narragansett, rhode island usa • #35 • winter 2000 ...2 intercoast network • winter 2000...

Highlights

2HurricaneForecasting

11El Niño CausesErosion

13Special Section:ElectronicResources

18Project Impact

21ManagedRetreat

ThemeAdvisor:

PamelaRubinoff

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community is immune to that oneevent that causes huge loss of lifeand property, months and evenyears of disruption, and millions tobillions of dollars spent to re-buildor re-locate entire villages, townsand cities.

Though not a new concept,recent emphasis has been placed onThis issue of InterCoast looks atvarious tools of hazard mitigation

and disaster management includingprediction, planning andmanagement, infrastructuredevelopment, partnerships andpublic education. Hazardmitigation can not be considered aluxury—it is an essentialcomponent of community planningand economic development.Mitigation strategies should beincorporated into permittingdecisions, infrastructure design,and long-term economicdevelopment schemes.The “menu”presented here offers decision-makers a selection of pre-disasterproactive initiatives and post-disaster recovery actions fromwhich to build a comprehensivestrategy.

Prediction is a critical tool forunderstanding hazards and risks.

(continued page 35)

Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode IslandNarragansett, Rhode Island USA • #35 • Winter 2000

I N T E R N A T I O N A L N E W S L E T T E R O F C O A S T A L M A N A G E M E N T

By Pamela Rubinoff andNoëlle F. Lewis

Natural events become naturaldisasters when peoples’ lives,

properties and ways of life arethreatened.The occurrence of anatural disaster cannot beconsidered an individual event;natural disasters are aconglomeration of many differentearth processes, sometimesenhanced by human influences,each having its own cause anddisastrous effect. Natural hazardsaffect man in the form ofearthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons,severe storms, volcanoes,avalanches and more. Man feels theeffects as loss of life and propertymanifested in erosion, flooding,drought, mud slides, avalanches,

etc. Civilization has explainednatural disasters in many ways:punishment by the gods, voices ofdemons, or loss of luck.Today,communities have accepted thatMother Nature, a force that cannot

be tamed, causes natural hazardsworldwide affecting both rich andpoor.

As the earth’s population grows,reaching 6 billion in 1999, and thepopulation density grows in areasof frequent hazards, even a smallnatural hazard event can beconsidered a crisis. Nevertheless,civilization as a whole has notheeded nature’s warning and

moved from these vulnerable areasto safer grounds. Instead, we havetried to defy Mother Nature, towithstand her forces. Our attempts

include building hugecoastal defenses,designing betterbuildings to surviveher wrath, or buyinginsurance tosubsidize our losses.In some regions thechosen solution isevacuation, whereextensive efforts aremade to savepeoples’ lives while

accepting that property can bereclaimed and rebuilt. In otherregions, those that do not have theresources for such alternatives,there is only hope for survival. No

Complacency or Action:Which Way to Dealwith Natural Hazards?

Hazard Mitigation1. Sustained action to reduce risk to property, human life,

natural resources and economic health of our communities2. Actions that have long-term impacts and benefits

Eye of a Hurricane

InterCoast Network • Winter 20002

Editor: Stephen B. OlsenManaging Editor: Noëlle F. LewisDesigner: Matt Castigliego

InterCoast is aninternational newsletter ofcoastal management, publishedthree times each year by theCoastal ResourcesManagement Project of theUniversity of Rhode Island'sCoastal Resources Center(CRC) and the U.S. Agencyfor International Development(USAID). Funding to publishInterCoast is provided byUSAID's Global EnvironmentCenter, and the NationalInstitute for Coastal andMarine Mangement,TheNetherlands.

InterCoast’s objective is tofacilitate information exchangeon coastal management.Readers are invited to contactNoëlle F. Lewis, managing editor, with contributions,questions and comments onInterCoast.

InterCoast NetworkNoëlle F. LewisCoastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett, RI 02882 USATel: 401-874-6870Fax: 401-789-4670E-mail: [email protected]

We invite others to reprintarticles found in InterCoast.


COASTAL RESOURCES CENTER

University of Rhode Island

By Isaac Ginis

Tropical cyclones are among themost dangerous of our natural

hazards. Each year communitiessuffer devastation, destruction andoften-severe casualties fromtropical cyclones.Today, the coastalUnited States is occupied bymillions of people who live andvacation along the coast.Thismakes the United States morevulnerable now, than ever before,to the effects of tropical cyclones(hurricanes).

Improvements in forecasts,warnings, communications andpublic awareness have greatlyreduced the loss of life associatedwith hurricanes. Nevertheless,storm-related damage has increasedsignificantly as coastal populationgrowth in the United Statesoutpaces the rate of improvementin official hurricane trackpredictions. In addition, hurricanepreparation costs have increasedeight-fold in the past nine yearsfrom US$50 million per storm in1989 to an estimated US$300million per storm in 1998, orabout US$640,000 per mile ofcoastline warned.

In recent years, new researchtools have contributed to improvedhurricane prediction. But the mostimportant advances have beenmade in developing new hurricaneforecast models. Computermodeling is the basis for all UnitedStates National Weather Serviceforecasts, including hurricanepredictions. New computer modelsare continually being developed toimprove weather predictions for alltypes of weather events.

Improving theForecast Model

In the 1995 hurricane season,the National Weather Service(NWS) began using a new forecast

model developed at the NationalOceanic and AtmosphericAdministration’s Geophysical FluidDynamic Laboratory (GFDL).Thismodel predicted the path of ahurricane with approximately 20percent more accuracy than itspredecessor. In addition topredicting where the hurricanewould go, the model predictswhere the heaviest rain would belocated, the wind and air pressurepatterns and other parameters.

While hurricane track predictionhas been improved significantly,there is little new skill inforecasting of storm-intensitychange.This shortcoming greatlyimpairs forecasters’ ability toprovide timely hurricane warnings.Given the expense and inconve-nience of hurricane evacuations andemergency preparations, the publicbenefits greatly if unnecessaryhurricane warnings can be avoided.Furthermore, residents are likelyto take hurricane warnings moreseriously if the intensity forecastsare shown to be more reliable.TheFederal Emergency ManagementAgency requires coastalcommunities with limited escaperoutes to have evacuated before thearrival of gale-force winds,typically 24-48 hours beforelandfall. Errors in wind, stormsurge and rainfall sometimeprevent accurately defining themost vulnerable regions toexpedite preparations well inadvance of the projected landfall.With potential damage from asingle storm exceeding US$25billion (e.g., Hurricane Andrew in1992), reliable short-termpreparations, while expensive toundertake, can result in large netsavings.

One potentially significantconstrain on the GFDL hurricane-prediction model is lack of

Improving Hurricane ForecastingP

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knowledge about air-sea inter-actions. Physical oceanographers atthe University of Rhode Island,Graduate School of Oceanography,Rhode Island, USA, have con-ducted studies of the effects of air-sea interaction on hurricanebehavior. Coupling the GFDLhurricane model with an oceanmodel can identify positive andnegative feedback mechanisms thatexist in the hurricane-ocean systemand are important for accurateprediction.To account for air-seainteraction in hurricanes, a newcoupled hurricane-ocean pre-diction model (coupled model) hasbeen developed.

Hurricane Opal in October1995 offers a good example of theimprovements in the hurricaneintensity forecasts using this newmodel. Opal was the mostdestructive hurricane to hit theU.S. mainland since HurricaneAndrew, inflicting about US$3billion of insured property damageand nine deaths.The operationalmodel did not predict the rapidincrease in speed and intensity,approaching Category 5 status,within 12 hours of landfall, givingno time to alert the public.Fortunately, the storm quicklyweakened; yet, it still causedextensive damage.

Simulations using the newcoupled model have beenconducted for Opal and otherhurricanes in the Gulf of Mexicoand Atlantic Ocean. In each case,inclusion of ocean coupling led tosubstantial improvements in theprediction of storm intensity.

Real-Time Testing ofthe Coupled Model

During the 1998-99 hurricaneseason, the new coupled modelwas run in near real-time mode. Intotal, 135 forecasts wereperformed:Tropical Storm Alex (8cases), Hurricane Bonnie (23),Hurricane Danielle (18),

Hurricane Earl (6), HurricaneGeorges (42), Hurricane Ivan (3),Hurricane Jeanne (10) andHurricane Mitch (25).The newmodel predicted certainparameters significantly better thanthe operational GFDL model.

Some of the best forecasts madeby the coupled model were forHurricane Bonnie and Danielle.On August 23, 1998, HurricaneBonnie was moving toward theU.S. East Coast.The GFDL modelforecasts largely over-predictedstorm intensity. However, theintensity prediction by the coupledmodel was more accurate than theGFDL prediction. Similar resultswere found for Hurricane Danielle.

The coupled model is beingtested at the National Centers forEnvironmental Prediction duringthe 1999-2000 hurricane season. Ifthe model validations aresuccessful, the coupled hurricane-ocean model will be implementedas an official prediction system atthe National Weather Service.

Conclusions At the same time

that modeldevelopment hasprogressed,emergingtechnologies havematured to a statewhere observationsand models can beintegrated, thusimproving both ourunderstanding andprediction ofhurricanes.TheNWS has nearlycompleted itsobservation net-work modern-ization. In addition,a mobile observingsystem is beingdeveloped that willbe positioned infront of any

hurricane reaching land within 24hours of landfall.This will furtherimprove predicting hurricanelandfall.

This hurricane-ocean modelbeing developed by physicaloceanographers at the Universityof Rhode Island is about more thanjust science and technology.Thistranslates directly into saving lives,property and millions of dollars inevacuation costs.This new model isexpected to more accuratelyforecast where a hurricane willstrike land, thus allowing betterpredictions of coastal areas needingevacuation.

For further information contact:Isaac Ginis, Graduate School ofOceanography, University ofRhode Island, Box 28, 215 SouthFerry Road, Narragansett, RhodeIsland, 02882 USA.Tel: 401 8746484.Fax: 401 874 6728.E-mail: [email protected]


Mitigation Efforts After Hurricane Mitch By Henrik FranklinPhotos by David Mangurian,Inter-American Development Bank

Central America is one of themost natural hazard-prone

regions in the world. Every yearhundreds of small- and medium-scale disaster events affect theregion. In 1998 Hurricane Mitchresulted in direct and indirectdamages estimated at US$6.3billion and caused more than10,000 casualties. Industries suchas tourism and agriculturalexports, which are largely coastalbased, suffered greatly.

The extensive coastline makesCentral America especiallyvulnerable. Coastal areas areaffected by the direct threats fromthe ocean (waves, wind andflooding) and the indirect impactsfrom inland precipitation(increased low-lying coastal areaflooding and sedimentation).Extreme events such as HurricaneMitch are even more devastatingdue to factors such as poverty andsocial exclusion, as well asunsustainable exploitation ofnatural resources and inadequatecoastal management.

