In01i 001L t~)l dmliuri iUll D]DOodDlL u lJJi)3 JOOl JJllU191ODl

Jlll lW(r)8]d)lD]3 iUlD 91i8Opound1 0(lk3ri 3D l8uog (tOll 9)111mdul)1DdnX 9110)1 o((l Di3

(O)1l)( JJil1iCO(lLlg mdX m lD)I UiriDlIIl( m991L) (tog91d31L JUlUD1)lW lLgttuDldUlXOdOX

UlllJ)I mW1)lri Ul 3ri iC91DOlO)l3 08 (t01Ld31L J(toiltlt) olt)g m lIJ)I ( 7 pound )113) lBZBlllV-lll~ImBW

lIJX Wljmtmov JXOld31L J11 91LO J1SSBl (tOl OU9i JlLgttlmOdA(r)) 0 Ad Olt)g OriA13g9dOlL

m] ~rog lt)(1l39iaD lt)(1A0 (0l0ii3 SlmOD mri iOOiXpg OOlL JOO1L9dl 3ri i(r)i9)113 i(r)~

uiltU(1)li01L3 iUlD Oi08dm mri 13)91D(todJJ1L JJpdl1J( lt) l1ko(OlU)(mioi83 U ~ll(tV

Jd(t3(1L JllD mdllltJJrl 0lt)9 m J1d(i)X l((JJ 0((9 m HJ)I OD9

J083Arl l)lllDldul)(JJd1)X morl9d01L 3ri 1l1d1iIt O((1 J)3iO)I 139 JJI r~dOlLri Uli7lL OlD JltX01d31L

JuOd(to JUl Joiltlt) OlD (t01L)d31L mdliIt m JOdlL (1381)1 lD)( O((l 01 91LJJ UiJJlLO Oi

01 lIJli0)iO)l13 md911iOri Olt)V (Z )113) iCl13dlO( iCl)(lko(01U)I(triOi83 iUll lt)~1Jl3ri UDUli

~)(I(Opound1riOD ~)l19Oiori mri mdliIt m 3ri mdl11iJJri m JmiogtaD Jdom 0lt)9 iOlmX9((tol

lIJ~3)iJJmri3 O1gXD JJ qISSBl OlD 1(l1L B)j~lnoqV-Ull iUlD OlAlt)ltflmO)I O 3]

(~661 UlOlllBS 6861 UOSMOO) 9)11((t m (to)iO)l13lLO Oi iJJDlt)odolLri 08 JririJJdA JPX3iaD

10 C9i3 mJJriA9dlL IJ((tl (to)iO)l131LJJ JJi iODlt)odolLri JJ8 JririJJdA J31)111Dllg 10 Wl

1Lgtt181(011J(JJu-m3ri iUl 1JJX ltx181(011J(JJU iUlD 119 UiltOlLl U P8UllL(tlmg 13X3

m d111imi 1)1L9dlOX(t~ ilt)odomD

001L iC91d13lLli3 iUll uDlt)dl lllD ~)(llmi(t3tlL-lt)ll1m)ll1D(tri 9iXOD 001 lt)OXlliJJlLliaD (tOl JJ)~D

U Uilt91L0 J38dlu( i1) u]3iurid3 ~l)(lko(olU)lmi mri 31i l(D)I 13)1)ldlDl ltlOD UDUli H (IO(JJorl

00ill1C9d8iD 001 lDX IdX Ol 31 i lDl]3lJJd)1 001L (l0ir13XUiD 001 (IJJ131i 13d 001L 9dAO

0(01) Di ~ lLD39i(ID uD31iri mri 13DC)(UgOlLO JJi 3D(IodolLli 1)8 ltliliDdA ~(1L1( H mOdx olt)g (toX~30dlL

1(9m3X 01 91LV l(ldl3X 01 91LJJ Ulil1L3 OJ3riUD 9X1d1i3X OlD iCtoillltfl lIJX (l0ri13)111iJJ

Jlt)og13odmliJJri (t01 lIJ)I lt)Old3X (l01 lt)~013ri JltdlJJ1L3 JUl O3riUD 01 91LJJ i(to)jXdO (tOll

iC9ririJJdA iCO(U((9dOlL iUlririox3xmg olt)g UDli9X131LJJ U 1JJip 9XllXU(lLX3 01 ldX (tOl1~3g

OlD lt)OldmliOri JJriltXD 3D oriUlmdorimg OA3riJ3XUiO JJ 91JJdx JILl(t3doX 38l)l

( I X1 3) JJd31iltgt Juri 3D u~riJJX moA urildx3XAaD lt)(01L mri (toX 01019iJJ8ll1 (tOll iUlg3XD

iC9Xld13riUl3A ugJ3 JJdOmllg 3ri J3riuliDoxmg J3lil(dlA J3D(t0)lOri(l)l lIJX J1d)lJJri

91LO 1JJliOiC9(gtl(l)l (tOll lt)odoX UD8 lt ltx11Od31 UDllD 3D 1JJliODDllJJdOlL (tOll iUlriri(t(JJX

iUlri9lJJ ld13D mri 13)iOX131LJJ (IJSSBl (tOl m19i) YUBZBl -Utl J~X01d31L JUl O1Alt)dlmml

-oXldpound1 JJ 3D 1JJ13)1Ddpound1 JiUXD JX11)131d31L lIJX J3d319)1UiJJriUD J11 91LO mw

poundpound

34

Lpound nOAAEe npoundpmHDOpoundle at iOLOl Ol apXatOAOYOl owOav OVO~aTa One ~Opltpe

onWe ame nou XOUV Ta laquo~UK1lLOpoundlO~ KpoundltpaAlaraquo (tete-champignon) xwpie npay~anKa va Ta OUVOOOUV ~pound Tllv OU~~OA1~ pound8VO~UK1lLOAOY1K~ LOUe a~ia OllA ~lae a~poundOlle avaltpopae OTa ~aVLTapla AUTo OU~~aivpound1 Yla napaopoundly~a OTa pya ~wypaltpl~e nou ~pioKOVTat OT11v aAypoundplv~ npoundp1OX~ Immidir ~oppound1a TOU ~OUVOD Hoggar AUTa Ta pya ~wypaltplKTje ~nopODV

va avT]KOUV XPOV1Ka OT11V npoundpiooo TWV laquoLTPOYYUAWV KpoundltpaAWVraquo (Muzzolini et al 1991) L1laltpopa OTatxpoundla npoTpoundlvouv TllV Dnap~ll ~lae apxaiae AaTppoundlac ~pound ~la oDv8ETll

natK1Aia jfUXOpoundvpoundpywv ~OTavtKWV poundlOWV nou OUVOOpoundDOVTat ano ne OxpoundnKe ~U80AOY1Ke anpound1KoviOpound1e L1poundv poundlvat poundDKOAO va pound111V01l8poundl ~la un08pound0T] yta Ta poundlOll ~aVLTaplWV nou anpoundlKovi~oVTat -Ta ~loXll~lKa xapaKT11PlOnKa LOUe poundv ~ppoundl Xouv we ~aOll TO poundlooe Tlle OtaVOllnKTje pound~npound1piae Ka8we avTjKouv 0pound ~ta XAwpioa nou opoundv poundlvat nAEOv napoDOa 0T11 OT]~poundPlvT] ayovll AEKaYT] Tlle Laxapae

Lpound va ano Ta pya ~wypaltplKTje poundlval poundnLTppound11TO va ~Ypoundl TO Ou~npaO~a Tlle napouOiae TOUAaX10TOV Mo pound1OWV va ~pound ~lKPO ~ypound80e OUXVa ~pound papilla OTllV KOpUltpTj Kat ~pound napO~Ola xapaKT11plOnKa onwe aUTO TOU YVWOTOD napat08110l0YOvOU ~avlTap1OD Psilocybe poundVW TO aUo poundlvat ~poundyaADTpoundpoU ~poundy80ue (onwe Ta boletus Tj amanita)

Ol avaADOpoundle yiJPlle nou npay~aTonolTj811Kav OTO Tassili owOav ~ltpaOll OTO poundlooe Tlle ~)caOT11OT]e TWV ~ouvwv nou unTjpxav poundKpoundl KaTa T11 OuipKpoundla Tlle 11poundP1000U TWV (ltLTPOYYUAWV Kpoundltpa)cwYraquo nou anOTpoundAoDvTav ano olaltpopa pound1011 KWVOltpOpwv Kat T11 ~poundAaV10la (AA VV 1986 97) Mnoppoundi Aomov va unoTpound8poundi on Ta anpound1KOVlO~va ~aVLTapla TjTav ~poe am~e Tlle ~WVlle LOU oaOOue Kat on TOUAaXlOTOV Ta ~poundyaADTpoundpa 0pound ~ypound80e 0T11Plx811Kav 0pound ~poundyaw nOOOOTO 0pound ~poundplKa ano aUTa Ta poundlOll OvTPWV (ou~~lwnKa ~aVLTapla) ETOl poundnaA1l8rupoundTat 11 anOjfll on aUTa Ta pya ~wypaltplKTje avT]KOUV OTllV TIaAalOA181KTj EnoXT] 1110 ouyKpoundKpl~va 0pound vav pound111- TIaAa1OAl8lKO nOAlTlo~O nou yta npWT11 ltpopa OUvavTa~pound OTOlxpoundia XPT]Olle jfUX0poundvpoundpywv ~avlTaplwv OT11v poundnox~ TOU Apound8ou KaTa OUvnpound1a 11 un08poundOll KaTa Wasson et Al (1986) nwe 11 yvwOT] TWV lpoundPWV ~avlTaplwv pound111voTj811Kpound ano TllV mOXT] TOU Apound8ou ltpalvETat va pound111~pound~atWvpoundTal

Selva Pascuala Imtavia

TIpOOltpaTa poundXpoundl npoTa8poundl ~la ~UK1lTOAOY1~ poundp~llvpoundia Tlle npoiOTOpl~e ~paxoypaltpiae Levantine nou Xpoundl poundvT0111OTpoundl OT11V npoundp1OxT] Cuenca Tlle KaOTiUlle - La Mancha IOnavla (Akers et AI 2011) ElVat ~la ~wypaltpla 0pound ~paxo-KaTaltpDYLO Tlle LOn08poundOiae Selva- Pascuala KovTa OTO XWPlO Villar del Humo 200 XA~ vonoavaToA1Ka Tlle MaopiT11e TllV onoio poundlxa Tllv EUKatpia va pound1110KpoundltpTW Kat va TllV napaT11pTjOw npoOw111Ka

To navEA nou poundivat LO avnKpoundl~poundvo Tlle npoOoXT]e ~ac ~P10KpoundTat OTO ~paxo-KaTaltpDYlo apl8 3 TO onoio KaAEiTat Fuente de Selva Pascuala poundnpound1oTj KovTa ~pioKETU1 ~la naAla 11T]yTj (ELK 5) AnpoundlKovl~OVTat ouo TETpanooa va KpoundpaOltpopo ~00pound10e Kat va poundAaltpl - TO TpoundAEuTalo opoundv OUvT11PpoundlTat KaAa - Kat Ta ODO ~pound aplOTa TpoundXVOTponlKa xapaKTllPlOTIKa yvwplO~aTa ~a~l ~pound ~poundplKe av8pwnlVpounde ~opltpe npOOT]AW~vpounde OTO KUvT]Yl ~pound Ta To~a poundVW aplOTpoundpa ~poundplKe ~wypaltple opoundv EiVat KaTavollTe To xpw~a poundlvat KOKK1VO Kat Ta TpoundTpanooa XOUV xpw~anO~vo OAO TOUe TO Ow~a LLO KaTW ~poe Opound~la TOU naVpoundA ~la Opound1pa ~pound 13 avnKpound(~poundva anpoundlKovi~ouv ~pound ~pound~at6rllTa ~aVLTapOpoundlOpoundle lOpltpe Kat poundlvat xpw~anO~vpounde ~pound TO 1010 KOKK1VO xpw~a (ELK 6) ApX1Ka poundixav DjfOe 8-10 cm LTa 11 cm ano aUTa poundlVat ouvarov va avayvwploTpoundl va Ka8ETo xa~llAo ~poe Kat va OTPOYYUAO UjfllAOTpoundPO ~poe anpound1Kovi~ovTae poundVOpoundXo~vwe TO ~iOxo Kat TOV nlw Kapnoltpoplae TWV UjfllAOTpoundPWV ~avlTaplwv LTa aUa Mo aVTIKpoundi~poundva 0 nlwe OpoundV poundlvU1nAEov opaTOe Lpound Mo aUa avnKpoundl~poundva ~ta oladaowOll Xpoundl xpw~anoTpoundi 0T11 ~aOT] TOU laquo~iOxouraquo 11 onola OO~YllOpound 0T11 unojfia poundvoe OKOnl10U av8pwno~opltplO~OD aUTwv TWV avnKpoundl~vWV (Alonso 1983-4) poundVW 0 va aUo ~EUyapl TWV i01WV avnKpoundl~vwV 0 laquo~iOXoeraquo anpound1Kovi~poundTal 0pound ~ta ~opltpTj ~lK-~aK

35

Ta avnKpoundl1cya ama poundXouv poundPIlT1V8J8poundl npOTlYotgt1poundVCO~ co~ aYK1Jpa (Acosta 1968) co~ lPTJPlKl] pound1tlypaql11 (Jorda Cerda 1975) T] poundxotgtv talvo1TJ8poundl co~ aoplOtT] laquoOXTJ1anKl] tpoundXVT]raquo poundva poundlOO~ tpoundXVT]~ nou poundXpoundl OlwpoponOlTj8poundl ana nOAAou~ 1poundActT]tpound~ ana tT]V arte levantine notgt 8poundCOPpoundlWl npoundplOOotpoundpo ltptgtOlOKpatlKT] (Beltran 1979)

EVtoutol~ ltpalvpoundtat aVal1ltPlOPT]tTJto on Ol ScoypaltpOl tcov 1avltUpopoundlOWV avnKpoundl1poundVCOV Kat tCOV tpoundtpanoocov T]tav Ol lOlOl Kat on ta OlaltpoppoundnKa 8pound1aw oMJUTJpotgt totgt navpoundl poundlXav OAa OXpoundOTJ 1pound a1OlPalpound~ CYWopoundl~ tcov onolcov TJ MOla 0pound l1a~ poundlvat 11poundta pla~ avnATJntTj 0 Akers et AI 2011 pound1tlOTJ1alvpoundl on TJ OXpoundOT] 1poundwu tcov 1avltUpopoundlOWV OtOlXpoundlCOV Kat tOtgt POOlOU 8a 1nopOUOpound va poundp1TJV8Jtpoundl ano to ypoundyovo~ on Ol scoypaltpol tT]~ Fllente de Sdva Pascuala yvwpl~av Tllv OlCOAOY1KT] OXt Oll ~lpoundTU0 Konplac r300pound100W Kat TCOV no)llapl81cov jItgtXObPClOTlKWV ~lCLV1TCXP1(lJV not) CLVT]KOllV Ow ypoundvll Psilocybe Kat Panaeolus Km notgt poundXouv co~ poundvi5lCL1TTjLlCL 1lt)VO Konpla POOpoundlOWV (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) rla to lc6yo atgtT6 01 OUyypCLltppoundl~ Tll~ cflvO~WKTjtOOY 1KT] lt poundp rllvpound(a~ nl~ SCOy pCLq)LKl] ~

EXOUV pound7IlKpoundVTpco8poundl 0pound EVa jItgtXOTpono KonpoltplcO 1UKlTW nou avaKCLAu(p8T]Kpound npoOltpaw oTTjV npoundplOXT] TT]~ mllPlKT]~ XpoundpOOVT]OOU Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzmiln amp Castro 2006) I1poOC01tlKa poundKtl1W co~ aPpoundpmo tOY np0tpoundlv01CYO WOVO1lKO npoOolOplO10 KCL8w~ T] xopoypaltpia TCOV Konp0ltpllcov lfUXOi5PCLOUKWV ~WKllTCOV EXpoundl CLAAapoundl OT] 11 CLVtlK a KOTa Tll olapKpoundw TCOV XlAlpoundTIWY Myco wu npoundplOplO10U KCLl tT]~ 1poundwvaOt8JOT]~ tcov ayplcov tpoundtpanoocov KonaOlWV Kat tT]~ poundTJ1EPCOOT]~ KanOlCOV ana atgttu ta tpoundtpanooa E1tlnAtov 0t0 1poundyaA1rrpoundPO I1poundPO~ tT]lt Konplu~ tcov tpoundtpanoocov 1poundyaAWvouv l1avltupw aUtou tou poundlootgt~ onco~ (J1)I1Paivpoundl Yla napaopoundlYl1a 1pound Panaeolus aJcidis Mos poundva KonpoltplAo poundloo~ notgt (J1)vOpoundpoundtat 1pound ta poundAaltpopoundlOT] (Moser 1984) onco~ poundivat to OcDtpoundpO poundloo~ tpoundtpanoootgt notgt xpco1atispoundtal 0t0 navpoundA 0tT] Selva Pascuala To POOL Kat to poundAaltpl ctVat ScoypaltplOI1poundVa 0pound lOT] anoOtaOT] ano tT] l1avlWpOpoundlOT] opoundlpa 1W poundKti1T]OT] notgt - poundav TJ OK01tl1TJ OXpoundOTJ tpoundtpanooo-Konp0ltplAo 1aVmipl poundlvat aAT]8wT] - oCY npoOltptppoundl XPT]OlI1pound~ nATJPoltpopic~ Yla to poundioo~ TOU tpoundtpanoootgt

I1ptnpoundl aKO1TJ va AT]ltp8poundl unojlT] on unapxouv KOnpOltptAa poundloTJ l1avlWplwV notgt ava7rtuOOovtat Ot~ KOnptpoundlt Kal tcov ODo tcov tpoundtpanoocov Kat on tcivou1pound 0111poundpa va (J1)VOpoundOU1pound Ta jItgtxocypoundpya KonpoltptAa 1avltapw 11pound tU POOpoundlOf] Myco XlAIpoundtWV poundTJ1EPCOOT]~

totgt~ poundxvwvtU~ tU aypw poundAaltpw LxpoundnKa 11pound tT] xpovoAOyTjOT] tOtgt navpoundA Fuente de Selva Pascuala Ol apXatoAOyOl

npotcivouv OTj1poundpa 1la T)11poundp01TJVla notgt poundKlva ana tT] 1pound00Al8lKl] 0tT] 1pound0T] vpoundOAl8lKl] oT)AaoT] 1poundtUu 6000 Kat 4000 nX (Ruiz et AI to 2009) Eivat poundnol1poundvcolt avaYKaio va unoypa11lOtpoundi on poundivat yvcoOtTj 1poundXPl OT]I1poundpa co~ Tj naAatotpoundpT] anpoundlKovlOTJ 1avlWplwV OtT]V EtgtpwnTJmiddot

Ol npolOtoPlKt~ ppaXoypaltpipound~ (J1)VOpoundOVWl 1pound TT) YVWOT] Kat tT] xpf]OTJ 1COV napat08T]0l0yovcov 1aVltUPlWV onco~ poundXpoundl npOOOlOplOtpoundi 0pound I1poundPlKt~ npoundplOxt~ tT]~ LlPTJpia~

