muslims of west bengal: an analysis of the educational status of a minority community in india
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Muslims of West Bengal: An Analysisof the Educational Status of a MinorityCommunity in IndiaNazmul HussainPublished online: 09 Jul 2009.
To cite this article: Nazmul Hussain (2009) Muslims of West Bengal: An Analysis of the EducationalStatus of a Minority Community in India, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 29:2, 249-260, DOI:10.1080/13602000902943724
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Muslims of West Bengal: An Analysis of the EducationalStatus of a Minority Community in India
NAZMUL HUSSAIN
Abstract
Education is a crucial social factor that initiates the process of social, economic and
cultural development of communities. Muslims are the second largest religious group
in West Bengal and the largest minority in this Indian state. With a population of
over 20 million in absolute numbers, Muslims constitute 25% of the total population
of the state. The main objective of this study is to analyze the regional imbalances in
the distributional pattern of Muslims, including the trend of the Muslim population
over the past century and in the future and the concentration patterns of the Muslim
population across the state, in the context of developing an educational profile of
Muslims inWest Bengal. Since the religion wise data on any other educational indi-
cator are not available at district level, this study utilizes only the data on literacy to
examine the level of educational development of Muslims across the region. Finally,
the study examines the relationship between literacy level and concentration of
Muslim population in West Bengal. The relative backwardness of the Muslim
community, particularly in education, is noted as a factor in the relative economic
backwardness observed among the Muslim population in India.
Introduction
Following the independence of India in 1947 much emphasis has been placed on pro-
moting education in the country and there is little doubt that in 60 years since indepen-
dence the country has made tremendous progress in this regard. In the contemporary
technology driven knowledge, economy, literacy and education are like oxygen for the
human beings. Hence, illiteracy may generally be assumed as the root cause of under
development. Level of literacy is highly associated with the role of the state in providing
education to all. No country in the world has been able to educate all its children without
state assistance and intervention.1 Education plays a dominant role in influencing the
quality of human resources2 as it is the medium of exchange for ideas, thoughts and
beliefs over time and space. Only education can break through the social barriers and
prejudices and can bring social change as well as cultural advancement by enhancing
potentialities through achieving knowledge, skill and information for better job opportu-
nities through which follows social and economic development.
Three sets of factors are important that influence school attendance and enrolment
in rural India, i.e. parental literacy, economic status, and caste discrimination that con-
tinues to prevail. Consequently disparities of region, caste, community and gender
remain important factors in educational attainment.3 Drezy and Kingdon identified
factors affecting school enrolment and grade attainment and observed a strong effect
of parental education on school attainment with father’s education being more impor-
tant for boys and mothers education for girls.4 Jayachandran observed that the school
Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 2, June 2009
ISSN 1360-2004 print/ISSN 1469-9591 online/09/020249-12# 2009 Institute of MuslimMinority Affairs
DOI: 10.1080/13602000902943724
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attendance rate was affected by adult literacy and female work participation rate
(positively); poverty and house hold size (negatively); caste (only for girls); and
school accessibility.5 Broach and Iyar6 and Kumar7 attempted to focus on the impact
of religion and caste on education. Ahmed8 and Ansari9 have also examined the
problems of Muslim educational backwardness in contemporary India. In his study
Ansari highlighted the educational status of the Muslims as well as the socio-cultural
constraints which they are facing in the context of educational upliftment among
them.10
The authors of the Indian constitution perhaps recognized that certain sections of the
Indian population that have been disadvantaged for centuries, may not be able to partici-
pate either in education or the economic development of the country if their interests are
not safeguarded and special provisions are not made for them in the constitution. Thus,
provisions have been made for giving incentives to weaker sections of population so as to
provide facilities for them to fully participate in education along with other sections of
the population. However, despite various provisions in the Constitution the reality is
that many sections of the society are still lagging behind in education and a considerable
proportion of children from these sections of population are still out of school. Thus, lack
of their participation in education becomes a stumbling block in achieving the goal of
universal education. It may be noted that wherever provisions have been promised for
‘Programme of Action’ (POA) in education for the backward minorities, especially
Muslims, these were more or less on an ad-hoc basis. There was hardly any serious
attempt made to plan for the education of Muslim minority communities either at
national level or at state level. Because of the lack of reliable data in the country on
religion with respect to educational statistics, the researcher has been handicapped in
studying the problems and planning related to the education of Muslims. On the basis
of the literacy rates the Ministry of Home Affairs has declared Muslims and
Buddhists as educationally backward minorities in the POA 1986. However, it is clear
that lack of data on various aspects, particularly relating to religious minorities, has
created an obstacle in planning for their education.
