mystics of islam nicholson

8/13/2019 Mystics of Islam Nicholson

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Sacred Texts Islam

THE MYSTICS OF ISLAM

by Reynold A. Nicholson

Routledge, eg!n "!ul, London

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#racio$sly donated to sacred%texts&com for p$blication& This text is in the p$blic domain

in the 'S& (ri#inal pa#ination has been retained" footnotes ha)e been embedded into thetext *ithin braces and in a smaller font+i.e.-.& Characters *ith diacritics ha)e been

mapped to the closest /SCII character +e.g.S0f1 is transliterated S$fi.& ree3 letters ha)e

also been eliminated, and +the t*o. *ords in ree3 in the ori#inal are enclosed in 4rench5$otes +67.& /ll references to the 89oran8 in the text ha)e been lin3ed to the:ic3thall

;n#lish icholson are one or t*o off from :ic3thall and other translations" the hyperlin3s ha)ebeen ad?$sted b$t the ori#inal citation retained in these instances&@

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . . . . . 1

CHAP.

I. THE PATH . . . . . 28

II. ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY . . . 50

III. THE GNOSIS . . . . . 68

IV. DIVINE LOVE . . . . . 102

V. SAINTS AND MIRACLES . . . . 120

VI. THE UNITIVE STATE . . . . 148

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . 169

INDEX . . . . . . 17

p& !-


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THE MYSTICS OF ISLAM

INTRO()CTION

TH; title of this boo3 s$fficiently explains *hy it is incl$ded in a Series 8exemplifyin#

the ad)ent$res and labo$rs of indi)id$al see3ers or #ro$ps of see3ers in 5$est of reality&8S$fism, the reli#io$s philosophy of Islam, is described in the oldest extant definition as

8the apprehension of di)ine realities,8 and Mohammedan mystics are fond of callin#

themsel)esAhl al-Haqq, 8the follo*ers of the Aeal&8 Al-Haqqis the term #enerally $sed by S$fis

*hen they refer to od&-In attemptin# to set forth their central doctrines from this point of)ie*, I shall dra* to some extent on materials *hich I ha)e collected d$rin# the last

t*enty years for a #eneral history of Islamic mysticism%%a s$b?ect so )ast and many%sided

that se)eral lar#e )ol$mes *o$ld be re5$ired to do it anythin# li3e ?$stice& Here I canonly s3etch

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in broad o$tline certain principles, methods, and characteristic feat$res of the inner life as

it has been li)ed by Moslems of e)ery class and condition from the ei#hth cent$ry of o$rera to the present day& Diffic$lt are the paths *hich they threaded, dar3 and be*ilderin#

the pathless hei#hts beyond" b$t e)en if *e may not hope to accompany the tra)ellers to

their ?o$rney8s end, any information that *e ha)e #athered concernin# their reli#io$s

en)ironment and spirit$al history *ill help $s to $nderstand the stran#e experiences of*hich they *rite&

In the first place, therefore, I propose to offer a fe* remar3s on the ori#in and historical

de)elopment of S$fism, its relation to Islam, and its #eneral character& >ot only are these

matters interestin# to the st$dent of comparati)e reli#ion" some 3no*led#e of them isindispensable to any serio$s st$dent of S$fism itself& It may be said, tr$ly eno$#h, that all

mystical experiences $ltimately meet in a sin#le point" b$t that point ass$mes *idely

different aspects accordin# to the mystic8s reli#ion, race, and temperament, *hile thecon)er#in# lines of approach admit of almost infinite )ariety& Tho$#h all the #reat types

of mysticism ha)e somethin# in common, each is mar3ed by pec$liar characteristics

res$ltin# from the circ$m%

p& B-

stances in *hich it arose and flo$rished& $st as the Christian type cannot be $nderstood

*itho$t reference to Christianity, so the Mohammedan type m$st be )ie*ed in connexion*ith the o$t*ard and in*ard de)elopment of Islam&

The *ord 8mystic,8 *hich has passed from ree3 reli#ion into ;$ropean literat$re, is

represented in /rabic, :ersian, and T$r3ish, the three chief lan#$a#es of Islam, by 8S$fi&8

The terms, ho*e)er, are not precisely synonymo$s, for 8S$fi8 has a specific reli#io$s

connotation, and is restricted by $sa#e to those mystics *ho profess the Mohammedanfaith& /nd the /rabic *ord, altho$#h in co$rse of time it appropriated the hi#h


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si#nificance of the ree3%%lips sealed by holy mysteries, eyes closed in )isionary

rapt$re%%bore a h$mbler meanin# *hen it first #ained c$rrency +abo$t /&D&.& 'ntil

recently its deri)ation *as in disp$te& Most S$fis, flyin# in the face of etymolo#y, ha)ederi)ed it from an /rabic root *hich con)eys the notion of 8p$rity8" this *o$ld ma3e

8S$fi8 mean 8one *ho is p$re in heart8 or 8one of the elect&8 Some ;$ropean scholars

identified it *ith sophsin the sense of 8theosophist&8 E$t >Flde3e, in an article *rittent*enty years a#o, sho*ed concl$si)ely that the name *as deri)ed fromsuf+*ool., and

*as ori#inally applied to those Moslem

p& G-

ascetics *ho, in imitation of Christian hermits, clad themsel)es in coarse *oollen #arb asa si#n of penitence and ren$nciation of *orldly )anities&

The earliest S$fis *ere, in fact, ascetics and 5$ietists rather than mystics& /n

o)er*helmin# conscio$sness of sin, combined *ith a dread%%*hich it is hard for $s to

realise%%of $d#ment Day and the torments of Hell%fire, so )i)idly painted in the 9oran,dro)e them to see3 sal)ation in fli#ht from the *orld& (n the other hand, the 9oran

*arned them that sal)ation depended entirely on the inscr$table *ill of /llah, *ho #$ides

ari#ht the #ood and leads astray the *ic3ed& Their fate *as inscribed on the eternal tablesof His pro)idence, nothin# co$ld alter it& (nly this *as s$re, that if they *ere destined to

be sa)ed by fastin# and prayin# and pio$s *or3s%%then they *o$ld be sa)ed& S$ch a

belief ends nat$rally in 5$ietism, complete and $n5$estionin# s$bmission to the di)ine*ill, an attit$de characteristic of S$fism in its oldest form& The mainsprin# of Moslem

reli#io$s life d$rin# the ei#hth cent$ry *as fear%%fear of od, fear of Hell, fear of death,

fear of sin%%b$t the opposite moti)e had already be#$n to ma3e its infl$ence felt, andprod$ced in the saintly *oman Aabia at least one conspic$o$s example of tr$ly mystical

self%abandonment&

p& -

J J J

So far, there *as no #reat difference bet*een the S$fi and the orthodox MohammedanKealot, except that the S$fis attached extraordinary importance to certain 9oranic

doctrines, and de)eloped them at the expense of others *hich many Moslems mi#ht

consider e5$ally essential& It m$st also be allo*ed that the ascetic mo)ement *as inspiredby Christian ideals, and contrasted sharply *ith the acti)e and pleas$re%lo)in# spirit of

Islam& In a famo$s sentence the :rophet deno$nced mon3ish a$sterities and bade his

people de)ote themsel)es to the holy *ar a#ainst $nbelie)ers" and he #a)e, as is *ell

3no*n, the most con)incin# testimony in fa)o$r of marria#e& /ltho$#h his condemnationof celibacy did not remain *itho$t effect, the con5$est of :ersia, Syria, and ;#ypt by his

s$ccessors bro$#ht the Moslems into contact *ith ideas *hich profo$ndly modified their

o$tloo3 on life and reli#ion& ;$ropean readers of the 9oran cannot fail to be str$c3 by itsa$thor8s )acillation and inconsistency in dealin# *ith the #reatest problems& He himself

*as not a*are of these contradictions, nor *ere they a st$mblin#%bloc3 to his de)o$t

follo*ers, *hose simple faith accepted the 9oran as the Word of od& E$t the rift *asthere, and soon prod$ced far%reachin# res$lts&


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leaner, and as3ed them, sayin#, 8What hath bro$#ht yo$ to this pli#htR8 They ans*ered,

8Lon#in# for :aradise&8 He said, 8ep& !!-

desire a thin# created, and it beho)es od that He sho$ld #i)e yo$ that *hich ye hope

for&8 Then he *ent on and passed by three others of exceedin# paleness and leanness, sothat their faces *ere as mirrors of li#ht, and he said, 8What hath bro$#ht yo$ to thisR8

They ans*ered, 8($r lo)e of od&8 es$s said, 8e are the nearest to Him, ye are the

nearest to Him&8

The Syrian mystic, /hmad ibn al%Ha*ari, once as3ed a Christian hermitN

8What is the stron#est command that ye find in yo$r Script$resR8 The hermit repliedN 8Wefind none stron#er than thisN Lo)e thy Creator *ith all thy po*er and mi#ht&8

/nother hermit *as as3ed by some Moslem asceticsN

8When is a man most perse)erin# in de)otionR8 8When lo)e ta3es possession of his heart,8

*as the reply" 8for then he hath no ?oy or pleas$re b$t in contin$al de)otion&8

The infl$ence of Christianity thro$#h its hermits, mon3s, and heretical sects +e.g.theMessalians or ;$chitP. *as t*ofoldN ascetic and mystical& (riental Christian mysticism,

ho*e)er, contained a :a#an elementN it had lon# a#o absorbed the ideas and adopted the

lan#$a#e of :lotin$s and the >eo%platonic school&

p& !2-

II& >;(:L/T(>ISM

/ristotle, not :lato, is the dominant fi#$re in Moslem philosophy, and fe*

Mohammedans are familiar *ith the name of :lotin$s, *ho *as more commonly called8the ree3 Master8 +al-Sheykh al-Yaunani.& E$t since the /rabs #ained their first3no*led#e of /ristotle from his >eoplatonist commentators, the system *ith *hich they

became imb$ed *as that of :orphyry and :rocl$s& Th$s the so%called Theology of

Aristotle, of *hich an /rabic )ersion appeared in the ninth cent$ry, is act$ally a man$alof >eoplatonism&

/nother *or3 of this school deser)es partic$lar noticeN I mean the *ritin#s falsely

attrib$ted to Dionysi$s the /reopa#ite, the con)ert of St& :a$l& The pse$do%Dionysi$s%%he

may ha)e been a Syrian mon3%%names as his teacher a certain Hierothe$s, *hom4rothin#ham has identified *ith Stephen Ear S$daili, a prominent Syrian #nostic and a

contemporary of acob of Sar$? +G!%2! /&D&.& Dionysi$s 5$otes some fra#ments oferotic hymns by this Stephen, and a complete *or3, theBook of Hierotheus on theHidden ysteries of the !i"inity, has come do*n to $s in a $ni5$e man$script *hich is

no* in the Eritish M$se$m& The Dionysian *ritin#s, t$rned into Latin by ohn Scot$s

;ri#ena,

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fo$nded medie)al Christian mysticism in Western ;$rope& Their infl$ence in the ;ast

*as hardly less )ital& They *ere translated from ree3 into Syriac almost immediately on

their appearance, and their doctrine *as )i#oro$sly propa#ated by commentaries in thesame ton#$e& /bo$t /&D& Dionysi$s *as 3no*n from the Ti#ris to the /tlantic&