LTI~ avatOAlKt~ npoundplOxt~ tT]~ OtOV apKnKO nOAlKo KDKAo On~ oX8pound~ tOU n0ta10U Pegtymel PpiOKpoundtat I1w npoundplOxi] nAOUOla 0pound npoundtpOYAultplKa nou XPOVOAOYOUVtat 0tT]V tomKl] I1aAalOAl8lKi] poundnoxf] Mpoundtau atgttwv tCOV npoundtPOYAtgtltPlKWV poundiVat otgtvato va avayvcoplOtOuv Kat poundlKOVpound~ tCOV (J1)lliKtWV I1UVltaplWV (Dikov 1971)

Lpound I1poundPlKt~ OKT]vt~ tgtnapxouv 8T]AtgtKt~ 10PltPE~ 1pound poundAK1JOtlKa Kal l1aKpla laquoOKouAapiKlaraquo Kat 1pound Eva l1poundYaAo 1aVltapl Oto KpoundltpuAl CYw 1W MAT] npoundpnatwVta~ ltptpvpoundl Kan 0t0 KpoundltpaAl avaST]twvta~ lOopponia (ElK 7) H KOVtOxovtPT] 10pltpi] Kat KunOla OlaKOO1T]OTJ tCOv 1avltUplWV altpf]vouv va tgtnotpound8ci on npOKpoundltat yw toy a1avttT] toy I1tgtYOKtOVO

TotgtAaXlOtOv 34 ana ampoundlt nlt av8pcono1opltppound~ poundlKOVpound~ 00KlasovtUl an6 tpoundpaOna 1aVmipla Katu tOY Devlet (1982) aLOAoyouvwl on auta ta l1poundyaAa 1aVltapOpoundloi]

36

aVnKEileva Elvat aKplPWe flavmipla Kat 0X10YKWbEle KEltpaAaltpOpECHte onWe EPllllgtOVWl ana lEplKOUe ltruyypaltpEie laquo a1Yta Ta napaeva axi]laTa bev Eivat nOTeuro xapaYleurova aTO

KEltpa)l TWV av8pwmvwv lOpltPWV aMa ane nEpwa01EpEe nEpmTWaEte ElVat xapaYleurova nEpa ana TO KEltpaAl i] TO avnKa8wwuv Kat EnOleurovWe bev anOKaAumouv onolObi]noTE xapaKTIlPlanKO yvwpWla KEltpaAoltpopECHaeraquo

MOTipa flaV1TUplWV EXOUV ppE8Ei Enialle lETUU nETpOYAUltPWV TWV npoIaTopLKWV EYKaTUaTaaEWV ane ox8Ee TIle AilVlle Ushokovo aTIl XEpaovllao Kamchatka LE au-ri]v Tllv nEpimwall Ta Ilavnapta anELKovisovTat IlEaa ane KaAuPEe m npoonnKi] anEtKovLall (Dikov 1979) 0 na)caLOAL8LKOe nOAmalOe Ushokovo avijKEt aE EKElVll TIlV ollaba TWV npOTOshyEschimoaleuthic nA1l8uallwv ana TIlv onoia npoi]A8av 01 POPELOallEpLKavLKoi naAUloshyEaKLlWOL TIle II Xl)lHiae nX

TIavTa aTIl L1PllPia ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle nEplOxi]e Ortaa-Sag01 KaTa lTJKOe TOU nOTUlOU Yenisei ltu ltruYKEKP1leuroVll Olaba 8ElaTWV anOTEAElTat ana axi]laTa av8pwnolopltpa - apaevlKa Kat 811AuKa - lOpltpeuroe nou anobiboVTat lE aXllllanKi] Tcxyo-rponia (ELK 8) MEplKa ana aUTa EXOUV laVnapOELbEe KEltpaAl Kat lla aTpOYYUAi] laquolaTplKT]-TaaVTUraquo eurova aVrtKEilEVO nou npoabLOpiSEl aUTEe ne 1l0pltpEe we aalaVOue Au1ij 11 bEplanVll TaavTa nEptEiXE eurova IlE8uanKo nOTO ana a~tuviTIl Ta llavnapla-lOPltPEe anE1KovisoVTat ltruxYu aE aTaall xopou (Devlet 1982)

EmalllaivETUl on Ta av8pwnollopltpa ax~laTa lE KEltpUAl llaVnaplOU 8a lnopOuaav va E1Kovisouv UTOla laquoalaVlTEeraquo KOplTCHa laquoalavhEeraquo rl laquoavbpEiKEAaraquo bllA 1tVWlUTa auTOU TOU lUKllTU nou ppiaKOVTat ane mPllP1KEe npoltpoplKeuroe napaboaEle ElblKU lETUU TWV Chukchi (Saar1991)

LXEnKa JlE TOUe Chukchi Kat TIlV IlE811 ana TOV IlUYOKTovo-ayaplKo 0 Bogoraz (1904-9) ypaltpEl laquo01 alaVlTEe EIlltPavisOVtat lE napaEva xapaKTIlPWnKU yvwpiallaTa aE IlE8ualeurovOue av8pwnoue [tu napabE1Yla 1l1a allavha ElltpaviSETat liE TO xapaKtT]pLanKO yvwplala poundVoe aKpWTIlPlaaleurovOU npoawnou evw lla aMll Eivat lE EAAEinov a1EAEXOe AUTa bev Eivat nVEuIlUTa EiVat aKplPWe allavlTEe 0 ap18loe aUTOe avnaTOlXEi aTOv ap181l0 TWV alavnwv nou KaTUvaAW8TlKav 01 alaVlTEe naipvouv XEP1lE XEPl TO np6awno Kal TO ObTlYOUV aTOV aAAa KOalO Kat TOU napouCHUSOUV n unapXEl EKEi Kavovme TU mO ania1poundUTU npaYlaTaraquo Lne E1KOVEe TuW lavnaplwv-avbPWv ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle Pegtymel EiVat buvaTO va avayvwpwTOUV av11a101xLEe m UU10 TO ELbOe lOU uV8pwn0f10PltP1CJIlOU

AUTO Eivat lblahEpa ElltpavEe m EKEivEe ne aKTlVEe onou av8pwnOlOpltPEe alavhEe mavovtat XEP1- XEPl liE anAfe av8pwmvEe lOpltpEe (ELK 9)

Upolt Bego raUia

Mtu evblaltpEpouaa anE1KOvlaTl evoe m8avou laVnaplOu ltpaivETUl aTIlv ppaxoypaltpia TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv TIle vonae [aMiae (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) Eva pouvo anOKaAOUlevo opoe Bego nou ppiaKETat aE nEpLOxi] UfllAOTEPll TWV 8aAltiamwv AAmwv 8EwpouvTav navTa tepa ana TOUe apxaioue aKOlTl xp6voue LE aUTO TO POUVO Kat aTIlv Kovnvij KotAaba TWV 0aUluTWv ppiaKOVTat X1AlabEe ppaxoypaltpiEe 01 bwltpopEnKEe ltpaaEle Kat TExYOTponlEe KaAUmOUV lW nEpiobO lETaSU 2500 nX lEXPl ne npwTEe bEKaETiEe tT]e EnOXrle lae (Lumley 1995)

H rupw lblatTEp6TIlTU aUTi]e TIle ppaxoypaltpiae EiVat TO UfOe TTle TOno8wiae (2000shy2500 lE1pa) Kat TO aTlflavnKo - 8a mopoUaE va El11w8El JlE EllOvij- 11 napouaia KEpaaltpopwv sWOlOPltPwv E1KOVWV nou oumaanKa axn[(OV1at ~tE PObW

Mla a)ATl lbtanpoundpOTIlTa Eivat on OU0taaTtKU OAEe aUTEe 01 KEpaaltpoppounde EtKOVEe Eivat xapaYleurovEe JlE eurovav TETOlO Tpono waTE W Ktpa-ra va OEixYouv npoe TIlv atnlll TOU POUVOU AUTO OEV Eivat wxaio EXEl napUTllPTl8El on TO opoe Bego EiVat eurova ana Ta pouva TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv nou xwmOuvtat nOAU aUxYa ana KEpauvoue Kat Yl aUT6 ExEt unoTE8Ei on TO pouvo EmAfXTllKE ana TOUe npo(aTOplKOUe Aaoue we laquotEpOraquo aKptpWe

(pound1 Zl )l1tO(Od32911L3( 30 OdliOX91AO)l 91LU) (WX0rl 001 m)l (Og31L1L3 30 9)11dmdw-niu 91LU) 00(1L 001 SILltfgtdori SUl AqgtAUC(udulL A(l)1 Vd13D ~)l10(1(fgt

Ul 3ri mdV11AUri U(VA3ri uiriAuduX mA3 UA mli0) lAumri3 di3UdljdUOlS 01I Aqgt13AUrid3 Aqgt)llAO(01UxoriOA93 A(l)1 UlU191UAog Ul 13AOAU m)l di3UdljdUOlS ItXOld31L AUl0 Ud31mgl mA3 UA m13)Aumri3 laquoi(l)A91Draquo A(l)1 urimdqgtM 9)1umdu1)ludUX 010 ItAU((udulL H

SltnCl3oodlL SItxWAUxori S3AO~V O)lU0m0Cl9 S(l) SooA9(omXdu So01 91LU m1A0ct3Aurid3 001L UA3ri3)11lAU V((OlL m1AOAvdulLUAU S13~VduX Su S1oU I SS1UmD9dlL 0l1L uri9)1U mAp UA tUl0C)odolLri u6 poundpound61 001 OgOd31L AUl AU)lumvdAUlU)I m)l SooXVdg So01 SC)01ou D AU)lUlXVduX 001L SSA9)11S 10 XlL OOpound 1 001Lld31L XdSSdM 001 9riDUl(01L AOW lUlpAO(OAOdX lU)I Ud319Adu lUl361wodlL 001L 5o10360lL01 SUl u0Vm UlUm09dlL mri 30 AaO)ltAu SSd1lL 10 S1oV(Qpound661 U10WBS pound1 Z 1 )l1a) 5o10S901L01 SUl SoO()lC))I SoOAld1lL oC)g So01 AC)O(SlOlLU m)l - poundpound 61du m)l 17 61du S(l) mlAC)ori61du SooA9(omXdu Soo 91LU - A(l)61(9AOri SoA()3) Ui 30 SSiriAuduX ll)A3 unv AUl0 dllUdljdUOlS U03901L01 ltxi61(UASri U1 91LU S3mudAoXudg S)lldsri 30 Suri ItX000dlL AUl udqgt1 3rioomd1I

On)AV a~uaqauolS

S13~1t(llin SiW1(ls)lDUd9 S)llg3g l1J)j Jil)l)1J1wJd(l3-0g1 oZid8 Sood9 (l01 S3mudAoXudg SUD 30Udlt1udUlL (9661) dUUdlJna 0 C)OlimAuriu0 001 Vlgl3()l - USXlOW V)l10Ug -U(V)l0 tA19u(u mri S(l)0 01g)0 AUD - SU(9)10 SUl lU)I AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 SUA9)113 SUl (l)M)( SC)orid13ACl0 SC)O)llAUriU0 13Aqgt(UgOlL(l laquoC)ori(l)g SoogqgtXudgraquo 001 ltn9 H UdUeAVlL A01 Ul1Auriu 9AdSA30Xo~ 000~3 A01 It UllAuriu 9)11duAU A01 UdoOA0 A9gsXD l3tXpg [tAUx0 lt)luCl3)10Ud9 mri S0 13)1tAU 001L C)OldmlAuri 001 0(1L AQW A(l)iriAUduX It A(l)iTimmudA(l)) A(l)Sriltn A(l)lOlLV)l uD(lodulL U 1(91L m)l

C)OldUllAuTi 001 00(1L 001 Itmodo)l AUl0 m1AO)loldg 001L A(l)s~1)duX U)l3gi ItAO((aD UlD Vdomu m3dri011L3( uds1ct3g H Aqgt11AUriU A(l)1 SU13iAO)110 SUl AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 OX0ri 01 91LU (l)d()A lm3)10)dg 001L 191(CllXUg 01 13)AO)l131LU UA lU1SAUm SOOlLO o laquooOXDriraquo 001 Sodri Od31qgttUl 010 l1J1SAUm 001L U0(l)i)l()lL AUl0 Vdomu O3XlOW O1qgtdlL 01 OOA91)lOAori 001 U1AUriU Soogp 001 mU)lC)ri S(l) 00iri13)1UAU 001 U1SAurids IttUl6m AUl0 AC)OAUgO SSOlLO 10 oOA9(01U)lori S9A3 uVri 9)1U)l3DOdlL 01 91LU S(l)ri9 1X9 oOA9(OlUXdu S9A3 ItX000dlL AUl 91LU AooAC)ms~ UA AC)odolLri (lOll S313dri01lL3( oC)g AaOXdVlLA S130AO)l131LU Su S1ou D 00(1L9 Sogp SlOlLltgOlolLO 3ri(l00d(l)MUAU UA O(O)lDC)g S101C)01A3 l1JA3

O(1L9 9)11Ado013(32 OC(V It 01(U0 S(l) Ud319tXaD lU)I olAud)l Sg1300g OiriulOlLOlLCll ui OlgX0 oiriudumu S(l) P6Cl3AUrid3 13X 9l(lU 0A3ri3)1UAU 01

laquoS9A(lud3)1raquo It laquo01(1wraquo ui 1(vm3)1 ow 1)lLCllX AUl 001L Itmdori UAllLqgtd6tUl AUlD U(lLg lU13)10dg 001L (T [ )llt) SItAUxD SUl UA9)113 Itg1301Uxori Ul SrioOD1)13~S u9 udqgt1

SOAVriUD UlUl9AU911L lUAp m)l laquoSIt(om SUl S9AUXduraquo UiriDu6AU( 3)1UlDVriOAO 001L Ud32C)(UA3ri mri lU)I Itd)llTi mri Smdori S3AllLqgtd9AU O(lg U(V)l0 mri Ul(U0 V)lld3ri Ul)ludVXAs ll)1AO) AO)l13 laquoC)ori(l)graquo 001 m3Avml1L3 ugqgtXudg UlI

(pound7 066 [ IV ld Adlwnl) X lL 0081 01 S(l) C)oxuX 001 SltX01L3 SurilqgtdlL SUl C)~Ul3ri P6ltAO(OAOdX 13Xa (0 I )l1a) UmUdAoXudg AUl 3ri lU13gA(l0 (lOll SU3d1u( SUl 0pXl010 9)11d1A3)1 01 lUA3 UA ll)13)AumTi3 lU)I 5og9(10)l SUl 13)91LD3g 001L U09 mri 30 S9ri(l)g SUi S(l)1L9 lUlS)IW SoXVdg 0 A(l)s~VduX S3gV1AOll))lS 91LU lU131lLC)(U)I 001 m3Avml1L3 U3dCl3 1t(uTio U ll))I uTi qgtdX 010 S9domdolL-SoAl)1)19)1 lUA3 SoXVdg 0 laquoSIt((lm SUl C)oAuXdmgt oOA3TiC)O(U)lOlLU 001 tAUx0 mri lU13)AO)l13 Su~009dlL

SUl VdCl3(lL U3( UlD lU)I laquoC)oTi(l)g (l01 SoXVdgraquo 0 S(l) S910(l)M lUA3 S09n 0 SItXOld31L SUl Sudu()l9(0 AqgtlmudAoXudg muTiltdCl3 Ud319)1UAUTiltn m 91LU ui lU13d(l)39 001L S091( SOirikuduX SUi lU13)10dg A(l)11)Ti(lU9 A(l)1 SngV(lo)l SU1 SodTi Od319(U~(l 01I

(pound7-171761 01lIlW) 9A(lOd3)1 13~nTiae (lOll A(l)1Vd3)1 Aqgt((OlL )lV)-)ll) UriltX0 01 3Ti(lODTiTiudkolL(l UA AodmmgA3 lUAa C)o)lumdu1)luduX lt)O)llAO(od(l)313Ti (l01 lt)ol(ln (l)A9(

Lt

35

Ta avnKpoundl1cya ama poundXouv poundPIlT1V8J8poundl npOTlYotgt1poundVCO~ co~ aYK1Jpa (Acosta 1968) co~ lPTJPlKl] pound1tlypaql11 (Jorda Cerda 1975) T] poundxotgtv talvo1TJ8poundl co~ aoplOtT] laquoOXTJ1anKl] tpoundXVT]raquo poundva poundlOO~ tpoundXVT]~ nou poundXpoundl OlwpoponOlTj8poundl ana nOAAou~ 1poundActT]tpound~ ana tT]V arte levantine notgt 8poundCOPpoundlWl npoundplOOotpoundpo ltptgtOlOKpatlKT] (Beltran 1979)

EVtoutol~ ltpalvpoundtat aVal1ltPlOPT]tTJto on Ol ScoypaltpOl tcov 1avltUpopoundlOWV avnKpoundl1poundVCOV Kat tCOV tpoundtpanoocov T]tav Ol lOlOl Kat on ta OlaltpoppoundnKa 8pound1aw oMJUTJpotgt totgt navpoundl poundlXav OAa OXpoundOTJ 1pound a1OlPalpound~ CYWopoundl~ tcov onolcov TJ MOla 0pound l1a~ poundlvat 11poundta pla~ avnATJntTj 0 Akers et AI 2011 pound1tlOTJ1alvpoundl on TJ OXpoundOT] 1poundwu tcov 1avltUpopoundlOWV OtOlXpoundlCOV Kat tOtgt POOlOU 8a 1nopOUOpound va poundp1TJV8Jtpoundl ano to ypoundyovo~ on Ol scoypaltpol tT]~ Fllente de Sdva Pascuala yvwpl~av Tllv OlCOAOY1KT] OXt Oll ~lpoundTU0 Konplac r300pound100W Kat TCOV no)llapl81cov jItgtXObPClOTlKWV ~lCLV1TCXP1(lJV not) CLVT]KOllV Ow ypoundvll Psilocybe Kat Panaeolus Km notgt poundXouv co~ poundvi5lCL1TTjLlCL 1lt)VO Konpla POOpoundlOWV (Doveri 2004 Guzman 1983) rla to lc6yo atgtT6 01 OUyypCLltppoundl~ Tll~ cflvO~WKTjtOOY 1KT] lt poundp rllvpound(a~ nl~ SCOy pCLq)LKl] ~

