mythology and the supernatural. what is the purpose of religion from an anthropological perspective?...
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Mythology and the Supernatural
What is the purpose of religion from an anthropological perspective?
What is religion?“Any set of attitudes, beliefs,
and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether they be forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, or demons”
Simple definition, extremely difficult cultural concept
Associated with all known contemporary societiesEvidence of religious practices 60,000 years ago
in early homo sapiensAnthropological concerns/questions:
Why is religion found in all societies?How and why does it vary from society to society?
Most believe religion is a human creation in response to certain needs (4):Intellectual understanding, reversion to childhood
feelings, anxiety and uncertainty, and a need for community
First 3 theories deal with psychological needsUnderstanding the world around us,
and our place in itLast theory (need for community) –
Emile DurkheimHumans living in societies feel pushed
and pulled to act a certain wayReligion arises out of this to affirm a
person’s place in society, enhance community, and give people confidence
Example: totem animalsIn aboriginal societies in Australia, an
animal comes to represent the social group
The animal on its own isn’t significant (lizard, rat, frog, etc.) but it’s representation of the social group is significant to that society
Types of supernatural forces and beingsMany societies in Polynesia believe in
manaSupernatural, impersonal force thought
to inhabit some objects and people, but not others
Think The Force in Star War…more on this later
Is there anything like this in our society?Very similar to superstitions (ex. A
baseball player’s “lucky bat” or a four-leaf clover)
Idea of a taboo is very similar to manaDifference: objects with mana are to be
touched; taboo objects are not, for their power can cause harm
Types of supernatural forces and beingsSupernatural beings fall into two categories:
nonhuman and human originNonhuman: gods and spiritsHuman: ghosts and ancestral spirits
Types of supernatural forces and beingsGods
Beliefs usually that gods created themselves, then created other things (other gods, the world, humans, plants and animals, etc.)
ExamplesMaori of New Zeland believe in 3
gods: sea, forest, agriculture They call on each god as needed
Ancient Romans: much more specialized There were 3 gods just for the plow, one
for sowing seeds, one for weeding, one for storing grain, one for manuring, etc…
Types of supernatural forces and beingsSpirits
Usually below gods in prestigeGuardian spirits, mischievous
spirits (hobgoblins)Sanpoil N.A.’s of Washington sent
little boys and girls out overnight to acquire their Guardian spirits
Types of supernatural forces and beingsGhosts and ancestor
spiritsThe idea that ghosts can be
perceived by humans is almost universal across cultures! Explanations? Many cues in everyday life
that evoke remembrance of a loved one (smells, pictures, dreams, etc.) No coincidence that ghosts
are usually close relatives, not strangers
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – all believe in one godHowever, there is room for other supernatural
beings (ex. The Devil, angels, demons, etc.)Why do some societies have a belief in a “high
god” and others do not?G.E. Swanson: cross-cultural study of 50 societies
Societies with complex social hierarchy (ex. Family, clan, cheifdom) – 17 out of 20 believed in a “high god”
Societies without complex social hierarchy – 2 out of 19 believed in a “high god”
Conclusion? Strong suggestion that the realm of the gods parallels and reflects everyday social and political worlds
How do people interact with the supernatural?A short list (not exhaustive):
Prayer (asking for supernatural help)
Physiological experience (doing things to the body and mind; ex. trances)
Simulation (manipulating imitations of things)
FeastsSacrifices
Different than prayerPrayer is asking; magic is
compelling the supernatural to act in some intended way
We tend to associate this with “simpler” societiesKeep in mind – over 80,000
people in the U.S. take magic seriously, and claim to be witches
Magic is often employed in societies to bring about cures as well as to cause harm
Ju-ju charm protecting a canoe in Suriname, 1954
Central to many societies’ daily livesAzande of Zaire (DRoC)
Used to explain the unexplainable A man is gored by an elephant. He
must have been bewitched, because he’s never been gored by an elephant before
A man goes to his beer hut at night, lights some straw on fire, holds it up to see his beer, and his hut catches on fire. Must be witchcraft, since he has done this hundreds of times before, and his hut never caught on fire
A skilled potter produces a bowl and it cracks. Witchcraft
Cultural roots of witch craftOne theory: political turmoil
and fear of othersThe witch craze of Europe
(think Salem 1692) In 1692 the government of
Mass. was falling apart. No governor, and judicial practices broke down
Led to the accusation of hundreds, and the execution of 20
Another theory? DiseaseErgot (a fungus) when eaten
can cause hallucinations (it contains LSD). Symptoms are very similar to what we saw from the “witches” of Salem
Could have cultural roots
Why does witchcraft appear in so many societies?Beatrice Whiting: found in societies which lack
procedures to deal with crime and other offensesBasically, if you do something wrong the person
you wronged can cause you ill-willVery similar to karma
Incan society: if you do something wrong, you can bring destruction to your entire village. Great social control.
Shaman: part-time male specialist who is involved in healing (usually has high status in society) Enters into a trance, journeys to
other worlds in order to get help from guardians or spirits
Sorcerers and witches: invoke supernatural forces to cause harm or ill-will (usually low social and economic status)
Mediums: very similar to shaman, but usually female
Urarina Shaman, Amazonian rainforest, 2006
Priests: full-time male specialists who are able to relate to gods beyond the ordinary person’s control (usually high status)Dependence on memorized
ritual protects the priestIf a shaman repeatedly fails to
cure illness, he will probably lose his following
If a priest performs his ritual perfectly and the gods choose not to respond, the priest will retain his position and the ritual will preserve its assumed effectiveness
Are religions adaptive?They should be, right? If the purpose of
religion is to reduce the anxieties of a people, the religion should adapt to changes in society
Contradictions to thisHindu belief in cows as sacred
May seem to be the opposite of an adaptive customHowever, it is possible that the benefits of a live
cow still outweigh the benefits of a slaughtered cow
Revival religions = efforts to save a dying culture (perceived or real)
The Seneca and the Religion of Handsome Lake (ca. 1799, New York)Handsome Lake and his text, the Gaiwiio (“Good Word”)
Preached the evils of sin, and the path to salvation by temperance (drunkenness was a huge problem among the Seneca), peace and social unity, preservation of tribal lands, proacculturation (such as learning English), and domestic morality
Led to a rapid revival among the SenecaAgricultural production improved 10-fold, temperance was
widely accepted, public health and hygiene dramatically improved
Handsome Lake church still exists to this day Cargo Cults – and Yali’s Question
Though there are many differences from religion to religion, there are also many “archetypes”Across cultures, the great hero’s and
tales often have the same componentsJoseph Campbell: “The Hero With a
Thousand Faces”Cross-cultural analysis of world
religionsConclusion: the monomyth
“A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.” – Joseph Campbell
Three sections: Departure, Initiation, and Return
Not all myths have all components of the monomythCan be only partial, out of order, etc.
Examples: Osiris (Egyptian), Prometheus (Greek), the Buddha (Indian), Moses (Judeo-Christian), Christ (Christian)
All over the placeMany books and movies are
based, either consciously or unconsciously, on the monomythLiterature: The Odyssey, Lord of
the Rings, Beowulf, Siddhartha, Harry Potter, etc.
Music: Jerry Garcia, Jim Morrison, and Bob Dylan all attribute much of their music to Campbell’s book
Film: Aladdin, The Lion King, The Matrix
Perhaps the best (and most direct) example is Star WarsGeorge Lucas used The Hero…
deliberately in writing the scripts
How can we, from an anthropological perspective, account for the universality of religion?
What is the purpose of religion?