Eesides literary tradition there *ere other channels by *hich the doctrines of emanation,ill$mination, #nosis, and ecstasy *ere transmitted, b$t eno$#h has been said to con)ince

the reader that ree3 mystical ideas *ere in the air and easily accessible to the Mosleminhabitants of Western /sia and ;#ypt, *here the S$fi theosophy first too3 shape& (ne of

those *ho bore the chief part in its de)elopment, Dh$ Vl%>$n the ;#yptian, is described

as a philosopher and alchemist%%in other *ords, a st$dent of Hellenistic science& When itis added that m$ch of his spec$lation a#rees *ith *hat *e find, for example, in the

*ritin#s of Dionysi$s, *e are dra*n irresistibly to the concl$sion +*hich, as I ha)e

pointed o$t, is hi#hly probable on #eneral #ro$nds. that >eoplatonism po$red into Islama lar#e tinct$re of the same mystical element in *hich Christianity *as already steeped&

p& !G-

III& >(STICISMCf& oldKiher, >e$platonische $nd #nostische ;lemente im Hadit, in#eits$hrift f%r Assyriologie, xxii&

B!O ff&-

Tho$#h little direct e)idence is a)ailable, the conspic$o$s place occ$pied by the theory

of #nosis in early S$fi spec$lation s$##ests contact *ith Christian nosticism, and it is*orth notin# that the parents of Mar$f al%9ar3hi, *hose definition of S$fism as 8the

apprehension of di)ine realities8 *as 5$oted on the first pa#e of this Introd$ction, are said

to ha)e been Sabians, i.e.MandPans, d*ellin# in the Eabylonian fenland bet*een Easraand Wasit& (ther Moslem saints had learned 8the mystery of the reat >ame&8 It *as

comm$nicated to Ibrahim ibn /dham by a man *hom he met *hile tra)ellin# in the

desert, and as soon as he prono$nced it he sa* the prophet 9hadir +;lias.& The ancientS$fis borro*ed from the ManichPans the termsiddiq, *hich they apply to their o*n

spirit$al adepts, and a later school, ret$rnin# to the d$alism of Mani, held the )ie* that

the di)ersity of phenomena arises from the admixt$re of li#ht and dar3ness&

The ideal of h$man action is freedom from the taint of dar3ness" and the freedom ofli#ht from dar3ness

p& !-

means the self%conscio$sness of li#ht as li#ht& Shai3h M$hammad I5bal, The !e"elop&ent ofetaphysi$s in 'ersia+!., p& !&-

The follo*in# )ersion of the doctrine of the se)enty tho$sand )eils as explained by amodern Aifai der)ish sho*s clear traces of nosticism and is so interestin# that I cannot

refrain from 5$otin# it hereN

Se)enty Tho$sand


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of the $nity of od& Since I am no more, the hi#h od is His o*n mirror&

I *ent from od to od, $ntil they cried from me in me, 8( Tho$ IQ8

This, it *ill be obser)ed, is not E$ddhism, b$t the pantheism of the ir)ana $nconditionally& Eoth terms imply the passin#%a*ay of

indi)id$ality, b$t *hile >ir)ana is p$rely ne#ati)e,fanais accompanied by baqa,e)erlastin# life in od& The rapt$re of the S$fi *ho has lost himself in ecstatic

contemplation of the di)ine bea$ty is entirely opposed to the passionless intellect$alserenity of the /rahat& I emphasise this contrast beca$se, in my opinion, the infl$ence of

E$ddhism on Mohammedan tho$#ht has been exa##erated& M$ch is attrib$ted to

E$ddhism that is Indian rather than specifically E$ddhisticN thefanatheory of the S$fis isa case in point& (rdinary Moslems held the follo*ers of E$ddha in abhorrence, re#ardin#

them as idolaters, and *ere not li3ely to see3 personal interco$rse *ith them& (n the

other hand, for nearly a tho$sand years before the Mohammedan con5$est, E$ddhism hadbeen po*erf$l in Eactria and ;astern :ersia #enerallyN it m$st, therefore, ha)e affected

the de)elopment of S$fism in these re#ions&

Whilefanain its pantheistic form is

p& !-

radically different from >ir)ana, the terms coincide so closely in other *ays that *e

cannot re#ard them as bein# alto#ether $nconnected&+anahas an ethical aspectN it

in)ol)es the extinction of all passions and desires& The passin#%a*ay of e)il 5$alities and

of the e)il actions *hich they prod$ce is said to be bro$#ht abo$t by the contin$ance ofthe correspondin# #ood 5$alities and actions& Compare this *ith the definition of >ir)ana

#i)en by :rofessor Ahys Da)idsN

The extinction of that sinf$l, #raspin# condition of mind and heart, *hich *o$ld

other*ise, accordin# to the #reat mystery of 9arma, be the ca$se of rene*ed indi)id$alexistence& That extinction is to be bro$#ht abo$t by, and r$ns parallel *ith, the #ro*th of

the opposite condition of mind and heart" and it is complete *hen that opposite condition

is reached&

/part from the doctrine of 9arma, *hich is alien to S$fism, these definitions of fana

+)ie*ed as a moral state. and >ir)ana, a#ree almost *ord for *ord& It *o$ld be o$t of

place to p$rs$e the comparison f$rther, b$t I thin3 *e may concl$de that the S$fi theory

offana*as infl$enced to some extent by E$ddhism as *ell as by :erso%Indianpantheism&

The recepti)ity of Islam to forei#n ideas has been reco#nised by e)ery $nbiassed

p& 2-

in5$irer, and the history of S$fism is only a sin#le instance of the #eneral r$le& E$t this

fact sho$ld not lead $s to see3 in s$ch ideas an explanation of the *hole 5$estion *hich Iam no* disc$ssin#, or to identify S$fism itself *ith the extraneo$s in#redients *hich it


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absorbed and assimilated in the co$rse of its de)elopment& ;)en if Islam had been

mirac$lo$sly sh$t off from contact *ith forei#n reli#ions and philosophies, some form of

mysticism *o$ld ha)e arisen *ithin it, for the seeds *ere already there& (f co$rse, *ecannot isolate the internal forces *or3in# in this direction, since they *ere s$b?ect to the

la* of spirit$al #ra)itation& The po*erf$l c$rrents of tho$#ht dischar#ed thro$#h the

Mohammedan *orld by the #reat non%lslamic systems abo)e mentioned #a)e a stim$l$sto )ario$s tendencies *ithin Islam *hich affected S$fism either positi)ely or ne#ati)ely&

/s *e ha)e seen, its oldest type is an ascetic re)olt a#ainst l$x$ry and *orldliness" later

on, the pre)ailin# rationalism and scepticism pro)o3ed co$nter%mo)ements to*ardsint$iti)e 3no*led#e and emotional faith, and also an orthodox reaction *hich in its t$rn

dro)e many earnest Moslems into the ran3s of the mystics&

Ho*, it may be as3ed, co$ld a reli#ion fo$nded on the simple and a$stere monotheism of

Mohammed tolerate these ne*

p& 2!-

doctrines, m$ch less ma3e terms *ith themR It *o$ld seem impossible to reconcile the

transcendent personality of /llah *ith an immanent Aeality *hich is the )ery life and

so$l of the $ni)erse& et Islam has accepted S$fism& The S$fis, instead of bein#excomm$nicated, are sec$rely established in the Mohammedan ch$rch, and the,egend

of the osle& Saintsrecords the *ildest excesses of (riental pantheism&

Let $s ret$rn for a moment to the 9oran, that infallible to$chstone by *hich e)ery

Mohammedan theory and practice m$st be pro)ed& /re any #erms of mysticism to befo$nd thereR The 9oran, as I ha)e said, starts *ith the notion of /llah, the (ne, ;ternal,

and /lmi#hty od, far abo)e h$man feelin#s and aspirations%%the Lord of His sla)es, not

the 4ather of His children" a ?$d#e metin# o$t stern ?$stice to sinners, and extendin# Hismercy only to those *ho a)ert His *rath by repentance, h$mility, and $nceasin# *or3s of

de)otion" a od of fear rather than of lo)e& This is one side, and certainly the most

prominent side, of Mohammed8s teachin#" b$t *hile he set an impassable #$lf bet*eenthe *orld and /llah, his deeper instinct cra)ed a direct re)elation from od to the so$l&

There are no contradictions in the lo#ic of feelin#& Mohammed, *ho had in him

somethin# of the mystic, felt od both as far and

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near, both as transcendent and immanent& In the latter aspect, /llah is the li#ht of thehea)ens and the earth, a Eein# *ho *or3s in the *orld and in the so$l of man&

If My ser)ants as3 thee abo$t Me, lo, I am near +9or& 2&!2." We +od. are nearer to

him than his o*n nec3%)ein +&!." /nd in the earth are si#ns to those of real faith,

and in yo$rsel)es& WhatQ do ye not seeR +!&2%2!.&

It *as a lon# time ere they sa*& The Moslem conscio$sness, ha$nted by terrible )isions

of the *rath to come, slo*ly and painf$lly a*o3e to the si#nificance of those liberatin#

ideas&


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The )erses *hich I ha)e 5$oted do not stand alone, and ho*e)er $nfa)o$rable to

mysticism the 9oran as a *hole may be, I cannot assent to the )ie* that it s$pplies no

basis for a mystical interpretation of Islam& This *as *or3ed o$t in detail by the S$fis,*ho dealt *ith the 9oran in )ery m$ch the same *ay as :hilo treated the :entate$ch& E$t

they *o$ld not ha)e s$cceeded so thoro$#hly in brin#in# o)er the mass of reli#io$s

Moslems to their side, $nless the champions of orthodoxy had set abo$t constr$ctin# asystem of scholastic philosophy that red$ced the di)ine nat$re to a p$rely formal,

chan#eless, and absol$te $nity, a bare *ill de)oid of all affections

p& 2B-

and emotions, a tremendo$s and incalc$lable po*er *ith *hich no h$man creat$re co$ldha)e any comm$nion or personal interco$rse *hatsoe)er& That is the od of

Mohammedan theolo#y& That *as the alternati)e to S$fism& Therefore, all thin3in#,

reli#io$s Moslems are mystics, as :rofessor D& E& Macdonald, one of o$r besta$thorities on the s$b?ect, has remar3ed& /nd he addsN /ll, too, are pantheists, b$t some

do not 3no* it&

The relation of indi)id$al S$fis to Islam )aries from more or less entire conformity to a

merely nominal profession of belief in /llah and His :rophet& While the 9oran and theTraditions are #enerally ac3no*led#ed to be the $nalterable standard of reli#io$s tr$th,

this ac3no*led#ment does not incl$de the reco#nition of any external a$thority *hich

shall decide *hat is orthodox and *hat is heretical& Creeds and catechisms co$nt fornothin# in the S$fi8s estimation& Why sho$ld he concern himself *ith these *hen he

possesses a doctrine deri)ed immediately from odR /s he reads the 9oran *ith st$dio$s

meditation and rapt attention, lo, the hidden meanin#s%%infinite, inexha$stible%%of theHoly Word flash $pon his in*ard eye& This is *hat the S$fis call istinbat, a sort of

int$iti)e ded$ction" the mysterio$s inflo* of di)inely re)ealed 3no*led#e into hearts

made p$re

p& 2G-

by repentance and filled *ith the tho$#ht of od, and the o$tflo* of that 3no*led#e $ponthe interpretin# ton#$e& >at$rally, the doctrines elicited by means of istinbatdo not a#ree