EXOUV pound7IlKpoundVTpco8poundl 0pound EVa jItgtXOTpono KonpoltplcO 1UKlTW nou avaKCLAu(p8T]Kpound npoOltpaw oTTjV npoundplOXT] TT]~ mllPlKT]~ XpoundpOOVT]OOU Psilocybe hispanica Guz (Guzmiln amp Castro 2006) I1poOC01tlKa poundKtl1W co~ aPpoundpmo tOY np0tpoundlv01CYO WOVO1lKO npoOolOplO10 KCL8w~ T] xopoypaltpia TCOV Konp0ltpllcov lfUXOi5PCLOUKWV ~WKllTCOV EXpoundl CLAAapoundl OT] 11 CLVtlK a KOTa Tll olapKpoundw TCOV XlAlpoundTIWY Myco wu npoundplOplO10U KCLl tT]~ 1poundwvaOt8JOT]~ tcov ayplcov tpoundtpanoocov KonaOlWV Kat tT]~ poundTJ1EPCOOT]~ KanOlCOV ana atgttu ta tpoundtpanooa E1tlnAtov 0t0 1poundyaA1rrpoundPO I1poundPO~ tT]lt Konplu~ tcov tpoundtpanoocov 1poundyaAWvouv l1avltupw aUtou tou poundlootgt~ onco~ (J1)I1Paivpoundl Yla napaopoundlYl1a 1pound Panaeolus aJcidis Mos poundva KonpoltplAo poundloo~ notgt (J1)vOpoundpoundtat 1pound ta poundAaltpopoundlOT] (Moser 1984) onco~ poundivat to OcDtpoundpO poundloo~ tpoundtpanoootgt notgt xpco1atispoundtal 0t0 navpoundA 0tT] Selva Pascuala To POOL Kat to poundAaltpl ctVat ScoypaltplOI1poundVa 0pound lOT] anoOtaOT] ano tT] l1avlWpOpoundlOT] opoundlpa 1W poundKti1T]OT] notgt - poundav TJ OK01tl1TJ OXpoundOTJ tpoundtpanooo-Konp0ltplAo 1aVmipl poundlvat aAT]8wT] - oCY npoOltptppoundl XPT]OlI1pound~ nATJPoltpopic~ Yla to poundioo~ TOU tpoundtpanoootgt

I1ptnpoundl aKO1TJ va AT]ltp8poundl unojlT] on unapxouv KOnpOltptAa poundloTJ l1avlWplwV notgt ava7rtuOOovtat Ot~ KOnptpoundlt Kal tcov ODo tcov tpoundtpanoocov Kat on tcivou1pound 0111poundpa va (J1)VOpoundOU1pound Ta jItgtxocypoundpya KonpoltptAa 1avltapw 11pound tU POOpoundlOf] Myco XlAIpoundtWV poundTJ1EPCOOT]~

totgt~ poundxvwvtU~ tU aypw poundAaltpw LxpoundnKa 11pound tT] xpovoAOyTjOT] tOtgt navpoundA Fuente de Selva Pascuala Ol apXatoAOyOl

npotcivouv OTj1poundpa 1la T)11poundp01TJVla notgt poundKlva ana tT] 1pound00Al8lKl] 0tT] 1pound0T] vpoundOAl8lKl] oT)AaoT] 1poundtUu 6000 Kat 4000 nX (Ruiz et AI to 2009) Eivat poundnol1poundvcolt avaYKaio va unoypa11lOtpoundi on poundivat yvcoOtTj 1poundXPl OT]I1poundpa co~ Tj naAatotpoundpT] anpoundlKovlOTJ 1avlWplwV OtT]V EtgtpwnTJmiddot

Ol npolOtoPlKt~ ppaXoypaltpipound~ (J1)VOpoundOVWl 1pound TT) YVWOT] Kat tT] xpf]OTJ 1COV napat08T]0l0yovcov 1aVltUPlWV onco~ poundXpoundl npOOOlOplOtpoundi 0pound I1poundPlKt~ npoundplOxt~ tT]~ LlPTJpia~

LTI~ avatOAlKt~ npoundplOxt~ tT]~ OtOV apKnKO nOAlKo KDKAo On~ oX8pound~ tOU n0ta10U Pegtymel PpiOKpoundtat I1w npoundplOxi] nAOUOla 0pound npoundtpOYAultplKa nou XPOVOAOYOUVtat 0tT]V tomKl] I1aAalOAl8lKi] poundnoxf] Mpoundtau atgttwv tCOV npoundtPOYAtgtltPlKWV poundiVat otgtvato va avayvcoplOtOuv Kat poundlKOVpound~ tCOV (J1)lliKtWV I1UVltaplWV (Dikov 1971)

Lpound I1poundPlKt~ OKT]vt~ tgtnapxouv 8T]AtgtKt~ 10PltPE~ 1pound poundAK1JOtlKa Kal l1aKpla laquoOKouAapiKlaraquo Kat 1pound Eva l1poundYaAo 1aVltapl Oto KpoundltpuAl CYw 1W MAT] npoundpnatwVta~ ltptpvpoundl Kan 0t0 KpoundltpaAl avaST]twvta~ lOopponia (ElK 7) H KOVtOxovtPT] 10pltpi] Kat KunOla OlaKOO1T]OTJ tCOv 1avltUplWV altpf]vouv va tgtnotpound8ci on npOKpoundltat yw toy a1avttT] toy I1tgtYOKtOVO

TotgtAaXlOtOv 34 ana ampoundlt nlt av8pcono1opltppound~ poundlKOVpound~ 00KlasovtUl an6 tpoundpaOna 1aVmipla Katu tOY Devlet (1982) aLOAoyouvwl on auta ta l1poundyaAa 1aVltapOpoundloi]

36

aVnKEileva Elvat aKplPWe flavmipla Kat 0X10YKWbEle KEltpaAaltpOpECHte onWe EPllllgtOVWl ana lEplKOUe ltruyypaltpEie laquo a1Yta Ta napaeva axi]laTa bev Eivat nOTeuro xapaYleurova aTO

KEltpa)l TWV av8pwmvwv lOpltPWV aMa ane nEpwa01EpEe nEpmTWaEte ElVat xapaYleurova nEpa ana TO KEltpaAl i] TO avnKa8wwuv Kat EnOleurovWe bev anOKaAumouv onolObi]noTE xapaKTIlPlanKO yvwpWla KEltpaAoltpopECHaeraquo

MOTipa flaV1TUplWV EXOUV ppE8Ei Enialle lETUU nETpOYAUltPWV TWV npoIaTopLKWV EYKaTUaTaaEWV ane ox8Ee TIle AilVlle Ushokovo aTIl XEpaovllao Kamchatka LE au-ri]v Tllv nEpimwall Ta Ilavnapta anELKovisovTat IlEaa ane KaAuPEe m npoonnKi] anEtKovLall (Dikov 1979) 0 na)caLOAL8LKOe nOAmalOe Ushokovo avijKEt aE EKElVll TIlV ollaba TWV npOTOshyEschimoaleuthic nA1l8uallwv ana TIlv onoia npoi]A8av 01 POPELOallEpLKavLKoi naAUloshyEaKLlWOL TIle II Xl)lHiae nX

TIavTa aTIl L1PllPia ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle nEplOxi]e Ortaa-Sag01 KaTa lTJKOe TOU nOTUlOU Yenisei ltu ltruYKEKP1leuroVll Olaba 8ElaTWV anOTEAElTat ana axi]laTa av8pwnolopltpa - apaevlKa Kat 811AuKa - lOpltpeuroe nou anobiboVTat lE aXllllanKi] Tcxyo-rponia (ELK 8) MEplKa ana aUTa EXOUV laVnapOELbEe KEltpaAl Kat lla aTpOYYUAi] laquolaTplKT]-TaaVTUraquo eurova aVrtKEilEVO nou npoabLOpiSEl aUTEe ne 1l0pltpEe we aalaVOue Au1ij 11 bEplanVll TaavTa nEptEiXE eurova IlE8uanKo nOTO ana a~tuviTIl Ta llavnapla-lOPltPEe anE1KovisoVTat ltruxYu aE aTaall xopou (Devlet 1982)

EmalllaivETUl on Ta av8pwnollopltpa ax~laTa lE KEltpUAl llaVnaplOU 8a lnopOuaav va E1Kovisouv UTOla laquoalaVlTEeraquo KOplTCHa laquoalavhEeraquo rl laquoavbpEiKEAaraquo bllA 1tVWlUTa auTOU TOU lUKllTU nou ppiaKOVTat ane mPllP1KEe npoltpoplKeuroe napaboaEle ElblKU lETUU TWV Chukchi (Saar1991)

LXEnKa JlE TOUe Chukchi Kat TIlV IlE811 ana TOV IlUYOKTovo-ayaplKo 0 Bogoraz (1904-9) ypaltpEl laquo01 alaVlTEe EIlltPavisOVtat lE napaEva xapaKTIlPWnKU yvwpiallaTa aE IlE8ualeurovOue av8pwnoue [tu napabE1Yla 1l1a allavha ElltpaviSETat liE TO xapaKtT]pLanKO yvwplala poundVoe aKpWTIlPlaaleurovOU npoawnou evw lla aMll Eivat lE EAAEinov a1EAEXOe AUTa bev Eivat nVEuIlUTa EiVat aKplPWe allavlTEe 0 ap18loe aUTOe avnaTOlXEi aTOv ap181l0 TWV alavnwv nou KaTUvaAW8TlKav 01 alaVlTEe naipvouv XEP1lE XEPl TO np6awno Kal TO ObTlYOUV aTOV aAAa KOalO Kat TOU napouCHUSOUV n unapXEl EKEi Kavovme TU mO ania1poundUTU npaYlaTaraquo Lne E1KOVEe TuW lavnaplwv-avbPWv ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle Pegtymel EiVat buvaTO va avayvwpwTOUV av11a101xLEe m UU10 TO ELbOe lOU uV8pwn0f10PltP1CJIlOU

AUTO Eivat lblahEpa ElltpavEe m EKEivEe ne aKTlVEe onou av8pwnOlOpltPEe alavhEe mavovtat XEP1- XEPl liE anAfe av8pwmvEe lOpltpEe (ELK 9)

Upolt Bego raUia

Mtu evblaltpEpouaa anE1KOvlaTl evoe m8avou laVnaplOu ltpaivETUl aTIlv ppaxoypaltpia TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv TIle vonae [aMiae (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) Eva pouvo anOKaAOUlevo opoe Bego nou ppiaKETat aE nEpLOxi] UfllAOTEPll TWV 8aAltiamwv AAmwv 8EwpouvTav navTa tepa ana TOUe apxaioue aKOlTl xp6voue LE aUTO TO POUVO Kat aTIlv Kovnvij KotAaba TWV 0aUluTWv ppiaKOVTat X1AlabEe ppaxoypaltpiEe 01 bwltpopEnKEe ltpaaEle Kat TExYOTponlEe KaAUmOUV lW nEpiobO lETaSU 2500 nX lEXPl ne npwTEe bEKaETiEe tT]e EnOXrle lae (Lumley 1995)

H rupw lblatTEp6TIlTU aUTi]e TIle ppaxoypaltpiae EiVat TO UfOe TTle TOno8wiae (2000shy2500 lE1pa) Kat TO aTlflavnKo - 8a mopoUaE va El11w8El JlE EllOvij- 11 napouaia KEpaaltpopwv sWOlOPltPwv E1KOVWV nou oumaanKa axn[(OV1at ~tE PObW

Mla a)ATl lbtanpoundpOTIlTa Eivat on OU0taaTtKU OAEe aUTEe 01 KEpaaltpoppounde EtKOVEe Eivat xapaYleurovEe JlE eurovav TETOlO Tpono waTE W Ktpa-ra va OEixYouv npoe TIlv atnlll TOU POUVOU AUTO OEV Eivat wxaio EXEl napUTllPTl8El on TO opoe Bego EiVat eurova ana Ta pouva TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv nou xwmOuvtat nOAU aUxYa ana KEpauvoue Kat Yl aUT6 ExEt unoTE8Ei on TO pouvo EmAfXTllKE ana TOUe npo(aTOplKOUe Aaoue we laquotEpOraquo aKptpWe

(pound1 Zl )l1tO(Od32911L3( 30 OdliOX91AO)l 91LU) (WX0rl 001 m)l (Og31L1L3 30 9)11dmdw-niu 91LU) 00(1L 001 SILltfgtdori SUl AqgtAUC(udulL A(l)1 Vd13D ~)l10(1(fgt

Ul 3ri mdV11AUri U(VA3ri uiriAuduX mA3 UA mli0) lAumri3 di3UdljdUOlS 01I Aqgt13AUrid3 Aqgt)llAO(01UxoriOA93 A(l)1 UlU191UAog Ul 13AOAU m)l di3UdljdUOlS ItXOld31L AUl0 Ud31mgl mA3 UA m13)Aumri3 laquoi(l)A91Draquo A(l)1 urimdqgtM 9)1umdu1)ludUX 010 ItAU((udulL H

SltnCl3oodlL SItxWAUxori S3AO~V O)lU0m0Cl9 S(l) SooA9(omXdu So01 91LU m1A0ct3Aurid3 001L UA3ri3)11lAU V((OlL m1AOAvdulLUAU S13~VduX Su S1oU I SS1UmD9dlL 0l1L uri9)1U mAp UA tUl0C)odolLri u6 poundpound61 001 OgOd31L AUl AU)lumvdAUlU)I m)l SooXVdg So01 SC)01ou D AU)lUlXVduX 001L SSA9)11S 10 XlL OOpound 1 001Lld31L XdSSdM 001 9riDUl(01L AOW lUlpAO(OAOdX lU)I Ud319Adu lUl361wodlL 001L 5o10360lL01 SUl u0Vm UlUm09dlL mri 30 AaO)ltAu SSd1lL 10 S1oV(Qpound661 U10WBS pound1 Z 1 )l1a) 5o10S901L01 SUl SoO()lC))I SoOAld1lL oC)g So01 AC)O(SlOlLU m)l - poundpound 61du m)l 17 61du S(l) mlAC)ori61du SooA9(omXdu Soo 91LU - A(l)61(9AOri SoA()3) Ui 30 SSiriAuduX ll)A3 unv AUl0 dllUdljdUOlS U03901L01 ltxi61(UASri U1 91LU S3mudAoXudg S)lldsri 30 Suri ItX000dlL AUl udqgt1 3rioomd1I

On)AV a~uaqauolS

S13~1t(llin SiW1(ls)lDUd9 S)llg3g l1J)j Jil)l)1J1wJd(l3-0g1 oZid8 Sood9 (l01 S3mudAoXudg SUD 30Udlt1udUlL (9661) dUUdlJna 0 C)OlimAuriu0 001 Vlgl3()l - USXlOW V)l10Ug -U(V)l0 tA19u(u mri S(l)0 01g)0 AUD - SU(9)10 SUl lU)I AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 SUA9)113 SUl (l)M)( SC)orid13ACl0 SC)O)llAUriU0 13Aqgt(UgOlL(l laquoC)ori(l)g SoogqgtXudgraquo 001 ltn9 H UdUeAVlL A01 Ul1Auriu 9AdSA30Xo~ 000~3 A01 It UllAuriu 9)11duAU A01 UdoOA0 A9gsXD l3tXpg [tAUx0 lt)luCl3)10Ud9 mri S0 13)1tAU 001L C)OldmlAuri 001 0(1L AQW A(l)iriAUduX It A(l)iTimmudA(l)) A(l)Sriltn A(l)lOlLV)l uD(lodulL U 1(91L m)l

C)OldUllAuTi 001 00(1L 001 Itmodo)l AUl0 m1AO)loldg 001L A(l)s~1)duX U)l3gi ItAO((aD UlD Vdomu m3dri011L3( uds1ct3g H Aqgt11AUriU A(l)1 SU13iAO)110 SUl AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 OX0ri 01 91LU (l)d()A lm3)10)dg 001L 191(CllXUg 01 13)AO)l131LU UA lU1SAUm SOOlLO o laquooOXDriraquo 001 Sodri Od31qgttUl 010 l1J1SAUm 001L U0(l)i)l()lL AUl0 Vdomu O3XlOW O1qgtdlL 01 OOA91)lOAori 001 U1AUriU Soogp 001 mU)lC)ri S(l) 00iri13)1UAU 001 U1SAurids IttUl6m AUl0 AC)OAUgO SSOlLO 10 oOA9(01U)lori S9A3 uVri 9)1U)l3DOdlL 01 91LU S(l)ri9 1X9 oOA9(OlUXdu S9A3 ItX000dlL AUl 91LU AooAC)ms~ UA AC)odolLri (lOll S313dri01lL3( oC)g AaOXdVlLA S130AO)l131LU Su S1ou D 00(1L9 Sogp SlOlLltgOlolLO 3ri(l00d(l)MUAU UA O(O)lDC)g S101C)01A3 l1JA3

O(1L9 9)11Ado013(32 OC(V It 01(U0 S(l) Ud319tXaD lU)I olAud)l Sg1300g OiriulOlLOlLCll ui OlgX0 oiriudumu S(l) P6Cl3AUrid3 13X 9l(lU 0A3ri3)1UAU 01

laquoS9A(lud3)1raquo It laquo01(1wraquo ui 1(vm3)1 ow 1)lLCllX AUl 001L Itmdori UAllLqgtd6tUl AUlD U(lLg lU13)10dg 001L (T [ )llt) SItAUxD SUl UA9)113 Itg1301Uxori Ul SrioOD1)13~S u9 udqgt1

SOAVriUD UlUl9AU911L lUAp m)l laquoSIt(om SUl S9AUXduraquo UiriDu6AU( 3)1UlDVriOAO 001L Ud32C)(UA3ri mri lU)I Itd)llTi mri Smdori S3AllLqgtd9AU O(lg U(V)l0 mri Ul(U0 V)lld3ri Ul)ludVXAs ll)1AO) AO)l13 laquoC)ori(l)graquo 001 m3Avml1L3 ugqgtXudg UlI

(pound7 066 [ IV ld Adlwnl) X lL 0081 01 S(l) C)oxuX 001 SltX01L3 SurilqgtdlL SUl C)~Ul3ri P6ltAO(OAOdX 13Xa (0 I )l1a) UmUdAoXudg AUl 3ri lU13gA(l0 (lOll SU3d1u( SUl 0pXl010 9)11d1A3)1 01 lUA3 UA ll)13)AumTi3 lU)I 5og9(10)l SUl 13)91LD3g 001L U09 mri 30 S9ri(l)g SUi S(l)1L9 lUlS)IW SoXVdg 0 A(l)s~VduX S3gV1AOll))lS 91LU lU131lLC)(U)I 001 m3Avml1L3 U3dCl3 1t(uTio U ll))I uTi qgtdX 010 S9domdolL-SoAl)1)19)1 lUA3 SoXVdg 0 laquoSIt((lm SUl C)oAuXdmgt oOA3TiC)O(U)lOlLU 001 tAUx0 mri lU13)AO)l13 Su~009dlL

SUl VdCl3(lL U3( UlD lU)I laquoC)oTi(l)g (l01 SoXVdgraquo 0 S(l) S910(l)M lUA3 S09n 0 SItXOld31L SUl Sudu()l9(0 AqgtlmudAoXudg muTiltdCl3 Ud319)1UAUTiltn m 91LU ui lU13d(l)39 001L S091( SOirikuduX SUi lU13)10dg A(l)11)Ti(lU9 A(l)1 SngV(lo)l SU1 SodTi Od319(U~(l 01I