In India Muslim literacy rates are only 59.1% nationwide which is far below the
national average of 65.38%.11 Zaidi analyzed literacy figures of Census 2001 and
reached the conclusion that in most of the states and districts Muslims are educationally
backward, though it varies from one state to another and from one district to another.12
Muslims are educationally most backward in Haryana, Punjab and Assam. However,
Muslim literacy is a serious concern in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Jammu and
Kashmir and Bihar. In West Bengal it is 57.47% among Muslims which is about 10 per-
centage points less than that of the state average of 68.64%. Educational inequalities do
not merely persist but are also increasing day by day. Growing inter-group educational
disparities is one of the challenges. Low levels of literacy among Muslim community
reflect its backwardness which is directly associated with the backwardness of the low
socio-economic status of Muslims in the country. M. K. A. Siddiqui pointed out that
the backwardness of the Muslims and their continued downward mobility in the field
of education, particularly in a great metropolis such as Calcutta, an important centre
of learning, would, perhaps, appear paradoxical.13 Hasan and Menon focused on
various factors that are responsible for Muslim educational backwardness in West
Bengal.14 Generally, very high rural poverty and high concentration of Muslims in
rural areas is an important factor in the low educational status of Muslims. Again, as
reported in the Sachar Report of November 2006 prepared by the Prime Minister’s
High Level Committee under the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Sachar, “Muslims
250 Nazmul Hussain
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are at a double disadvantage with low level of education combined with low quality edu-
cation, their deprivation increases manifold as the level of education rises”.15
The low level of literacy among Muslims as well as among the Scheduled Castes/
Scheduled Tribes (SC/ST) in India is well documented in research studies. The
present paper is a modest diagnostic study on literacy levels among Muslims. An
attempt has been made to analyze the status of Muslim education in terms of literacy
rate as available in the 2001 census of India. The findings are more significant when
the district is taken as the unit of study; it is the best representative of the ground
reality, exhibiting larger heterogeneity within a smaller regional boundary which inspires
planners as well as academicians. It further highlights whether Muslims are truly edu-
cationally backward or it is simply a myth.
Objectives
The main objectives of the present study are to:
i) examine the trends of Muslim population growth in West Bengal,
ii) estimate the concentration index of Muslim population in the districts,
iii) measure the variations among literacy rates across region and religion, and
iv) examine the inter-relationship between literacy level and concentration of
Muslim population in West Bengal.
Study Area
West Bengal is one among the 28 Indian states and it is situated in the eastern part of the
country (see Figure 1). It lies between 858500E and 898500E longitude, the latitudinal
extent of the state is from 218100N to 278380N. It has a total land area of 88,752
square kilometers with a population of 80.18 million, out of which Muslims constitute
20.24 million, that is, 25.2% of the total state population. In terms of overall population
FIGURE 1. Map of the West Bengal Region.
Muslims of West Bengal 251
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size, West Bengal stands fourth amongst the larger states of India. It is surrounded by
three countries: Bhutan and Nepal in the north and Bangladesh in the east. On its
north-east lies the green valley of the state of Assam; on the western side Bihar and Jhark-
hand states; while to the south-west lays the state of Orrisa. The Bay of Bengal lies on its
South. The state of West Bengal has been divided into three sub-divisions which together
consist of 19 districts.
The literacy rate among the Muslims in the state is 57.47% which is approximately 12
percentage points less than the state average and much below the literacy rate of Hindus
which is 72.44%. If we compare the literacy rate of both Hindus and Muslims then it is
clear that Muslims are lagging behind the Hindus in literacy by 15 percentage points.
The most disheartening fact is that the literacy rates among Muslims of West Bengal
are also lower in Muslim concentrated districts.
Database and Methodology
The paper used only the districts and state religious data of census of India 2001. Both
simple and standard statistical techniques have been used to analyze the secondary infor-
mation obtained from census of India 2001. Simple percentage method has been used to
show decennial growth rate of population and share of community wise population in the
study area. Arithmetic method of population projection has been used to project com-
munity wise population, thus:
P ¼ P1 ¼ ðr � tÞ
r ¼ ðP2� P1Þ=10
where P is the projected population; P1 is the population of base year; P2 is the popu-
lation of succeeding year of base year; r is the annual growth rate of population of two
consecutive years (i.e. P1 and P2); t is the time interval between base year and the
year of which population would be projected.