)ery *ell either *ith Mohammedan theolo#y or *ith each other, b$t the discord is easily

explained& Theolo#ians, *ho interpret the letter, cannot be expected to reach the sameconcl$sions as mystics, *ho interpret the spirit" and if both classes differ amon#st

themsel)es, that is a mercif$l dispensation of di)ine *isdom, since theolo#ical

contro)ersy ser)es to extin#$ish reli#io$s error, *hile the )ariety of mystical tr$th

corresponds to the manifold de#rees and modes of mystical experience&

In the chapter on the #nosis I shall enter more f$lly into the attit$de of the S$fis to*ards

positi)e reli#ion& It is only a ro$#h%and%ready acco$nt of the matter to say that many of

them ha)e been #ood Moslems, many scarcely Moslems at all, and a third party, perhapsthe lar#est, Moslems after a fashion& D$rin# the early Middle /#es Islam *as a #ro*in#

or#anism, and #rad$ally became transformed $nder the infl$ence of di)erse mo)ements,


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of *hich S$fism itself *as one& Mohammedan orthodoxy in its present shape o*es m$ch

to haKali, and haKali *as a S$fi& Thro$#h his *or3 and example the S$fistic inter%

p& 2-

pretation of Islam has in no small meas$re been harmonised *ith the ri)al claims ofreason and tradition, b$t ?$st beca$se of this he is less )al$able than mystics of a p$rer

type to the st$dent *ho *ishes to 3no* *hat S$fism essentially is&

/ltho$#h the n$mero$s definitions of S$fism *hich occ$r in /rabic and :ersian boo3son the s$b?ect are historically interestin#, their chief importance lies in sho*in# that

S$fism is $ndefinable& alal$ddin A$mi in hisasna"itells a story abo$t an elephant

*hich some Hindoos *ere exhibitin# in a dar3 room& Many people #athered to see it, b$t,as the place *as too dar3 to permit them to see the elephant, they all felt it *ith their

hands, to #ain an idea of *hat it *as li3e& (ne felt its tr$n3, and said that the animal

resembled a *ater%pipe" another felt its ear, and said it m$st be a lar#e fan" another its

le#, and tho$#ht it m$st be a pillar" another felt its bac3, and declared that the beast m$stbe li3e an immense throne& So it is *ith those *ho define S$fismN they can only attempt

to express *hat they themsel)es ha)e felt, and there is no concei)able form$la that *ill

comprise e)ery shade of personal and intimate reli#io$s feelin#& Since, ho*e)er, thesedefinitions ill$strate *ith con)enient bre)ity certain aspects and characteristics of S$fism,

a fe* specimens may be #i)en&

p& 2-

J J JS$fism is thisN that actions sho$ld be passin# o)er the S$fi +i.e.bein# done $pon him.

*hich are 3no*n to od only, and that he sho$ld al*ays be *ith od in a *ay that is

3no*n to od only&

S$fism is *holly self%discipline&S$fism is, to possess nothin# and to be possessed by nothin#&

S$fism is not a system composed of r$les or sciences b$t a moral disposition" i.e.if it*ere a r$le, it co$ld be made one8s o*n by stren$o$s exertion, and if it *ere a science, it

co$ld be ac5$ired by instr$ction" b$t on the contrary it is a disposition, accordin# to the

sayin#, 84orm yo$rsel)es on the moral nat$re of od8" and the moral nat$re of od

cannot be attained either by means of r$les or by means of sciences&S$fism is freedom and #enerosity and absence of self%constraint&

It is thisN that od sho$ld ma3e thee die to thyself and sho$ld ma3e thee li)e in Him&

To behold the imperfection of the phenomenal *orld, nay, to close the eye to e)erythin#imperfect in contemplation of Him *ho is remote from all imperfection%%that is S$fism&

S$fism is control of the fac$lties and obser)ance of the breaths&p& 2O-

J J J

It is S$fism to p$t a*ay *hat tho$ hast in thy head, to #i)e *hat tho$ hast in thy hand,

and not to recoil from *hatsoe)er befalls thee&

The reader *ill percei)e that S$fism is a *ord $nitin# many di)er#ent meanin#s, and that

in s3etchin# its main feat$res one is obli#ed to ma3e a sort of composite portrait, *hich


13/85


14/85

The S$fi8s 8path8 is not finished $ntil he has tra)ersed all the 8sta#es,8 ma3in# himself

perfect in e)ery one of them before ad)ancin# to the next, and has also experienced

*hate)er 8states8 it pleases od to besto* $pon him& Then, and only then, is hepermanently raised to the hi#her planes of conscio$sness *hich S$fis call 8the nosis8

+&a/rifat. and 8the Tr$th8 +haqiqat., *here the 8see3er8 +talib. becomes the 83no*er8 or

8#nostic8 +/arif., and realises that 3no*led#e, 3no*er, and 3no*n are (ne&

p& B-

J J J

Ha)in# s3etched, as briefly as possible, the external frame*or3 of the method by *hich

the S$fi approaches his #oal, I shall no* try to #i)e some acco$nt of its inner *or3in#s&The present chapter deals *ith the first portion of the threefold ?o$rney%%the :ath, the

nosis, and the Tr$th%%by *hich the 5$est of Aeality is often symbolised&

The first place in e)ery list of 8sta#es8 is occ$pied by repentance + ta(bat.& This is the

Moslem term for 8con)ersion,8 and mar3s the be#innin# of a ne* life& In the bio#raphiesof eminent S$fis the dreams, )isions, a$ditions, and other experiences *hich ca$sed them

to enter on the :ath are $s$ally related& Tri)ial as they may seem, these records ha)e a

psycholo#ical basis, and, if a$thentic, *o$ld be *orth st$dyin# in detail& Aepentance isdescribed as the a*a3enin# of the so$l from the sl$mber of heedlessness, so that the

sinner becomes a*are of his e)il *ays and feels contrition for past disobedience& He is

not tr$ly penitent, ho*e)er, $nless +!. he at once abandons the sin or sins of *hich he isconscio$s, and +2. firmly resol)es that he *ill ne)er ret$rn to these sins in the f$t$re& It

he sho$ld fail to 3eep his )o*, he m$st a#ain t$rn to od, *hose mercy is infinite& /

certain *ell%3no*n S$fi repented se)enty times and fell bac3 into sin se)enty timesbefore he made a

p& B!-

lastin# repentance& The con)ert m$st also, as far as lies in his po*er, satisfy all those

*hom he has in?$red& Many examples of s$ch restit$tion mi#ht be c$lled from the

,egend of the osle& Saints&

/ccordin# to the hi#h mystical theory, repentance is p$rely an act of di)ine #race,comin# from od to man, not from man to od& Some one said to AabiaN

I ha)e committed many sins" if I t$rn in penitence to*ards od, *ill He t$rn in mercy

to*ards meR >ay, she replied, b$t if He shall t$rn to*ards thee, tho$ *ilt t$rn

to*ards Him&

The 5$estion *hether sins o$#ht to be remembered after repentance or for#otten

ill$strates a f$ndamental point in S$fi ethicsN I mean the difference bet*een *hat is

ta$#ht to no)ices and disciples and *hat is held as an esoteric doctrine by adepts& /nyMohammedan director of so$ls *o$ld tell his p$pils that to thin3 h$mbly and

remorsef$lly of one8s sins is a so)erei#n remedy a#ainst spirit$al pride, b$t he himself

mi#ht )ery *ell belie)e that real repentance consists in for#ettin# e)erythin# except od&


15/85

The penitent, says H$?*iri, is a lo)er of od, and the lo)er of od is in contemplation

of odN in contemplation it is *ron# to rememberp& B2-

sin, for recollection of sin is a )eil bet*een od and the contemplati)e&

Sin appertains to self%existence, *hich itself is the #reatest of all sins& To for#et sin is to

for#et self&

This is only one application of a principle *hich, as I ha)e said, r$ns thro$#h the *hole

ethical system of S$fism and *ill be more f$lly explained in a s$bse5$ent chapter& Its

dan#ers are e)ident, b$t *e m$st in fairness allo* that the same theory of cond$ct may

not be e5$ally s$itable to those *ho ha)e made themsel)es perfect in moral disciplineand to those *ho are still stri)in# after perfection&

()er the #ate of repentance it is *rittenN

/llselfabandon ye *ho enter hereQ

The con)ert no* be#ins *hat is called by Christian mystics the :$r#ati)e Way& If he

follo*s the #eneral r$le, he *ill ta3e a director +Shey3h, :ir, M$rshid., i.e.a holy man ofripe experience and profo$nd 3no*led#e, *hose least *ord is absol$te la* to his

disciples& / 8see3er8 *ho attempts to tra)erse the 8:ath8 *itho$t assistance recei)es little

sympathy& (f s$ch a one it is said that 8his #$ide is Satan,8 and he is li3ened to a tree thatfor *ant of the #ardener8s care brin#s forth 8none or bitter fr$it&8 Spea3in# of the S$fi

Shey3hs, H$?*iri saysN

p& BB-

J J J

When a no)ice ?oins them, *ith the p$rpose of reno$ncin# the *orld, they s$b?ect himto spirit$al discipline for the space of three years& If he f$lfil the re5$irements of this

discipline, *ell and #ood" other*ise, they declare that he cannot be admitted to the 8:ath&8The first year is de)oted to ser)ice of the people, the second year to ser)ice of od, and

the third year to *atchin# o)er his o*n heart& He can ser)e the people, only *hen he

places himself in the ran3 of ser)ants and all others in the ran3 of masters, i.e.he m$st

re#ard all, *itho$t exception, as bein# better than himself, and m$st deem it his d$ty toser)e all ali3e& /nd he can ser)e od, only *hen he c$ts off all his selfish interests

relatin# either to the present or to the f$t$re life, and *orships od for od8s sa3e alone,

inasm$ch as *hoe)er *orships od for any thin#8s sa3e *orships himself, not od& /ndhe can *atch o)er his heart, only *hen his tho$#hts are collected and e)ery care is

dismissed, so that in comm$nion *ith od he #$ards his heart from the assa$lts ofheedlessness& When these 5$alifications are possessed by the no)ice, he may *ear the&uraqqa/at+the patched froc3 *orn by der)ishes. as a tr$e

p& BG-

mystic, not merely as an imitator of others&

Shibli *as a p$pil of the famo$s theosophist $nayd of Ea#hdad& (n his con)ersion, he

came to $nayd, sayin#N


16/85

They tell me that yo$ possess the pearl of di)ine 3no*led#eN either #i)e it me or sell it&

$nayd ans*eredN I cannot sell it, for yo$ ha)e not the price thereof" and if I #i)e it yo$,

yo$ *ill ha)e #ained it cheaply& o$ do not 3no* its )al$e& Cast yo$rself headlon#, li3eme, into this ocean, in order that yo$ may *in the pearl by *aitin# patiently&

Shibli as3ed *hat he m$st do&

o, said $nayd, and sell s$lph$r&

/t the end of a year he said to ShibliN

This tradin# ma3es yo$ *ell 3no*n& Eecome a der)ish and occ$py yo$rself solely *ithbe##in#&

D$rin# a *hole year Shibli *andered thro$#h the streets of Ea#hdad, be##in# of the

passers%by, b$t no one heeded him& Then he ret$rned to $nayd, *ho exclaimedN

See no*Q o$ are nothin# in people8s eyes& >e)er set yo$r mind on them or ta3e any

acco$nt of them at all& 4or some time +he contin$ed. yo$ *ere a chamberlain and actedas

p& B-

#o)ernor of a pro)ince& o to that co$ntry and as3 pardon of all those *hom yo$ ha)e