The connection betweendisasters andother socialfactors is notalways clearand, to alarge extent,has notreceivedenoughattention inthis or many

other regions. For example, theneed to integrate watershed andcoastal zone management isevident. Coastal and marineecosystems, such as mangroves,wetlands and coral reefs, play avital role as protection barriers for

social groups such as children,women and the elderly wasdiscussed.Three importantconclusions are:1. Integrate vulnerabilitymitigation at the local, national andregional levels.The regionalperspective is particularlyimportant in Central America,where natural hazards and thewatersheds are transboundary.Thecombined effect of workingtogether can significantly decreasethe region’s vulnerability.2. Undertake local-levelparticipatory hazard vulnerabilitymitigation and disaster preventionplanning. This is to includeenvironmental and natural hazardvulnerability education andinformation management. Manyremote coastal communities arecut off from national emergencyefforts during natural disasters;thus, there is a need for adequateand independent local preventionplans based on active communityparticipation.

In the lower and coastal part ofthe Lempa River Basin in ElSalvador is a successfuldemonstration of communityinvolvement in preparing localemergency response plans,including basic organization,responsibilities and procedures forevacuation and emergencymanagement. In addition, localhazard vulnerability maps and earlyalert systems based on accuratehydrological and precipitation datawere developed.This area receivedmore rainfall than any other area inthe country during HurricaneMitch and, as a result of the area’spreparedness, there were no deathsamong the 35,000 inhabitants.3. Strengthen the institutionalframework for environmental andhazard management.This can beaccomplished by facilitating the useof effective tools such as land-use

inland areas. Nevertheless, theseimportant resources are sufferingfrom over-exploitation anddeterioration due to unsustainablemariculture, salt productionexpansion, uncontrolled tourismdevelopment, and poor waterquality due to sedimentation andpollution from land-based sources.Many of these problems can bedecreased through upstream soilconservation and land-useplanning.

Reconstruction ofCentral America

In March 1999, the Inter-American Development Bank(IDB) and the Central AmericanIntegration System organized aregional workshop in San Salvador,El Salvador, on the topic ofenvironmental management andnatural disaster vulnerability andmitigation. Over 130 governmentofficials and environmental andnatural hazard experts from ElSalvador, Honduras, Guatemalaand Nicaragua along withrepresentatives from othergovernments, institutions andmultilateral organizationsparticipated.The purpose was to share experiences and draw“lessons learned” from therelationship between naturalhazards and resource manage-ment. In an effort to decrease therisk of similar damages in thefuture, ideas, policies and actionplans were explored that could beintegrated into the national andregional reconstruction plans. InMay 1999 in Stockholm, Sweden,IDB and the Swedish governmentorganized a workshop focusing onsocial and ecological vulnerability.The issue of vulnerability mit-igation was addressed with abroader and more regionaldimension.The particular vulner-ability to natural hazards of certain

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Mangroves protect the coast from storms and floods


planning, environmental impactstatements, natural hazardvulnerability assessments andeconomic incentives to promotesustainable use of the naturalresources. For example, duringHurricane Mitch a large warehousecontaining highly toxic agro-chemicals was flooded in thecoastal city of Choluteca,Honduras. Nearby areas, includingthe Gulf of Fonseca, werecontaminated, potentially affectinghuman health, and marine andcoastal productivity (e.g., shrimpfarming industry). Having thesetypes of facilities located in highflood-risk areas indicates bothinadequate land-use planning andpoor environmental impactassessments.This shows the need to consider both the effects ofinfrastructure on the naturalenvironment and the impact theenvironment may have oninfrastructure.This further suggests the need to specificallyrequire natural hazard vulner-ability assessments as a part ofenvironmental impact assessmentlegislation and practice.

Mitigation andPrevention

IDB is supporting variousprograms and initiatives in CentralAmerica aimed at decreasingvulnerability to natural hazards.These efforts follow a series of IDBstrategies and guidelines including:• A comprehensive strategy onnatural and unexpected disasterswhich stipulates that all projectsmust include an analysis containingnatural hazard risk assessments• Specific environmental and socialprocedures to be approval for allprojects• Implement two newly approvedstrategies for marine and coastalresources management andintegrated water resourcesmanagement (Websites: http://www.iadb.org/sds/utility.

cfm/205/ENGLISH/pub/574);and http://www.iadb.org/sds/utility.cfm/188/ENGLISH/pub/695).

After Hurricane Mitch, IDBsupported a series of recon-struction programs incorporatingenvironmental managementstrategies. For example, a post-hurricane housing program inHonduras will develop guidelinesfor risk mapping and preparemunicipal maps of natural hazardrisk to be used for the delineationof uninhabitable areas. Onlyhouseholds resettling outside high-risk areas will be eligible for thehousing program benefits. Inaddition, communities living inareas of high risk will be providedwith information about the risksthey face and their options to berelocated to alternative locationswith support from the program.

Another example is a roadrehabilitation program inNicaragua in which environmentaland preventive considerations areaddressed in the project’s design,supervision and monitoring. Slopestabilization, reforestation,improvement of drainage systemsand maintenance procedures areamong the measures included.

IDB,The World Bank and theJapanese government aresupporting the Center forCoordination of Natural DisasterPrevention in Central America(CEPREDENAC) in an effort toimprove hazard mitigation anddisaster prevention(http://www.cepredenac.org).This program includes a DisasterPrevention and Mitigation Fundthat provides matching grants(maximum of US$150,000) formitigation and prevention projectsat the national and local levels.Eligible projects includedevelopment or implementation ofnatural hazard mitigation plans,vulnerability and risk studies,

modification or development ofbuilding codes, education, amongothers.

Other post-Mitch IDB-supported programs include:• Developing a national programfor the sustainable management ofpriority watersheds in Guatemala• Developing a tri-nationalwatershed management programfocusing on environmentalmanagement and resource

development in Guatemala,Honduras and El Salvador • Developing an environmentalprogram for sustainablemanagement of coastal and marineecosystems and land-use planningin the Bay Islands, Honduras.

Governments and internationalfunders must be aware that theplanning and early reconstructionstages are where steps should betaken for prevention and mitigationin order to reduce vulnerability.One lesson to be learned byHurricane Mitch is that preventionand mitigation efforts must bestrongly voiced to ensure theirinclusion at the planning stage.Otherwise, the reconstructionstage will be a mere ‘restoration’ ofthe scene for the next disaster.

For further information contact:Henrik Franklin, Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank, Environmentand Natural ResourcesManagement Division, 1300 NewYork Avenue,Washington D.C.20577 U.S.A.Tel: 202 623 2860.E-mail: [email protected]:http://www.iadb.org

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Landslide in Honduras

by weather scenario. USGSquadrangle maps, GIS map layers,and output displays for thefunctioning hydraulic andfloodplain delineation models werealso provided to officials. Multiplescenarios were used to identifybuffer zones for potential floodevents in the river basin.

GIS provides a unique tool tomerge and display geographicimages.Watersheds may bedisplayed using three-dimensionaltechnology. A USGS QuarterQuadrangle can be draped over theUSGS DEM contour map creatinga three-dimensional image of thearea.This type of image is useful tolocal officials and businessesbecause it can display a three-dimensional image of the floodingimpact.The three-dimensionalimage has the capacity to show theelevation of the water and itsimpact on buildings, bridges,roads, land and levees.

ConclusionsHydraulic models for predicting

water-surface profiles and floodinundation may be used by localemergency management, publicworks, planning, floodmanagement and public safetypersonnel to identify structuresand organizations at risk.Themodels also provide a basis forpredicting the area to be impacted,the water level and the flow rate.The most convenient and user-friendly method to display andquery this information is throughthe use of a GIS.

For further information contact:John C. Pine, Institute forEnvironmental Studies, LouisianaState University, Baton Rouge, LA70803-5705 USA.Tel: 225-388-1075. Fax: 225-388-4286. E-mail:[email protected]:http://www.hurricane.lsu.edu


Real-Time Flood ModelingBy Hassan S. Mashriqui andJohn C. Pine

Anew tool in understanding thenature and extent of flooding

is now available to local-levelemergency managers and otherpersonnel.This tool linkshydrologic and hydraulic modelingprograms, geographic informationsystems (GIS) and real-timeweather data.The tool has thecapability to predict or determineareas that may be impacted by

rising floodwaters. Local officialscan use this information forbusiness emergency planning andland-use planning and for selectionof evacuation routes and buildingsto be used as shelters. In addition,the technology provides

informationfor mitigatingflood damagesuch asexamination ofalternatestrategies foridentifyingdrainage areas,addingpumping

stations and levees, and land useoptions.

The West Fork Calcasieu RiverBasin, Louisiana, USA, (see map) isan area that experiences seriousflooding. As a trial for this tool, afully operational model was

developed to simulate floodingfrom severe rainfall. Floodinundation maps using the modelshowed the nature and extent offlooded areas including criticalbuilding, public service structuresand transportation routes inside theflood zones.

Flood Modeling andData

Hydrologic and hydraulicmodeling was performed using theWatershed Modeling System inassociation with Federal Emerg-ency Management Agency(FEMA)-approved hydraulicmodels.These models predict real-time water surface profiles.

The model used three primarydata sources:1. GIS data (water and roadfeatures, land use, soils types andsurveyed cross sections)2. US Geologic Survey (USGS)1:24,000 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)3.Triangulated Irregular Networks (TINs)

As a part of this demonstration,local officials were providedmodel-generated flood inundationmaps in both paper and digitalform. Map layers were provided toenable a comparison betweenalternative flooding buffer zonesand selected features of thegeographic area. Map layers such ashospitals, schools, nursing homes,bridges, residents, businesses,roads and many others could beviewed in comparison with thevarious flood-zone scenarios.Population census data at thecounty, tract, block group andblock level was also included.Population counts using census data are made to describe thecharacteristics of the population ina specific flood zone. Featuresfalling within a specific buffer zonecan be selected, saved and grouped

West Fork Calcasieu River

West Fork Calcasieu River Watershed

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By Guy Gelfenbaum, BruceJaffe, Christina Neal andHugh Davies

Tsunamis (also known as tidalwaves) are often caused by

underwater earthquakes orlandslides that trigger a series oftraveling ocean waves.Tsunamiwaves can travel hundreds of miles,but may only have a wave height ofa few feet or less and cannot be feltaboard ships nor seen from the airin the open ocean. However, oncethey reach shore, tsunami wavescan be as much as 100-feet highand are a major threat to coastalcommunities; even waves muchsmaller can be very destructive.

On the evening of July 17, 1998,an earthquake of magnitude 7.0was followed by a series ofcatastrophic tsunami waves thatdevastated several villages on thenorth coast of Papua New Guinea(PNG). Early eyewitness accounts,later confirmed by field studies,reported waves 7- to 10-metershigh at the coast.The confirmeddeath toll was over 2,000, and thecoastal villages of Warapu andArop, located on barrier spitsaround the Sissano Lagoon, werecompletely destroyed. In theaftermath, thousands of coastalresidents were forced to leave theirvillages and set up temporarycamps inland. Many of the villagerswere fearful of further disastrouswaves and were uncertain aboutreturning to their coastal villages.

The tsunami consisted of threelarge waves, the first makinglandfall approximately 20 minutesafter coastal residents felt theearthquake.The second and thirdwaves came within five minutes ofthe preceding wave.The force ofthe waves was great enough to riplarge trees from the ground by theroots and to move both traditionaland modern structures landwardsome tens to hundreds of meters.