(pound7-171761 01lIlW) 9A(lOd3)1 13~nTiae (lOll A(l)1Vd3)1 Aqgt((OlL )lV)-)ll) UriltX0 01 3Ti(lODTiTiudkolL(l UA AodmmgA3 lUAa C)o)lumdu1)luduX lt)O)llAO(od(l)313Ti (l01 lt)ol(ln (l)A9(

Lt

36

aVnKEileva Elvat aKplPWe flavmipla Kat 0X10YKWbEle KEltpaAaltpOpECHte onWe EPllllgtOVWl ana lEplKOUe ltruyypaltpEie laquo a1Yta Ta napaeva axi]laTa bev Eivat nOTeuro xapaYleurova aTO

KEltpa)l TWV av8pwmvwv lOpltPWV aMa ane nEpwa01EpEe nEpmTWaEte ElVat xapaYleurova nEpa ana TO KEltpaAl i] TO avnKa8wwuv Kat EnOleurovWe bev anOKaAumouv onolObi]noTE xapaKTIlPlanKO yvwpWla KEltpaAoltpopECHaeraquo

MOTipa flaV1TUplWV EXOUV ppE8Ei Enialle lETUU nETpOYAUltPWV TWV npoIaTopLKWV EYKaTUaTaaEWV ane ox8Ee TIle AilVlle Ushokovo aTIl XEpaovllao Kamchatka LE au-ri]v Tllv nEpimwall Ta Ilavnapta anELKovisovTat IlEaa ane KaAuPEe m npoonnKi] anEtKovLall (Dikov 1979) 0 na)caLOAL8LKOe nOAmalOe Ushokovo avijKEt aE EKElVll TIlV ollaba TWV npOTOshyEschimoaleuthic nA1l8uallwv ana TIlv onoia npoi]A8av 01 POPELOallEpLKavLKoi naAUloshyEaKLlWOL TIle II Xl)lHiae nX

TIavTa aTIl L1PllPia ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle nEplOxi]e Ortaa-Sag01 KaTa lTJKOe TOU nOTUlOU Yenisei ltu ltruYKEKP1leuroVll Olaba 8ElaTWV anOTEAElTat ana axi]laTa av8pwnolopltpa - apaevlKa Kat 811AuKa - lOpltpeuroe nou anobiboVTat lE aXllllanKi] Tcxyo-rponia (ELK 8) MEplKa ana aUTa EXOUV laVnapOELbEe KEltpaAl Kat lla aTpOYYUAi] laquolaTplKT]-TaaVTUraquo eurova aVrtKEilEVO nou npoabLOpiSEl aUTEe ne 1l0pltpEe we aalaVOue Au1ij 11 bEplanVll TaavTa nEptEiXE eurova IlE8uanKo nOTO ana a~tuviTIl Ta llavnapla-lOPltPEe anE1KovisoVTat ltruxYu aE aTaall xopou (Devlet 1982)

EmalllaivETUl on Ta av8pwnollopltpa ax~laTa lE KEltpUAl llaVnaplOU 8a lnopOuaav va E1Kovisouv UTOla laquoalaVlTEeraquo KOplTCHa laquoalavhEeraquo rl laquoavbpEiKEAaraquo bllA 1tVWlUTa auTOU TOU lUKllTU nou ppiaKOVTat ane mPllP1KEe npoltpoplKeuroe napaboaEle ElblKU lETUU TWV Chukchi (Saar1991)

LXEnKa JlE TOUe Chukchi Kat TIlV IlE811 ana TOV IlUYOKTovo-ayaplKo 0 Bogoraz (1904-9) ypaltpEl laquo01 alaVlTEe EIlltPavisOVtat lE napaEva xapaKTIlPWnKU yvwpiallaTa aE IlE8ualeurovOue av8pwnoue [tu napabE1Yla 1l1a allavha ElltpaviSETat liE TO xapaKtT]pLanKO yvwplala poundVoe aKpWTIlPlaaleurovOU npoawnou evw lla aMll Eivat lE EAAEinov a1EAEXOe AUTa bev Eivat nVEuIlUTa EiVat aKplPWe allavlTEe 0 ap18loe aUTOe avnaTOlXEi aTOv ap181l0 TWV alavnwv nou KaTUvaAW8TlKav 01 alaVlTEe naipvouv XEP1lE XEPl TO np6awno Kal TO ObTlYOUV aTOV aAAa KOalO Kat TOU napouCHUSOUV n unapXEl EKEi Kavovme TU mO ania1poundUTU npaYlaTaraquo Lne E1KOVEe TuW lavnaplwv-avbPWv ane ppaxoypaltpiEe TIle Pegtymel EiVat buvaTO va avayvwpwTOUV av11a101xLEe m UU10 TO ELbOe lOU uV8pwn0f10PltP1CJIlOU

AUTO Eivat lblahEpa ElltpavEe m EKEivEe ne aKTlVEe onou av8pwnOlOpltPEe alavhEe mavovtat XEP1- XEPl liE anAfe av8pwmvEe lOpltpEe (ELK 9)

Upolt Bego raUia

Mtu evblaltpEpouaa anE1KOvlaTl evoe m8avou laVnaplOu ltpaivETUl aTIlv ppaxoypaltpia TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv TIle vonae [aMiae (Duvivier 1998 Samorini 1998) Eva pouvo anOKaAOUlevo opoe Bego nou ppiaKETat aE nEpLOxi] UfllAOTEPll TWV 8aAltiamwv AAmwv 8EwpouvTav navTa tepa ana TOUe apxaioue aKOlTl xp6voue LE aUTO TO POUVO Kat aTIlv Kovnvij KotAaba TWV 0aUluTWv ppiaKOVTat X1AlabEe ppaxoypaltpiEe 01 bwltpopEnKEe ltpaaEle Kat TExYOTponlEe KaAUmOUV lW nEpiobO lETaSU 2500 nX lEXPl ne npwTEe bEKaETiEe tT]e EnOXrle lae (Lumley 1995)

H rupw lblatTEp6TIlTU aUTi]e TIle ppaxoypaltpiae EiVat TO UfOe TTle TOno8wiae (2000shy2500 lE1pa) Kat TO aTlflavnKo - 8a mopoUaE va El11w8El JlE EllOvij- 11 napouaia KEpaaltpopwv sWOlOPltPwv E1KOVWV nou oumaanKa axn[(OV1at ~tE PObW

Mla a)ATl lbtanpoundpOTIlTa Eivat on OU0taaTtKU OAEe aUTEe 01 KEpaaltpoppounde EtKOVEe Eivat xapaYleurovEe JlE eurovav TETOlO Tpono waTE W Ktpa-ra va OEixYouv npoe TIlv atnlll TOU POUVOU AUTO OEV Eivat wxaio EXEl napUTllPTl8El on TO opoe Bego EiVat eurova ana Ta pouva TWV 8aAaaaiwv AAnEwv nou xwmOuvtat nOAU aUxYa ana KEpauvoue Kat Yl aUT6 ExEt unoTE8Ei on TO pouvo EmAfXTllKE ana TOUe npo(aTOplKOUe Aaoue we laquotEpOraquo aKptpWe

(pound1 Zl )l1tO(Od32911L3( 30 OdliOX91AO)l 91LU) (WX0rl 001 m)l (Og31L1L3 30 9)11dmdw-niu 91LU) 00(1L 001 SILltfgtdori SUl AqgtAUC(udulL A(l)1 Vd13D ~)l10(1(fgt

Ul 3ri mdV11AUri U(VA3ri uiriAuduX mA3 UA mli0) lAumri3 di3UdljdUOlS 01I Aqgt13AUrid3 Aqgt)llAO(01UxoriOA93 A(l)1 UlU191UAog Ul 13AOAU m)l di3UdljdUOlS ItXOld31L AUl0 Ud31mgl mA3 UA m13)Aumri3 laquoi(l)A91Draquo A(l)1 urimdqgtM 9)1umdu1)ludUX 010 ItAU((udulL H

SltnCl3oodlL SItxWAUxori S3AO~V O)lU0m0Cl9 S(l) SooA9(omXdu So01 91LU m1A0ct3Aurid3 001L UA3ri3)11lAU V((OlL m1AOAvdulLUAU S13~VduX Su S1oU I SS1UmD9dlL 0l1L uri9)1U mAp UA tUl0C)odolLri u6 poundpound61 001 OgOd31L AUl AU)lumvdAUlU)I m)l SooXVdg So01 SC)01ou D AU)lUlXVduX 001L SSA9)11S 10 XlL OOpound 1 001Lld31L XdSSdM 001 9riDUl(01L AOW lUlpAO(OAOdX lU)I Ud319Adu lUl361wodlL 001L 5o10360lL01 SUl u0Vm UlUm09dlL mri 30 AaO)ltAu SSd1lL 10 S1oV(Qpound661 U10WBS pound1 Z 1 )l1a) 5o10S901L01 SUl SoO()lC))I SoOAld1lL oC)g So01 AC)O(SlOlLU m)l - poundpound 61du m)l 17 61du S(l) mlAC)ori61du SooA9(omXdu Soo 91LU - A(l)61(9AOri SoA()3) Ui 30 SSiriAuduX ll)A3 unv AUl0 dllUdljdUOlS U03901L01 ltxi61(UASri U1 91LU S3mudAoXudg S)lldsri 30 Suri ItX000dlL AUl udqgt1 3rioomd1I

On)AV a~uaqauolS

S13~1t(llin SiW1(ls)lDUd9 S)llg3g l1J)j Jil)l)1J1wJd(l3-0g1 oZid8 Sood9 (l01 S3mudAoXudg SUD 30Udlt1udUlL (9661) dUUdlJna 0 C)OlimAuriu0 001 Vlgl3()l - USXlOW V)l10Ug -U(V)l0 tA19u(u mri S(l)0 01g)0 AUD - SU(9)10 SUl lU)I AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 SUA9)113 SUl (l)M)( SC)orid13ACl0 SC)O)llAUriU0 13Aqgt(UgOlL(l laquoC)ori(l)g SoogqgtXudgraquo 001 ltn9 H UdUeAVlL A01 Ul1Auriu 9AdSA30Xo~ 000~3 A01 It UllAuriu 9)11duAU A01 UdoOA0 A9gsXD l3tXpg [tAUx0 lt)luCl3)10Ud9 mri S0 13)1tAU 001L C)OldmlAuri 001 0(1L AQW A(l)iriAUduX It A(l)iTimmudA(l)) A(l)Sriltn A(l)lOlLV)l uD(lodulL U 1(91L m)l

C)OldUllAuTi 001 00(1L 001 Itmodo)l AUl0 m1AO)loldg 001L A(l)s~1)duX U)l3gi ItAO((aD UlD Vdomu m3dri011L3( uds1ct3g H Aqgt11AUriU A(l)1 SU13iAO)110 SUl AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 OX0ri 01 91LU (l)d()A lm3)10)dg 001L 191(CllXUg 01 13)AO)l131LU UA lU1SAUm SOOlLO o laquooOXDriraquo 001 Sodri Od31qgttUl 010 l1J1SAUm 001L U0(l)i)l()lL AUl0 Vdomu O3XlOW O1qgtdlL 01 OOA91)lOAori 001 U1AUriU Soogp 001 mU)lC)ri S(l) 00iri13)1UAU 001 U1SAurids IttUl6m AUl0 AC)OAUgO SSOlLO 10 oOA9(01U)lori S9A3 uVri 9)1U)l3DOdlL 01 91LU S(l)ri9 1X9 oOA9(OlUXdu S9A3 ItX000dlL AUl 91LU AooAC)ms~ UA AC)odolLri (lOll S313dri01lL3( oC)g AaOXdVlLA S130AO)l131LU Su S1ou D 00(1L9 Sogp SlOlLltgOlolLO 3ri(l00d(l)MUAU UA O(O)lDC)g S101C)01A3 l1JA3

O(1L9 9)11Ado013(32 OC(V It 01(U0 S(l) Ud319tXaD lU)I olAud)l Sg1300g OiriulOlLOlLCll ui OlgX0 oiriudumu S(l) P6Cl3AUrid3 13X 9l(lU 0A3ri3)1UAU 01

laquoS9A(lud3)1raquo It laquo01(1wraquo ui 1(vm3)1 ow 1)lLCllX AUl 001L Itmdori UAllLqgtd6tUl AUlD U(lLg lU13)10dg 001L (T [ )llt) SItAUxD SUl UA9)113 Itg1301Uxori Ul SrioOD1)13~S u9 udqgt1

SOAVriUD UlUl9AU911L lUAp m)l laquoSIt(om SUl S9AUXduraquo UiriDu6AU( 3)1UlDVriOAO 001L Ud32C)(UA3ri mri lU)I Itd)llTi mri Smdori S3AllLqgtd9AU O(lg U(V)l0 mri Ul(U0 V)lld3ri Ul)ludVXAs ll)1AO) AO)l13 laquoC)ori(l)graquo 001 m3Avml1L3 ugqgtXudg UlI

(pound7 066 [ IV ld Adlwnl) X lL 0081 01 S(l) C)oxuX 001 SltX01L3 SurilqgtdlL SUl C)~Ul3ri P6ltAO(OAOdX 13Xa (0 I )l1a) UmUdAoXudg AUl 3ri lU13gA(l0 (lOll SU3d1u( SUl 0pXl010 9)11d1A3)1 01 lUA3 UA ll)13)AumTi3 lU)I 5og9(10)l SUl 13)91LD3g 001L U09 mri 30 S9ri(l)g SUi S(l)1L9 lUlS)IW SoXVdg 0 A(l)s~VduX S3gV1AOll))lS 91LU lU131lLC)(U)I 001 m3Avml1L3 U3dCl3 1t(uTio U ll))I uTi qgtdX 010 S9domdolL-SoAl)1)19)1 lUA3 SoXVdg 0 laquoSIt((lm SUl C)oAuXdmgt oOA3TiC)O(U)lOlLU 001 tAUx0 mri lU13)AO)l13 Su~009dlL

SUl VdCl3(lL U3( UlD lU)I laquoC)oTi(l)g (l01 SoXVdgraquo 0 S(l) S910(l)M lUA3 S09n 0 SItXOld31L SUl Sudu()l9(0 AqgtlmudAoXudg muTiltdCl3 Ud319)1UAUTiltn m 91LU ui lU13d(l)39 001L S091( SOirikuduX SUi lU13)10dg A(l)11)Ti(lU9 A(l)1 SngV(lo)l SU1 SodTi Od319(U~(l 01I

(pound7-171761 01lIlW) 9A(lOd3)1 13~nTiae (lOll A(l)1Vd3)1 Aqgt((OlL )lV)-)ll) UriltX0 01 3Ti(lODTiTiudkolL(l UA AodmmgA3 lUAa C)o)lumdu1)luduX lt)O)llAO(od(l)313Ti (l01 lt)ol(ln (l)A9(

Lt

(pound1 Zl )l1tO(Od32911L3( 30 OdliOX91AO)l 91LU) (WX0rl 001 m)l (Og31L1L3 30 9)11dmdw-niu 91LU) 00(1L 001 SILltfgtdori SUl AqgtAUC(udulL A(l)1 Vd13D ~)l10(1(fgt

Ul 3ri mdV11AUri U(VA3ri uiriAuduX mA3 UA mli0) lAumri3 di3UdljdUOlS 01I Aqgt13AUrid3 Aqgt)llAO(01UxoriOA93 A(l)1 UlU191UAog Ul 13AOAU m)l di3UdljdUOlS ItXOld31L AUl0 Ud31mgl mA3 UA m13)Aumri3 laquoi(l)A91Draquo A(l)1 urimdqgtM 9)1umdu1)ludUX 010 ItAU((udulL H

SltnCl3oodlL SItxWAUxori S3AO~V O)lU0m0Cl9 S(l) SooA9(omXdu So01 91LU m1A0ct3Aurid3 001L UA3ri3)11lAU V((OlL m1AOAvdulLUAU S13~VduX Su S1oU I SS1UmD9dlL 0l1L uri9)1U mAp UA tUl0C)odolLri u6 poundpound61 001 OgOd31L AUl AU)lumvdAUlU)I m)l SooXVdg So01 SC)01ou D AU)lUlXVduX 001L SSA9)11S 10 XlL OOpound 1 001Lld31L XdSSdM 001 9riDUl(01L AOW lUlpAO(OAOdX lU)I Ud319Adu lUl361wodlL 001L 5o10360lL01 SUl u0Vm UlUm09dlL mri 30 AaO)ltAu SSd1lL 10 S1oV(Qpound661 U10WBS pound1 Z 1 )l1a) 5o10S901L01 SUl SoO()lC))I SoOAld1lL oC)g So01 AC)O(SlOlLU m)l - poundpound 61du m)l 17 61du S(l) mlAC)ori61du SooA9(omXdu Soo 91LU - A(l)61(9AOri SoA()3) Ui 30 SSiriAuduX ll)A3 unv AUl0 dllUdljdUOlS U03901L01 ltxi61(UASri U1 91LU S3mudAoXudg S)lldsri 30 Suri ItX000dlL AUl udqgt1 3rioomd1I

On)AV a~uaqauolS

S13~1t(llin SiW1(ls)lDUd9 S)llg3g l1J)j Jil)l)1J1wJd(l3-0g1 oZid8 Sood9 (l01 S3mudAoXudg SUD 30Udlt1udUlL (9661) dUUdlJna 0 C)OlimAuriu0 001 Vlgl3()l - USXlOW V)l10Ug -U(V)l0 tA19u(u mri S(l)0 01g)0 AUD - SU(9)10 SUl lU)I AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 SUA9)113 SUl (l)M)( SC)orid13ACl0 SC)O)llAUriU0 13Aqgt(UgOlL(l laquoC)ori(l)g SoogqgtXudgraquo 001 ltn9 H UdUeAVlL A01 Ul1Auriu 9AdSA30Xo~ 000~3 A01 It UllAuriu 9)11duAU A01 UdoOA0 A9gsXD l3tXpg [tAUx0 lt)luCl3)10Ud9 mri S0 13)1tAU 001L C)OldmlAuri 001 0(1L AQW A(l)iriAUduX It A(l)iTimmudA(l)) A(l)Sriltn A(l)lOlLV)l uD(lodulL U 1(91L m)l

C)OldUllAuTi 001 00(1L 001 Itmodo)l AUl0 m1AO)loldg 001L A(l)s~1)duX U)l3gi ItAO((aD UlD Vdomu m3dri011L3( uds1ct3g H Aqgt11AUriU A(l)1 SU13iAO)110 SUl AqgtldUllAuri A(l)1 OX0ri 01 91LU (l)d()A lm3)10)dg 001L 191(CllXUg 01 13)AO)l131LU UA lU1SAUm SOOlLO o laquooOXDriraquo 001 Sodri Od31qgttUl 010 l1J1SAUm 001L U0(l)i)l()lL AUl0 Vdomu O3XlOW O1qgtdlL 01 OOA91)lOAori 001 U1AUriU Soogp 001 mU)lC)ri S(l) 00iri13)1UAU 001 U1SAurids IttUl6m AUl0 AC)OAUgO SSOlLO 10 oOA9(01U)lori S9A3 uVri 9)1U)l3DOdlL 01 91LU S(l)ri9 1X9 oOA9(OlUXdu S9A3 ItX000dlL AUl 91LU AooAC)ms~ UA AC)odolLri (lOll S313dri01lL3( oC)g AaOXdVlLA S130AO)l131LU Su S1ou D 00(1L9 Sogp SlOlLltgOlolLO 3ri(l00d(l)MUAU UA O(O)lDC)g S101C)01A3 l1JA3