*ron#ed&

Shibli obeyed and spent fo$r years in #oin# from door to door, $ntil he had obtained an

ac5$ittance from e)ery person except one, *hom he failed to trace& (n his ret$rn, $naydsaid to himN

o$ still ha)e some re#ard to rep$tation& o and be a be##ar for one year more&

;)ery day Shibli $sed to brin# the alms that *ere #i)en him to $nayd, *ho besto*ed

them on the poor and 3ept Shibli *itho$t food $ntil the next mornin#& When a year had

passed in this *ay, $nayd accepted him as one of his disciples on condition that hesho$ld perform the d$ties of a ser)ant to the others& /fter a year8s ser)ice, $nayd as3ed

himN

What thin3 yo$ of yo$rself no*R Shibli repliedN I deem myself the meanest of od8screat$res& >o*, said the master, yo$r faith is firm&

I need not d*ell on the details of this trainin#%%the fasts and )i#ils, the )o*s of silence,

the lon# days and ni#hts of solitary meditation, all the *eapons and tactics, in short, of

that battle a#ainst one8s self *hich the :rophet declared to be more painf$l andmeritorio$s than the Holy War& (n the other hand, my readers *ill expect me to

p& B-


17/85

describe in a #eneral *ay the characteristic theories and practices for *hich the 8:ath8 is a

con)enient desi#nation& These may be treated $nder the follo*in# headsN :o)erty,

Mortification, Tr$st in od, and Aecollection& Whereas po)erty is ne#ati)e in nat$re,in)ol)in# detachment from all that is *orldly and $nreal, the three remainin# terms

denote the positi)e co$nterpart of that process, namely, the ethical discipline by *hich

the so$l is bro$#ht into harmonio$s relations *ith Aeality&

The fatalistic spirit *hich brooded dar3ly o)er the childhood of Islam%%the feelin# that allh$man actions are determined by an $nseen :o*er, and in themsel)es are *orthless and

)ain%%ca$sed ren$nciation to become the *atch*ord of early Moslem asceticism& ;)ery

tr$e belie)er is bo$nd to abstain from $nla*f$l pleas$res, b$t the ascetic ac5$ires meritby abstainin# from those *hich are la*f$l& /t first, ren$nciation *as $nderstood almost

excl$si)ely in a material sense& To ha)e as fe* *orldly #oods as possible seemed the

s$rest means of #ainin# sal)ation& Da*$d al%TaVi o*ned nothin# except a mat of r$shes,a bric3 *hich he $sed as a pillo*, and a leathern )essel *hich ser)ed him for drin3in#

and *ashin#& / certain man dreamed that he sa* Mali3 ibn Dinar and Mohammed ibn

Wasi bein# led into :ara%

p& BO-

dise, and that Mali3 *as admitted before his companion& He cried o$t in astonishment,

for he tho$#ht Mohammed ibn Wasi had a s$perior claim to the hono$r& es, came the

ans*er, b$t Mohammed ibn Wasi possessed t*o shirts, and Mali3 only one& That is thereason *hy Mali3 is preferred&

The S$fi ideal of po)erty #oes far beyond this& Tr$e po)erty is not merely lac3 of *ealth,

b$t lac3 of desire for *ealthN the empty heart as *ell as the empty hand& The 8poor man8

+faqir. and the 8mendicant8 +der"ish. are names by *hich the Mohammedan mystic ispro$d to be 3no*n, beca$se they imply that he is stripped of e)ery tho$#ht or *ish that

*o$ld di)ert his mind from od& To be se)ered entirely from both the present life and

the f$t$re life, and to *ant nothin# besides the Lord of the present life and the f$t$relife%%that is to be tr$ly poor& S$ch afaqiris den$ded of indi)id$al existence, so that he

does not attrib$te to himself any action, feelin#, or 5$ality& He may e)en be rich, in the

common meanin# of the *ord, tho$#h spirit$ally he is the poorest of the poor" for,

sometimes, od endo*s His saints *ith an o$t*ard sho* of *ealth and *orldliness inorder to hide them from the profane&

>o one familiar *ith the mystical *riters *ill need to be informed that their terminolo#y

is ambi#$o$s, and that the same *ord

p& B-

fre5$ently co)ers a #ro$p, if not a m$ltit$de, of si#nifications di)er#in# more or less*idely accordin# to the aspect from *hich it is )ie*ed& Hence the conf$sion that is

apparent in S$fi text%boo3s& When 8po)erty,8 for example, is explained by one interpreter

as a transcendental theory and by another as a practical r$le of reli#io$s life, themeanin#s cannot coincide& Ae#arded from the latter standpoint, po)erty is only the


18/85

be#innin# of S$fism&+aqirs, ami says, reno$nce all *orldly thin#s for the sa3e of

pleasin# od& They are $r#ed to this sacrifice by one of three moti)esN +a. Hope of an

easy rec3onin# on the Day of $d#ment, or fear of bein# p$nished" +b. desire of :aradise"+c. lon#in# for spirit$al peace and in*ard compos$re& Th$s, inasm$ch as they are not

disinterested b$t see3 to benefit themsel)es, they ran3 belo* the S$fi, *ho has no *ill of

his o*n and depends absol$tely on the *ill of od& It is the absence of 8self8 thatdistin#$ishes the S$fi from thefaqir&

Here are some maxims for der)ishesN

Do not be# $nless yo$ are star)in#& The Caliph (mar flo##ed a man *ho be##ed after

ha)in# satisfied his h$n#er& When compelled to be#, do not accept more than yo$ need&Ee #ood%nat$red and $ncomplainin# and than3 od for yo$r po)erty&

p& B-

J J JDo not flatter the rich for #i)in#, nor blame them for *ithholdin#&

Dread the loss of po)erty more than the rich man dreads the loss of *ealth&

Ta3e *hat is )ol$ntarily offeredN it is the daily bread *hich od sends to yo$N do notref$se od8s #ift&

Let no tho$#ht of the morro* enter yo$r mind, else yo$ *ill inc$r e)erlastin# perdition&

Do not ma3e od a sprin#e to catch alms&

The S$fi teachers #rad$ally b$ilt $p a system of asceticism and moral c$lt$re *hich isfo$nded on the fact that there is in man an element of e)il%%the lo*er or appetiti)e so$l&

This e)il self, the seat of passion and l$st, is called nafs" it may be considered broadly

e5$i)alent to 8the flesh,8 and *ith its allies, the *orld and the de)il, it constit$tes the #reatobstacle to the attainment of $nion *ith od& The :rophet saidN Thy *orst enemy is thy

nafs, *hich is bet*een thy t*o sides& I do not intend to disc$ss the )ario$s opinions as

to its nat$re, b$t the proof of its materiality is too c$rio$s to be omitted& Mohammed ibn

'lyan, an eminent S$fi, relates that one day somethin# li3e a yo$n# fox came forth fromhis throat, and od ca$sed him to 3no* that

p& G-

it *as his nafs& He trod on it, b$t it #re* bi##er at e)ery 3ic3 that he #a)e it& He saidN

(ther thin#s are destroyed by pain and blo*sN *hy dost tho$ increaseR Eeca$se I *as

created per)erse, it replied" *hat is pain to other thin#s is pleas$re to me, and theirpleas$re is my pain&

The nafsof Halla? *as seen r$nnin# behind him in the shape of a do#" and other cases are

recorded in *hich it appeared as a sna3e or a mo$se&

Mortification of the nafsis the chief *or3 of de)otion, and leads, directly or indirectly, tothe contemplati)e life& /ll the Shey3hs are a#reed that no disciple *ho ne#lects this d$ty

*ill e)er learn the r$diments of S$fism& The principle of mortification is that the nafs

sho$ld be *eaned from those thin#s to *hich it is acc$stomed, that it sho$ld be


19/85

enco$ra#ed to resist its passions, that its pride sho$ld be bro3en, and that it sho$ld be

bro$#ht thro$#h s$fferin# and trib$lation to reco#nise the )ileness of its ori#inal nat$re

and the imp$rity of its actions& Concernin# the o$t*ard methods of mortification, s$ch asfastin#, silence, and solit$de, a #reat deal mi#ht be *ritten, b$t *e m$st no* pass on to

the hi#her ethical discipline *hich completes the :ath&

Self%mortification, as ad)anced S$fis

p& G!-

$nderstand it, is a moral transm$tation of the inner man& When they say, Die before ye

die, they do not mean to assert that the lo*er self can be essentially destroyed, b$t that it

can and sho$ld be p$r#ed of its attrib$tes, *hich are *holly e)il& These attrib$tes%%i#norance, pride, en)y, $ncharitableness, etc&%%are extin#$ished, and replaced by the

opposite 5$alities, *hen the *ill is s$rrendered to od and *hen the mind is

concentrated on Him& Therefore 8dyin# to self8 is really 8li)in# in od&8 The mystical

aspects of the doctrine th$s stated *ill occ$py a considerable part of the follo*in#chapters" here *e are mainly interested in its ethical import&

The S$fi *ho has eradicated self%*ill is said, in technical lan#$a#e, to ha)e reached the

8sta#es8 of 8ac5$iescence8 or 8satisfaction8 +rida. and 8tr$st in od8 +ta(akkul.&

/ der)ish fell into the Ti#ris& Seein# that he co$ld not s*im, a man on the ban3 cried o$t,Shall I tell some one to brin# yo$ ashoreR >o, said the der)ish& Then do yo$ *ish to

be dro*nedR >o& What, then, do yo$ *ishR The der)ish replied, od8s *ill be

doneQ What ha)e I to do *ith *ishin#R

8Tr$st in od,8 in its extreme form, in)ol)es the ren$nciation of e)ery personal initiati)eand )olition" total passi)ity li3e

p& G2-

that of a corpse in the hands of the *asher *ho prepares it for b$rial" perfect indifference

to*ards anythin# that is e)en remotely connected *ith one8s self& / special class of theancient S$fis too3 their name from this 8tr$st,8 *hich they applied, so far as they *ere

able, to matters of e)eryday life& 4or instance, they *o$ld not see3 food, *or3 for hire,

practise any trade, or allo* medicine to be #i)en them *hen they *ere ill& =$ietly they

committed themsel)es to od8s care, ne)er do$btin# that He, to *hom belon# thetreas$res of earth and hea)en, *o$ld pro)ide for their *ants, and that their allotted

portion *o$ld come to them as s$rely as it comes to the birds, *hich neither so* norreap, and to the fish in the sea, and to the child in the *omb&

These principles depend $ltimately on the S$fistic theory of the di)ine $nity, as is sho*nby Sha5i5 of Eal3h in the follo*in# passa#eN


20/85

There are three thin#s *hich a man is bo$nd to practise& Whosoe)er ne#lects any one of

them m$st needs ne#lect them all, and *hosoe)er clea)es to any one of them m$st needs

clea)e to them all& Stri)e, therefore, to $nderstand, and consider heedf$lly,Thefirstis this, that *ith yo$r mind and yo$r ton#$e and yo$r actions yo$ declare od

to be (ne" and that,p& GB-

ha)in# declared Him to be (ne, and ha)in# declared that none benefits yo$ or harms yo$

except Him, yo$ de)ote all yo$r actions to Him alone& If yo$ act a sin#le ?ot of yo$r

actions for the sa3e of another, yo$r tho$#ht and speech are corr$pt, since yo$r moti)e inactin# for another8s sa3e m$st be hope or fear" and *hen yo$ act from hope or fear of

other than od, *ho is the lord and s$stainer of all thin#s, yo$ ha)e ta3en to yo$rself

another #od to hono$r and )enerate&Se$ondly, that *hile yo$ spea3 and act in the sincere belief that there is no od except