Preliminary analysis of seismo-graphs and other field evidence putthe center of the earthquake at amere 20-km offshore of the SissanoLagoon.

Rapid Response toTsunami

In order to assess the nature ofthe tsunami, members of theinternational tsunami communityconducted a field survey of thearea. A similar internationalresponse has been undertaken inJapan, Indonesia, Nicaragua,Philippines, Russia and Peru withinthe past six years.Within weeks ofthe devastating PNG tsunami, theInternational Tsunami Survey Team(ITST), a multi-national team ofscientists and engineers fromJapan, United States, Australia andNew Zealand visited the region toinstall seismographs, measurewater levels and intervieweyewitnesses.

A second ITST returned to PNGin late September 1998 to retrievedata, assess damage to buildingsand structures, and examine thesediments left by the tsunami. Inaddition to collecting scientificinformation, ITST members meetwith government officials, relieforganizations and localrepresentatives to discuss and helpguide reconstruction decisions inthe event of another tsunami ornatural hazards.

Assessing TsunamiHazards Using theGeologic Record

When sediment is deposited by atsunami and preserved, a geologicrecord of that tsunami is created.By looking at sediments in an area,geologists may be able to identifysuch deposits and infer theoccurrence of past tsunamis.Therecognition of past tsunamis allowsgeologists to extend the record of

tsunamis in an area. For nearlyevery tsunami-prone region, thehistoric record of tsunamis isrelatively short or non-existent anddoes not reflect the true naturalhazard. Because scientists cannotyet predict when a tsunami willoccur, obtaining a geologic recordof past tsunamis is one way toassess the likelihood of futureevents.

In addition to documenting theoccurrence of past tsunamis,tsunami deposits can help in theanalysis of characteristics such aswave height, power and extent ofinundation. Interpreting deposits isa relatively new science. Devel-oping this ability would be valuablefor understanding the July 17 PNGevent and for identifying tsunamioccurrences worldwide, bothancient and modern.

Two of ITST’s goals were todetermine whether or not thePNG tsunami produced arecognizable sediment deposit andto determine whether the geologicrecord in the area containsinformation about past tsunamis.The United State GeologicalSurvey and PNG scientists with theITST made measurements of landelevation, tsunami flow depth, flowdirection, and tsunami depositthickness and character alongseveral transects in the affectedarea. One transect was at the AropCommunity School, severalhundred meters from the village.Small pits were dug along thistransect to examine the tsunamideposits.The deposits werecommon and were identified asgray-colored sand typicallyoverlying a brown, rooted soil.Thedeposits were measured anddescribed in the field and sampleswere taken for laboratory analyses.The tsunami deposited a thin sandlayer (up to 12-cm thick) inlandacross more than 600 m of coastalplain. In some places, a zone about

1998 Tsunami: Papua New Guinea

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75-m wide near the ocean hadbeen eroded as evidenced byexposed tree roots. Some sanddeposited further inland came fromthe eroded beach, but at least someof the sand deposited by thetsunami is believed to have comefrom offshore, as numerous sanddollars (Dendraster excentricus)

were found near the surface of thedeposit.

The Arop School transect wasalso chosen as a site to look intothe sedimentary record for pasttsunamis. Sediment analyses founda layer possibly deposited by a pasttsunami.This material wascollected for radiometric dating to determine its approximate age.These dates will be added to therecord of past tsunamis.

Tsunami HazardMitigation

In addition to providinghumanitarian relief to survivors ofthe tsunami, the United States’Agency for International Devel-opment’s (USAID), Office ofForeign Disaster Assistance,pledged support for a mitigationprogram in PNG. One objectivewas to strengthen the capacity ofPNG’s emergency managementand disaster response organizations

and to improve public awareness ofcoastal and other geologic hazards.

USAID’s strategy includedupgrading the geophysical monit-oring and warning systems withinPNG. Due to the vast stretches ofremote, isolated coastline;limitations of communicationinfrastructure; and otherconstraints, a tsunami warningsystem based on seismic stations

and tide gauge sensors isnot feasible in PNG.Instead, USAID issupporting an ongoingcollaboration of the U.S.Geological Survey’sVolcano DisasterAssistance Program(VDAP), the RabaulVolcano Observatory(RVO) in PNG, and theAustralian GeologicalSurvey (AGSO). RVO isresponsible for seismicmonitoring of activevolcanoes in PNG andwarning of potential and

actual eruptions. A number ofPNG’s active volcanoes are situatedon islands or near the coastline; thus there areoverlapping efforts to reduce riskfrom volcanic eruptions as well astsunamis.With technical assistancefrom AGSO and VDAP, RVO willbe upgrading and expandingearthquake and volcano monitoringsystems and contributing to publiceducation campaigns about bothhazards.

In addition to these steps toreduce risk from tsunamisthroughout PNG, the ITST madeseveral preliminary recommen-dations for the safe relocation ofvillages in the effected area.Thoserecommendations include thefollowing:• There should be no relocation ofvillages near the coast in areasfronted by the ocean and backed byrivers or lagoons.• Critical facilities such as schools,

hospitals and churches should notbe located closer than 800 m fromthe ocean in areas of knowntsunami risk• Evacuation drills should beconducted annually, and peopleshould be taught to run inland asfar as possible whenever they feelan earthquake• Casuarina forests should beplanted in front of coastal villages,and trees should have steps orladders to facilitate verticalevacuation when necessary

There is still much to be learnedabout the recent and past tsunamisin PNG. For example, analysis ofthe sedimentary deposits in thearea and along other stretches ofpotentially vulnerable coast couldhelp officials in PNG assess futuretsunami risk by identifying therecurrence interval of past events.

Finally, such work in PNG willalso aid in understanding andmitigating tsunami hazardselsewhere in the world. Analysis ofknown tsunami deposits in PNGwill assist in the development ofsediment transport models thatwill relate characteristics of atsunami to any deposits left by thewave.These models can then beused to help interpret the numberand size of tsunamis that haveimpacted the coast in areas of theworld where there is little or nowritten record of tsunamis.

For further information contact:Guy Gelfenbaum or Bruce Jaffe atUSGS, 345 Middlefield RD, MS999, Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA.E-mail: [email protected];Bruce Jaffe, E-mail: [email protected];Christina Neal, USAID, E-Mail:[email protected]; or Hugh Davies,University of Papua New Guinea.E-mail: hda [email protected]

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Member of foreign assistance team speaking with viligers

Tsunami


Recognizing the Need for CoastalDisaster Planning in MicronesiaBy Douglas Ramsay

The island of Kosrae is theeasternmost island in the

Federated States of Micronesia.Kosrae is a 112 km2 volcanic islandsurrounded by well-developedcoastal mangroves and a narrowfringing reef with no outer islands.The population is approximately8,000; most depend on fishing andfarming for their livelihood.

On Kosrae, major typhoonevents are rare; the main tracks arelocated to the north and west ofthe island.The last major typhoonto affect the island was in 1905.This absence of a significant naturaldestructive event within thememory of much of the populationhas had a major impact on theeconomic development of theisland. Specifically, virtually theentire population and most of theisland’s infrastructure are nowlocated within the immediatecoastal hinterland, on landgenerally less than 2 m abovespring high tide. In addition,coastal erosion has intensified overthe last 50 years leading to alandward retreat (between 5 to 30m) of the shoreline around much ofthe island and a loss of shorelinemangroves.This retreat is ofconcern because approximately halfof Kosrae’s coastal fringe isdeveloped.The remainder is in anatural and undisturbed state, andsome areas are being developedinto community-managed marineparks.

Though Kosrae’s coastal zone isstill relatively healthy, it is subjectto the same forces that havedepleted coastal resources in otherparts of the Pacific, namely:• Rapid population growth withgreater than 50 percent of thepopulation under 16 years of age

• Rapid infrastructure developmentoccurring in the immediate coastalhinterland over the last 30 years(e.g., paved roadways, dock andairport facilities).This has lead tothe need for coastal defenses forprotection and for landreclamation.• Non-traditional use of coastalresources by landowners (e.g.,switch from traditional thatchedhousing to concrete buildings)• Over-exploitation ofd naturalresources• Constitutional right of a shorelinelandowner to reclaim abutting landon the foreshore or mangrove areas• Dependence on foreign aid,notably US Compact funding thatis decreasing and due to stop in2001• Increased public and privateventures geared to short-termprofits• Shift from small family/landsettlements to municipal urbanvillages

In 1998 the Kosrae governmentrecognized that an increasingcoastal population and changingsocioeconomic pressures werecausing the majority of thepopulation and infrastructure to belocated in the high-risk zone. Inresponse, the government starteddeveloping a shoreline managementplan.The goal is to provide aframework for future developmentand resource management withinthe context of coastal erosion andcoastal hazard management.

A key factor in this strategy isthe integration of state andmunicipal governments and localcommunities. Although the plan isbeing coordinated at the state level,the driving force comes from thecommunities within eachmunicipality. Communityworkshops are being used to

develop an agreement on:• The current nature, extent andcause of coastal degradation • The degree to which theseincrease coastal erosion• The risks and potential impactsfaced by each community fromcoastal hazards

The communities of each of thefour municipalities have establisheda group to address the issuesidentified by the communityworkshop.The group includes themayor, representatives from thecouncil, fishers, church groups,senior citizens, women’s groups,shoreline landowners and otherinterested parties. A fifth groupconsists of decisionmakers fromvarious governmental departments,nongovernmental organizations and

the municipal mayors. Acommunity liaison officer has beenappointed to help facilitatecommunication between thegroups, community andgovernment.

The goal is to make the publicand the government aware of theircoastal resource, the coastaldegradation and hazardmanagement opportunities.Education activities in 1999include:• An awareness program on variouscoastal issues using posters andradio broadcasts • Monthly environmental video

Erosion undermining mangroves along the Malem coastline

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shows in each municipality (Thereis no television in Kosrae.)• Church sermons and classes• Community workshops on coastal

erosion, hazard mitigation andresource depletion • Development of teaching tools oncoastal issues for use in schools•Training and capacity-buildingprograms on impact assessment

and decisionmakingprocedures forgovernment andcommunity members

The plan aims toprovide a foundationfor an integrated,participatory andinformed process ondevelopment and

management of the coastal zone.An additional aim is to have theentire community aware of thefull range of natural and man-made hazards and the risks thatthese pose to the island and itspeople.

For further information,contact: Douglas Ramsay,Development ReviewCommission, PO Box DRC,Kosrae 96944, Federated Statesof Micronesia.Tel: 691 370 2076;Fax: 691 370 3000. E-mail:[email protected]:http://www.Geocities.com/Rai

Sand mining, a major cause of coastal erosion

By Pierre Gosal

Coastal erosion and floodingcause significant damage in

coastal communities in NorthSulawesi, Indonesia. Somecommunities are concerned, butare unaware of what can be done toprevent unnecessary damage. It is

impossible for the Indonesiangovernment to address all coastalerosion issues; thus, it is at thecommunity level that action mustbe taken.

Proyek Pesisir (the IndonesianCoastal Resources ManagementProject) is developing programs in

two villages in NorthSulawesi–Bentenan and Talise–tostrengthen the villages’ capacity tohandle these problems. As part of abroader village-level coastalmanagement initiative, ProyekPesisir is emphasizing community-based monitoring and beach

profiling in areas that are proneto erosion and flooding. It ishoped this initiative can beapplied in other coastalcommunities.