O(1L9 9)11Ado013(32 OC(V It 01(U0 S(l) Ud319tXaD lU)I olAud)l Sg1300g OiriulOlLOlLCll ui OlgX0 oiriudumu S(l) P6Cl3AUrid3 13X 9l(lU 0A3ri3)1UAU 01

laquoS9A(lud3)1raquo It laquo01(1wraquo ui 1(vm3)1 ow 1)lLCllX AUl 001L Itmdori UAllLqgtd6tUl AUlD U(lLg lU13)10dg 001L (T [ )llt) SItAUxD SUl UA9)113 Itg1301Uxori Ul SrioOD1)13~S u9 udqgt1

SOAVriUD UlUl9AU911L lUAp m)l laquoSIt(om SUl S9AUXduraquo UiriDu6AU( 3)1UlDVriOAO 001L Ud32C)(UA3ri mri lU)I Itd)llTi mri Smdori S3AllLqgtd9AU O(lg U(V)l0 mri Ul(U0 V)lld3ri Ul)ludVXAs ll)1AO) AO)l13 laquoC)ori(l)graquo 001 m3Avml1L3 ugqgtXudg UlI

(pound7 066 [ IV ld Adlwnl) X lL 0081 01 S(l) C)oxuX 001 SltX01L3 SurilqgtdlL SUl C)~Ul3ri P6ltAO(OAOdX 13Xa (0 I )l1a) UmUdAoXudg AUl 3ri lU13gA(l0 (lOll SU3d1u( SUl 0pXl010 9)11d1A3)1 01 lUA3 UA ll)13)AumTi3 lU)I 5og9(10)l SUl 13)91LD3g 001L U09 mri 30 S9ri(l)g SUi S(l)1L9 lUlS)IW SoXVdg 0 A(l)s~VduX S3gV1AOll))lS 91LU lU131lLC)(U)I 001 m3Avml1L3 U3dCl3 1t(uTio U ll))I uTi qgtdX 010 S9domdolL-SoAl)1)19)1 lUA3 SoXVdg 0 laquoSIt((lm SUl C)oAuXdmgt oOA3TiC)O(U)lOlLU 001 tAUx0 mri lU13)AO)l13 Su~009dlL

SUl VdCl3(lL U3( UlD lU)I laquoC)oTi(l)g (l01 SoXVdgraquo 0 S(l) S910(l)M lUA3 S09n 0 SItXOld31L SUl Sudu()l9(0 AqgtlmudAoXudg muTiltdCl3 Ud319)1UAUTiltn m 91LU ui lU13d(l)39 001L S091( SOirikuduX SUi lU13)10dg A(l)11)Ti(lU9 A(l)1 SngV(lo)l SU1 SodTi Od319(U~(l 01I

(pound7-171761 01lIlW) 9A(lOd3)1 13~nTiae (lOll A(l)1Vd3)1 Aqgt((OlL )lV)-)ll) UriltX0 01 3Ti(lODTiTiudkolL(l UA AodmmgA3 lUAa C)o)lumdu1)luduX lt)O)llAO(od(l)313Ti (l01 lt)ol(ln (l)A9(

Lt

38

DOAU cyuxva Ol poundppoundUVT)TEe pUltJi~ouv TU pound1tlXpoundlpiHlUTa TOUe ltJTte KUTU poundVU lpoundyaAo lEpOe poundUpUTpoundppounde a1tOOpoundKTEe U1t6Jfpound1e 1tOU mUVUAalPaVOVTal ltJTa aPXatOAoYlKa Eyypwpa lltJwe aUT6 va poundiVat lla 1tPOltJ1ta8poundla a1toltpuyi]e va 1tAT)yw80uv Ta cyuvatltJ8illlaTa TOU CYUVTaKTT) 1tOU-lpoundplKEe ltpOpEe 1tplV a1t6 EKUT6 Xp6VlU - EOWltJE 1tponOe TT)V EPIlT)vpoundia ami] ij lltJWe OltppoundiMTal a1tAa ltJE laquopoundPlT)VpoundUTtKi] Vw8p6TT)TUraquo AUTO 8a l1t0POUltJE VU CYUlpaiVpoundl ltJTT]V 1tpoundpi1tTW0T] TWV laquoa~6vwvraquo TOU Stonehenge

IKUVOlVUPiu DpOTOlEe laVnaplwv EXOUV avuyvwplltJTpoundi ltJpound ltJOUT)OlKEe ppaxoypaltpipounde 1tOU avf]Kouv

ltJTT) laKpa ltJKuvolvaplKi] pound1tOxi] TOU xaAKou Eva xapaKTT)plltJTtKO KUMnpoundXV1K6 Kat CYUlPOAlK6 0TOlXpoundio a1tEtKovi~ETal lpound TO aUlPOAO TT)e PapKae TOU Ta~lOtOU 0TOV aUo K6ltJl0 1tOU 1tpaYlaT01t010UV Ol VEKPOi MEltJa ltJTT] PaPKa Ppi0KOVTat av8pw1tlvpounde lOPltPEe oEVTpa Myxpounde ltJTaupoi W1t01t01T]ltva ~wa MpoundTa TOV Kaplan (1975 1977) Ka1tOtpounde a1t6 Tte pound11(6vpounde poundPlT)VcU8T)KaV lE laquovw8p6TT)Taraquo we A6rxpounde Eivat 1tpaYlaTt nm01tOlT)ltvEe lOpltpEe laV1TaplWV Kat CYUKpoundKplltva 0 TU1tOe TOU alaviTT) TOU lUYOKT6vou 61twe Ita 1tapaOEtYla 01 Mo ppaxoypultpipounde TT)e 1tEptOxi]e Aby ltJTO Bohuslan 1tOU XPovo)coYpoundlTat ltJTa 1100 1tXLTT) OcUTpoundPT] a1t6 aUTEe Tte xapa~Ete TO ElpAT)la TOU laVnaplOU KpaTapoundl lW av8pw1tlvT] lOpltpi] (ELK 14) To loTipo TWV lUV1TaP1WV ltJTO KtvTPO lwe PaPKac a1tE1KOvi~poundTal pound1tiltJT)e ltJpound lla OWOpoundKaOa a1t6 ~upaltpta 1tOU PpiltJKOVTat ltJE oavlKEe apxatOAolKEe T01t08poundltJlpounde 1tOU XPOVOAoYOUVTal1tpoundpi TO 1 100 1tx (ELK 15)

LE lEplKEe 1tpoundPl1tTWltJpoundle TO pound1taVW lEpOe TOU laV1TaptOU 1tOU aVTtltJT01Xpoundi lpound TOV 1tlAo KOltJlpoundlTat a1t6 aKT1VWTEe OWKOltJlT]ltJpoundle tva XUpUKTT)pt0TIK6 1tOU 8a l1t0POUltJE va opoundi~Et poundVEPYEW 1tOU 1tPOEPXpoundTat a1t6 i] 1tpoundptpaAW TO laV1Tapt Lpound aAMe 1tpoundPl1tTWltJEte lta KoiA6TT)Ta lEltJa ltJTO liltJXO poundlltpavispoundTat va ltJXpoundOlaSpoundTat we tva XaPUKTT)pt0UK6 wpiluv0T]e TOU ayaptKOU alaviTT) Am6 TO 1tapatltJ8T)0loy6vo poundiooe lavtTaptOu poundivat 1tOAU K01V6 ltJue ltJKuvoLVaptKEe 1tEptOXEe Kat XPT)ltJt101tOtpoundlTat a1t6 TOUe ltJUlaVOUe Inari (Wasson 1968 279)

Mavmlpw-mTpllt

Vio9a D_o ~EVia

OplltJltva 1tpaltJ1Va Ai81va avuKpoundilpoundva If XapaKTT)Pl0TtKa lavlTUptOu EXOUV cyuvopound8poundi lpound TOV 1toAlTtltJl6 1tOU ava1tTUx8T]KE ltJTT)V 1tEptOXi] TWV BaAKaviwv KaTa TT) ME0T] NEOAt8tKi] Dpoundpiooo(VI-III X1AlpoundTia 1tX ) Ta KaAU1poundpa OWTT)pT)ltva a1t6 ama TU aVTIKpoundilpoundva ppE8T)KaV ltJTOV apXatOAoytK6 xwpo TT)e Vin8a poundv6e XWptOU KOVTa ltJTO BpoundAtypaot 1tOU EOWltJpound TO 6vOla TOU ltJTOV uPXaio aUT6 1toAlTtltJl6 KaTa TT)V fKll1tOUTae (1974 ltJ 220) OpoundV U1taPXOUV alltptPoAiEe ltJXpoundTt1(a lpound TOV 1tOAlTtltJTtK6 p6Ao aUTwv TWV aVTtKpoundlltvwVOl 1tpoundptOxEe otalOVT]e ltJTT) Bivma EowltJav lKaV01t0lT)TtK6 apt8f16 KPUltJTaAA1VWV f1avnaplwv 1tOU f11toppoundi va poundiXav ltJTT)8poundi ltJpound OlKpoundioue PWlOUe AUTO Ta avTtKpoundif1poundva aValtvpoundTUl VU f1EMTT)80uv a1t6 pound8v0f1UKllToA6youe

o DOAtTIltJlOe BivTltJa aVT]Kpoundt ltJTO 1tOAlTtltJTtKO-8pT)ltJKpoundUTtK6 u1topa8po TT)e laquoDaAatae Eupw1tT]eraquo 1tOU poundivat T) OlaOa TWV 1tpWtf1wv NEOAt8tKWV 1tOAlTtltJf1WV TT)e KtvTplKi]eshyavaTOAtKi]e Eupw1tT)e (7000-3500 1tx) Kat pound1tlKpoundVTPW9T]Kpound ltJTT) AaTpEia f11ae yuVatKpoundiue 8poundOTT)Tae TT)e MT)TEpae 0poundUc ltJpound OtaltpOpEe 1tapaltJTaltJEte TT]e Maua-0pounda I1poundTaAouoa-0pounda lgtWt-0pounda lgtpuvoe-0pounda KA1t AUToe 0 1tOAlTtltJf10e pound~a1tAw9T]Kpound VOUOaVaTOAtKa ltp8aVOVTae ltJTT) MaKpoundoovia Kat TT) XaAKlOtKi]

39

IIpoundPW001poundPU uno 400 JlpoundOOUIlpoundPLKUVLKa uVllKciJlpoundvU nou TU~LVOJlOUVTat co~ laquoJlaVnaPLU-m~TPpound~raquo ctVat YVCOOTa npopoundPxoJlpoundVU KUpico~ uno TIjv npoundpLOXl1 TCOV MaYLU TU nu)atOlpoundPU TCOV onoicov XPOVOAOyouvTat oTIj Jlpoundol1-npOKAUOLKl1 npoundpi080 nou UVlloTOtXpoundi oTIjv npwTll XLALpoundTllPi8u (ELK 16) AUTO TU UVllKpoundiJlpoundVU poundXOW poundPJl11VpoundU8ct uno TOU~

UpxatOAOYOU~ CO~ ltpUAALKa oUll~OAU TT]~ YOVLJlOTllTU~ 8poundOTllTpound~ TOU ltPpoundYYUPLOU KOOIlLKa oUll~OAa npoundTppound~ yLU VU KU80pioouv TU pound8UltpLKa OPLa you80XpoundpLa YLU VU OUVTpiljlOUV TO KUAUJlnOKll1 KUAoumu yLU T11V poundnpound~poundpyuoiu nl1AlVCOV poundL8wv (Lowy 1981 Mayer 1977) Movo IlpoundTa uno TT1V UVUKa)UIjIll Tll~ nupu80OLuKlj~ XPl1OT]~ TCOV nupato811oLOYOvCOv IlUVLTUPLWV nou 8LUTIjP118T]Kpound JlpoundXPL 1l~ 111lpoundPpound~ Jlu~ OTO KpoundVTPLKO Mpound~LKO (Wasson 1974) 8lpoundUKPLVioTllKpound 11 poundPIl11vpoundiu nou 8ivpoundTat 01l~ npoundTppound~- JlUVnapta nou 8poundv poundiVat aUT] uno TT] OKOmJlT] unpoundLKOVLOT] TCOV nupato811OLOYOVCOV JlUVLTUpLWV

H MOtU TCOV poundLKOVCOV nou XUpaXTllKUV OTO Jlioxo UnOKaAUIjIpound TT] nA~pT] MOta TOU~ onco~ uuTi]~ poundVO~ YOVU1l0JlpoundVOU npoownou Opound OTaOT] npOOpoundUm~ Kat uuTi] poundVO~ ltppuvou SWOU nou OUvoepoundTUL ~U8poundLa Jlpound TU JlUVLTaPLU L8LUlTpoundPU TOV UYUPLKO UJlaviTll (laquoltppUVO~-OKUIlViraquo) (Samorini 2001 28-9)

KUTUOKpoundUUOJlpoundVU uno 11UPLYpoundVpound~ npoundTpCOJlU onuvLoTpoundPU uno UO~poundoTOAL80 ~ IjIUJlJliTT] OL JluvnupopoundL8poundi~-npoundTppound~ poundXow KUTa JlpoundOO opo 30 cm UIjIO~ Kat poundvTonisoVTUL OTO vono Mpound~LKO OTll rOUUTpoundllaAa Kat on~ 8UllKpound~ npoundpLOXpound~ 10U EA LUA~u86p

H nupu80muKl1 YVWOT] TOU UJluv(Tll TOU JlDYOKTOVOU nupUT11PpoundlTat JlpoundT~U TOU nA118uoJlou TCOV MayLU TO JlUVLTaPL poundivat Opound~UOTO UKOIlU Kat OVOJlaSpoundTat Jlpound TIjV poundKltPpUOT] QuichL itzel ocox ( ltlt8LU~OALKO JlUVLTaPLraquo) 0 uJluviTll~ ctVat yvCOOTO~ poundniOT]~ uno 1l~ ltpUAe~ TCOV MaYLU Tll~ npoundpLOXl]~ Cobun OTll rOUUTpoundJlaAU (Borhegyi 1961 Lowy 1977) Kat OTll Jlpound~LKaVLKllnpoundPLOXl1 Chapas (RDtsch 1995)

IIpooltpuTu 0 Guzman nupouoiuopound poundVu uVllKpoundillpoundVO nou UvT]KpoundL OTOV nOALTLOllo Purepechan - poundVO~ npo-LonuvLKou nOALTLOJlOU nou poundvTonispoundTaL OTO oUrxpovo Jlpound~LKaVLKO

KpaTO~ Michoacan nou ~piOKpoundTat oTIjv Cuenca de patzcuaro 0TllV UPXatOAOYlK1l TOn08poundotu Las Yacatas de Tzintzuntzan eu Jlnopouopound vu unpoundLKOVLSpoundl TO mo JlLKPO JlpoundOOUJlpoundPLKaVlKO JlUVLTaPL-npoundTPU YVCOOTO JlpoundXPL lWPU 10 onoio poundPJl11VcUTllKpound CO~ 11 unpoundlKovl011 Jlta~ vpoundU~ JlOpltpl]~ UJluviTll (ELK 17) Eivat 35 poundKUT IjI11AO Aa~poundulpoundvo Opound ~UOaATll L UUTO TO UVllKctJlpoundVO nUpU1T]pOUJlpound Tll oKOmJl11 Aa~poundUJlpoundVll poundlKOVU poundVO~ uv8pwmvou KpoundltpUALOU 11 poundv6~ Kpuviou (Guzman 1997 Mapes et aI 1981 61-2 e Lam IV Fig 36) Ot JllKPpound~ KO~Tpound~ OTO navco JlpoundPO~ TOU UVllKpoundlJlpoundVOU nOAu m8uv6v 8poundlXVOUV TO aonpo laquoDlaOnKTOraquo OT]Jlpoundio TOU K6KKLVOU nlAou TOU UJluv(Tll

KtpaAa [vola

IIpoundpvUJlpound npo~ Tllv Aoiu Kat poundlDlKOTpoundPU npo~ Tll VOllU Iv8iu 0TllV KpoundpaAU Evu~

npoiOTOplK6~ JlpoundYaAl8lK6~ nOAtnoJl6~ XupUKTllpispoundl au~v TllV npoundp LOXl] 11 npOpoundApoundUo11 TOU onoiou nUpUJlpoundVpoundL uoultpl]~ L UUTOV TOV nOAtnoJl6 Tll~ Enox~~ TOU LlDl]pou Tll~ VOllU~ IVDlU~ poundvTonisoVTat dol men menhir Ku8w~ Kat aAAa poundVwnCOOLUKa Ai8lVU JlVllJlctU nUpOJlOlU Jlpound Ta JlpoundYaAl8lKa JlVllJlpoundiu Tll~ ~6ppoundLU~ Eupw1[Tj~ UV KUl nOAu JlUKplVa TOOO YpoundCOypultpLKa 600 Kat xpovLKa

Tu XUPUKTIjplouKa JlpoundyuAl8lKa JlVllJlctu uno TllV KpoundpaAa civat Ta kuda-kallu (poundLK 18 19) poundVu OVOJlU nou OT]JlUiVpoundl laquo 0JlnppoundAU-npoundTpuraquo OTll yAffioou Malaya1am TU onoiu Ot UPXatOAOYOl XPovOAoyouv JlpoundTU~U 1000 nX Kat 100 JlX H OT]JlUVUKOTpoundP11 OUYKpoundV-CPCOOT] umwv TCOV JlVllJlpoundicov ~piOKpoundTat 010 poundOCOTpoundPlKO TCOV npoundpLOXWV Trichur Kat Palgbat ~OppoundLU Cochin OTIjV KpoundVTPlxl] KpoundpaAU (Krishna 1967)

40

Kuru ~pound00 OpO TU kuda-kallu poundX0l)V DjJOC 1 5-2 ~ KUl l(AUTOC 15-2 11 Al(onAouvTUl Ul(O Tpound00cPlC l(fTpcC 1(0U KO~OVTUl 0TU ~10a T~iIIlUTU(TllllIlOplU) KUl KPUTOl)V jJllca IllUl(pound~l(LT] l(poundTPU 1(0U ciVUl cl(il(coTj 0TTjV l(Mupa 0TTjV ol(oiu 0TTjpitcTUl KUl Kl)PT~ Ul(O TTjV UAATj l(Mupu