Him, yo$ sho$ld tr$st Him more than the *orld or money or $ncle or father or mother or

any one on the face of the earth&Thirdly, *hen yo$ ha)e established these t*o thin#s, namely, sincere belief in the $nity

of od and tr$st in Him, it beho)es yo$ to be satisfied *ith Him and not to be an#ry on

acco$nt of anythin# that )exes yo$& Ee*are of an#erQ Let yo$r heart be *ith Him al*ays,let it not be *ithdra*n from Him for a sin#le moment&

The 8tr$stin#8 S$fi has no tho$#ht beyond the present ho$r& (n one occasion Sha5i5 as3ed

those *ho sat listenin# to his disco$rseN

p& GG-

J J JIf od ca$ses yo$ to die to%day, thin3 ye that He *ill demand from yo$ the prayers of

to%morro*R They ans*eredN >o" ho* sho$ld He demand from $s the prayers of a day

on *hich *e are not ali)eR Sha5i5 saidN ;)en as He *ill not demand from yo$ the

prayers of to%morro*, so do ye not see3 from Him the pro)ender of to%morro*& It may bethat ye *ill not li)e so lon#&

In )ie* of the practical conse5$ences of attemptin# to li)e 8on tr$st,8 it is not s$rprisin# to

read the ad)ice #i)en to those *ho *o$ld perfectly f$lfil the doctrineN Let them di# a#ra)e and b$ry themsel)es& Later S$fis hold that acti)e exertion for the p$rpose of

obtainin# the means of s$bsistence is 5$ite compatible *ith 8tr$st,8 accordin# to the

sayin# of the :rophet, Tr$st in od and tie the camel8s le#& They define ta(akkulas anhabit$al state of mind, *hich is impaired only by self%pleasin# tho$#hts" e.g.it *as

acco$nted a breach of 8tr$st8 to thin3 :aradise a more desirable place than Hell&

What type of character is s$ch a theory li3ely to prod$ceR /t the *orst, a $seless droneand hypocrite preyin# $pon his fello*%creat$res" at the best, a harmless der)ish *horemains $nmo)ed in the midst of sorro*, meets praise and blame *ith e5$al

p& G-

indifference, and accepts ins$lts, blo*s, tort$re, and death as mere incidents in the eternal

drama of destiny& This cold morality, ho*e)er, is not the hi#hest of *hich S$fism is


21/85

capable& The hi#hest morality sprin#s from nothin# b$t lo)e, *hen self%s$rrender

becomes self%de)otion& (f that I shall ha)e somethin# to say in d$e time&

/mon# the positi)e elements in the S$fi discipline there is one that Moslem mystics$nanimo$sly re#ard as the 3eystone of practical reli#ion& I refer to the dhikr, an exercise

*ell 3no*n to Western readers from the caref$l description #i)en by ;d*ard Lane in hisodern 0gyptians, and by :rofessor D& E& Macdonald in his recently p$blishedAspe$ts

of 1sla&& The term dhikr%%8recollection8 seems to me the most appropriate e5$i)alent in;n#lish%%si#nifies 8mentionin#,8 8rememberin#,8 or simply 8thin3in# of8" in the 9oran the

4aithf$l are commanded to remember od often, a plain act of *orship *itho$t any

mystical sa)o$r& E$t the S$fis made a practice of repeatin# the name of od or somereli#io$s form$la, e.g.lory to /llah +subhan Allah., There is no #od b$t /llah +la

ilaha illa llah., accompanyin# the mechanical intonation *ith an intense concentration

of e)ery fac$lty $pon the sin#le *ord or phrase" and they attach #reater )al$e to thisirre#$lar

p& G-

litany, *hich enables them to en?oy $ninterr$pted comm$nion *ith od, than to the fi)e

ser)ices of prayer performed, at fixed ho$rs of the day and ni#ht, by all Moslems&Aecollection may be either spo3en or silent, b$t it is best, accordin# to the $s$al opinion,

that ton#$e and mind sho$ld co%operate& Sahl ibn /bdallah bade one of his disciples

endea)o$r to say /llahQ /llahQ the *hole day *itho$t intermission& When he hadac5$ired the habit of doin# so, Sahl instr$cted him to repeat the same *ords d$rin# the

ni#ht, $ntil they came forth from his lips e)en *hile he *as asleep& >o*, said he, be

silent and occ$py yo$rself *ith recollectin# them& /t last the disciple8s *hole bein# *asabsorbed by the tho$#ht of /llah& (ne day a lo# fell on his head, and the *ords /llah,

/llah *ere seen *ritten in the blood that tric3led from the *o$nd&

haKali describes the method and effects of dhikrin a passa#e *hich Macdonald has

s$mmarised as follo*sN

Let him red$ce his heart to a state in *hich the existence of anythin# and its non%existence are the same to him& Then let him sit alone in some corner, limitin# his

reli#io$s d$ties to *hat is absol$tely necessary, and not occ$pyin# himself either *ith

recitin# the 9oran or considerin# its meanin# or *ithp& GO-

boo3s of reli#io$s traditions or *ith anythin# of the sort& /nd let him see to it that

nothin# sa)e od most Hi#h enters his mind& Then, as he sits in solit$de, let him not

cease sayin# contin$o$sly *ith his ton#$e, 8/llah, /llah,8 3eepin# his tho$#ht on it& /tlast he *ill reach a state *hen the motion of his ton#$e *ill cease, and it *ill seem as

tho$#h the *ord flo*ed from it& Let him perse)ere in this $ntil all trace of motion is

remo)ed from his ton#$e, and he finds his heart perse)erin# in the tho$#ht& Let him stillperse)ere $ntil the form of the *ord, its letters and shape, is remo)ed from his heart, and

there remains the idea alone, as tho$#h clin#in# to his heart, inseparable from it& So far,

all is dependent on his *ill and choice" b$t to brin# the mercy of od does not stand inhis *ill or choice& He has no* laid himself bare to the breathin#s of that mercy, and


22/85

nothin# remains b$t to a*ait *hat od *ill open to him, as od has done after this

manner to prophets and saints& If he fo!!o*s the abo)e co$rse, he may be s$re that the

li#ht of the Aeal *ill shine o$t in his heart& /t first $nstable, li3e a flash of li#htnin#, itt$rns and ret$rns" tho$#h sometimes it han#s bac3& /nd if it ret$rns, sometimes it

p& G-

abides and sometimes it is momentary& /nd if it abides, sometimes its abidin# is lon#,

and sometimes short&

/nother S$fi p$ts the #ist of the matter in a sentence, th$sN

The first sta#e of dhikris to for#et self, and the last sta#e is the effacement of the

*orshipper in the act of *orship, *itho$t conscio$sness of *orship, and s$ch absorptionin the ob?ect of *orship as precl$des ret$rn to the s$b?ect thereof&

Aecollection can be aided in )ario$s *ays& When Shibli *as a no)ice, he *ent daily into

a cellar, ta3in# *ith him a b$ndle of stic3s& If his attention fla##ed, he *o$ld beat himself

$ntil the stic3s bro3e, and sometimes the *hole b$ndle *o$ld be finished before e)enin#"then he *o$ld dash his hands and feet a#ainst the *all& The Indian practice of inhalin#

and exhalin# the breath *as 3no*n to the S$fis of the ninth cent$ry and *as m$ch $sed

after*ards& /mon# the Der)ish (rders m$sic, sin#in#, and dancin# are fa)o$rite meansof ind$cin# the state of trance called 8passin#%a*ay8 +fana., *hich, as appears from the

definition 5$oted abo)e, is the climax and raison d23treof the method&

In 8meditation8 +&uraqabat. *e reco#nise a form of self%concentration similar to the

E$ddhistic dhyanaandsa&adhi& This is

p& G-

*hat the :rophet meant *hen he said, Worship od as tho$#h tho$ sa*est Him, for iftho$ seest Him not, yet He sees thee& /nyone *ho feels s$re that od is al*ays

*atchin# o)er him *ill de)ote himself to meditatin# on od, and no e)il tho$#hts ordiabolic s$##estions *ill find their *ay into his heart& >$ri $sed to meditate so intently

that not a hair on his body stirred& He declared that he had learned this habit from a cat

*hich *as obser)in# a mo$se%hole, and that she *as far more 5$iet than he& /b$ Said

ibn /bi Vl%9hayr 3ept his eyes fixed on his na)el& It is said that the De)il is smitten *ithepilepsy *hen he approaches a man th$s occ$pied, ?$st as happens to other men *hen the

De)il ta3es possession of them&

This chapter *ill ha)e ser)ed its p$rpose if it has bro$#ht before my readers a clear )ie*

of the main lines on *hich the preparatory trainin# of the S$fi is cond$cted& We m$stno* ima#ine him to ha)e been in)ested by his Shey3h *ith the patched froc3

+&uraqqa/ator khirqat., *hich is an o$t*ard si#n that he has s$ccessf$lly emer#ed from

the discipline of the 8:ath,8 and is no* ad)ancin# *ith $ncertain steps to*ards the Li#ht,as *hen toil%*orn tra)ellers, ha)in# #ained the s$mmit of a deep #or#e, s$ddenly catch

#limpses of the s$n and co)er their eyes&

p& -


23/85

CHA"TER II

ILL)MINATION AN( ECSTASY

(D, *ho is described in the 9oran as the Li#ht of the hea)ens and the earth, cannot

be seen by the bodily eye& He is )isible only to the in*ard si#ht of the 8heart&8 In the nextchapter *e shall ret$rn to this spirit$al or#an, b$t I am not #oin# to enter into the

intricacies of S$fi psycholo#y any f$rther than is necessary& The 8)ision of the heart8

+ruyat al-qalb. is defined as the heart8s beholdin# by the li#ht of certainty that *hich is

hidden in the $nseen *orld& This is *hat /li meant *hen he *as as3ed, Do yo$ seeodR and repliedN Ho* sho$ld *e *orship (ne *hom *e do not seeR The li#ht of

int$iti)e certainty +yaqin. by *hich the heart sees od is a beam of od8s o*n li#ht cast

therein by Himself" else no )ision of Him *ere possible&

8Tis the s$n8s self that lets the s$n be seen&

/ccordin# to a mystical interpretation of the famo$s passa#e in the 9oran *here the li#htof /llah is compared to a candle

p& !-

b$rnin# in a lantern of transparent #lass, *hich is placed in a niche in the *all, the niche

is the tr$e belie)er8s heart" therefore his speech is li#ht and his *or3s are li#ht and hemo)es in li#ht& He *ho disco$rses of eternity, said EayaKid, m$st ha)e *ithin him the

lamp of eternity&

The li#ht *hich #leams in the heart of the ill$minated mystic endo*s him *ith a

s$pernat$ral po*er of discernment +firasat.& /ltho$#h the S$fis, li3e all other Moslems,ac3no*led#e Mohammed to be the last of the prophets +as, from a different point of

)ie*, he is the Lo#os or first of created bein#s., they really claim to possess a minor form

of inspiration& When >$ri *as 5$estioned concernin# the ori#in of mysticalfirasat, heans*ered by 5$otin# the 9oranic )erse in *hich od says that He breathed His spirit into