TaliseErosion is a problem for

Talise Island and even moresevere on the island ofKinabuhutan, east of TaliseIsland. Dense mangrove forestsonce surrounded KinabuhutanIsland and protected its coast.These mangroves have been cutand, as a result, most of the

inhabitable area is flooded at a fullmoon high tide. Flooding in otherareas is stripping the land of topsoiland erosion endangers the onlyelementary school on the island.

BentenanThe village of Bentenan, is

located on the eastern coast of theMinahasa peninsula.The coastalerosion rate has been estimated tobe one to two meters per year,with occasional periods ofdeposition. Erosion hasundermined the only roadconnecting Bentenan and Rumbia.Some houses built in the intertidalzone are periodically flooded.Thearea’s growing population is rapidlydecreasing the availability of goodquality buildable land thus, housesare being built on less favorableland subject to frequent flooding.

The Bentenan Beach Resort builta jetty to maintain a permanentconnection between an artificiallagoon and the sea. As a result,there has been deposition to thenorth of the jetty and erosion tothe south.

Other factors contributing to theerosion are uncontrolled cutting ofmangroves and thatch palms in themarshy lagoon and sand and coralmining for building material andlime. Dynamite fishing continuesto damage the reef structure, alsoreducing the reef’s ability towithstand wave action.

Communities Addressing Erosion

Erosion in Talise

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(continued from page 9)Community Action


By Christian M.Appendiniand Román Lizárraga-Arciniega

Worldwide there is increasingconcern about coastal

hazards and, in a broader sense, allnatural disasters. It is not that theevents are more frequent orstronger, it is the increasing humandevelopment and populationdensity that now makes peoplemore vulnerable. Natural eventsbecome natural disasters whenpeoples’ lives, properties and theway-of-life are threatened.

Since natural events have andwill always exist, society needs tolearn to plan accordingly. Coastalevents are no exception.With the coastal population densityincreasing so quickly, it is notsurprising coastal areas arecommonly affected. Coastalerosion is a problem for everycoastal community, particularlywhere development has occurredwith no consideration of existingnatural processes.This problemexists more frequently in devel-oping countries where coastalplanning is not available or only inits infancy.

Coastal development in Mexicohas accelerated with littleconsideration of coastal processes.Now, what was once a coastal eventis a coastal hazard, thus a problem.Nevertheless, no policies exist thatrequire development toincorporate actions to reduce theaffects of coastal hazards.

The economy of Rosarito Beach,Baja California, Mexico, stronglydepends on tourism, as do manyother coastal areas in Mexico. It isnot surprising that coastal erosionis now considered a coastal hazard.This led the Universidad Autónomade Baja California to develop abeach erosion management plan.

Before proposing a management

strategy, certain activities werecarried out:• Analysis of the coastal processesand beach erosion• Analysis of coastal vulnerabilityto erosion • Development of a sedimentbudget• Classification of coastalmorphology• Consideration of coastalstructures and land use

This article aims to show theimportance of these studies andstress that they be undertaken forevery coastal area to assessvulnerability to coastal hazards andultimately develop amanagement plan.

The study started in1996, two years beforethe 1998 El Niño eventthat severely erodedRosarito Beach. Erosionwas so severe the areawas declared a nationaldisaster area. Although amanagement plan hadnot yet been completed,the 1998 El Niño and theresulting erosion, thoughdevastating to theregion, was a greatopportunity for scientiststo compare predictedresults to the actualcondition of RosaritoBeach after the El Niño.

In order to identifyareas most vulnerable toerosion, an erosionvulnerability analysis was used toassess beach-loss potential and theresulting potential damage. Beach-loss potential was defined as thesusceptibility of the sand deposits(beach) to be removed. For this,the existing morphologies weredefined: igneous cliffs, sedimentarycliffs and a low-lying beach.Thebeach width was definied: a ‘wide

beach’ as greater than 70 m, and a‘narrow beach’ as less than 70 m.(Seventy meters was observed tobe the largest shoreline recessionafter extreme wave events.) Usingbeach-loss potential andmorphology, the coast wasclassified into low, medium or highpotential beach loss.

The potential damage other thanbeach loss was estimated using landuse, population density and type ofexisting coastal protection.Thecategories of coastal protectionconsidered were engineered, non-engineered and no protection at

all. Using these, the coastal damagewas classified into low, medium orhigh potential of damage. Beach-loss potential and damagepotential, other than beach loss,were then combined to obtain anerosion vulnerability map.

Beach Erosion Caused by the 1998 El Niño

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After El Nino. As predicted,significant erosion occured

Before El Nino.Area predicted as highly venerable to erosion

For further information contact:Christian M. Appendini, CoastalEngineering Department, DanishHydraulic Institute, Agern All‚ 5,DK-2970 Horsholm.Tel: +45 45179 100 or +45 45 179 281. Fax:+45 45 179 200. E-mail:[email protected]:www.dhi.dk


results demonstrated that althoughmany coastal areas are makingchanges to minimize damage, thesechanges are usually notscientifically based. Scientificallybased analyses should be completedin all areas to identify critical areasand develop management plans tominimize or prevent furtherdamage. Mitigation strategies havealready been developed and usedsuccessfully formany areas andcircumstances.If coastalconditions inareas of higherosion wereassessed usingthe techniquesmentionedhere, existingstrategies couldbe adapted foruse elsewhere.

The February 1998 El Niñoevent caused severe damage.Theactual damage was compared to thepredicted damage using theanalyses. Devastating damageoccurred in the area predicted ashighly vulnerabile to erosion by theanalysis (see photo previous page).As shown in this photo, the sandlevel was about the same as thehouse before the event.The eventlowered the sand level in this areaby about 3 m.The damage mayhave been prevented had a policybased on an erosion-vulnerabilityanalysis been implemented in thisarea.

Though devastating to theregion, the 1998 El Niño and theresulting erosion were a greatopportunity for research scientiststo compare the predicted conditionof Rosarito Beach to the actualcondition after the El Niño.The

Efforts to AddressErosion

Proyek Pesisir has been workingin North Sulawesi since 1997 andcontinues to strengthen thecommunity’s interest andknowledge of preserving theirenvironment. Both communitiesare being trained in beachmonitoring and physical coastalprocesses. In Talise, Proyek Pesisirassisted with the construction ofdikes behind the mangrove forestto prevent flooding.With the helpof an elementary school teacher,Proyek Pesisir also sponsored amangrove-replanting project.

(continued from page 10)Community Action Public education efforts in Talise

and Bentenan stress the devastatingimpacts of mangrove cutting, coraland sand mining, and dynamitefishing. In Bentenan, over a dozenindividuals have been trained andare participating in monthly beachprofiling and monitoring. In Talise,coastal monitoring has also beensuccessfully conducted.

Through workshops, counselingand training events, Proyek Pesisiris assisting the villagers indeveloping regulations andordinances.Their intent is tomitigate coastal erosion andflooding problems, with anemphasis on preventing loss ofprivate and public infrastructure.Regulations would include

prohibiting sand and coral mining,and tree cutting in rural areas,especially mangroves.

Village leaders in Talise haveproposed an ongoing program forreplanting mangroves. ProyekPesisir supports this proposal, andthrough its extension officer willprovide the education on methodsand conditions for propermangrove replanting.

For further information contact:Pierre Gosal or J. JohnnesTulungen, Proyek Pesisir NorthSulawesi, Jl.Wolter Monginsidi No.5 Kleak Lingk. 1 / 19, Manado,North Sulawesi, Indonesia.Tel:0431 841 671. Fax: 0431 841 673.E-mail: [email protected]

El Niño(continued from page 11)

Sand collected behind a jetty


Below is a listing, brief description and subscription information of some of the E-mail discussion groups thatcover all aspects of disasters.These are a valuable tool particularly for those who do not have internet,

worldwide web access.The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok, offers an on-line subscription by sending an E-mail

message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe hazards[your name].”

Networks in Emergency Management (Nets) (focuses on computer networks and networking in emergencymanagement) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the bodyof the message: “subscribe nets-em [your E-mail address].”

Natural-Hazards-Disasters - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with thecommand in the body of the message: “join natural-hazards-disasters [your first name, your last name].”

Disaster Grads - subscribe by sending E-mail to [email protected], and in the body of the message write“subscribe disaster_grads [your first name] [your last name].”

HAZMIT - (a mailing list for the global hazard mitigation community, covering both natural and anthropogenicdisasters) - subscribe by sending and E-mail message to [email protected] with the command“subscribe” in either the subject or body of the message.

EMERGENCY-MANAGEMENT -subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe emergency-management [your real name].”

RISKANAL (Society for Risk Analysis list) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe riskanal [your name].”

CCEP News E-Zine (the Canadian Centre for Emergency Preparedness free weekly E-mail magazine) - subscribeby completing the registration from at

http://www.ccep.ca.PRIMAtalk (an unmoderated E-mail discussion list to promote discussion of risk management in the public sector

- from the Public Risk Management Association) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe prima-talk.”.

EMERG-L (emergency services list) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] the single command in the body of the message:

“subscribe EMERG-L [your name].”QUAKE-L (all things seismic, especially current, ongoing disasters) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to

[email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “sub QUAKE-L [firstname,lastname].”

GIS_GROUP (a list for hazards GIS researchers and users) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe gis_group.”

DisasterInfo (disaster information relevant to the Americas from the Pan American Health Organization) -subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] containing your postal and E-mail addresses.

DESASTRES-CA (a list, primarily in Spanish, for disaster managers and others concerned about hazards inCentral America) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command inthe body of the message: “subscribe desastres-ca [your E-mail address].”

CEPREDENAC - the Center for Prevention and Coordination of Disaster in Central America publishes a weekly,Spanish-language E-mail bulletin.To subscribe, send an E-mail message to [email protected].

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

The following information includes websites and E-mail discussiongroups available to those interested in natural disasters; emergency

planning; management and response; hazard mitigation and numerous otherhazard-pertinent topics.The information represents only a few of the 100sto 1000s of websites on these topics.Two sites of particular interest areEmergency Management Gold©1999 (EMGold) at: http://www.disasters.org/emgold/index.htm and Natural Hazards Center at theUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, USA, at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/

SPECIAL SECTIONSelected E-mail Information Sources

(continued page 32)


By Sarah Gammage, MelanyMachado and ManuelBenítez

Poverty, population expansionand civil conflict in El Salvador

have promoted migration bothinternally and internationally. Manyhouseholds fled conflictive zones torelocate along the coast, switchingactivities to become artisanalfishers, loggers and salt producers.One coastal resource highlyimpacted is the mangroves.Fuelwood and timber demands onthe already shrinking mangroveforests are increasing. Deforestationof the mangrove environment notonly decreases the availability offuelwood but makes coastalcommunities significantly morevulnerable to coastal storms,leading to erosion and flooding.

In El Tamarindo, El Salvador,rapid deforestation and theunregulated expansion ofaquaculture coupled with aconsistent and sustained demand

for fuelwood have led to thedeterioration of the mangroveecosystems.This concernprompted the design and use of analternate technology to reducefuelwood consumption, thusreducing mangrove use.