The method of locational quotient has been employed to estimate the concentration
index of Muslim population in each district of West Bengal.
The model is thus:
LQ ¼Mpd
Tpd�
100=Mps
Tps� 100
where LQ is the index of concentration; Mpd is the Muslim population in the district i;
Tpd is the total population in the district i; Mps is the Muslim population in the state;
Tps is the total population in the state.
To examine the reciprocal relationship between literacy and other socio-economic
determinants a correlation matrix based on Karl Pearson’s technique of product
moment coefficient of correlation has been established and students’ t-test technique
has been adopted to identify the level of significance of their correlation.
Trends of Community Wide Population
This section presents data on Muslims population growth along with that of other reli-
gious communities in West Bengal, with a historical review over the past 50 years and
252 Nazmul Hussain
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projections into the future trends. India, since ancient times, has been multi-cultural,
multi-ethnic and multi-lingual and West Bengal is no exception. There have been
several groups of people belonging to various religion, race, and culture, speaking differ-
ent languages, who ruled Bengal for several hundred years. The Aryans inhabited Bengal
during post Vedic period. Then the people of Bengal were ruled by the Palas, Pundras,
and the Sens, who were overthrown by Muslims in thirteenth century. The long Muslim
rule profoundly influenced the socio-religious structure of the Bengali people. The
British arrived in Bengal in 1690 for trade. But gradually their increased influence
resulted in conflicts with the Muslim Nawab in Bengal and with diplomatic efforts
and series of conspiracies the British displaced the Nawab and captured power in
Bengal. In 1905 the British for the first time partitioned Bengal on the basis of religion
into West Bengal and East Bengal. Again in 1947 at the time of Independence the pro-
vince had been divided into two halves between India and Pakistan on the basis of same
religious considerations. The Hindu-majority West Bengal became a part of Indian
union and Muslim-majority East Bengal became a part of Pakistan known then as
East Pakistan which later emerged as a sovereign independent state of Bangladesh in
1971.
In West Bengal Hindus constitute the majority community with a population of 58
million (72.47%), while Muslims constitute the largest minority community with 20
million (25.25%). The Muslims in West Bengal reside across the state and their concen-
tration varies substantially through the region. These two communities, Hindus and
Muslims, share more than 97% of the total state population. Table 1 reveals the trends
of population (1951–2041) by different religious communities in West Bengal and
shows that in 1951 Hindu population accounted for 78.45% followed by Muslim popu-
lation of 19.85%. It also demonstrates that the dominating position of the share of Hindu
population continued to remain, but their share declined from 78.45% in 1951 to
72.47% in 2001. Although all religious communities made absolute gain in numbers,
Muslims have experienced positive growth in terms of percentage shares to the total
population. If similar trends in growth rates continue, the share of Muslim population
by 2041 is estimated to reach 29.36% and the share of Hindu population is estimated
to decline to 69.28%. The break in decreasing trend of share of Hindu population in
1981 is mainly due to the immigration of Hindu population in India from Bangladesh
during Indo-Pak War in 1971. Overall it has been observed that Muslims have been
TABLE 1. Percent of Population by Religious Community in West Bengal (1951–2041)
Year Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain
1951 78.45 19.85 0.71 0.12 0.33 0.08
1961 78.80 20.00 0.59 0.10 0.32 0.08
1971 78.11 20.46 0.57 0.08 0.27 0.07
1981 76.96 21.52 0.59 0.09 0.29 0.07
1991 74.72 23.61 0.56 0.08 0.30 0.05
2001 72.47 25.25 0.64 0.08 0.30 0.07
2011(P) 71.93 26.86 0.71 0.08 0.31 0.08
2021(P) 70.85 27.89 0.71 0.08 0.31 0.09
2031(P) 69.98 28.70 0.75 0.09 0.09 0.10
2041(P) 69.28 29.36 0.79 0.09 0.09 0.11
Note: (P), Projected.
Source: Census of India, 2001.