/dam" b$t the more orthodox S$fis, *ho streno$sly combat the doctrine that the h$man

spirit is $ncreated and eternal, affirm thatfirasatis the res$lt of 3no*led#e and insi#ht,metaphorically called 8li#ht8 or 8inspiration,8 *hich od creates and besto*s $pon His

fa)o$rites& The Tradition, Ee*are of the discernment of the tr$e belie)er, for he sees by

the li#ht of /llah, is exemplified in s$ch anecdotes as theseN

/b$ /bdallah al%AaKi saidN

Ibn al%/nbari presented me *ith ap& 2-

*oollen froc3, and seein# on the head of Shibli a bonnet that *o$ld ?$st match it, Iconcei)ed the *ish that they *ere both mine& When Shibli rose to depart, he loo3ed at

me, as he *as in the habit of doin# *hen he desired me to follo* him& So I follo*ed him

to his ho$se, and *hen *e had #one in, he bade me p$t off the froc3 and too3 it from me


24/85

and folded it and thre* his bonnet on the top& Then he called for a fire and b$rnt both

froc3 and bonnet&

Sari al%Sa5ati fre5$ently $r#ed $nayd to spea3 in p$blic, b$t $nayd *as $n*illin# toconsent, for he do$bted *hether he *as *orthy of s$ch an hono$r& (ne 4riday ni#ht he

dreamed that the :rophet appeared and commanded him to spea3 to the people& Hea*o3e and *ent to Sari8s ho$se before daybrea3, and 3noc3ed at the door& Sari opened

the door and saidN o$ *o$ld not belie)e me $ntil the :rophet came and told yo$&

Sahl ibn /bdallah *as sittin# in the con#re#ational mos5$e *hen a pi#eon, o)ercome by

the intense heat, dropped on the floor& Sahl exclaimedN :lease od, Shah al%9irmani has

?$st died& They *rote it do*n, and it *as fo$nd to be tr$e&

When the heart is p$r#ed of sin and e)il tho$#hts, the li#ht of certainty stri3es $pon

p& B-

it and ma3es it a shinin# mirror, so that the De)il cannot approach it *itho$t bein#

obser)ed& Hence the sayin# of some #nosticN If I disobey my heart, I disobey od& It

*as a man th$s ill$minated to *hom the :rophet saidN Cons$lt thy heart, and tho$ *ilthear the secret ordinance of od proclaimed by the heart8s in*ard 3no*led#e, *hich is

real faith and di)inity%%somethin# m$ch better than the learnin# of di)ines& I need not

anticipate here the 5$estion, *hich *ill be disc$ssed in the follo*in# chapter, ho* far theclaims of an infallible conscience are reconcilable *ith external reli#ion and morality&

The :rophet, too, prayed that od *o$ld p$t a li#ht into his ear and into his eye" and after

mentionin# the different members of his body, he concl$ded, and ma3e the *hole of meone li#ht& The reader sho$ld be reminded that most, if not all, mystical Traditions ascribed toMohammed *ere for#ed and fathered $pon him by the S$fis, *ho represent themsel)es as the tr$e

interpreters of his esoteric teachin#&-4rom ill$mination of #rad$ally increasin# splendo$r, themystic rises to contemplation of the di)ine attrib$tes, and $ltimately, *hen hisconscio$sness is *holly melted a*ay, he becomes trans$bstantiated +ta4a(hara. in the

radiance of the di)ine essence& This is the 8station8 of *ell%doin# +ihsan.%%for od is *ith

the *ell%doers +9or& 2&., and *e ha)e

p& G-

:rophetic a$thority for the statement that *ell%doin# consists in *orshippin# od as

tho$#h tho$ *ert seein# Him&

I *ill not *aste the time and ab$se the patience of my readers by endea)o$rin# to classifyand describe these )ario$s #rades of ill$mination, *hich may be depicted symbolically

b$t cannot be explained in scientific lan#$a#e& We m$st allo* the mystics to spea3 for

themsel)es& ranted that their teachin# is often hard to $nderstand, it con)eys more of the

tr$th than *e can e)er hope to obtain from analysis and dissection&

Here are t*o passa#es from the oldest :ersian treatise on S$fism, theashf al-ah4ubof

H$?*iriN


25/85

It is related that Sari al%Sa5ati said, 8( od, *hate)er p$nishment tho$ mayst inflict

$pon me, do not p$nish me *ith the h$miliation of bein# )eiled from Thee,8 beca$se, if I

am not )eiled from Thee, my torment and affliction *ill be li#htened by the recollectionand contemplation of Thee" b$t if I am )eiled from Thee, e)en Thy bo$nty *ill be deadly

to me& There is no p$nishment in Hell more painf$l and hard to bear than that of bein#

)eiled& If od *ere re)ealed in Hell to the people of Hell, sinf$l, belie)ers *o$ld ne)erthin3 of :aradise, sincep& -

the si#ht of od *o$ld so fill them *ith ?oy that they *o$ld not feel bodily pain& /nd in:aradise there is no pleas$re more perfect than $n)eiledness& If the people there en?oyed

all the pleas$res of that place and other pleas$res a h$ndredfold, b$t *ere )eiled from

od, their hearts *o$ld be $tterly bro3en& Therefore it is the *ay of od to let the heartsof those *ho lo)e Him ha)e )ision of Him al*ays, in order that the deli#ht thereof may

enable them to end$re e)ery trib$lation" and they say in their )isions, 8We deem all

torments more desirable than to be )eiled from Thee& When Thy bea$ty is re)ealed to o$rhearts, *e ta3e no tho$#ht of affliction&8

There are really t*o 3inds of contemplation& The former is the res$lt of perfect faith, the

latter of rapt$ro$s lo)e, for in the rapt$re of lo)e a man attains to s$ch a de#ree that his*hole bein# is absorbed in the tho$#ht of his Eelo)ed and he sees nothin# else&

M$hammad ibn Wasi saidN 8I ne)er sa* anythin# *itho$t seein# od therein,8 i.e.

thro$#h perfect faith& Shibli saidN 8I ne)er sa* anythin# except od,8 i.e.in the rapt$re of

lo)e and the fer)o$r of contemplation& (ne mysticp& -

sees the act *ith his bodily eye, and, as he loo3s, beholds the /#ent *ith his spirit$al eye"

another is rapt by lo)e of the /#ent from all thin#s else, so that he sees only the /#ent&The one method is demonstrati)e, the other is ecstatic& In the former case, a manifest

proof is deri)ed from the e)idences of od" in the latter case, the seer is enrapt$red and

transported by desireN e)idences are a )eil to him, beca$se he *ho 3no*s a thin# does not

care for a$#ht besides, and he *ho lo)es a thin# does not re#ard a$#ht besides, b$treno$nces contention *ith od and interference *ith Him in His decrees and acts& When

the lo)er t$rns his eye a*ay from created thin#s, he *ill ine)itably see the Creator *ith

his heart& od hath said, 8Tell the belie)ers to close their eyes8 +9or& 2G&B., i.e.to closetheir bodily eyes to l$sts and their spirit$al eyes to created thin#s& He *ho is most sincere

in self%mortification is most firmly #ro$nded in contemplation& Sahl ibn /bdallah of

T$star saidN 8If any one sh$ts his eye to od for a sin#le moment, he *ill ne)er be ri#htly#$ided all his life lon#,8 beca$se to re#ard other than od is to be handed o)er to other

than od, and one *ho isp& O-

left at the mercy of other than od is lost& Therefore the life of contemplati)es is the time

d$rin# *hich they en?oy contemplation" time spent in oc$lar )ision they do not rec3on aslife, for that to them is really death& Th$s, *hen EayaKid *as as3ed ho* old he *as, hereplied, 84o$r years&8 They said to him, 8Ho* can that beR8 He ans*ered, 8I ha)e been

)eiled from od by this *orld for se)enty years, b$t I ha)e seen Him d$rin# the last fo$r

yearsN the period in *hich one is )eiled does not belon# to one8s life&8

I ta3e the follo*in# 5$otation from thea(aqifof >iffari, an a$thor *ith *hom *e shallbecome better ac5$ainted as *e proceedN


26/85

od said to me, 8The least of the sciences of nearness is that yo$ sho$ld see in

e)erythin# the effects of beholdin# Me, and that this )ision sho$ld pre)ail o)er yo$ more

than yo$r #nosis of Me&8

;xplanation by the commentatorN

He means that the least of the sciences of nearness +proximity to od. is that *hen yo$

loo3 at anythin#, sensibly or intellect$ally or other*ise, yo$ sho$ld be conscio$s of

beholdin# od *ith a )ision clearer than yo$r )ision of that thin#& There are di)ersep& -

de#rees in this matter& Some mystics say that they ne)er see anythin# *itho$t seein# od

before it& (thers say, 8*itho$t seein# od after it,8 or 8*ith it8" or they say that they seenothin# b$t od& / certain S$fi said, 8I made the pil#rima#e and sa* the 9aba, b$t not

the Lord of the 9aba&8 This is the perception of one *ho is )eiled& Then he said, 8I made

the pil#rima#e a#ain, and I sa* both the 9aba and the Lord of the 9aba&8 This iscontemplation of the Self%s$bsistence thro$#h *hich e)erythin# s$bsists, i.e.he sa* the

9aba s$bsistin# thro$#h the Lord of the 9aba& Then he said, 8I made the pil#rima#e a

third time, and I sa* the Lord of the 9aba, b$t not the 9aba&8 This is the 8station8 of(aqfat+passin#%a*ay in the essence.& In the present case the a$thor is referrin# to

contemplation of the Self%s$bsistence&

So m$ch concernin# the theory of ill$mination& E$t, as Mephistopheles says, grau ist

alle Theorie" and tho$#h to most of $s the li)in# experience is denied, *e can hear itslo$dest echoes and feel its *armest after#lo* in the poetry *hich it has created& Let me

translate part of a :ersian ode by the der)ish%poet, Eaba 9$hi of ShiriK, *ho died in !

/&D&

p& -

J J J !I" #$% &'()%#* +" #$% ,-+/#%("- G I /'3.

I" #$% '--% '" " #$% &"#'+""- G I /'3.

H+& I $'% /%%" %/+% &% # +" #(+-'#+"

I" '( '" +" (#"%"- G I /'3.

I" ('%( '" '/#+":* +" ('+/% '" ,"#%&-'#+"*

I" #$% (%-+:+" #$% P($%#"- G I /'3.

N%+#$%( /- "( * ',,+%"# "( //#'",%*

;'-+#+%/ "( ,'/%/"- G I /'3.

I % &+"% %%/ '" #$% -+:$# H+/ ',% '(" &%

I" '-- #$% %% +/,%(%"- G I /'3.

L+)% ' ,'"-% I 3'/ &%-#+": +" H+/ +(%% $'% $%'( #$%/% &%-+%/ +" P'('+/%.