The development and use ofappropriate technology is not

groups of 60 households werecompared: those using the newtechnology and those usingtraditional open stoves.Thehouseholds were chosen randomlyto ensure all economic activitiesand income levels wererepresented.

The community chose the“Finlandia” stove.While theprinciples on which these improvedfuelwood stoves operate aresimilar, different varieties allow forgreater on-site modification.Thecommunity members chose a stovethat could be adapted to the sizeand location of each site and toeach household’s pots and pans.The community also elected to tilethe stove providing what was tobecome the only clean workingsurface on which to prepare food.

Community members and the60 households receiving the stovewere involved in all stages of theproject design, implementation andevaluation.With the help of thebeneficiaries, a household surveywas designed to measure whetherthe project had reduced fuelwooduse and fuelwood costs. Ofadditional importance to thehousehold was whether the newstove took more time to tend, thusdecreasing the time for other tasks.

Data were collected on fuelwooduse during the wet and dryseasons. Families were asked howmuch fuelwood they had bought orgathered and how much they hadconsumed each week. A reductionof almost six pounds per householdmember per week (6 lbs perhousehold member per week) wasobserved. For a family of five, thistranslates into almost 30 lbs offuelwood saved a week, a largedecrease in gathered and/orpurchased fuelwood.

A more rigorous test was doneweighing the fuelwood consumedeach day over a period of twoweeks during both the dry and wetseasons.The results were that the

merely the delivery of anacceptable inexpensive substitute,it is a process that results in thesuccessful application of a workablealternative. Attempts to channeltechnology directly to women tochange household resource use,minimize additional householdburdens, and increase the fuelefficiency of domestic stoves mayprove to be extremely worthwhile.Attempts to introduce solarcookers, solar driers and foodstorage technologies have oftenfailed, largely because women didnot participate in the problem-identification or solution-generation phase.Without acommitment to participatorymethods of design, application andevaluation, the technology may beless than suitable, erraticallyadopted, poorly used and rapidlyabandoned.

Improved fuelwood stoves andother non-combustible deviceshave often been used in attempts to

reduce fuelwood con-sumption.These have metwith varying success. If theintroduction of alternativetechnology imposes even asmall constraint upon thehousehold, it is not likely tobe adopted. For example,solar cookers requireconstant sun, needing to be moved continuallythroughout the day.Thisinterrupts other domestic

actives or increases the time spentcooking, thus making the use of thesolar cooker a burden.

Acceptance ofAlternative FuelwoodStove

In order to evaluate theintroduction and acceptance of analternative fuelwood stove, two

Technological Challenge in aFragile Coastal Ecosystem

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Community women building a Finlandia stove


Finlandia stoves requiredsignificantly less fuelwood percapita than the open stoves.TheFinlandia stoves were also easier tolight and retained heat for longer.Unfortunately, the Finlandia stovestook longer to boil a given amountof water.This was a concern;however, the total length of timethe Finlandia stoves remained lit(using less fuelwood) was onlyslightly longer than the traditionalstoves. In fact, those who used theFinlandia stove were able tocombine several dishes and cookthem simultaneously instead ofsequentially (the traditionalmethod), saving time andincreasing time for other tasks.

Conclusions andRecommendations

The findings demonstrate thatfuelwood consumption andexpenditures per capita havedecreased with the use of theFinlandia improved fuelwoodstoves.The health data from theproject also recorded significantreductions in the incidence ofburns, respiratory, sight and kidneyailments. Although the dataregarding time saved were lessconclusive, it appears that beingable to cook different dishessimultaneously was an improve-ment. At the very least, theFinlandia stoves did not increasethe time spent on cooking.

Few studies have attempted tomeasure fuelwood consumptioncomparing the use of improved andtraditional fuelwood stoves overboth wet and dry seasons.Thisstudy collected information over aperiod of 18 months and combinedsocioeconomic data on income,expenditures and time-allocationwith quantitative and qualitativedata on fuelwood consumption andthe use and operation of the stoves.Though time-consuming at theoutset, applying a participatory andgender-sensitive methodology that

focuses on the roles andresponsibilities of women in thecommunity was critical to ensureimproved fuelwood stoves wereadopted and appropriately used.The findings clearly relatefuelwood consumption to poverty,income and cash constraints andthe collapse of the rural economyin El Salvador. It was encouragingto see that even in the face ofeconomic hardship and in the wakeof Hurricane Mitch, changes can bemade in the way fuelwood is usedand consumed.

It is clear that the Finlandiavariety of improved fuelwood stovecan reduce fuelwood consumption

and may contribute to reducingenvironmental dependency infragile ecosystems. Fuelwood is aplentiful renewable energy sourceand when managed sustainably canprovide an excellent source ofdomestic energy. Strategies thatfocus on substituting other non-renewable energy sources may beboth short sighted and difficult toimplement given the tastes andpreferences of the ruralcommunities. Obviously a long-term goal would be to reducefuelwood consumption tosustainable levels, substitutingother forms of renewable energywherever possible.

The community of El Tamarindo

has been interested for some timein mangrove management.Theavailability of stoves that reducefuelwood consumption may proveuseful in any strategy to reducetotal fuelwood consumption in thisand surrounding communities.However, alone these behavioralchanges do not address thefundamental cause of environ-mental dependency. Change mustbe part of an integrated strategythat addresses education, providesaffordable health care, and developspolicies that enable a shift fromunsustainable for-profit andsubsistence activities to sustainableones that preserve livelihoods and

habitats.This change must becommunity initiated andsanctioned to be effective and tocontribute to an integrateddevelopment strategy.

Copies of the full report areavailable from the InternationalCenter for Research on Women,1717 Massachusetts Avenue, NW,Washington, DC 20036 USA.Theauthors are members of the Centrode Estudios Ambientales y Socialespara el Desarrollo Sostenible in ElSalvador. Contact: SarahGammage, E-mail:[email protected]

Cooking on a finished Finlandia stove


By Anne Burrill, PeterBurbridge and SarahHumphrey

Coastal regions of the EuropeanUnion (EU) are being looked

to for new opportunities todiversify local and nationaleconomies, from aquaculture andwindfarms to tourism and leisure.Concurrently, coastal populationsare growing significantly.

Human activities have not beenwithout impact to the coastalenvironment; it is estimated that asmuch as 70 percent of Europe’scoastline is highly threatened dueto direct and indirect humanimpacts. Principle areas of concernare loss of natural habitats, loss inbiodiversity and cultural diversity,decline in water quality, andcompetition for space, amongothers. Demographic changes incoastal areas as a result of changingeconomic opportunities are alsopresenting new social challenges,from urban expansion to decline ofrural communities.

The European DemonstrationProgramme in Integrated CoastalManagement has responded to thisconcern by undertaking projectsthat have generated a wealth ofknowledge. A reflection paper,Towards a European IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICM)Strategy: General Principles andPolicy Options, based on thefollowing six thematic studies wasreleased in April 1999.

The Six ThematicStudies1. Legal and Regulatory Bodies:Appropriateness to ICM2. Participation in ICM Process:Mechanisms and ProceduresNeeded3. Role and Use of Technology inICM4. Planning and Management

Processes: Sectoral and TerritorialCooperation5. Influence of EU Policies onCoastal Zones6. Information needs for ICM

The findings appear to confirmthe hypothesis that most of theproblems and conflicts observed inEurope’s coastal zones can betraced to procedural, planning,policy and institutional weaknesses.This results from a lack ofawareness about the strategiceconomic and social importance ofsustainable coastal zonemanagement.

HistoricalPerspective

Problems have stemmed fromdecades of uncoordinatedmanagement that has occurredbecause:• Legislation and policy have beensectorally-based anduncoordinated, and decisions haveoften worked against the long-terminterests of sustainabledevelopment• Rigid bureaucratic systems havelimited local creativity andadaptability• Local initiatives in sustainablemanagement have lacked adequateresources and support from higheradministrative levels• Management of the coast haslacked vision and is based on alimited understanding of coastalprocesses• Scientific research and datacollection have been isolated fromend-users

Many approaches have beenused, and a large geographic regionhas been covered by the 35demonstration projects–from Corkto Athens and the Gulf of Finlandto the Algarve. Results indicate thatwhile there is no one correctapproach to ICM, there are a

number of general principles thatshould be followed to strengthenefforts.

General PrinciplesCoastal zones are subject to

geographically far-rangingenvironmental and socioeconomicinfluences, many of whichtranscend the boundaries of local,regional and even nationaladministrations.The scope of theselinkages are only just beingunderstood, e.g., the importanceof North Sea sediment dynamics tothe Wadden Sea and therepercussions of changingemployment patterns for sustainingcommunities in peripheral areas. Asystems approach, including boththe land and sea components, willhelp to identify the key drivingforces in a given coastal area, andappropriate partners are alsoidentified.There are sevenprinciples that should guide coastalmanagement in Europe:Principle 1:Take a Wide-Ranging Perspective. Europe’s89,000 km of coast is extremelydiverse–not just in environment,but in social, cultural, institutionaland economic characteristics. Goodlocal information is critical toassess the problems and needs.Principle 2: Build on anUnderstanding of the Area’sSpecific Conditions andNeeds. The correct approach toICM in a specific area should bedetermined on the needs andconditions particular to that area.This emphasizes the importance ofcritical information gathering andstrongly suggests that it is notappropriate for the EU to prescribea generic ICM approach orsolution.

Numerous economic activitiesare located in risk-prone coastalplains, estuaries and nearshoremarine environments.The dynamicnature of coastal systems is largely

Guiding Principles for a European IntegratedCoastal Management Strategy

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ignored during the planning stagesof development in urban and ruralareas. For example, solid,structural coastal defences (e.g.,groins and breakwater) lend amisguided sense of security todevelopers who continue to investin hazardous areas, thus increasingthe potential losses from floodingor erosion. Such defences areincreasingly costly to maintain-particularly with sea-level rise-andare now known to adversely affectother parts of the coast. Plannersneed to anticipate and, wherepossible, avoid being locked intocostly efforts to maintain statusquo.Principle 3:Work withNatural Processes-Not Against Them. Working againstnatural processes is both costly andineffective.Principle 4: Ensure thatToday’s Decisions Do NotEliminate Tomorrow’sChoices. Coastal dynamicsillustrate where future options arebeing compromised.Thesedynamics extend beyond thephysical forces to socioeconomicchanges associated with broaderpolitical, sectoral and develop-mental trends.The precautionaryprinciple is applicable to all uses ofcoastal space and resources.Although the future cannot bepredicted, the key is to maintainflexibility in the face ofuncertainty.Principle 5: ParticipatoryPlanning is a Key toDeveloping Consensus.Participatory planning has been astrong feature and message of manyof the demonstration programmes-often reaching beyond the standardprocedures associated withplanning. Participation provides ameans to harness local knowledge,energy and commitment, and toarrive at a genuine understandingof the issues and the stakeholders’perspectives. Ownership of theprocess provides a solid foundationfor policy adoption andimplementation.