Muslims of West Bengal 253
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experiencing higher population growth rates than the Hindus who constitute the
majority in the state. It may be said that the higher growth rate among Muslims is
mainly due to their higher fertility rate which to some extent can be associated with
their lower socio-economic status. Further in terms of the time lag and delayed
changes in proximate variables between different religious groups in undergoing demo-
graphic transition, Muslims have remained socially and economically backward.
Distribution of Muslim Population
Muslims occupy an important position in society and culture. Muslims are in minority
both numerically as well as in terms of their position in greater socio-economic and pol-
itical structure of the country. They are socially backward, economically poor and politi-
cally powerless.16 According to 2001 census Muslims constitute the second largest
religious group in West Bengal and thus they are the largest religious minority. With
regards to the geographical distribution, Muslims are unevenly distributed across dis-
tricts throughout the state. The lowest percentage of Muslim population with only 5%
is found in the Darjeeling district, whereas the district of Murshidabad has the highest
percentage, with 63.67%. Three clusters of districts are made according to concentration
index and presented in Table 2 below. These are represented graphically in Figure 2.
It may be taken into account that the districts where the concentration index is more
than one may be seen as high Muslim concentration districts; further the districts where
the concentration index is less than 0.50 may be low Muslim concentrated districts. It is
evident from the table that the districts in which the Muslim concentration index scores
over 1.00 are observed in Murshidabad (2.52) followed by Malda (1.96) Uttar Dinajpur
(1.87), Birbhum (1.87), South 24 Parganas (1.31), and Nadia (1.00). Together they
form a region of high concentration of Muslim population. During the period of
Muslim rule in Bengal, Iliyas Shah’s Kingdom at Gour and Sultan Nasiruddin and
Hasan Shah’s at Gour and Pandua of presently Malda district, and Nawab Shiraj-ud–
Daula’s Kingdom in presently Murshidabad district, attracted Muslim communities,
which explains the higher concentration of Muslims in central part of West Bengal
(i.e. districts of Malda, Murshidabad, Uttar Dinajpur and Birbhum). Demographic con-
centration ofMuslims in this region may be significant for their socio-economic and edu-
cational development if sincere efforts are made. However, out of these six districts only
Murshidabad records more than 50% of Muslim population in actual figure.
The concentration index of medium category ranges from 0.50 to 1.00, Table 2
depicts that six districts namely Koch Behar (0.96); North 24 Parganas (0.95);
Dakshin Dinajpur (0.94); Kolkata (0.80); Bardhaman (0.78); and Haora (0.57) come
TABLE 2. Concentration of Muslim Population in West Bengal by District, 2001
Concentration
Concentration
Index Districts
High More than 1.25 Murshidabad (2.52), Malda (1.96), Uttar Dinajpur (1.87),
Birbhum (1.87), South 24 Parganas (1.31), and Nadia (1.00).
Medium 0.50–1.25 Koch Behar (0.96), North 24 Parganas (0.95), Dakshin Dinajpur
(0.94), Kolkata (0.80) and Bardhaman(0.78), Howra (0.57).
Low Less than 0.50 Mednipur (0.44), Jalpaiguri (0.42), Bankura (0.29), Purulia
(0.28), Darjeeling (0.21) and Hugli (0.03)
Source: Computed by Author from Census of India, 2001.
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under this category. Remaining six districts fall under ‘low index of Muslim concen-
tration and these districts form a notable region. According to their concentration
index these are: Mednipur (0.44); Jalpaiguri (0.42); Bankura (0.29); Purulia (0.28);
Darjeeling (0.21); and the lowest concentration index is found in Hugli (0.03) district.
Literacy Rate in Muslim Population
Education is like oxygen for multidimensional development for both individual and
society. Since the religion wise data on any other educational indicator are not available
at the district level, the paper used only literacy figures to see the level of educational
FIGURE 2. Concentration Index of Muslim Population in West Bengal.