T$:$ %'(#$ '" 3'#%( $'% ,'/# #$%+( %+- " /*

>% (%#'+" '+"# (%&+"+/,%",%/ #$%/% $%'%"- /":/

B# 3$+-% 3% '(% #$/ /$(% :(// %'(#$- %+-/*

H3 ,'" #$% #"%/ #$% '",+": /$%(%/ (%',$ /?! @E. H. >$+"+%-* '(+:% #('"/-'#+" #$% Masnavi* . 182.

p& -

J J J

The formal practice ofsa&a/5$ic3ly spread amon#st the S$fis and prod$ced an ac$te

clea)a#e of opinion, some holdin# it to be la*f$l and praise*orthy, *hilst others

condemned it as an abominable inno)ation and incitement to )ice& H$?*iri adopts the

middle )ie* expressed in a sayin# of Dh$ Vl%>$n the ;#yptianN

M$sic is a di)ine infl$ence *hich stirs the heart to see3 odN those *ho listen to it

spirit$ally attain $nto od, and those *ho listen to it sens$ally fall into $nbelief&

He declares, in effect, that a$dition is neither #ood nor bad, and m$st be ?$d#ed by its

res$lts&

When an anchorite #oes into a ta)ern, the ta)ern becomes his cell, b$t *hen a *ine%bibber #oes into a cell, that cell becomes his ta)ern&

(ne *hose heart is absorbed in the tho$#ht of od cannot be corr$pted by hearin#

m$sical instr$ments& So *ith dancin#&


30/85

When the heart throbs and rapt$re #ro*s intense, and the a#itation of ecstasy is

manifested& and con)entional forms are #one, this is not dancin# nor bodily ind$l#ence,

b$t a dissol$tion of the so$l&

H$?*iri, ho*e)er, lays do*n se)eral preca$tionary r$les for those *ho en#a#e in

a$dition, and he confesses that the p$blic

p& -

concerts #i)en by der)ishes are extremely demoralisin#& >o)ices, he thin3s, sho$ld notbe permitted to attend them& In modern times these or#iastic scenes ha)e fre5$ently been

described by eye%*itnesses& I *ill no* translate from ami8s,i"es of the Saintsthe

acco$nt of a similar performance *hich too3 place abo$t se)en h$ndred years a#o&

There *as a certain der)ish, a ne#ro called an#i Eash#irdi, *ho had attained to s$ch ahi#h de#ree of spirit$ality that the mystic dance co$ld not be started $ntil he came o$t

and ?oined in it& (ne day, in the co$rse of thesa&a/, he *as seiKed *ith ecstasy, and

risin# into the air seated himself on a lofty arch *hich o)erloo3ed the dancers& Indescendin# he leaped on to Ma?d$ddin of Ea#hdad, and encircled *ith his le#s the nec3

of the Shey3h, *ho ne)ertheless contin$ed to spin ro$nd in the dance, tho$#h he *as a

)ery frail and slender man, *hereas the ne#ro *as tall and hea)y& When the dance *asfinished, Ma?d$ddin said, 8I did not 3no* *hether it *as a ne#ro or a sparro* on my

nec3&8 (n #ettin# off the Shey3h8s sho$lders, the ne#ro bit his chee3 so se)erely that the

scar remained )isible e)er after& Ma?d$ddin often $sed to say that on the Day of

$d#ment he *o$ld not boast of any%p& O-

thin# except that he bore the mar3 of this ne#ro8s teeth on his face&

rotes5$e and i#noble feat$res%%not to spea3 of #rosser deformities%%m$st appear in anyfaithf$l delineation of the ecstatic life of Islam& >othin# is #ained by concealin# theirexistence or by minimisin# their importance& If, as alal$ddin A$mi saysN

!M%" +",( #$% (%(',$ 3+"% '" (:/

T$'# #$% &' %/,'% ( ' 3$+-% (& /%-,"/,+/"%//*

S+",% '-- )"3 #$+/ -+% # % ' /"'(%*

V-+#+"'- &%&( '" #$:$# # % ' $%--*!

let $s ac3no*led#e that the transports of spirit$al intoxication are not al*ays s$blime,

and that h$man nat$re has a tric3 of a)en#in# itself on those *ho *o$ld cast it off&

p& -

CHA"TER III

THE *NOSIS


31/85

TH; S$fis distin#$ish three or#ans of spirit$al comm$nicationN the heart +qalb., *hich

3no*s od" the spirit +ruh., *hich lo)es Him" and the inmost #ro$nd of the so$l +sirr.,

*hich contemplates Him& It *o$ld ta3e $s into deep *aters if *e *ere to embar3 $pon adisc$ssion of these terms and their relation to each other& / fe* *ords concernin# the

first of the three *ill s$ffice& The qalb, tho$#h connected in some mysterio$s *ay *ith

the physical heart, is not a thin# of flesh and blood& 'nli3e the ;n#lish 8heart,8 its nat$re israther intellect$al than emotional, b$t *hereas the intellect cannot #ain real 3no*led#e of

od, the qalbis capable of 3no*in# the essences of all thin#s, and *hen ill$mined by

faith and 3no*led#e reflects the *hole content of the di)ine mind" hence the :rophetsaid, My earth and My hea)en contain Me not, b$t the heart of My faithf$l ser)ant

containeth Me& This re)elation, ho*e)er, is a comparati)ely rare experience&

p& -

>ormally, the heart is 8)eiled,8 blac3ened by sin, tarnished by sens$al impressions andima#es, p$lled to and fro bet*een reason and passionN a battlefield on *hich the armies

of od and the De)il contend for )ictory& Thro$#h one #ate, the heart recei)es immediate

3no*led#e of od" thro$#h another, it lets in the ill$sions of sense& Here a *orld andthere a *orld, says alal$ddin A$mi& I am seated on the threshold& Therefore man is

potentially lo*er than the br$tes and hi#her than the an#els&

!A":%- '" (#% &'"=/ 3"(/ -%'%" ,&/%

T #$%/% +",-+"+":* -%// #$'" #$%/% $% :(3/*

B# + $% &%'"/ #$% '":%-* &(% #$'" #$/%.!

Less than the br$tes, beca$se they lac3 the 3no*led#e that *o$ld enable them to rise"more than the an#els, beca$se they are not s$b?ect to passion and so cannot fall&

Ho* shall a man 3no* odR >ot by the senses, for He is immaterial" nor by the

intecllect, for He is $nthin3able& Lo#ic ne)er #ets beyond the finite" philosophy sees

do$ble" boo3%learnin# fosters self%conceit and obsc$res the idea of the Tr$th *ith clo$dsof empty *ords& alal$ddin A$mi, addressin# the scholastic theolo#ian, as3s scornf$llyN

!D )"3 ' "'&% 3+#$# ' #$+": '"/3%(+": # +#?

H'% %%( -,)% ' (/% (& R* O* S* E?

Y "'&% H+/ "'&% :* /%%) #$% (%'-+# "'&% +#

p& O- L) ( #$% &" +" #$% /)* "# +" #$% 3'#%(

I %/+(% # (+/% '% &%(% "'&%/ '" -%##%(/*

M')% (/%- (%% (& /%- '# "% /#()%.

B%,&% (% (& '-- '##(+#%/ /%-*

T$'# &' /%% ( 3" (+:$# %//%",%*

Y%'* /%% +" ( 3" $%'(# #$% )"3-%:% #$% P($%#*

>+#$# )* 3+#$# ##(* 3+#$# (%,%#(.!

This 3no*led#e comes by ill$mination, re)elation, inspiration&


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Loo3 in yo$r o*n heart, says the S$fi, for the 3in#dom of od is *ithin yo$& He *ho

tr$ly 3no*s himself 3no*s od, for the heart is a mirror in *hich e)ery di)ine 5$ality is

reflected& E$t ?$st as a steel mirror *hen coated *ith r$st loses its po*er of reflexion, sothe in*ard spirit$al sense, *hich S$fis call the eye of the heart, is blind to the celestial

#lory $ntil the dar3 obstr$ction of the phenomenal self, *ith all its sens$al

contaminations, has been *holly cleared a*ay& The clearance, if it is to be doneeffecti)ely, m$st be the *or3 of od, tho$#h it demands a certain in*ard co%operation on

the part of man& Whosoe)er shall stri)e for ($r sa3e, We *ill #$ide him into ($r *ays

+9or& 2&.& /ction is false and )ain, if it is tho$#ht to proceed from one8s self, b$t theenli#htened mystic re#ards od as the real a#ent in e)ery act, and therefore ta3es no

credit for his #ood *or3s nor desires to be recompensed for them&

p& O!-

J J J

While ordinary 3no*led#e is denoted by the term /il&, the mystic 3no*led#e pec$liar to

the S$fis is called &a/rifator /irfan& /s I ha)e indicated in the fore#oin# para#raphs,

&a/rifatis f$ndamentally different from /irfan, and a different *ord m$st be $sed totranslate it& We need not loo3 far for a s$itable e5$i)alent& The &a/rifatof the S$fis is the

8#nosis8 of Hellenistic theosophy, i.e.direct 3no*led#e of od based on re)elation or

apocalyptic )ision& It is not the res$lt of any mental process, b$t depends entirely on the

*ill and fa)o$r of od, *ho besto*s it as a #ift from Himself $pon those *hom He hascreated *ith the capacity for recei)in# it& It is a li#ht of di)ine #race that flashes into the

heart and o)er*helms e)ery h$man fac$lty in its daKKlin# beams& He *ho 3no*s od is

d$mb&

The relation of #nosis to positi)e reli#ion is disc$ssed in a )ery remar3able treatise on

spec$lati)e mysticism by >iffari, an $n3no*n *anderin# der)ish *ho died in ;#ypt in

the latter half of the tenth cent$ry& His *or3, consistin# of a series of re)elations in *hich

od addresses the *riter and instr$cts him concernin# the theory of #nosis, is co$ched inabstr$se lan#$a#e and *o$ld scarcely be intelli#ible *itho$t the commentary *hich

accompanies it" b$t its )al$e as an ori#inal exposition of ad)anced

p& O2-

S$fism *ill s$fficiently appear from the excerpts #i)en in this chapter& I am no* en#a#ed inpreparin# an edition of the /rabic text, to#ether *ith an ;n#lish translation and commentary&-

Those *ho see3 od, says >iffari, are of three 3indsNfirstly, the *orshippers to *hom

od ma3es Himself 3no*n by means of bo$nty, i.e.they *orship Him in the hope of*innin# :aradise or some spirit$al recompense s$ch as dreams and miracles"se$ondly,

the philosophers and scholastic theolo#ians, to *hom od ma3es Himself 3no*n by

means of #lory, i.e.they can ne)er find the #lorio$s od *hom they see3, *herefore they

assert that His essence is $n3no*able, sayin#, We 3no* that *e 3no* Him not, and thatis o$r 3no*led#e" thirdly, the #nostics, to *hom od ma3es Himself 3no*n by means

of ecstasy, i.e.they are possessed and controlled by a rapt$re that depri)es them of the

conscio$sness of indi)id$al existence&


33/85

>iffari bids the #nostic perform only s$ch acts of *orship as are in accordance *ith his

)ision of od, tho$#h in so doin# he *ill necessarily disobey the reli#io$s la* *hich *as

made for the )$l#ar& His in*ard feelin# m$st decide ho* far the external forms ofreli#ion are #ood for him&

od said to me, /s3 Me and say, 8( Lord, ho* shall I clea)e to Thee, so that *hen myday +of ?$d#ment.p& OB-

comes, Tho$ *ilt not p$nish me nor a)ert Thy face from meR8 Then I *ill ans*er thee

and say, 8Clea)e in thy o$t*ard theory and practice to the S$nna +the r$le of the :rophet.,and clea)e in thy in*ard feelin# to the #nosis *hich I ha)e #i)en thee" and 3no* that

*hen I ma3e Myself 3no*n to thee, I *ill not accept from thee anythin# of the S$nna b$t

*hat My #nosis brin#s to thee, beca$se tho$ art one of those to *hom I spea3N tho$hearest Me and 3no*est that tho$ hearest Me, and tho$ seest that I am the so$rce of all

thin#s&8

The commentator obser)es that the S$nna, bein# #eneral in scope, ma3es no distinction

bet*een indi)id$als, e.g.see3ers of :aradise and see3ers of od, b$t that in reality itcontains exactly *hat each person re5$ires& The portion specially appropriate in e)ery

case is discerned either by means of #nosis, *hich od comm$nicates to the heart, or by

means of #$idance imparted by a spirit$al director&

/nd He said to me, 8My exoteric re)elation does not s$pport My esoteric re)elation&8