Responsibility for coastalmanagement activities is oftendivided among governmentagencies, services and admin-istrations operating sectorally orterritorially. In many countries, forexample, management of offshoreareas is often a function of thecentral government, while land-based planning is a function of thelocal government. Coastalmanagement must integrate theconcerns of all relevant sectoralagencies–from conservation toheavy industry and tourism. Inaddition, all community levelsmust be involved in policy anddecisionmaking–from local,regional and national tocontinental. In Europe, theassignment of managementresponsibilities between differentlevels of government should bedetermined by how the resource issubsidized. It is critical that policiesand actions be consistent at alllevels.Principle 6: Ensure Supportand Involvement of AllRelevant AdministrativeBodies. Without involvement ofall relevant administrative bodies,support will never be gained, thusconsensus will never be reached.Principle 7: Use aCombination of Instrumentsto Achieve Objectives. A rangeof instruments are available toimplement ICM–from commandand control to economic incentivesand voluntary agreements–eachhaving its strengths and drawbacks.Ideally, a wide range of instrumentsshould be used at all stages, fromdeveloping awareness andpromoting dialogue throughstrategy development andimplementation.

Moving On So what should be the role of

the EU? Certainly there isjustification for action at theEuropean level.The justificationlies in the following factors:• European sectoral policy has and

will continue to influence the waymember states and regions usecoastal areas and resources• Europe’s coastal zones offer animportant asset to European policyobjectives, from social andeconomic cohesion toenvironmental health• Many coastal issues, bothsocioeconomic and environmental,extend beyond national boundaries

Finally, it is worth adding thatsince many issues are common toseveral coastal member states,there is great potential for sharingexperiences between differentparts of the EU.The demonstrationprogramme has been an importantfirst step in this direction, and thechallenge now is to determine:Where do we go from here?

(Details of the individualdemonstration projects, thestrategy, background documentsand thematic studies can be foundat website:http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg11/iczm/)For further information contact:Peter Burbridge, Department ofMarine Sciences and CoastalManagement, Ridley Building,University of Newcastle,Newcastle upon Tyne, England


By Jennifer East

The United States’ FederalEmergency Management

Agency (FEMA) has taken aproactive approach to weatheringhurricanes in the 1998 and 1999seasons.While one can not controlnatural disasters, one can takemeasures to reduce their impacts.Project Impact: Building DisasterResistant Communities is a nationalinitiative designed to undertakeactions that protect families,businesses and communities byreducing the effects of naturaldisasters. At the core of theseefforts is the belief that we cancome together to create activepublic-private partnerships thatwill build disaster-resistantcommunities. Since its creation in1997, 120 communities havejoined on as Project Impactcommunities. Since hurricaneseason began in June 1999, somehurricane-prone Project Impactcommunities have made significantstrides toward making themselvesdisaster resistant.Deerfield Beach, Florida

The coastal communities ofFlorida are particularly susceptibleto hurricanes, tropical storms andflooding. For example, the city ofDeerfield Beach has been hit by atleast seven major hurricanes in thelast 75 years. Deerfield Beach hasbeen quite active as a ProjectImpact community. DeerfieldBeach joined with the State FarmInsurance Company to build adisaster-resistant model home forpublic viewing. Dearfield Beach hasalso retrofitted the Chamber ofCommerce building to be disasterresistant; this building serves as acritical location for businesses andas the operation center during adisaster. Deerfield Beach is also a

partner with Broward County inthe development of a BrowardCounty Community EmergencyResponse Team (CERT) to trainindividuals on emergencypreparedness. So far, 75 residentshave graduated from the CERTtraining program.The goal is toarm the community with the toolsnecessary to make all residentssafer and smarter when the nextstorm hits.Escambia County, Florida

Escambia County is at risk froma number of hazards.The area hasbeen included in four presidentialdisaster declarations in the past fiveyears, three of them have beenhurricanes. In light of the region’svulnerability, the city and countyhave implemented strong coastalconstruction regulations and arecurrently collaborating on a localmitigation strategy.The county isalso involved in a program toprovide hurricane shutters andwind retrofitting for a number ofcritical facilities.Wilmington, North Carolina

Wilmington is no stranger tohurricanes. In July 1996,Hurricane Bertha caused anestimated US$17 million in damageto homes, businesses and utilities inNew Hanover County. Eight weekslater Hurricane Fran causedUS$240 million in damage.

Wilmington has joined ProjectImpact.The school board isoverseeing a large-scale projectfunded by a Project Impact grantand a US$1.8 million bond issue toimprove the disaster resistance oflocal schools. A risk assessment wasconducted for nine schoolbuildings, which are alsoemergency shelters, andrecommendations were made formitigation measures. In addition,

mitigation measures will beincluded in school building codes.

The county’s emergencymanagement team supportstraining exercises and drills,participates in county disaster-awareness programs and staffs theemergency operations center. Atthe school board’s expense, a two-way radio communicationsnetwork was installed to be usedduring the frequent breakdown ofcommunications acrossjurisdictional and agencyboundaries during disasters.

In addition, a newly renovatedwater supply plant has been locatedoutside the floodplain and designedfor 120-mile-per-hour winds.There are two 1,250-kw dieselgenerators to supply 100 percentpower in the event of anemergency.Charleston, South Carolina

Charleston has suffered fromnumerous hurricanes; notablyHurricane Hugo in 1989. As adirect result of Hurricane Hugo,damage-reduction tools such asbuilding and zoning codes andfloodplain management rules are inplace. Moreover, there are nowstate regulations for coastalconstruction on barrier islands.

The Charleston community hasalso joined Clemson University andthe South Carolina Sea GrantConsortium to develop a disaster-resistant demonstration house inCharleston’s historic district.Thisdemonstration house will serve asan educational center forhomeowners and contractorsinterested in retrofitting historicbuildings.Freeport (Long Island), NY

Long Island, New York, isparticularly vulnerable to weatherhazards, and many communitieshave suffered significant, repetitivelosses caused by flooding. Freeportas a Project Impact community hasadopted building codes requiringhurricane straps on houses.

Project Impact: Building DisasterResistant Communities

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By Michele Steinberg

Though the smallest state in theUnited States, Rhode Island is

one of the most densely populated.With 420 miles of coastline, RhodeIsland is vulnerable to hurricanesand winter coastal storms that cancause extensive loss of life andproperty and severely disruptessential human services. In thepast century, two major hurricanes(1938 and 1954) killed 281 peopleand inflicted over US$1 billion indamage (in 1999 dollars).Today,residential and commercial coastalproperty in Rhode Island, valued atmore than US$83 billion, is at riskof hurricane damage.

In consideration of these andother factors, Rhode Island’sgovernor declared the state a“Showcase State” for disasterresistance and resilience.Thisdirects state agencies to worktowards reducing Rhode Island’sfuture vulnerability to naturalhazards.The initial partners in thiseffort were the Institute forBusiness & Home Safety (IBHS),Rhode Island Sea Grant at theUniversity of Rhode Island CoastalResources Center (CRC), theRhode Island EmergencyManagement Agency (RIEMA) andthe Federal EmergencyManagement Agency (FEMA).Much of the Showcase State effortbuilds on work accomplished bySea Grant/CRC and RIEMA since1991 (see “The Rhode IslandHazard Mitigation Program,”InterCoast, Fall 1998).

The goals of the Showcase State efforts are:

• To help a state and its citizenshelp themselves by reducingvulnerability to natural disasters

• To generate a “me too”attitude among other states byshowcasing the successful efforts

of particular states• To learn what works and what

does not work to reduce theemotional and financial devastationcaused by natural disasters

Rhode Island, though vulnerableto a number of hazards, has notexperienced a major disaster inseveral decades.The ShowcaseState initiative is intended to makeloss reduction actions part ofeveryday decisionmaking. In thepast eight months, the ShowcaseState effort has made a great dealof progress in changing the wayRhode Island deals with naturalhazards.

MilestonesA Showcase State Steering

Committee has been formed fromthe state agencies and private-sector entities responsible andaccountable for implementingvarious actions that will help thestate become more disasterresistant and resilient. Asubcommittee on hazardidentification and risk assessmentwill meet in fall 1999 to setparameters and a starting point fora statewide risk assessment.

The Showcase State partnersrecognize that if businesses do notrecover after a natural disaster,communities do not recover. Astatewide Disaster RecoveryBusiness Alliance has been startedas a private-public link intended toimprove coordination on disasterpreparedness, mitigation, responseand recovery.The majority ofbusinesses in Rhode Island aresmall (97 percent have 500 orfewer employees), so working withexisting organizations, such as theChambers of Commerce, has beennecessary to reach businesses withthe important message of disasterresistance.Workshops and

informational materials have beentailored to small business sectors.

Two of the most importantaspects of creating disaster-resistantcommunities are improving theway structures are built towithstand natural hazards, andensuring that developmentdecisions take natural hazards intoaccount. Rhode Island has a statebuilding code with high standardsfor wind, water and seismichazards.The Rhode Island BuildingCommission is working to improveeducation on hazards for buildersand enforcement officials, and tochange the code to promotesimple, inexpensive upgrades forwind hazards when buildings arerenovated. Rhode Island has a StateGuide Plan for development, andmandates comprehensive plans atthe local level.The State GuidePlan includes consideration of theflood hazard in its land useelement. In the next severalmonths, Rhode Island communitieswill pilot test an IBHS self-ratingform designed to gauge how welltheir local plans incorporatenatural hazards concerns.

Coordinated, effectiveemergency response is vital in theimmediate aftermath of a disaster.State, local and federal governmentofficials are working cooperativelyto improve emergency responsecapability, standards and training,and shelter capacity. IBHS isworking with the state to developan early access system forinsurance adjusters, to speed thepost-disaster insurance claimsprocess and thus improve quickrecovery for residents andbusinesses.

The Showcase State effortsupports and in turn is supportedby FEMA’s Project Impact initiative(See article page 18 this issue). InRhode Island, the cities of Warwickand Pawtucket received seed fundsfrom FEMA to reduce their

Rhode Island: First ShowcaseState for Disaster Resistance

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Project Impact

Rhode Island

Elevation projects are alsounderway to elevate streets inhard-hit areas, and a US$890,000Flood Mitigation Assistance Grantis being used to help 30homeowners affordably elevatetheir homes three feet above thebase flood elevation.

Key to the success of ProjectImpact is a strong partnership withthe business community and strongpublic support. In Freeport, thebusiness community sponsorsactivities such as hurricaneawareness seminars, lectures forpublic schools and other citizens,and hands-on demonstrations ofhurricane proofing. Frequentmailings of emergency informationensure the citizens are keptinformed.Warwick, Rhode Island, USA

The city of Warwick is a coastalcommunity exposed to numeroushazards.The Hurricane of 1938and Hurricane Carol in 1954caused extensive damage along theentire shoreline. Inland flooding

along the Pawtuxet River has alsobeen a frequent problem.The city’svulnerability is compounded by theclose proximity of coastal andriverine environments toresidential and commercial areas.Having both commercial andresidential areas at risk makesWarwick an ideal Project Impactcommunity because strongpublic/private partnerships, thekey to Project Impact’s success, arerequired for mitigation efforts tobe successful (see page 19, thisissue).