Muslims of West Bengal 255
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development of Muslims. Literacy rates vary from region to region and from one group
to another. The literacy rate among theMuslims in India was 59.1% in 2001; which is far
below the national average of 65.1%. Literacy rate inWest Bengal is not as low and in fact
it is higher than the national average. Moreover, according to 2001 census West Bengal
ranked 12th position in literacy rate among various states in India. The literacy rate in
West Bengal is 68.64%. If we examine the variations in Muslim rates across religious
communities with district boundary in West Bengal there seems to emerge an interesting
pattern. It is interesting in the sense that, the 25.25% of the total population of West
Bengal are Muslims but they only account for 13.75% of the total literate population
in the state. Moreover, the literacy rate among Muslims is reported as 57.47% which
is far below (11.7 percentage points) the average literacy rate of 68.64% in West
Bengal.17 There is no educational indicator except literacy rate on which data are avail-
able to show the status of Muslims or for any other religious group. This is serious con-
straint in planning for the education of Muslims. Muslims in West Bengal are mainly
landless agricultural laborers, artisans and poor craftsmen in rural areas or in urban
areas they are unskilled laborers, factory workers or mill hands. The situation has
been exacerbated with the steady decline of industry in the west.18 Thus, Muslims are
almost totally dependent on the state for education, and this has made for some unex-
pected and poignant outcomes.
It is also interesting to note that, the gap between general literacy rate of the district
and Muslim literacy rate in the district varies significantly. It is clear in Table 3 below
that, Kolkata accounted for the highest gap, where the general literacy rate of 80.86%
was matched by only 68.08% for Muslims in the city. Furthermore, out of 18 districts
in West Bengal, there are four where the Muslim literacy rate is below 50%. Another
glaring feature is observed in Darjeeling where the difference between Muslim literacy
TABLE 3. Percent Variation of Muslim Literacy Rate, West Bengal, 2001
Name of the district Muslim population
Literacy rate
All religions Muslims Difference
1 Darjeeling 5.30 71.79 50.38 –21.41
2 Jalpaiguri 10.85 62.85 55.34 –7.51
3 Koch Bihar 24.23 66.30 56.07 –10.23
4 Uttar Dinajpur 47.36 47.89 36.04 –11.85
5 Dakshin Dinajpur 23.93 63.59 67.21 þ3.62
6 Malda 49.72 50.28 45.30 –4.98
7 Murshidabad 63.67 54.35 48.63 –5.72
8 Birbhum 35.08 61.48 59.86 –1.62
9 Barddhaman 19.78 70.18 68.79 –1.39
10 Nadia 25.41 66.14 49.41 –16.73
11 North 24Parganas 24.22 78.07 65.05 –13.02
12 Hugli 15.14 75.10 73.50 –1.60
13 Bankura 7.50 63.44 54.54 –8.90
14 Puruliya 7.12 55.57 53.44 –2.13
15 Medinipur 11.35 74.90 64.97 –9.93
16 Haora 24.44 77.01 67.80 –9.21
17 Kolkata 20.05 80.86 68.06 –12.80
18 South 24Parganas 33.24 69.45 59.83 –9.62
West Bengal 25.25 68.64 57.47 –11.17
Source: Census of India 2001, Final Population, West Bengal.
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and general literacy is about 22%, and where the literacy for all religions is recorded at
71.79% placing it at 6th rank but the Muslim community with literacy rate of only
50.38% is placed at 14th rank. However, in the district of Hugli this difference is
found to be only 1.6%, placing it in 4th position in the general literacy and first in
Muslim literacy. It can be inferred from this table that, as far as major districts are con-
cerned, Muslims are the most backward in Uttar Dinajpur, Malda, Murshidabad, and
Nadia, all of them having less than 50% literacy. Indeed the state government needs
to pay special attention towards the education of Muslims in these districts.
It may be again noted that, in Dakshin Dinajpur where Muslims registered a literacy
rate of 67.21, they are 3.62 percentage points higher than the literacy rate among the
general population of the district which is 63.59%. Furthermore, there are only two dis-
tricts, Barddhaman and Hugli, where the literacy rate for Muslims is slightly higher than
the general literacy rate for the state, even though they lag behind slightly in the rates for
their respective districts. The highest literacy rate among theMuslims is 73.50% inHugli
(Table 3), making it one of the two districts where the literacy rate of Muslims is slightly
higher than the literacy of general population. Thus, the statistics on literacy by state and
districts and by religious affiliation shows that Muslims are educationally backward in
West Bengal as their literacy rate is less than the general literacy rate in most districts.
Table 4 demonstrates the inter-religious disparity in literacy levels among six religious
communities, i.e. Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhists and Jain. The situation of
Muslims is worse than that of the other five religious communities of the state, as they
recorded lowest literacy rate at only 57% being literate. Muslims have scored not only
less than the state’s average but also less than the national average literacy level and
also national Muslim average literacy rate, where only 64% of males and 49% of
females are literate. In other words, Muslims are the most illiterate religious community
in the state of West Bengal.