This means that the #nostic need not be dismayed if his inner experience conflicts *iththe reli#io$s la*& The contradiction is only apparent& Aeli#ion addresses itself

p& OG-

to the common herd of men *ho are )eiled by their minds, by lo#ic, tradition, and so on"

*hereas #nosis belon#s to the elect, *hose bodies and spirits are bathed in the eternalLi#ht& Aeli#ion sees thin#s from the aspect of pl$rality, b$t #nosis re#ards the all%

embracin# 'nity& Hence the same act is #ood in reli#ion, b$t e)il in #nosis%%a tr$th *hich

is briefly stated th$sN

The #ood deeds of the pio$s are the ill deeds of the fa)o$rites of od&

/ltho$#h *or3s of de)otion are not incompatible *ith #nosis, no one *ho connects themin the sli#htest de#ree *ith himself is a #nostic& This is the theme of the follo*in#

alle#ory& >iffari seldom *rites so l$cidly as he does here, yet I fancy that fe* of myreaders *ill find the explanations printed *ithin s5$are brac3ets alto#ether s$perfl$o$s&

TH; A; (4 TH; S;/od bade me behold the Sea, and I sa* the ships sin3in# and the plan3s floatin#" then

the plan3s too *ere s$bmer#ed&

[The Sea denotes the spirit$al experiences thro$#h *hich the mystic passes in his ?o$rneyto od& The point at iss$e is thisN *hether he sho$ld prefer the reli#io$s la* or dis%


34/85

p& O-

interested lo)e& Here he is *arned not to rely on his #ood *or3s, *hich are no better thansin3in# ships and *ill ne)er brin# him safely to port& >o" if he *o$ld attain to od, he

m$st rely on od alone& If he does not rely entirely on od, b$t lets himself tr$st e)er so

little in anythin# else, he is still clin#in# to a plan3& Tho$#h his tr$st in od is #reaterthan before, it is not yet complete&@

/nd He said to me, 8Those *ho )oya#e are not sa)ed&8

[The )oya#er $ses the ship as a means of crossin# the seaN therefore he relies, not on the

4irst Ca$se, b$t on secondary ca$ses&@/nd He said to me, 8Those *ho instead of )oya#in# cast themsel)es into the Sea ta3e a

ris3&8

[To abandon all secondary ca$ses is li3e pl$n#in# in the sea& The mystic *ho ma3es this)ent$re is in ?eopardy, for t*o reasonsN he may re#ard himself, not od, as initiatin# and

carryin# o$t the action of abandonment,%%and one *ho reno$nces a thin# thro$#h 8self8 is

in *orse case than if he had not reno$nced it,%%or he may abandon secondary ca$ses+#ood *or3s, hope of :aradise, etc&., not for od8s sa3e, b$t from sheer indifference and

lac3 of spirit$al feelin#&@p& O-

J J J/nd He said to me, 8Those *ho )oya#e and ta3e no ris3 shall perish&8

[>ot*ithstandin# the dan#ers referred to, he m$st ma3e od his sole ob?ect or fail&@

/nd He said to me, 8In ta3in# the ris3 there is a part of sal)ation&8[(nly a part of sal)ation, beca$se perfect selflessness has not yet been attained& The

*hole of sal)ation consists in the effacement of all secondary ca$ses, all phenomena,

thro$#h the rapt$re *hich res$lts from )ision of od& E$t this is #nosis, and the presentre)elation is addressed to mystics of a lo*er #rade& The #nostic ta3es no ris3, for he has

nothin# to lose&@

/nd the *a)e came and lifted those beneath it and o)erran the shore&

[Those beneath the *a)e are they *ho )oya#e in ships and conse5$ently s$ffership*rec3& Their reliance on secondary ca$ses casts them ashore, i.e.brin#s them bac3 to

the *orld of phenomena *hereby they are )eiled from od&@

/nd He said to me, 8The s$rface of the Sea is a #leam that cannot be reached&8[/nyone *ho depends on external rites of *orship to lead him to od is follo*in# a *ill%

o8%the%*isp&@p& OO-

J J J

/nd its bottom is a dar3ness impenetrable&

[To discard positi)e reli#ion, root and branch, is to *ander in a pathless maKe&@/nd bet*een the t*o are fishes *hich are to be feared&

[He refers to the middle *ay bet*een p$re exotericism and p$re esotericism& The 8fishes8are its perils and obstacles&@Do not )oya#e on the Sea, lest I ca$se thee to be )eiled by the )ehicle&

[The 8)ehicle8 si#nifies the 8ship,8 i.e.reliance on somethin# other than od&@

/nd do not cast thyself into the Sea, lest I ca$se thee to be )eiled by thy castin# thyself&[Whoe)er re#ards any act as his o*n act and attrib$tes it to himself is far from od&@

/nd He said to me, 8In the Sea are bo$ndariesN *hich of them *ill bear thee onR8


35/85

[The 8bo$ndaries8 are the )ario$s de#rees of spirit$al experience& The mystic o$#ht not to

rely on any of these, for they are all imperfect&@

/nd He said to me, 8If tho$ #i)est thyself to the Sea and sin3est therein, tho$ *ilt fall aprey to one of its beasts&8

p& O-

J J J

[If the mystic either relies on secondary ca$ses or abandons them by his o*n act, he *ill

#o astray&@

/nd He said to me, 8I decei)e thee if I direct thee to a$#ht sa)e Myself&8[If the mystic8s in*ard )oice bids him t$rn to anythin# except od, it decei)es him&@

/nd He said to me, 8If tho$ perishest for the sa3e of other than Me, tho$ *ilt belon# to

that for *hich tho$ hast perished&8/nd He said to me, 8This *orld belon#s to him *hom I ha)e t$rned a*ay from it and

from *hom I ha)e t$rned it a*ay" and the next *orld belon#s to him to*ards *hom ha)e

bro$#ht it and *hom I ha)e bro$#ht to*ards Myself&8[He means to say that e)erlastin# ?oy is the portion of those *hose hearts are t$rned a*ay

from this *orld and *ho ha)e no *orldly possessions& They really en?oy this *orld,

beca$se it cannot separate them from od& Similarly, the tr$e o*ners of the next *orldare those *ho do not see3 it, inasm$ch as it is not the real ob?ect of their desire, b$t

contemplate od alone&@

The #nostic descries the element of reality in positi)e reli#ion, b$t his #nosis is not

p& O-

deri)ed from reli#ion or from any sort of h$man 3no*led#eN it is properly concerned *ith

the di)ine attrib$tes, and od Himself re)eals the 3no*led#e of these to His saints *hocontemplate Him& Dh$ Vl%>$n of ;#ypt, *hose mystical spec$lations mar3 him o$t as the

father of Moslem theosophy, said that #nostics are not themsel)es, and do not s$bsistthro$#h themsel)es, b$t so far as they s$bsist, they s$bsist thro$#h od&

They mo)e as od ca$ses them to mo)e, and their *ords are the *ords of od *hich

roll $pon their ton#$es, and their si#ht is the si#ht of od *hich has entered their eyes&

The #nostic contemplates the attrib$tes of od, not His essence, for e)en in #nosis a

small trace of d$ality remainsN this disappears only infana al-fana, the total passin#%a*ayin the $ndifferentiated odhead& The cardinal attrib$te of od is $nity, and the di)ine

$nity is the first and last principle of #nosis& /ccordin# to some mystics, the #nosis of $nityconstit$tes a hi#her sta#e *hich is called 8the Tr$th8 +haqiqat.& See abo)e,p& 2&-

Eoth Moslem and S$fi declare that od is (ne, b$t the statement bears a different

meanin# in each instance& The Moslem means that od is $ni5$e in His essence,

5$alities, and acts" that He is absol$tely $nli3e all other bein#s& The S$fi means

p& -


36/85

that od is the (ne Aeal Eein# *hich $nderlies all phenomena& This principle is carried

to its extreme conse5$ences, as *e shall see& If nothin# except od exists, then the *hole

$ni)erse, incl$din# man, is essentially one *ith od, *hether it is re#arded as anemanation *hich proceeds from Him, *itho$t impairin# His $nity, li3e s$nbeams from

the s$n, or *hether it is concei)ed as a mirror in *hich the di)ine attrib$tes are reflected&

E$t s$rely a od *ho is all in all can ha)e no reason for th$s re)ealin# HimselfN *hysho$ld the (ne pass o)er into the ManyR The S$fis ans*er%%a philosopher *o$ld say that

they e)ade the diffic$lty%%by 5$otin# the famo$s TraditionN I *as a hidden treas$re and I

desired to be 3no*n" therefore I created the creation in order that I mi#ht be 3no*n& Inother *ords, od is the eternal Eea$ty, and it lies in the nat$re of bea$ty to desire lo)e&

The mystic poets ha)e described the self%manifestation of the (ne *ith a prof$sion of

splendid ima#ery& ami says, for exampleN

!(& '-- %#%("+# #$% B%-% "%+-% H+/ %'# +" #$% /-+#%

#$% "/%%"

H% $%- #$% &+((( # H+/ 3" ',%* H% +/-'% H+/ -%-+"%//

# H+&/%-.

H% 3'/ #$ #$% /%,#'#( '" #$% /%,#',-% " %% # H+/ $' /(%% #$% U"+%(/%.

A-- 3'/ O"%* #$%(% 3'/ " '-+#* " (%#%",% =&+"%= ( =#$+"%.=

p& !- T$% '/# ( H%'%"* 3+#$ +#/ &(+' +",&+":/ '" #:+":/*

3'/ ,",%'-% +" ' /+":-% +"#.

T$% C(%'#+" -' ,('-% +" #$% /-%% ""%+/#%",%* -+)% ' ,$+-

%(% +# $'/ (%'#$%.

T$% %% #$% B%-%* /%%+": 3$'# 3'/ "#* (%:'(% ""%"#+# '/

%+/#%"#.

A-#$:$ H% %$%- H+/ '##(+#%/ '" '-+#+%/ '/ ' %(%,# 3$-%

+" H+/ 3" %//%",%*

Y%# H% %/+(% #$'# #$% /$- % +/-'% # H+& +" '"#$%( &+(((*

A" #$'# %',$ "% H+/ %#%("'- '##(+#%/ /$- %,&% &'"+%/#

',,(+":- +" ' +%(/% (&*

T$%(%(% H% ,(%'#% #$% %('"# +%-/ T+&% '" S',% '" #$%

-+%:++": :'(%" #$% 3(-*

T$'# %%( ('",$ '" -%' '" (+# &+:$# /$3 (#$ H+/ '(+/

%(%,#+"/*

T$% ,(%// :'% ' $+"# H+/ ,&%- /#'#(%* #$% (/% :'% #++":/

H+/ %'#%/ ,"#%"'",%.

>$%(%%( B%'# %%% #* L% '%'(% %/+% +# 3$%(%%( B%'#

/$"% +" ' (/ ,$%%)* L% -+# $+/ #(,$ (& #$'# -'&%.

>$%(%%( B%'# 3%-# +" '() #(%//%/* L% ,'&% '" " ' $%'(#

%"#'":-% +" #$%+( ,+-/.

B%'# '" L% '(% '/ '" /- B%'# +/ #$% &+"% '" L%

#$% (%,+/ /#"%. T$% $'% '-3'/ %%" #:%#$%( (& #$% %( +(/# "%%( $'% #$%

#('%--% # +" %',$ #$%(=/ ,&'".!

In another *or3 ami sets forth the relation of od to the *orld more philosophically, as

follo*sN

mystics of islam nicholson

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