Warwick has a significantcommercial center with severallarge shopping malls, a series ofindustrial and business parks, andthe largest airport in the state.Warwick has a strong Chamber ofCommerce representing majorcompanies and small businessesalike. One example of a strongpublic/private partnership is thecity’s alliance with a building-supplies store (Home Depot) toteach techniques for retrofittingand flood-proofing houses andimprove community training and

education.The city has alsoestablished a planning council tofocus on disaster-prevention.Thecouncil is working in cooperationwith the Coastal Resources Center,University of Rhode Island, USA,and the Rhode Island EmergencyManagement Agency, USA, todevelop a local all-hazardsmitigation plan.

Tragedy caused by naturalhazards is most acute at the locallevel-in the community and inneighborhoods.The effects can bedevastating; however, there aremany ways to reduce or preventthese effects. Although one muststay prepared to respond to theinevitable occurrence of disasters,it is critical that everything possibleis done to reduce the potential fordisaster and create a safer futurefor our children: FEMA’s ProjectImpact is a large step towardsachieving this.

For further information contact:Federal Emergency ManagementAgency, 500 C Street, SW,Washington, DC 20472 USA.Tel:800 480 2520.Website:http://www.fema.gov

vulnerability to natural hazards.Showcase partners are workingwith the two communities to pilotvarious initiatives, including theretrofit of nonprofit childcarecenters. An IBHS program,“Protecting Our Kids fromDisasters,” helped raise publicawareness about natural hazards bygathering insurance companyvolunteers and others to make theBoys & Girls Club of Warwick andthe Pawtucket Day Nursery saferplaces for children.Volunteerssecured bookshelves and pictureframes to walls, placed protective

sleeves over fluorescent bulbs, andinstalled safety latches in cabinetsand drawers. Safety film wasinstalled on windows that will keepglass shattered by wind or debrisfrom flying indoors.

Rhode Island has proved to be anexcellent pilot for the ShowcaseState idea. In less than a year, thegoal of generating a “me too”attitude among other states hasbeen met. IBHS will work withtwo more states in 2000 and isconsidering requests for design-ation from three additional states.The value of protecting public andprivate assets from natural hazardsbecomes more evident as workproceeds in Rhode Island.

(This article was also publishedin CUSEC Journal,Volume 6, Fall1999. It is a publication of theCentral U.S. EarthquakeConsortium.)

For further information contact:Michele Steinberg, AssistantDirector of Showcase Programsand Special Projects, Institute forBusiness & Home Safety, 175Federal Street, Suite 500, Boston,MA 02110-2222 USA.Tel: 617-292-2003. Fax: 617-292-2022. E-mail: [email protected]




By John Pethick and JeremyLowe

There are over 150 estuariesalong Britain’s coastline.These

have played a major role indetermining the location of ports,cities, roads, industries, andagricultural activities.This land usehas, in turn, resulted in significantmodification of the estuarineenvironment.These modifications,among other influences, haveresulted in increased floodpotential.The most significant andwidespread change occurredbetween the 17th and 19thcenturies as land was reclaimed foragricultural use. Large areas of theestuaries’ intertidal zone wereremoved leaving the estuariesunable to effectively dissipate tidalor wave energy. In addition, theseestuaries were unable to respond tofuture changes imposed by humaninterference or natural environ-mental change.

The removal of intertidal areaswithin estuaries has led to largertidal ranges, higher water surges,and increased wave energy at theshore. As a result, the self-sustain-ability of these critical coastal areashas been reduced–in some caseseliminated–with former wideestuaries left as no more thanparallel-sided canals.

The scale of the problem wasnot realized until the 1980s whenEnglish Nature, the governmentconservation agency, did a surveyof estuarine salt marsh habitat inBritain.The survey revealed that upto 40 percent of the marshesbounding the estuaries had beenlost to erosion over the previousdecade. English Nature termed thisloss “coastal squeeze” and suggestedit was due to the landwardmigration of intertidal habitats

brought about by sea-level rise.This migration was interrupted asthe marshes were squeezed againstthe reclamation embankmentscausing erosion of their seawardedge, erosion that was not balancedby deposition on their landwardmargins, increased wave attack onflood defences, as well as reducinganimal habitat.

In response to these findings, apolicy of landward ‘set back’ of theembankments was proposed toallow the landward transgression ofintertidal habitats.The proposalmet with fierce opposition fromfarmers and landowners whoregarded the proposal as aneconomic “set back”’To reducepublic outcry, the policy washurriedly renamed ‘managedretreat’ and then ‘managedrealignment.’Though conserva-tionists recognized the need forlandward realignment, oppositioncontinued. Not until 1991 was asmall-scale trial undertaken atNorthey Island in the BlackwaterEstuary, Essex.This was followedby two larger-scale trials in theBlackwater: no further progress hassince been made.

This lack of progress has beenpartly due to European legislation,the Habitats Directive, thatdesignated areas of internationally-important habitat SpecialConservation Areas.These areaswere to be protected from changeresulting from human activity.

In Britain, these protected areasincluded large expanses of fresh-water grazing meadow that hadbeen created by reclamation offormer salt marshes.These werethe very areas needed for intertidalretreat.This legislation meant theloss of intertidal areas seaward ofthe embankments could not beregained by landward retreat

despite the fact that these seawardareas were also protected underthe Habitats Directive.This impassehas yet to be resolved.

Also contributing to thestandstill of the managedrealignment program is scientificuncertainty. Initially it seemedobvious that if the embankmentsprevented landward migration ofthe intertidal zone, then the answerwas removal of the embankments,or at least their relocation furtherlandwards.There was doubt such asimple solution would be beneficialto the natural estuarine environ-ment.The controversy’s thrust wasthat much of the land reclamationoccurred centuries ago, giving theestuaries time to adjust to the newtidal regime. Re-establishing the

original regime would, it wasargued, cause major re-adjustmentsthat may be harmful or undesired.For example, the re-creation of100 hectares of salt marsh in anestuary could result in anadditional million cubic metres ofwater entering the estuary fromthe sea on each flood tide.Thisincrease would generate increasedcurrent velocities and cause erosionof existing intertidal areas-in orderto restore others.The net outcomecould not be predicted given thepaucity of estuarine behaviourmodels.

As a result of the initial doubts,and in order to ensure a positiveoutcome of a managed realignment

Managed Retreat as a HazardMitigation Technique

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Managed retreat in progress in the Blackwater Estuary, Essex,UK.Tidal water is entering a grazing marsh for the first timesince its reclamation in 1750


By Richard M.Vogel

Since 1990 hurricanes havecaused more than US$30 billion

in damages in the state of Florida,USA. Hurricane Andrew, aCategory 4 hurricane that struckMiami, Florida, in 1992, aloneaccounts for at least US$26 billionworth of damages; while in 1995 innorthwest Florida, Hurricane Erin(Category 2) and Hurricane Opal(Category 3) caused over US$3.7billion in combined damages. Inmonetary terms, injury, loss of lifeand physical damage represent onlya part of the economic impact thatresults from a hurricane. Inaddition to these, hurricanes cancause a rise in unemployment,changes in income and an alteredpattern of regional economicgrowth.

The impact of a disaster is afunction of the event’s severity andintensity; the zone of impact; andthe level of damage, disruption anddislocation.While similar to eachother, hurricanes, tropical stormsand other weather related eventsstriking different parts of the state

are not directly comparable–dif-fering as a result of variation in thedegree of physical and sectoralimpact and differences in regionaleconomic and demographiccharacteristics.

In this century, Florida’sPanhandle has been struck by over

24 hurricanes.With a populationgrowth of almost 2 percentannually, the risk to life, propertyand the economy from hurricanescontinues to grow.This articlepresents a summary of theeconomic impact of naturaldisasters, and more specifically anoverview of the economic impactof several recent hurricanes onnorthwest Florida.

Economic Impact ofa Natural Disaster

A natural disaster situation isprimarily a local or regional eventthat gives rise to three levels ofeconomic impact: direct, indirectand induced. Direct impacts arethe result or immediate conse-quence of the disaster such asphysical damage, loss of life andinjury. Indirect impacts are lossesresulting from changes in the levelof activity arising from damage tothe physical economic infra-structure. Increases in unemploy-ment or lost income resulting fromplant shut downs or businessinterruption fall into this category.Induced impacts arise as a result of

changes or alter-ations toregional demand and supplyrelationships.

There are three principalshort-run economic effectsof a natural disaster: changesin employment levels,changes in income, andinflationary pressures.Employment changes occuras a result of damage ordestruction to residential,

commercial and industrial facilitiestemporarily disrupting normaleconomic activity. Short-termbusiness closures can result inincreased unemployment andreductions in income from wages.Some sectors, such as constructionand other closely related recon-struction activities, generally

experience a rise in employmentand income.While income isdirectly affected by changes insectoral employment, factors suchas temporary populationdisplacement and altered trafficpatterns may cause additional andindirect changes to income.Transfer payments into thecommunity may increase, anddisaster aid may additionally affectincome.

Inflationary pressures are theresult of shortages that arise in thedisaster’s aftermath. Housing pricesmay rise due to damage and loss tothe housing stock.The degree ofupward price pressure, however,depends upon the level of damage,the local availability of resources,and the mobility of resources intothe affected community. Likewise,sellers may not wish to antagonizeexisting customers by raisingprices, thus face charges of pricegouging and losing customer goodwill–especially if the emergencysituation is relatively short-lived.

While there is considerabledebate about employment andincome effects, disasters tend tocause a short-run decrease inwealth. Because of deductibles andexclusions, insurance coverage istypically incomplete. Even withadditional government disasterrelief and assistance, householdsmay have to dip into savings andother holdings to completelyrebuild damaged homes or replacelost property.

In the long run, the naturaldisaster may lead to permanentchanges in employment andincome, the acceleration of pre-existing economic trends, and analteration in regional economicgrowth. Long-run changes inemployment and income, outsideof any pre-existing trends, areattributable to factors such asincomplete sectoral or economicrecovery and disruption to regionalsectoral linkages.The disaster may

Economic Impact of HurricanesA

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Shifted beach sand in Florida


act as a catalyst for sectoralexpansion or decline, especiallythrough price and valuationchanges, accelerating pre-existingtrends. Following the disaster, forexample, price and land valuationchanges may lead the owners andoperators of land intensiveactivities, such as farming andmining, to reevaluate theiroperations. Changes in growth anddevelopment can arise fromsectoral shifts in economic activityand changes that may arise in theinstitutional, social and politicalrelationships within thecommunity.

The North Florida Gulf Coast

Since 1995, five hurricanes havemade landfall in northwest Floridacausing almost US$4 billion inproperty damages and disruptingsocial and economic activity.Hurricanes Erin and Opal, themost serious of these storms,struck Pensacola in summer andfall of 1995. Hurricane Dannystruck the area around Mobile Bayin the summer of 1997. In 1998Hurricane George made landfall atBiloxi, Mississippi, causingconsiderable damage from PerdidoKey to Fort Walton Beach, Florida.In August 1998, soon afterwards,Hurricane Earl struck near PanamaCity; this area was stillexperiencing storm surges andflooding from Hurricane George.