At 92.81%, the highest literacy level is found among the Jain, while the Sikhs enjoyed
87.73% literacy rate. The Buddhists, the Hindus and the Christians, with literacy rates
of 74.73, 72.44 and 69.72%, respectively, attained third and fourth and fifth positions
among the six religious groups. The Muslims came in last with only 57.47%.19
One of the important indicators of educational development for any section of the
population is the female literacy rate. Table 4 shows that the Muslim female literacy
rate at 49.75% is lower by 9.86 percentage points compared to the general female literacy
rate of 59.61%. Also, in comparison to Muslim male literacy rate of 64.61% in West
Bengal, Muslim female literacy rate is very low at only 49.75%. As per the findings in
this paper, Indian Muslims have four principal problems, related to educational,
TABLE 4. Religious Communities and Comparative Literacy Rates in West Bengal
Religious communities Population Male Female
Hindu 72.44 81.12 63.09
Muslim 57.47 64.61 49.75
Christian 69.72 77.20 62.30
Sikh 87.19 91.37 81.98
Buddhist 74.73 83.09 66.22
Jain 92.81 96.46 88.87
Total� 68.64 77.02 59.61
Note: �Total population includes “Others” and “Religion not stated”.
Source: Census of India 2001, Final Population, West Bengal.
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economic and socio-political aspirations of the Muslim community, which are the real
obstacles in their overall development.
Concentration of Muslim Population and Literacy Scenario
Out of several indicators used to see the level of educational development of any area or
any group of population, the literacy rate comprises the most basic indicator. Data
disaggregated by religion have been presented to determine the level of educational
development of Muslims in West Bengal. This part of the paper focuses on a casual
relationship between concentration of Muslim population (X) as cause (independent
variable) and literacy rate of all religious population (Y1) as effect (dependent variable)
and again with literacy rate among Muslim community (Y2) as an effect (dependent
variable). Their relationship is based on the data in Tables 1 and 3 and has been
examined using Karl Pearson’s technique of Coefficient of Correlation.
The analysis reveals that both, the concentration of Muslim population and literacy
rate of all religious people and the literacy rate amongMuslim community, are negatively
correlated with each other, with r values of –0.596 and –0.528 at 1.0% level of signifi-
cance among Y1 and Y2, respectively. It may be asserted from the analysis that higher
concentration of Muslim population is associated with low rate of literacy in a region.
In other words in densely populated concentrations Muslims are suffering from higher
rates of illiteracy and remain educationally backward. Therefore, in those districts
where the concentration of Muslim population is higher there is a need for intensifying
efforts and focus on the education of Muslims in general and improvement of their
literacy rates in particular.
It is generally recognized that the low level of literacy in a community is caused by their
poor socio-economic condition, while poor socio-economic condition may be the conse-
quence of low level of literacy rate of that community resulting in a circular relationship.
For the investigation of facts associated with literacy rate and socio economic character,
community wide detailed study of both aspects is highly indicated and should form the
basis of diagnostic planning for future social development.
Conclusion
According to the Census of 2001, West Bengal is the home of 20.24 millionMuslims in a
total state population of 80.18 million. Although Muslims constitute 25% of the popu-
lation of the state, their concentration in six districts (where they form more than 25% of
the population of the district) is of much significance. The data shows generally, lower
the percentage of Muslims in a district; higher is their level of literacy and interestingly,
further analysis of data revels that the districts where the Muslim population concen-
tration is low, in percentage as well as in actual number (having less then 10% of the
total population) they also recorded lower than the general literacy of the state except
in Darjeeling. So, one may ask, does the concentration of Muslims in one place
prevent them from acquiring education or does the government discriminate against
those areas where the Muslims are concentrated and deprives them of the opportunities
they deserve?
On the surface it might be perceived that Muslim community is the problem in achiev-
ing socio-economic development, as analysis shows high concentration of Muslims
related to low levels of literacy, which is the root cause of socio-economic underdevelop-
ment of the region. Thus, we may surmise that mass illiteracy prevailing amongMuslims
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is the basic cause of their underdevelopment and backwardness, which may or may not
well be self imposed.