OADKATjPO TO (J1)YKpOLT]IlU ltpUiVcTUl VU 1l00Utcl Ilc Ilta 0llnppoundAU ~ UKOIlU KUADTcpU Ilc poundVU Tcpa0TtO IlUVITUpl AUTa TU IlVTJllclU OCV ciVUl TaltpOl I1POTU8TjKc on ~TUV UPXuCtOVTU npCOTOTunu TOU ~OUOl0nKOD stupa (Longhurst 1979 ) I1oAlTl0nKa TU kuda-kallu (J1)VOpoundOVTUl Ilc LT]V ollnpElcU poundVu upxu(K6 aDllPOAO LT]C ODVUIlTjC LT]C c~ou0iuc Kat LT]C Ipoundp6TllTUC OlUOcOOIlpoundVO 0LT]V upxuiu AiyuTCTO IlcTU~D A0(J1)picov KUl TCOV UVUTOAl1(WV 1(0AlTl01lwv

Av Kat Tj aDVOc0Tj IlcTU~D UUTWV TCOV npoundTplVCOV IlVTJllcicov Kat LT]C O~l(ppoundAaC clVat cUAoYTj npoTClvu LT]v ul(08c0T] 6n unclKovitol)V IlUVlTUPIU OcOOIlpoundVOU 6n clVat noAU nUp61l01Ol 0LT] 1l0pltpi] (Samorini 1995) To ov61lu kuda-kallu 068TJKc 0UltpWC 0c IlIU m6 np00ltpULT] XPOVIKT] ncplooo IlcTa un6 TTjV KurU0KCUi] TOUC cv Ul(UPXcl KUVpoundVU u~lom0To 0TOlXclO 6n TJ OVOllUTO0001u l(POpoundPXcTat un6 cKclVOUC 1(0U TO 1(UTU0KcUU0UV EKT6C UUTOU 6ncoc cntpcpatWVcl 0 Longhurst (1979) civUl ncp1006TcpO u1(6 m8uv6 OTl KUTU LT] OlUPKclU TTjC ncploooU TOU Asoka IlcP1KOUC UlWVcC IlCTU LT]V uvpoundycp0T] TOU kuda-kallu Tj PU(JlA1K~ 0llnppoundAu (J1)V0pound8TjKpound 11pound TO stupa YIU TO onoio TO kuda-kallu 8poundCOPclTUl np60polloC KUl Ul(O UPXITcKTOVIKi]C KUl (J1)IlPOAlKT]C unojJTjC 0 Wasson (1968 p66) Kavpoundl 1l1U (J1)VOnnK~ uvultpopa 0TO laquoIlUvlTapl-l(poundtpUraquo LT]C KpoundpaAa uv Kat 0LT]V l(puYllunKOLT]Tu opoundV TU cnt0KpoundltpTTJXC

KOVTU 0TU kuda-kallu unapxouv UAAU IlcYUAl8lKU IlVTJIlpoundiu menhir dolmens xUxAol nCTpwv KUl laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTppoundcraquo Ol laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTppoundcraquo(hood-stones) poundLvUl nOAD CV01UltPpoundPOU0cC AOYCO Kal(OlUC nUpUT~pTj0T]C 1(0U poundKUVU 0pound IlpoundP1KpoundC uno UUTpoundC AnOTpoundAoDvTUl u1(6 IllU cvluiu npoundTpu nou KUAUTCTcl poundvuv U1(6ypoundlO Taltpo I1UpUTijpTj0U nOAUUpI8IlcC 0TpOyyuMC K01AOLT]TpoundC 0pound IlpoundP1KpoundC Ul(O UUTpoundC 01U0KOPl(l01lpoundVcC 0pound OAOKATjpTj LT]V cntltpUVcLU LT]C l(poundTpUC (E1K20) To 0TjllpoundLO UUTWV TCOV KOtAOTijTcov clVat UVUIlltP10Pi]LT]TO pound~U11T]ppoundTOU0pound 0Ultpi] 0lUK001lTjTtK6 01(on6 OlVOVTUC pound1lltPU0T] poundni0TjC 0c poundVu oLUKpmKo XUpUKLT]pl0nK6 TOU uvnKpoundlllpoundvoU nou 01 KOUKOUCpoundC-l(poundTPpoundC l(pOOpitovTUV vu Ul(poundIKOVl00UV (E1K21)

flU aAATj IllU ltpopu nppoundna VU Aapoullc un6jJTj 6n 0 ntO l(pUKnKOC Tp6noc Y1U vu unclKovl08cl 0 UIlUVLLT]C 0 IlUYOKTOVOC i] 0 UIlUvlLT]C 0 l(av8T)puc 11pound nc MUKpoundC KTJciocC nuvco 0LT]V l(poundTPU ~TUV TO 0KajJl1l0 0TPOYYUAciJv KOtAoTi]TCOV 0LT]V poundmltpuvClu TTjC Lpound UUTO TO 0T]IlpoundlO Tj Un08pound0Tj OTt at laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTpcCraquo Kat TO kuda-kallu npoopltovTUV VU unCl1(ovltouv cLTpound poundVu clTc Kat TU OUO IjIUXOpoundVcpyU IlUVltaplU YLVCTat mo npoundl0nK6 0 UIlUVITTJC 0 IlDYOKTOVOC Kat 0 UIlUVILT]S 0 nav8TJpus poundlVat nupOVTU 0LT] v6nu Ivolu 0TU KCOVOltpOPU oa0Tj LT]S l(poundPlOXi]S Kodaikanal (0TO Tamil Nadu) l(cpLnOU 80 XAIl uno nc IlpoundyUAl81KpoundS l(poundPlOXpoundS Lpound UUT~V TTjV lOlU npoundplOX~ CVTOl(itovTUl OlultpopcnKu poundlOTj IlUVlTUP1WV IjltAoxUPTjS (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

Euv TU kuda-kallu unclK6vltuv l(puYllunKu TU IlUVITUPIU T6Tc unClK6vttuv TU ljIuxocvpoundpya IlUVlTUpta nou poundnpoundTppoundnuv 0PUIlUTU LT]S laquoUAATJS l(MupuSraquo LT]S tco~s ~CTa TO 8avuTo y 1(6 uuTijv LT] 1l0pltpi] i]TUV 1(0AU KUTUAATjA01poundPU (uno TU poundOWOl~U IlUVlTUP1U YlU nupaOpoundIYIlU) YIU VU axcTltoVTUl Ilc VpoundKPI1(poundC AuTppoundipoundS

H Ul(08pound0T] TOU Wasson (1968) 1(0U l(P000l0P10pound TO IpoundpO 1(0TO Kat TTJ 8pound6LT]TU soma 0TO RgVeda Ilpound TOV UYUPlK6 UIlUvlLT] poundivat YVC00Tij Eav TO kuda-kallu l(p00nu80D0pound VU unClKovl0poundl TU ljIuxocvcpyu IlUVlTUpta UUTO 8poundTpoundl TO poundPWTTjIlU nou npopAi]8TjXC i]OTj Ul(O TOV Wasson YIU 10 nOta 0Xpound0TJ unaPXcl IlCTU~D TTjS IlpoundYUA18lKT]C AaTPpoundlUC kuda-kallu 1(at LT]S PpoundOlK~S AUTppoundiuS TOU somaocv ltpULVpoundTat VU Ul(aPXpoundl onOtaO~nOTpound allpound0Tj aDVOpound0Tj U1(6 LT]V MOIU 6n TO kuda-kallu OCV clVUl poundvu aDllPOAO TTjS AUTPclUC nou OTjIlIOUpyi]8TjKc ij 1(0U c11T]pca08TjKpound un6 TTj AUTPclu TOU soma AUTa TU IlVTJllcLU OTjlllOUPyi]8Tj1(uV un6 IlTj-IVOOshyCUPCOl(UiKODS l(ATj9u01l0DS H AuTPpoundlU nou (J1)VOpound8TjKpound 11pound TO kuda-kallu uvunTux9TjKpound 0pound IllU

41

1upiobO nou npoTlYpoundhat TTje poundnaq)11e rWV Apiwv Jpound rT] vona IVbia ana Kat (HOUe xPOVoue rT]e poundnaltpl]e TWV Apiwv poundiXpound i]bTj ~poundxa08ti Tj YVWOT] TOU apXlK01) soma Kat OrTj Aarppoundia tOUe avr allIOU XPTjOlJonoLOUoav UnOKaTaOtata

Ot JpoundyaAl8lKoi noAltloJoi tTje vonae IVbiae Kat rT]e EupwnTje JOlpUsOVtal blultpopa KOlVU XapaKtTjPlOnKa yvwpioJata aKoJTj Kl av unupXpoundl JpoundTa~u tOUe XPOVOAoYlKT] blaltpopu TOUAUXlOtOV XlAlwv poundTWV Jla anoOTaOT] nou poundJltpavlspoundtat va poundlVat tva oo~apo poundJnOblO Opound poundKpoundlvpounde ne 8poundwpite nou 8poundwpouv tOY npOTjYouJpoundVO nOAltlOJo va npOEPXpoundtal uJwa ana TOV tpoundAtutaio EVTOUTOle Ol OJOlOrT]Tpounde Opound JpoundPlKU ana ta xapaKTT]plOnKU TWV bUO nOAlTloJwV poundiVat poundKnATjKnKEe Kat npoundplAaJ~uvouv rT] Jopltpl] tOU lbLOU TOU kuda-kallu H lOpltpi] JpoundPlKWV ~ppoundtaVlKWV Kat yaAAlKwv (~oppoundlae [aniae) dolmens ltPEPVpoundl OtO YOU ta dolmen kuda-kallu EnioTje OAOKATjPTj Tj OpoundtpU TWV poundupwnalKwv JpoundyaAt8lKwV poundpyaOlwv npEnpoundl va unax8poundl Opound CVbpoundAtXll pound8VOJUKTjTOAoYl1Cl] Eppounduva 6titpoundYla napubpoundlYJa ne JavlTapopoundlbtie xapu~poundle OTO Stonhenge nou OUSTjTTj8TjKav napanuvw

Lpound auTTjv TTjv poundlKova TWV bluonaptwv KOJJatlWV pound8vOJUKTjtOAOYlKT]e onoubatOtTjtae rT]e poundUpaOlatlKT]e apxatoAoYlae npEnpoundl va nappoundJ~uAoUJpound Twpa ne VEpounde 8paKlKEe aVaKaAUIIpoundLe nou ~piOKOVtat orT]v EMaba Kat nou Ebwoav rT]V w8TjoTj Opound aUTO to OUVEbpLO TIPOKpoundltat yta ne nETppounde- Javmxpla nou AaJ~avoVtal KUpiwe Jpound rT] xupa~Tj Kat TTj AtlavOTj TWV JpoundyaAwv aJpoundtaKiVT]TWV ~pUXwv nou ltp8uvouv Opound UIIOe Ta 4 J BpioKOVtat Opound unai8pla lpoundpU Kat XPOVOAoyOUVTat rT]V npWlJT] EnoXll tOU Llbi]pou 0rT] 8puKTj (1050-7degS nX)

Altpi]vovtae TOUe uMoue OUVtUKTpounde va napouOlUOOUV Ta nEtplVa JaVltUpla rT]e 8pUKT]e 8EAw JOVO va poundnlOTjJuvw on Tj 0UYKPltlKi] avUAuOT] TOU kuda-kallu Kat tWV nETp1vwV JaVltaplWV TT]e 8puKTje - TWV onoiwv Ol naAatOTpoundpOl poundJltpav(SoVTat va tiVrtl oUYXPOVOl shypoundlltpavLSouv poundKnATjKnKEe avaAoyite one 0UJ~OA1KEe 0XEOpoundle nou aUTu ta unoAtiJJata npooPLSOVTat va anpoundlKovioouv av Kat npEnpoundl va uncv8uJioouJpound TTj JTj-Ivbo-poundupwnalKi] npOEAtuoTj tOU kuda-kallu

EvtOutoLe Ol nEtppounde - Javltupla rT]e 8puKTje ltpaiVpoundTat va tlVat Jla OT]JavuKT] II1lltPioa tOU ltpUlVOJpoundVOU TTje owKAabW ~llVlle LVoow pWrratKT]e pound~6rrAwOTje rT]e YVWOT]e Kat rT]e Aatptiac TWV cv8poundoycvwv JavltaplWV ooov altpopu one cv AOyw nEtppounde ta ltpiATpa ~OPpoundlU tOU Eu~poundivou TIOVtOU tOU nOAltloJoU tWV KataKoJ~wV TT]e MaupT]e 8uAaooae (nou xpovoAoytitat Oto rrpwTo JlOO TT]e II XlAlpoundTiae rrX npB KJeijn 1984) to Bpoundb1KO Soma to lVbo-lpav1Ko Haoma TO 8paKlKO 8pound0 La~usLO Kat tT]V apX1KT] Jopltpl] tOU EnTjva 8poundOu Luovuoou

KAtivw Jpound Jla JC80bO)cOY1KT] poundKliJTjOT] OTTI JpoundApoundrT] TT]e pound8vo-ypoundwypaltp1KT]e b1abOOT]e Jlac AUtppoundLae BaOloJEVT]e 0rT] yvwoTj Jlae lfUXOpoundvpoundpyou 1tTJyi]e poundiVUl oT]JavuKo va pound~poundtaOttl T] buvaTOrT]TU Ot1 auTTj Tj YVWOT] OUvavtu TLe npoiinuPxouopounde aUTox80vpounde yvwopoundLe TWV blaltp0ppounduKWV i] ib1WV napal08TjolaKwV nTjywv JC TTjV poundnaKOAoU8Tj ouvpoundpYLa - JEOW TWV 0UYKPOUOpoundWV Kat TOU OUYKpTjUOJOU - nou poundLVat 0rT] BuoTj TWV pound8VOAoY1KWV Kat

pound8voBoTavlKwv laquolfUxoltpapJaKoAoYlKWV (J1)JnAtYJuTwVraquo Lpound nOAApounde npoundpl1tTWOpoundle avanWx8TjKaV aVTi8poundTpounde bUVUJCLe Jft~U buo 8pTjoKpoundUnKWv

napat08TjOlaKWV (J1)OrT]JUTWV MpoundPlKU oUyxpova napubpoundlYJa EXOUV JpoundAtrT]8d onwe Tj 0UJ~OAlKT]-Ju80AOYlKi] blxoToJia Jpoundta~u TOU peyote Kat TTje jimsonweed 0rT] Jpound~lKUV1KTj KouAToupa H ulchol (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) onwe Kat Tj (J1)VpoundPY1KT] (J1)VUVTTjOTj TWV MTPpoundlWV Byeri Kat Bwiti JpoundTU~U TWV Bantus nou souv OTTjV IOTjJpoundplvi] AltPPlK1] Jpound ~uOT] ta bUo ltpUTU alan Kat iboga nou npoKUAouv opuJaTa (Samorini 2002-3)

Ol ib1pounde 8pound0rT]Tpounde nou (J1)V6poundOVTat Jpound ne laquocv8poundOypoundvpoundieraquo MTppoundite unoBaAAOVTat Jpound to nEpaoJa TOU xpovou oue (J1)Vpoundnpoundlpounde TWV nOAltlOnKWV bPW~wv((J1)VavTT]OpoundwV) pound~poundAlOOOJCVpounde ano 8poundOTTjTpounde nou (J1)VbpoundOVTat Jpound lla Jovab1KTJ 1tTJYTJ opaJUTWV Opound JLU mo oUv8poundTTj 8pound0rT]ta JpoundXj)1 Opound 0plOlfVpounde npoundpl1tTWopoundte va JpoundtaTpUntl Opound JLU JpoundyaATj poundKOTaUKT] 8pound0rT]ta tpOnonOlTjltvwv KaTaoTuopoundwV OUVdbTjOT]e - Kat oxpoundnKWV 8PTjOKpoundUTlKWV poundPlTjvtiwvshynou npOKaAtltUl ano OAoUe TOUe TunOUe TWV nTjYwv OpalUTWV nou BpE8TjKaV 1] 8poundoniorT]KUV

42

ano TOV av8pcDmvO noAmO~O ea ~nopODm va poundlVat 11 mpUrTCOGll - napa8poundiy~aTo~ XUplV - Th TOD Xohipilli - TOD laquonpiYKllna TCOV AoDAOD8lcDVraquo 010 8poundlKo nuv8poundO TCOV ASTEKcov- TOD 1V81KOD epoundOD Shiva Kat TOD EU11va 8poundOD L1LOVlJOOD (Wasson 1973 Danitlou 1980) Ano pound8VOAOYl1dl~ UnOIjl11~ poundivat poundno~co~ 8DVUTO va ~lAilOODflpound Yla laquoIjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKO Gianluca To ODflnAcYfla ASTEKcovraquo Yla laquoIjIDxoltpawaKoAoylKO 81OVDOlaKO GU~nApoundy~araquo KAn

rVCOpiSOD~pound on 0pound KunOla OnYfl~ Tll~ 1010pia~ TOD 0 L1l0VDoO~ poundvOco~UTcD811Kpound Abstract P ma EAcDOivta ~DoT~Pta ~asi Kat 11 81altpoponOl11~poundvll IjIDxoltpawaKoAoYlK~ lKavoT11TU ( rock-art pail npopoundpxo~poundVll KDpico~ ano ~aVlTUpl) TO anoTEAcO~a Tll~ ODVpoundPYlK~~ ODYXcDVpoundDGll~ ~poundTU~D is based on I

TOD L1l0VDOlaKOD Kat TOD EApoundDOiVLOD IjIDXOltpapflaKOAOY1KOD ODflnApoundYflUTO~ (TO TpoundApoundUTUio have been pi paOlO~poundVO KDpico~ O~ napalO811OlaKE~ n11YE~ TCOV aKi8cov Tll~ nanapODva~) i]TUV TOOO PtS1KO (Algeria) th nOD pound1rllPEaOpound aKofl11 Kat TllV apX1KT] xplOnavoGUv11 Kat 0Xl ~ovo n~ wOoYpoundlaKE~ poundKOTUnKE~ Bego (Fram AUTppoundipound~ TCOV poundnowvcov atcDvCOV (Samorini 2008) in found in

MpoundTU ano aDTE~ n~ poundKn~i]opoundl~ 8poundv npEnpoundl va anOxApoundtOTpoundl 11 m8aVOTllTU on 0 i8LO~ mushrooms 8pound0~ Sabatius (LapusLO~) nplV va DnoOTpoundl TOV laquo8LOVDOlaKO flpoundTUOX11flanOfloraquo (Wohlberg reign ofthe 1990) 8a flnoPODOpound va poundlvat ~ta 8poundOTllTU i]811 8taltpoponOl11flpoundv11 On~ napalO811OlaKE~ In AclTODpyipound~ Kat n~ n11YE~ TOD~ EmnApoundov XPpoundlUSpoundTat l8talTpoundP11 npoOoxi] OTll flpoundApoundTll TOD representati( lv80poundDpconaiKoD IjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKOD ODflnApoundYflUTo~ poundlOlKoTpoundpa OT11v poundnpound~poundpyaOia Tll~ well put th( 8laOpound80flpoundvr]~ Dn08pound011~ nOD ODVOEpoundTat ~pound Tll YVcDOl1 TOD soma Yla va anpoundlKovl08poundi TO soma for the painl co~ 11 flov11 1rllyi] OpaflUTCOV nOD KDplapxpoundi Opoundva KOO~O laquouGllnwraquo Ol DnOKpoundlflpoundvOl (Nisbet 199shyaDTox80vpound~ nOAmO~oi m8avov va poundiVat avaYKaio va npoOnpoundAaOTODV AOYCO Tll~ lmopia~ Th TCOV napalO811OlaKcDV 1rllYcDV Kat TCOV pound8vo-ypoundcoypaltplKcDV npoundpmAavijOpoundcDV TOD~ below and

percolation eventually J

shelter upor Or

and Museu parallel ver hand The j

one comp( find other f a ear On tl probable bl tree but plt accompani particular r

