myers’ psychology (5th ed) chapter 9 memory james a. mccubbin, phd clemson university worth...
TRANSCRIPT
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(5th Ed)
Chapter 9
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
Memory
Memory persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment or event
MemoryMemory as Information Processing
similar to a computer write to filesave to diskread from disk
Encoding the processing of information into the
memory system
Memory
Storage the retention of encoded
information over timeRetrieval
process of getting information out of memory
Memory
Short term memory activated memory that holds a few items
briefly look up a phone number, then quickly
dial before the information is forgotten
Long term memory the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Encoding
Encoding
Effortful Automatic
EncodingAutomatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental informationspacetimefrequency
well-learned informationword meanings
we can learn automatic processingreading backwards
Encoding
Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious
effort
Rehearsal conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long
term retention than massed practice
Encoding
20
15
10
5
08 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
Encoding
Serial Position Effect tendency to recall best the last and
first items in a list
Encoding
12
Percentage of
words recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
What do we Encode?
Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words
Visual Encoding encoding of picture images
EncodingImagery
mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
EncodingChunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable unitslike horizontal organization-
1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding
Hierarchies complex information broken down into
broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
Encoding(automatic or effortful)
Imagery(visualEncoding)
Meaning(semanticEncoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
EncodingForgetting as encoding failureInformation never enters the memory
systemAttention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
EncodingForgetting as encoding failure
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encoding failureleads to forgetting
Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?
Storage-Retaining InformationSensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no
more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage-Short Term Memory
Short Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2
Storage-Short Term Memory
0102030405060708090
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentagewho recalledconsonants
Storage-Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory
virtually limitless capacity we don't have to discard old items to
remember new itemsEbbinghaus- forgetting curve over
30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time
Storage-Long Term Memory
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
Storage-Long Term MemoryHow does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory
Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and
retention
Storage-Long Term MemoryAmnesia- the loss of memoryExplicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning
Storage-Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
RetrievalRecall
the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
Recognition the ability to identify previously
learned items-like on a multiple choice test
RetrievalRelearning
amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
Priming activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in memory
Retrieval CuesReminders of information we could not
otherwise recallGuides to where to look for info
Context Effectsmemory works better in the context of
original learning
Retrieval Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Land/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before" Mood Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
State Dependent Memorywhat is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk
or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
Retrieval Cues
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Forgetting-Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of new learning on recall
of old information
Forgetting-InterferenceMotivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise historyRepression
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our
learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn
French
Forgetting
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Forgetting
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t
Memory ConstructionWe filter information and fill in
missing piecesMisinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an
event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory ConstructionPeople fill in memory gaps with
plausible guesses and assumptionsImagining events can create false
memoriesChildren's eyewitness recall
Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false
accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true
testimony
Memory ConstructionMemories of Abuse
Repressed or Constructed?Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory ConstructionMost people can agree on the following:
Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or
drugs are unreliable Memories of things happening before age
3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are
upsetting
Improve Your MemoryStudy repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or
actively pondering materialMake material personally
meaningfulUse mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already stored
make up story chunk-acronyms
Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference
Minimize interference Test your own knowledge
rehearse determine what you do not yet
know