In this studyMuslims have been statistically identified as the most backward section of
society, standing at the bottom position in the level of literacy, which appears to be the
main cause of backwardness of Muslim community in West Bengal. Raising the level of
literacy, and hence the standard of education, is the only way to raise awareness and
social consciousness among the Muslims. Indeed, the entire socio-economic develop-
ment of Muslim community depends on the effectiveness of raising their literacy rates,
which would go a long way in diminishing the grave social disparities that currently
exist among the Indian population, as observed more closely in the case of West Bengal.
Indeed, West Bengal cannot claim to be a “just society” or a powerful state while one
quarter of its population and its largest minority community remains deprived of edu-
cational and related opportunities and remains handicapped and marginalized. Hence
there is urgent need to take meaningful steps to uplift the Muslims in West Bengal, as
most are currently living in abject poverty. One may expect that if Muslim literacy
rates are raised and their socio-economic condition uplifted, group disparities in
society would be reduced and there would follow a balanced socio-economic development
across religious communities and regions, which would constitute long-term success.
Acknowledgement
The author is very grateful to Professor Farasat Ali Siddiqui, from the Department of
Geography at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for support and encouragement,
and research advice to study any aspect of geography with a pragmatic view.
NOTES
1. Amartya Sen, The Hindu, December 20, 2007, p. 1.
2. F. A. Siddiqui and Yasmeen Naseer, “Educational Development and Structure of Employment in
Western Uttar Pradesh”, Population Geography, Vol. 26, Nos 1 & 2, 2004, p. 25.
3. V. K. Ramachandran, M. Swaminathan and V. Rawal, Barriers to Expansion of Mass Literacy and
Primary Schooling in West Bengal: A Study Based on Primary Data from Selected Villages (Working
Paper No. 345). Thiruvananthapuram, India: Centre for Development Studies, 2003.
4. J. Dreze and G.G. Kingdon, “School Participation in Rural India”, Review of Development Economics,
Vol. 5, No. 1, 2001, pp. 1–24.
5. U. Jayachandran, Socio-Economic Determinants of School Attendance in India, Working Paper No. 103,
Center for Development Economics, Delhi School of Economics, June 2002.
6. V. K. Broach and Sriya Iyar, “The Influence of Religion and Caste on Education in Rural India”,
Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 41, No. 8, 2005.
7. K. Srinivasan and Sanjay Kumar, “Economic and Caste Criteria in Definition of Backwardness”,
Economic and Political Weekly, No. 10, 1999, pp. 16–23.
8. Imtiaz Ahmed, “Muslim Educational Backwardness—An Inferential Analysis”, Economic Political
Weekly, Vol. 16, 1981, pp. 1457–1465.
9. Ansari A. Iqbal, ed. “Muslim Educational Backwardness”, The Muslim Situation in India, New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1989, pp. 88–97.
10. Ibid.
11. Census of India, “Final Population Totals, West Bengal”, in Census of India 2001, Government of
India, 2001.
12. S. M. I. A. Zaidi, “Status of Muslims’ Education in India: an Analysis of 2001 Census Literacy
Data”, inMuslims of Uttar Pradesh, ed. Abdul Waheed, Aligarh: Centre for Promotion of Educational
and Central Advancement of Muslims, 2007.
13. M. K. A. Siddiqui,Muslims in Free India Their Social Profile and Problems, New Delhi: Qazi Publishers
& Distributors, 1998.
Muslims of West Bengal 259
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14. Zoya Hasan and RituMenon, EducatingMuslim Girls—AComparison of Five Indian Cities, NewDelhi:
Women Unlimited, 2005. See also, Zoya Hasan and Ritu Menon, In a Minority: Essays on Muslim
Women in India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.
15. Government of India, Social, Economic and Educational Status of Muslim Community of India—
A Report, New Delhi: Prime Minister’s High Level Committee, Cabinet Secretariat, Government
of India (Chairperson Justice Rajendar Sachar), 2006.
16. Md. Mainuddin, “Socio-Economic Conditions of Muslims in West Bengal”, unpublished M.Phil.
Dissertation, Department of Sociology and Social Work, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,
September 2008.
17. Census of India 2001, “Final population Totals”, op. cit.
18. West Bengal Human Development Report 2004, Development and Planning Department, Government
of West Bengal, available online at www.wbplan.gov.in, 2004, p. 3.
19. Census of India, “Report on Religious Data, West Bengal”, in Census of India 2001, Government of
India, 2001.
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