TI geometrica most ancie anthropom and Sicily and Arago dated bad Iberian set Age On tl early Cop~

A anthroporr around cu could be topograph between t

40

Kuru ~pound00 OpO TU kuda-kallu poundX0l)V DjJOC 1 5-2 ~ KUl l(AUTOC 15-2 11 Al(onAouvTUl Ul(O Tpound00cPlC l(fTpcC 1(0U KO~OVTUl 0TU ~10a T~iIIlUTU(TllllIlOplU) KUl KPUTOl)V jJllca IllUl(pound~l(LT] l(poundTPU 1(0U ciVUl cl(il(coTj 0TTjV l(Mupa 0TTjV ol(oiu 0TTjpitcTUl KUl Kl)PT~ Ul(O TTjV UAATj l(Mupu

OADKATjPO TO (J1)YKpOLT]IlU ltpUiVcTUl VU 1l00Utcl Ilc Ilta 0llnppoundAU ~ UKOIlU KUADTcpU Ilc poundVU Tcpa0TtO IlUVITUpl AUTa TU IlVTJllclU OCV ciVUl TaltpOl I1POTU8TjKc on ~TUV UPXuCtOVTU npCOTOTunu TOU ~OUOl0nKOD stupa (Longhurst 1979 ) I1oAlTl0nKa TU kuda-kallu (J1)VOpoundOVTUl Ilc LT]V ollnpElcU poundVu upxu(K6 aDllPOAO LT]C ODVUIlTjC LT]C c~ou0iuc Kat LT]C Ipoundp6TllTUC OlUOcOOIlpoundVO 0LT]V upxuiu AiyuTCTO IlcTU~D A0(J1)picov KUl TCOV UVUTOAl1(WV 1(0AlTl01lwv

Av Kat Tj aDVOc0Tj IlcTU~D UUTWV TCOV npoundTplVCOV IlVTJllcicov Kat LT]C O~l(ppoundAaC clVat cUAoYTj npoTClvu LT]v ul(08c0T] 6n unclKovitol)V IlUVlTUPIU OcOOIlpoundVOU 6n clVat noAU nUp61l01Ol 0LT] 1l0pltpi] (Samorini 1995) To ov61lu kuda-kallu 068TJKc 0UltpWC 0c IlIU m6 np00ltpULT] XPOVIKT] ncplooo IlcTa un6 TTjV KurU0KCUi] TOUC cv Ul(UPXcl KUVpoundVU u~lom0To 0TOlXclO 6n TJ OVOllUTO0001u l(POpoundPXcTat un6 cKclVOUC 1(0U TO 1(UTU0KcUU0UV EKT6C UUTOU 6ncoc cntpcpatWVcl 0 Longhurst (1979) civUl ncp1006TcpO u1(6 m8uv6 OTl KUTU LT] OlUPKclU TTjC ncploooU TOU Asoka IlcP1KOUC UlWVcC IlCTU LT]V uvpoundycp0T] TOU kuda-kallu Tj PU(JlA1K~ 0llnppoundAu (J1)V0pound8TjKpound 11pound TO stupa YIU TO onoio TO kuda-kallu 8poundCOPclTUl np60polloC KUl Ul(O UPXITcKTOVIKi]C KUl (J1)IlPOAlKT]C unojJTjC 0 Wasson (1968 p66) Kavpoundl 1l1U (J1)VOnnK~ uvultpopa 0TO laquoIlUvlTapl-l(poundtpUraquo LT]C KpoundpaAa uv Kat 0LT]V l(puYllunKOLT]Tu opoundV TU cnt0KpoundltpTTJXC

KOVTU 0TU kuda-kallu unapxouv UAAU IlcYUAl8lKU IlVTJIlpoundiu menhir dolmens xUxAol nCTpwv KUl laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTppoundcraquo Ol laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTppoundcraquo(hood-stones) poundLvUl nOAD CV01UltPpoundPOU0cC AOYCO Kal(OlUC nUpUT~pTj0T]C 1(0U poundKUVU 0pound IlpoundP1KpoundC uno UUTpoundC AnOTpoundAoDvTUl u1(6 IllU cvluiu npoundTpu nou KUAUTCTcl poundvuv U1(6ypoundlO Taltpo I1UpUTijpTj0U nOAUUpI8IlcC 0TpOyyuMC K01AOLT]TpoundC 0pound IlpoundP1KpoundC Ul(O UUTpoundC 01U0KOPl(l01lpoundVcC 0pound OAOKATjpTj LT]V cntltpUVcLU LT]C l(poundTpUC (E1K20) To 0TjllpoundLO UUTWV TCOV KOtAOTijTcov clVat UVUIlltP10Pi]LT]TO pound~U11T]ppoundTOU0pound 0Ultpi] 0lUK001lTjTtK6 01(on6 OlVOVTUC pound1lltPU0T] poundni0TjC 0c poundVu oLUKpmKo XUpUKLT]pl0nK6 TOU uvnKpoundlllpoundvoU nou 01 KOUKOUCpoundC-l(poundTPpoundC l(pOOpitovTUV vu Ul(poundIKOVl00UV (E1K21)

flU aAATj IllU ltpopu nppoundna VU Aapoullc un6jJTj 6n 0 ntO l(pUKnKOC Tp6noc Y1U vu unclKovl08cl 0 UIlUVLLT]C 0 IlUYOKTOVOC i] 0 UIlUvlLT]C 0 l(av8T)puc 11pound nc MUKpoundC KTJciocC nuvco 0LT]V l(poundTPU ~TUV TO 0KajJl1l0 0TPOYYUAciJv KOtAoTi]TCOV 0LT]V poundmltpuvClu TTjC Lpound UUTO TO 0T]IlpoundlO Tj Un08pound0Tj OTt at laquoKOUKOUMc-npoundTpcCraquo Kat TO kuda-kallu npoopltovTUV VU unCl1(ovltouv cLTpound poundVu clTc Kat TU OUO IjIUXOpoundVcpyU IlUVltaplU YLVCTat mo npoundl0nK6 0 UIlUVITTJC 0 IlDYOKTOVOC Kat 0 UIlUVILT]S 0 nav8TJpus poundlVat nupOVTU 0LT] v6nu Ivolu 0TU KCOVOltpOPU oa0Tj LT]S l(poundPlOXi]S Kodaikanal (0TO Tamil Nadu) l(cpLnOU 80 XAIl uno nc IlpoundyUAl81KpoundS l(poundPlOXpoundS Lpound UUT~V TTjV lOlU npoundplOX~ CVTOl(itovTUl OlultpopcnKu poundlOTj IlUVlTUP1WV IjltAoxUPTjS (Natarjan amp Raman 1983)

Euv TU kuda-kallu unclK6vltuv l(puYllunKu TU IlUVITUPIU T6Tc unClK6vttuv TU ljIuxocvpoundpya IlUVlTUpta nou poundnpoundTppoundnuv 0PUIlUTU LT]S laquoUAATJS l(MupuSraquo LT]S tco~s ~CTa TO 8avuTo y 1(6 uuTijv LT] 1l0pltpi] i]TUV 1(0AU KUTUAATjA01poundPU (uno TU poundOWOl~U IlUVlTUP1U YlU nupaOpoundIYIlU) YIU VU axcTltoVTUl Ilc VpoundKPI1(poundC AuTppoundipoundS

H Ul(08pound0T] TOU Wasson (1968) 1(0U l(P000l0P10pound TO IpoundpO 1(0TO Kat TTJ 8pound6LT]TU soma 0TO RgVeda Ilpound TOV UYUPlK6 UIlUvlLT] poundivat YVC00Tij Eav TO kuda-kallu l(p00nu80D0pound VU unClKovl0poundl TU ljIuxocvcpyu IlUVlTUpta UUTO 8poundTpoundl TO poundPWTTjIlU nou npopAi]8TjXC i]OTj Ul(O TOV Wasson YIU 10 nOta 0Xpound0TJ unaPXcl IlCTU~D TTjS IlpoundYUA18lKT]C AaTPpoundlUC kuda-kallu 1(at LT]S PpoundOlK~S AUTppoundiuS TOU somaocv ltpULVpoundTat VU Ul(aPXpoundl onOtaO~nOTpound allpound0Tj aDVOpound0Tj U1(6 LT]V MOIU 6n TO kuda-kallu OCV clVUl poundvu aDllPOAO TTjS AUTPclUC nou OTjIlIOUpyi]8TjKc ij 1(0U c11T]pca08TjKpound un6 TTj AUTPclu TOU soma AUTa TU IlVTJllcLU OTjlllOUPyi]8Tj1(uV un6 IlTj-IVOOshyCUPCOl(UiKODS l(ATj9u01l0DS H AuTPpoundlU nou (J1)VOpound8TjKpound 11pound TO kuda-kallu uvunTux9TjKpound 0pound IllU

41

1upiobO nou npoTlYpoundhat TTje poundnaq)11e rWV Apiwv Jpound rT] vona IVbia ana Kat (HOUe xPOVoue rT]e poundnaltpl]e TWV Apiwv poundiXpound i]bTj ~poundxa08ti Tj YVWOT] TOU apXlK01) soma Kat OrTj Aarppoundia tOUe avr allIOU XPTjOlJonoLOUoav UnOKaTaOtata

Ot JpoundyaAl8lKoi noAltloJoi tTje vonae IVbiae Kat rT]e EupwnTje JOlpUsOVtal blultpopa KOlVU XapaKtTjPlOnKa yvwpioJata aKoJTj Kl av unupXpoundl JpoundTa~u tOUe XPOVOAoYlKT] blaltpopu TOUAUXlOtOV XlAlwv poundTWV Jla anoOTaOT] nou poundJltpavlspoundtat va poundlVat tva oo~apo poundJnOblO Opound poundKpoundlvpounde ne 8poundwpite nou 8poundwpouv tOY npOTjYouJpoundVO nOAltlOJo va npOEPXpoundtal uJwa ana TOV tpoundAtutaio EVTOUTOle Ol OJOlOrT]Tpounde Opound JpoundPlKU ana ta xapaKTT]plOnKU TWV bUO nOAlTloJwV poundiVat poundKnATjKnKEe Kat npoundplAaJ~uvouv rT] Jopltpl] tOU lbLOU TOU kuda-kallu H lOpltpi] JpoundPlKWV ~ppoundtaVlKWV Kat yaAAlKwv (~oppoundlae [aniae) dolmens ltPEPVpoundl OtO YOU ta dolmen kuda-kallu EnioTje OAOKATjPTj Tj OpoundtpU TWV poundupwnalKwv JpoundyaAt8lKwV poundpyaOlwv npEnpoundl va unax8poundl Opound CVbpoundAtXll pound8VOJUKTjTOAoYl1Cl] Eppounduva 6titpoundYla napubpoundlYJa ne JavlTapopoundlbtie xapu~poundle OTO Stonhenge nou OUSTjTTj8TjKav napanuvw

Lpound auTTjv TTjv poundlKova TWV bluonaptwv KOJJatlWV pound8vOJUKTjtOAOYlKT]e onoubatOtTjtae rT]e poundUpaOlatlKT]e apxatoAoYlae npEnpoundl va nappoundJ~uAoUJpound Twpa ne VEpounde 8paKlKEe aVaKaAUIIpoundLe nou ~piOKOVtat orT]v EMaba Kat nou Ebwoav rT]V w8TjoTj Opound aUTO to OUVEbpLO TIPOKpoundltat yta ne nETppounde- Javmxpla nou AaJ~avoVtal KUpiwe Jpound rT] xupa~Tj Kat TTj AtlavOTj TWV JpoundyaAwv aJpoundtaKiVT]TWV ~pUXwv nou ltp8uvouv Opound UIIOe Ta 4 J BpioKOVtat Opound unai8pla lpoundpU Kat XPOVOAoyOUVTat rT]V npWlJT] EnoXll tOU Llbi]pou 0rT] 8puKTj (1050-7degS nX)

Altpi]vovtae TOUe uMoue OUVtUKTpounde va napouOlUOOUV Ta nEtplVa JaVltUpla rT]e 8pUKT]e 8EAw JOVO va poundnlOTjJuvw on Tj 0UYKPltlKi] avUAuOT] TOU kuda-kallu Kat tWV nETp1vwV JaVltaplWV TT]e 8puKTje - TWV onoiwv Ol naAatOTpoundpOl poundJltpav(SoVTat va tiVrtl oUYXPOVOl shypoundlltpavLSouv poundKnATjKnKEe avaAoyite one 0UJ~OA1KEe 0XEOpoundle nou aUTu ta unoAtiJJata npooPLSOVTat va anpoundlKovioouv av Kat npEnpoundl va uncv8uJioouJpound TTj JTj-Ivbo-poundupwnalKi] npOEAtuoTj tOU kuda-kallu

EvtOutoLe Ol nEtppounde - Javltupla rT]e 8puKTje ltpaiVpoundTat va tlVat Jla OT]JavuKT] II1lltPioa tOU ltpUlVOJpoundVOU TTje owKAabW ~llVlle LVoow pWrratKT]e pound~6rrAwOTje rT]e YVWOT]e Kat rT]e Aatptiac TWV cv8poundoycvwv JavltaplWV ooov altpopu one cv AOyw nEtppounde ta ltpiATpa ~OPpoundlU tOU Eu~poundivou TIOVtOU tOU nOAltloJoU tWV KataKoJ~wV TT]e MaupT]e 8uAaooae (nou xpovoAoytitat Oto rrpwTo JlOO TT]e II XlAlpoundTiae rrX npB KJeijn 1984) to Bpoundb1KO Soma to lVbo-lpav1Ko Haoma TO 8paKlKO 8pound0 La~usLO Kat tT]V apX1KT] Jopltpl] tOU EnTjva 8poundOu Luovuoou

KAtivw Jpound Jla JC80bO)cOY1KT] poundKliJTjOT] OTTI JpoundApoundrT] TT]e pound8vo-ypoundwypaltp1KT]e b1abOOT]e Jlac AUtppoundLae BaOloJEVT]e 0rT] yvwoTj Jlae lfUXOpoundvpoundpyou 1tTJyi]e poundiVUl oT]JavuKo va pound~poundtaOttl T] buvaTOrT]TU Ot1 auTTj Tj YVWOT] OUvavtu TLe npoiinuPxouopounde aUTox80vpounde yvwopoundLe TWV blaltp0ppounduKWV i] ib1WV napal08TjolaKwV nTjywv JC TTjV poundnaKOAoU8Tj ouvpoundpYLa - JEOW TWV 0UYKPOUOpoundWV Kat TOU OUYKpTjUOJOU - nou poundLVat 0rT] BuoTj TWV pound8VOAoY1KWV Kat

pound8voBoTavlKwv laquolfUxoltpapJaKoAoYlKWV (J1)JnAtYJuTwVraquo Lpound nOAApounde npoundpl1tTWOpoundle avanWx8TjKaV aVTi8poundTpounde bUVUJCLe Jft~U buo 8pTjoKpoundUnKWv

napat08TjOlaKWV (J1)OrT]JUTWV MpoundPlKU oUyxpova napubpoundlYJa EXOUV JpoundAtrT]8d onwe Tj 0UJ~OAlKT]-Ju80AOYlKi] blxoToJia Jpoundta~u TOU peyote Kat TTje jimsonweed 0rT] Jpound~lKUV1KTj KouAToupa H ulchol (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) onwe Kat Tj (J1)VpoundPY1KT] (J1)VUVTTjOTj TWV MTPpoundlWV Byeri Kat Bwiti JpoundTU~U TWV Bantus nou souv OTTjV IOTjJpoundplvi] AltPPlK1] Jpound ~uOT] ta bUo ltpUTU alan Kat iboga nou npoKUAouv opuJaTa (Samorini 2002-3)

Ol ib1pounde 8pound0rT]Tpounde nou (J1)V6poundOVTat Jpound ne laquocv8poundOypoundvpoundieraquo MTppoundite unoBaAAOVTat Jpound to nEpaoJa TOU xpovou oue (J1)Vpoundnpoundlpounde TWV nOAltlOnKWV bPW~wv((J1)VavTT]OpoundwV) pound~poundAlOOOJCVpounde ano 8poundOTTjTpounde nou (J1)VbpoundOVTat Jpound lla Jovab1KTJ 1tTJYTJ opaJUTWV Opound JLU mo oUv8poundTTj 8pound0rT]ta JpoundXj)1 Opound 0plOlfVpounde npoundpl1tTWopoundte va JpoundtaTpUntl Opound JLU JpoundyaATj poundKOTaUKT] 8pound0rT]ta tpOnonOlTjltvwv KaTaoTuopoundwV OUVdbTjOT]e - Kat oxpoundnKWV 8PTjOKpoundUTlKWV poundPlTjvtiwvshynou npOKaAtltUl ano OAoUe TOUe TunOUe TWV nTjYwv OpalUTWV nou BpE8TjKaV 1] 8poundoniorT]KUV

42

ano TOV av8pcDmvO noAmO~O ea ~nopODm va poundlVat 11 mpUrTCOGll - napa8poundiy~aTo~ XUplV - Th TOD Xohipilli - TOD laquonpiYKllna TCOV AoDAOD8lcDVraquo 010 8poundlKo nuv8poundO TCOV ASTEKcov- TOD 1V81KOD epoundOD Shiva Kat TOD EU11va 8poundOD L1LOVlJOOD (Wasson 1973 Danitlou 1980) Ano pound8VOAOYl1dl~ UnOIjl11~ poundivat poundno~co~ 8DVUTO va ~lAilOODflpound Yla laquoIjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKO Gianluca To ODflnAcYfla ASTEKcovraquo Yla laquoIjIDxoltpawaKoAoylKO 81OVDOlaKO GU~nApoundy~araquo KAn

rVCOpiSOD~pound on 0pound KunOla OnYfl~ Tll~ 1010pia~ TOD 0 L1l0VDoO~ poundvOco~UTcD811Kpound Abstract P ma EAcDOivta ~DoT~Pta ~asi Kat 11 81altpoponOl11~poundvll IjIDxoltpawaKoAoYlK~ lKavoT11TU ( rock-art pail npopoundpxo~poundVll KDpico~ ano ~aVlTUpl) TO anoTEAcO~a Tll~ ODVpoundPYlK~~ ODYXcDVpoundDGll~ ~poundTU~D is based on I

TOD L1l0VDOlaKOD Kat TOD EApoundDOiVLOD IjIDXOltpapflaKOAOY1KOD ODflnApoundYflUTO~ (TO TpoundApoundUTUio have been pi paOlO~poundVO KDpico~ O~ napalO811OlaKE~ n11YE~ TCOV aKi8cov Tll~ nanapODva~) i]TUV TOOO PtS1KO (Algeria) th nOD pound1rllPEaOpound aKofl11 Kat TllV apX1KT] xplOnavoGUv11 Kat 0Xl ~ovo n~ wOoYpoundlaKE~ poundKOTUnKE~ Bego (Fram AUTppoundipound~ TCOV poundnowvcov atcDvCOV (Samorini 2008) in found in

MpoundTU ano aDTE~ n~ poundKn~i]opoundl~ 8poundv npEnpoundl va anOxApoundtOTpoundl 11 m8aVOTllTU on 0 i8LO~ mushrooms 8pound0~ Sabatius (LapusLO~) nplV va DnoOTpoundl TOV laquo8LOVDOlaKO flpoundTUOX11flanOfloraquo (Wohlberg reign ofthe 1990) 8a flnoPODOpound va poundlvat ~ta 8poundOTllTU i]811 8taltpoponOl11flpoundv11 On~ napalO811OlaKE~ In AclTODpyipound~ Kat n~ n11YE~ TOD~ EmnApoundov XPpoundlUSpoundTat l8talTpoundP11 npoOoxi] OTll flpoundApoundTll TOD representati( lv80poundDpconaiKoD IjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKOD ODflnApoundYflUTo~ poundlOlKoTpoundpa OT11v poundnpound~poundpyaOia Tll~ well put th( 8laOpound80flpoundvr]~ Dn08pound011~ nOD ODVOEpoundTat ~pound Tll YVcDOl1 TOD soma Yla va anpoundlKovl08poundi TO soma for the painl co~ 11 flov11 1rllyi] OpaflUTCOV nOD KDplapxpoundi Opoundva KOO~O laquouGllnwraquo Ol DnOKpoundlflpoundvOl (Nisbet 199shyaDTox80vpound~ nOAmO~oi m8avov va poundiVat avaYKaio va npoOnpoundAaOTODV AOYCO Tll~ lmopia~ Th TCOV napalO811OlaKcDV 1rllYcDV Kat TCOV pound8vo-ypoundcoypaltplKcDV npoundpmAavijOpoundcDV TOD~ below and

percolation eventually J

shelter upor Or

and Museu parallel ver hand The j

one comp( find other f a ear On tl probable bl tree but plt accompani particular r

TI geometrica most ancie anthropom and Sicily and Arago dated bad Iberian set Age On tl early Cop~

A anthroporr around cu could be topograph between t

41

1upiobO nou npoTlYpoundhat TTje poundnaq)11e rWV Apiwv Jpound rT] vona IVbia ana Kat (HOUe xPOVoue rT]e poundnaltpl]e TWV Apiwv poundiXpound i]bTj ~poundxa08ti Tj YVWOT] TOU apXlK01) soma Kat OrTj Aarppoundia tOUe avr allIOU XPTjOlJonoLOUoav UnOKaTaOtata

Ot JpoundyaAl8lKoi noAltloJoi tTje vonae IVbiae Kat rT]e EupwnTje JOlpUsOVtal blultpopa KOlVU XapaKtTjPlOnKa yvwpioJata aKoJTj Kl av unupXpoundl JpoundTa~u tOUe XPOVOAoYlKT] blaltpopu TOUAUXlOtOV XlAlwv poundTWV Jla anoOTaOT] nou poundJltpavlspoundtat va poundlVat tva oo~apo poundJnOblO Opound poundKpoundlvpounde ne 8poundwpite nou 8poundwpouv tOY npOTjYouJpoundVO nOAltlOJo va npOEPXpoundtal uJwa ana TOV tpoundAtutaio EVTOUTOle Ol OJOlOrT]Tpounde Opound JpoundPlKU ana ta xapaKTT]plOnKU TWV bUO nOAlTloJwV poundiVat poundKnATjKnKEe Kat npoundplAaJ~uvouv rT] Jopltpl] tOU lbLOU TOU kuda-kallu H lOpltpi] JpoundPlKWV ~ppoundtaVlKWV Kat yaAAlKwv (~oppoundlae [aniae) dolmens ltPEPVpoundl OtO YOU ta dolmen kuda-kallu EnioTje OAOKATjPTj Tj OpoundtpU TWV poundupwnalKwv JpoundyaAt8lKwV poundpyaOlwv npEnpoundl va unax8poundl Opound CVbpoundAtXll pound8VOJUKTjTOAoYl1Cl] Eppounduva 6titpoundYla napubpoundlYJa ne JavlTapopoundlbtie xapu~poundle OTO Stonhenge nou OUSTjTTj8TjKav napanuvw

Lpound auTTjv TTjv poundlKova TWV bluonaptwv KOJJatlWV pound8vOJUKTjtOAOYlKT]e onoubatOtTjtae rT]e poundUpaOlatlKT]e apxatoAoYlae npEnpoundl va nappoundJ~uAoUJpound Twpa ne VEpounde 8paKlKEe aVaKaAUIIpoundLe nou ~piOKOVtat orT]v EMaba Kat nou Ebwoav rT]V w8TjoTj Opound aUTO to OUVEbpLO TIPOKpoundltat yta ne nETppounde- Javmxpla nou AaJ~avoVtal KUpiwe Jpound rT] xupa~Tj Kat TTj AtlavOTj TWV JpoundyaAwv aJpoundtaKiVT]TWV ~pUXwv nou ltp8uvouv Opound UIIOe Ta 4 J BpioKOVtat Opound unai8pla lpoundpU Kat XPOVOAoyOUVTat rT]V npWlJT] EnoXll tOU Llbi]pou 0rT] 8puKTj (1050-7degS nX)

Altpi]vovtae TOUe uMoue OUVtUKTpounde va napouOlUOOUV Ta nEtplVa JaVltUpla rT]e 8pUKT]e 8EAw JOVO va poundnlOTjJuvw on Tj 0UYKPltlKi] avUAuOT] TOU kuda-kallu Kat tWV nETp1vwV JaVltaplWV TT]e 8puKTje - TWV onoiwv Ol naAatOTpoundpOl poundJltpav(SoVTat va tiVrtl oUYXPOVOl shypoundlltpavLSouv poundKnATjKnKEe avaAoyite one 0UJ~OA1KEe 0XEOpoundle nou aUTu ta unoAtiJJata npooPLSOVTat va anpoundlKovioouv av Kat npEnpoundl va uncv8uJioouJpound TTj JTj-Ivbo-poundupwnalKi] npOEAtuoTj tOU kuda-kallu

EvtOutoLe Ol nEtppounde - Javltupla rT]e 8puKTje ltpaiVpoundTat va tlVat Jla OT]JavuKT] II1lltPioa tOU ltpUlVOJpoundVOU TTje owKAabW ~llVlle LVoow pWrratKT]e pound~6rrAwOTje rT]e YVWOT]e Kat rT]e Aatptiac TWV cv8poundoycvwv JavltaplWV ooov altpopu one cv AOyw nEtppounde ta ltpiATpa ~OPpoundlU tOU Eu~poundivou TIOVtOU tOU nOAltloJoU tWV KataKoJ~wV TT]e MaupT]e 8uAaooae (nou xpovoAoytitat Oto rrpwTo JlOO TT]e II XlAlpoundTiae rrX npB KJeijn 1984) to Bpoundb1KO Soma to lVbo-lpav1Ko Haoma TO 8paKlKO 8pound0 La~usLO Kat tT]V apX1KT] Jopltpl] tOU EnTjva 8poundOu Luovuoou

KAtivw Jpound Jla JC80bO)cOY1KT] poundKliJTjOT] OTTI JpoundApoundrT] TT]e pound8vo-ypoundwypaltp1KT]e b1abOOT]e Jlac AUtppoundLae BaOloJEVT]e 0rT] yvwoTj Jlae lfUXOpoundvpoundpyou 1tTJyi]e poundiVUl oT]JavuKo va pound~poundtaOttl T] buvaTOrT]TU Ot1 auTTj Tj YVWOT] OUvavtu TLe npoiinuPxouopounde aUTox80vpounde yvwopoundLe TWV blaltp0ppounduKWV i] ib1WV napal08TjolaKwV nTjywv JC TTjV poundnaKOAoU8Tj ouvpoundpYLa - JEOW TWV 0UYKPOUOpoundWV Kat TOU OUYKpTjUOJOU - nou poundLVat 0rT] BuoTj TWV pound8VOAoY1KWV Kat

pound8voBoTavlKwv laquolfUxoltpapJaKoAoYlKWV (J1)JnAtYJuTwVraquo Lpound nOAApounde npoundpl1tTWOpoundle avanWx8TjKaV aVTi8poundTpounde bUVUJCLe Jft~U buo 8pTjoKpoundUnKWv

napat08TjOlaKWV (J1)OrT]JUTWV MpoundPlKU oUyxpova napubpoundlYJa EXOUV JpoundAtrT]8d onwe Tj 0UJ~OAlKT]-Ju80AOYlKi] blxoToJia Jpoundta~u TOU peyote Kat TTje jimsonweed 0rT] Jpound~lKUV1KTj KouAToupa H ulchol (Furst amp Myerhoff 1966) onwe Kat Tj (J1)VpoundPY1KT] (J1)VUVTTjOTj TWV MTPpoundlWV Byeri Kat Bwiti JpoundTU~U TWV Bantus nou souv OTTjV IOTjJpoundplvi] AltPPlK1] Jpound ~uOT] ta bUo ltpUTU alan Kat iboga nou npoKUAouv opuJaTa (Samorini 2002-3)

Ol ib1pounde 8pound0rT]Tpounde nou (J1)V6poundOVTat Jpound ne laquocv8poundOypoundvpoundieraquo MTppoundite unoBaAAOVTat Jpound to nEpaoJa TOU xpovou oue (J1)Vpoundnpoundlpounde TWV nOAltlOnKWV bPW~wv((J1)VavTT]OpoundwV) pound~poundAlOOOJCVpounde ano 8poundOTTjTpounde nou (J1)VbpoundOVTat Jpound lla Jovab1KTJ 1tTJYTJ opaJUTWV Opound JLU mo oUv8poundTTj 8pound0rT]ta JpoundXj)1 Opound 0plOlfVpounde npoundpl1tTWopoundte va JpoundtaTpUntl Opound JLU JpoundyaATj poundKOTaUKT] 8pound0rT]ta tpOnonOlTjltvwv KaTaoTuopoundwV OUVdbTjOT]e - Kat oxpoundnKWV 8PTjOKpoundUTlKWV poundPlTjvtiwvshynou npOKaAtltUl ano OAoUe TOUe TunOUe TWV nTjYwv OpalUTWV nou BpE8TjKaV 1] 8poundoniorT]KUV

42

ano TOV av8pcDmvO noAmO~O ea ~nopODm va poundlVat 11 mpUrTCOGll - napa8poundiy~aTo~ XUplV - Th TOD Xohipilli - TOD laquonpiYKllna TCOV AoDAOD8lcDVraquo 010 8poundlKo nuv8poundO TCOV ASTEKcov- TOD 1V81KOD epoundOD Shiva Kat TOD EU11va 8poundOD L1LOVlJOOD (Wasson 1973 Danitlou 1980) Ano pound8VOAOYl1dl~ UnOIjl11~ poundivat poundno~co~ 8DVUTO va ~lAilOODflpound Yla laquoIjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKO Gianluca To ODflnAcYfla ASTEKcovraquo Yla laquoIjIDxoltpawaKoAoylKO 81OVDOlaKO GU~nApoundy~araquo KAn

rVCOpiSOD~pound on 0pound KunOla OnYfl~ Tll~ 1010pia~ TOD 0 L1l0VDoO~ poundvOco~UTcD811Kpound Abstract P ma EAcDOivta ~DoT~Pta ~asi Kat 11 81altpoponOl11~poundvll IjIDxoltpawaKoAoYlK~ lKavoT11TU ( rock-art pail npopoundpxo~poundVll KDpico~ ano ~aVlTUpl) TO anoTEAcO~a Tll~ ODVpoundPYlK~~ ODYXcDVpoundDGll~ ~poundTU~D is based on I

TOD L1l0VDOlaKOD Kat TOD EApoundDOiVLOD IjIDXOltpapflaKOAOY1KOD ODflnApoundYflUTO~ (TO TpoundApoundUTUio have been pi paOlO~poundVO KDpico~ O~ napalO811OlaKE~ n11YE~ TCOV aKi8cov Tll~ nanapODva~) i]TUV TOOO PtS1KO (Algeria) th nOD pound1rllPEaOpound aKofl11 Kat TllV apX1KT] xplOnavoGUv11 Kat 0Xl ~ovo n~ wOoYpoundlaKE~ poundKOTUnKE~ Bego (Fram AUTppoundipound~ TCOV poundnowvcov atcDvCOV (Samorini 2008) in found in

MpoundTU ano aDTE~ n~ poundKn~i]opoundl~ 8poundv npEnpoundl va anOxApoundtOTpoundl 11 m8aVOTllTU on 0 i8LO~ mushrooms 8pound0~ Sabatius (LapusLO~) nplV va DnoOTpoundl TOV laquo8LOVDOlaKO flpoundTUOX11flanOfloraquo (Wohlberg reign ofthe 1990) 8a flnoPODOpound va poundlvat ~ta 8poundOTllTU i]811 8taltpoponOl11flpoundv11 On~ napalO811OlaKE~ In AclTODpyipound~ Kat n~ n11YE~ TOD~ EmnApoundov XPpoundlUSpoundTat l8talTpoundP11 npoOoxi] OTll flpoundApoundTll TOD representati( lv80poundDpconaiKoD IjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKOD ODflnApoundYflUTo~ poundlOlKoTpoundpa OT11v poundnpound~poundpyaOia Tll~ well put th( 8laOpound80flpoundvr]~ Dn08pound011~ nOD ODVOEpoundTat ~pound Tll YVcDOl1 TOD soma Yla va anpoundlKovl08poundi TO soma for the painl co~ 11 flov11 1rllyi] OpaflUTCOV nOD KDplapxpoundi Opoundva KOO~O laquouGllnwraquo Ol DnOKpoundlflpoundvOl (Nisbet 199shyaDTox80vpound~ nOAmO~oi m8avov va poundiVat avaYKaio va npoOnpoundAaOTODV AOYCO Tll~ lmopia~ Th TCOV napalO811OlaKcDV 1rllYcDV Kat TCOV pound8vo-ypoundcoypaltplKcDV npoundpmAavijOpoundcDV TOD~ below and

percolation eventually J

shelter upor Or

and Museu parallel ver hand The j

one comp( find other f a ear On tl probable bl tree but plt accompani particular r

TI geometrica most ancie anthropom and Sicily and Arago dated bad Iberian set Age On tl early Cop~

A anthroporr around cu could be topograph between t

42

ano TOV av8pcDmvO noAmO~O ea ~nopODm va poundlVat 11 mpUrTCOGll - napa8poundiy~aTo~ XUplV - Th TOD Xohipilli - TOD laquonpiYKllna TCOV AoDAOD8lcDVraquo 010 8poundlKo nuv8poundO TCOV ASTEKcov- TOD 1V81KOD epoundOD Shiva Kat TOD EU11va 8poundOD L1LOVlJOOD (Wasson 1973 Danitlou 1980) Ano pound8VOAOYl1dl~ UnOIjl11~ poundivat poundno~co~ 8DVUTO va ~lAilOODflpound Yla laquoIjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKO Gianluca To ODflnAcYfla ASTEKcovraquo Yla laquoIjIDxoltpawaKoAoylKO 81OVDOlaKO GU~nApoundy~araquo KAn

rVCOpiSOD~pound on 0pound KunOla OnYfl~ Tll~ 1010pia~ TOD 0 L1l0VDoO~ poundvOco~UTcD811Kpound Abstract P ma EAcDOivta ~DoT~Pta ~asi Kat 11 81altpoponOl11~poundvll IjIDxoltpawaKoAoYlK~ lKavoT11TU ( rock-art pail npopoundpxo~poundVll KDpico~ ano ~aVlTUpl) TO anoTEAcO~a Tll~ ODVpoundPYlK~~ ODYXcDVpoundDGll~ ~poundTU~D is based on I

TOD L1l0VDOlaKOD Kat TOD EApoundDOiVLOD IjIDXOltpapflaKOAOY1KOD ODflnApoundYflUTO~ (TO TpoundApoundUTUio have been pi paOlO~poundVO KDpico~ O~ napalO811OlaKE~ n11YE~ TCOV aKi8cov Tll~ nanapODva~) i]TUV TOOO PtS1KO (Algeria) th nOD pound1rllPEaOpound aKofl11 Kat TllV apX1KT] xplOnavoGUv11 Kat 0Xl ~ovo n~ wOoYpoundlaKE~ poundKOTUnKE~ Bego (Fram AUTppoundipound~ TCOV poundnowvcov atcDvCOV (Samorini 2008) in found in

MpoundTU ano aDTE~ n~ poundKn~i]opoundl~ 8poundv npEnpoundl va anOxApoundtOTpoundl 11 m8aVOTllTU on 0 i8LO~ mushrooms 8pound0~ Sabatius (LapusLO~) nplV va DnoOTpoundl TOV laquo8LOVDOlaKO flpoundTUOX11flanOfloraquo (Wohlberg reign ofthe 1990) 8a flnoPODOpound va poundlvat ~ta 8poundOTllTU i]811 8taltpoponOl11flpoundv11 On~ napalO811OlaKE~ In AclTODpyipound~ Kat n~ n11YE~ TOD~ EmnApoundov XPpoundlUSpoundTat l8talTpoundP11 npoOoxi] OTll flpoundApoundTll TOD representati( lv80poundDpconaiKoD IjIDxoltpapflaKoAoYlKOD ODflnApoundYflUTo~ poundlOlKoTpoundpa OT11v poundnpound~poundpyaOia Tll~ well put th( 8laOpound80flpoundvr]~ Dn08pound011~ nOD ODVOEpoundTat ~pound Tll YVcDOl1 TOD soma Yla va anpoundlKovl08poundi TO soma for the painl co~ 11 flov11 1rllyi] OpaflUTCOV nOD KDplapxpoundi Opoundva KOO~O laquouGllnwraquo Ol DnOKpoundlflpoundvOl (Nisbet 199shyaDTox80vpound~ nOAmO~oi m8avov va poundiVat avaYKaio va npoOnpoundAaOTODV AOYCO Tll~ lmopia~ Th TCOV napalO811OlaKcDV 1rllYcDV Kat TCOV pound8vo-ypoundcoypaltplKcDV npoundpmAavijOpoundcDV TOD~ below and

percolation eventually J

shelter upor Or

and Museu parallel ver hand The j

one comp( find other f a ear On tl probable bl tree but plt accompani particular r

TI geometrica most ancie anthropom and Sicily and Arago dated bad Iberian set Age On tl early Cop~

A anthroporr around cu could be topograph between t