Following Hurricane Erin,260,000 households and businesseslost electric power a minimum of afull day; power was not completelyrestored for six days. HurricaneOpal caused power outages for upto four days for some 61,000households.These storms addit-ionally resulted in the closure ofthe bridge from Gulf Breeze toPensacola for several weeks and thebeach road between PensacolaBeach and Fort Walton Beach forover a year.While less damagingand destructive, Hurricanes Danny

in 1997, and Earl and George in1998 caused power outages for upto two days for some householdsand businesses. Hurricanes Erin andOpal caused extensive damage toPensacola Beach, leading to a steepdrop in tourism in 1995, butreturning to normal levels in 1996and 1997.

Hurricane Opal struck at thebeginning of October 1995, asPensacola, Navarre and Fort WaltonBeach were still recovering fromHurricane Erin in early August.Regional economic indicespublished by the Haas Center forBusiness Research and EconomicDevelopment showed a drop inbusiness activity in the monthsimmediately following Erin andOpal. Nonetheless, the existingoverall upward trend in regionalbusiness activity continued for1995, surpassing its pre-disastergrowth rate in 1996. Employmentwas relatively undisturbed by thetwo hurricanes, although sectoralvariation might have resulted froma disaster-induced reduction intourism-related employment(destruction of hotels andrestaurants, for example)counterbalanced by an increase inemployment from post-disasterrecovery and reconstructionactivities.

The economic impact resultingfrom Hurricanes Danny, Earl andGeorge was even morelimited–confined primarily toproperty damages. For the entireGulf Coast, property damageestimates for Danny range betweenUS$60 and US$100 million; Earlcaused approximately US$79million in damages. HurricaneGeorge, with total propertydamages in the United States ofUS$5.9 billion (mostly in PuertoRico and the Virgin Islands), causedUS$340 million in damages toFlorida, mainly in the Florida Keys.Preliminary economic data showonly a minor economic downturn

with recovery in the four monthsfollowing each of these events.

ConclusionAdvances in meteorology have

reduced loss of life attributable tohurricanes by providing morereliable hurricane warnings, thusallowing communities along theGulf Coast time for preparationand evacuation. Despite greaterforeknowledge, coastalcommunities still face the risk ofdramatic economic losses in theform of property damage,disruption of economic activity,and losses of income andemployment. Nevertheless,development in the hardest hit andmost vulnerable areas, such asPensacola Beach, Navarre Beachand Fort Walton Beach, hascontinued unabated.

Over the last decade, hurricanesin northwest Florida have createdfive serious life-threateningemergencies.While futurehurricanes in the area are sure tocause substantial damage, it isdifficult to predict their outcomes.However, past experience suggeststhat hurricanes affecting primarilyresidential property and activitywill have only a limited impact onemployment, income and othereconomic measures (aside from themonetary costs of damage).Whilemore severe and long-termeconomic impacts will be felt byhurricanes causing extensive anddirect damage to an area’seconomic infrastructure. Still, pastexperience does not preclude otheroutcomes.

For further information,contact: Richard M.Vogel,Department of History, Economicsand Politics, State University ofNew York at Farmingdale,Farmingdale, NY 11787 USA.Tel:516-420-2063. E-mail: [email protected]


By Janet Gibson

Recognizing the importance ofcoastal resources to a

country’s biodiversity, environmentand economy, the government ofBelize passed the Coastal ZoneManagement Act (CZM), No. 5, inApril 1998.This act establishes aCZM Authority and its technicalarm, the CZM Institute. It formallyconsolidates the work the CZMProject carried out over the past10 years–ensuring long-termmanagement of Belize’s globallysignificant marine and coastalresources.

The CZM AuthorityThe CZM Authority is an

autonomous public statutory bodyestablished under the Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries andCooperatives. It is charged withimplementing and monitoringpolicies that govern the use anddevelopment of the coastal zone inBelize.The minister appoints aboard of directors, and thedirectors appoint a chief executiveofficer.The board of directors,which includes representativesfrom government, nongovern-mental organizations (NGOs), theprivate sector and academia, heldits inaugural meeting on December10, 1998, and has been meeting ona monthly basis.

Provisions of the ActThe CZM Institute carries out

coastal management incoordination with the variousagencies involved. Its mainfunctions are to:• Conduct marine research• Maintain a data center• Provide information as requiredby the Authority• Organize training courses• Support other agencies involvedin CZM• Maintain coastal monitoring

programs• Assist with the preparation of anational CZM plan

Presently, the CZM Institute isinvolved in data collection andanalysis; research on manatees;coastal water-quality monitoring;and coastal planning, focusing onmarine protected areas and islanddevelopment.

The CZM Institute will beaffiliated with the UniversityCollege of Belize, working incollaboration with the university’sMarine Research Centre. Bothparties have already signed ageneral framework memorandumof understanding, and details willbe discussed in the near future.Theact requires that the institutesupports the University College ofBelize initiative in providingcourses and educational programsrelated to the coastal zone.

The act also establishes anadvisory council appointed by theAuthority.The council replaces theformer CZM technical committee.The council includes representationfrom the government, privatesector, the NGO community andacademia. Its function is to advisethe Institute on technical mattersconcerning coastal issues and tofacilitate coordination amongagencies.The council has the samemembership as the originaltechnical committee and the samefunction; but it is now formallyestablished by law.

The act requires a coastal zonemanagement plan within threeyears of an appointed date.Thisplan will include aspects such asland use, marine protected areas,cultural and scenic areas,recreation and tourism, activitiessuch as aquaculture and otherindustries, and guidelines forenvironmental monitoring.

The act also introduces fiscalmeasures to support the CZM

Authority and Institute’s work.Measures range from user feescharged, to donations and fundsfrom donor agencies.The CZMAuthority is also responsible forestablishing a Barrier ReefFoundation to promote theconservation and management ofBelize’s coastal resources.

Comments andReactions

Although this act is viewed asprogress towards integrated CZM in Belize, the act needsstrengthening. Presently, both theadvisory council and the board ofdirectors are reviewing the act andsubmitting recommendations foramendments that will clarify andstrengthen its provisions.

First, the definition of “coastalzone” as the “area bounded by theshoreline up to the mean highwatermark, on its landward side and bythe outer limit of the territorial seaon its seaward side, including allcoastal waters” is too limiting. Itdoes not address the important linkbetween coastal management andland-based activities. In reality, theCZM program has been workingon watershed issues; however,when the act was drafted thislimiting definition was the only onethat received consensus.

Second, as written, there ispossible overlap of user feesestablished by other agencies.Thisentire system needs to be re-examined and amended in order tobe effective.

Third, currently the act definesthe CZM Authority as a“coordinator.” For the CZMAuthority to have the power to beeffective, the legislation needs tobe strengthened.This could beaccomplished if the legislation waschanged to clearly state that theCZM Authority’s mandatetranscends individual sectors andministries.To achieve this, it hasbeen suggested that the CZM

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Authority be appointed legally as amember of the NationalEnvironmental Appraisal Com-mittee.This committee isresponsible for reviewing allenvironmental impact assessments;thus the CZM Authority would bein a stronger position to addressthe concerns of coastal devel-opments and their impacts.

ConclusionsThe CZM Act should be viewed

as a significant “first step” in theprocess of sound coastalmanagement in Belize. By passingthe act, the government of Belizeaffirmed the importance of thecoastal and marine resources and

program, the British governmenthas initiated a major estuarinemorphology research program.Todate the work has concentrated onthe prediction of long-termdevelopment of estuaries usingtidal regime models. Prediction ofestuarine morphology, particularlychannel width, assuming varioussea-level rise scenarios hasdemonstrated that estuaries willrespond to increased sea-level riseby rolling landward.The seawardintertidal areas erode, releasingsediment that is carried landwardto be re-deposited as transgressiveintertidal areas. Using field datafrom the Blackwater and Humberestuaries, these models indicatethat sediment transfer from theseaward erosional areas neatlybalances the deposition landward.Model predictions suggest the rateof such a transgression is around 2m to 10 m for every millimetre ofsea-level rise.The results mean thata managed realignment programmust concentrate on the head of anestuary to allow intertidaltransgression while seaward areas

must be regarded as sacrificial sitesfor sediment production.This is adifficult message for conser-vationists and landowners alike;especially those located in theseaward reaches of an estuary.However, taking these actionscould lead to a sustainableestuarine resource with widespreadsocial and economic benefits,which, therefore, transcends localinterests.

The importance of the locationof inter tidal restoration sites in anestuary is emphasised by anotheraspect of the work, which hasindicated that restoration of evensmall salt marsh areas. Additionalstudies indicated that the size andlocation of intertidal restorationsites can lower mean water levelsin the estuary as a whole. Forexample, a 300-hectare restorationsite located at the head of anestuary can lower water levels byover 1 m, while a similar arealocated at the seaward edge wouldlower the water level only a fewmillimetres.

These studies indicate thatrestoration could be used to offsetthe local impacts of sea-level rise

acknowledged the need formulti-sectoral coordinationand integration for successfulmanagement. Integratedcoastal management is now apermanent and formalizedelement of governance inBelize.

The act will hopefullyevolve into a strong legislativeframework that reachesbeyond just coordination,progressing towardsimplementation andmanagement and, ultimately, activemitigation, thus reflecting true“authority” as embodied in itsname.

For further information,contact: Janet Gibson, Director,CZM Institute, P.O. Box 1884,Belize City, Belize. E-mail:[email protected]

due to global warming. In addition,restoration of intertidal areas canreduce the risk of flooding, both bydecreasing wave-energy dissipationand water levels. Despite theapparent beneficial results of arestoration program, there are stillareas of concern.The restoration ofan intertidal area can alter the tidalflow enough to turn an accreting(growing) system into a neterosional system.This leads toincreased flood risk and disinterestby conservationists.The criticalissue appears to be the elevation ofthe restored area; areas with highsurface elevations relative tomodern sea level, such as recentlyreclaimed marshes, can cause ebbirregularities and net erosion.Conversely, lower restoredsurfaces, characteristic of older17th century reclamation areas,result in increased depositionthroughout the estuary.

The work outlined here suggestthat the program of managedrealignment in Britain can beexpected to produce major benefitsto estuarine conservation interestsby increasing intertidal habitats,


Managed Retreat

Small islands off the coast of Belize surrounded by fringing reef

(continued page 26)


Managed Retreat

and to other estuary users byreducing flood risks. However, theresults so far emphasize if suchbenefits are to be realised, theestuary must be managed as a

single functional unit within whichthe exact location and elevation ofrestored sites are critical.

For further information contactJohn Pethick, Dpt. of MarineScience and Coastal Management,Ridley Building, University of

Newcastle, Newcastle upon TyneNE1 7RU England.Tel: 44 0191222 6000. Fax: 44 0191 222 7891.E-mail: [email protected]

By Flower Msuya

Seaweed farming in Tanzaniabegan in the 1930s when wild

seaweed was harvested from theZanzibar Islands and exported toEurope. Seaweeds containpolysaccharides such ascarrageenan, agar, and alginate thathave become important ingredientsin the food, pharmaceutical, andcosmetic industries.The demandfor seaweed by these industriesgrew quickly. In the early 1950s,about 400 tons (dry weight) of thered seaweed Eucheuma wereexported to European markets.Between 1973 and 1975, theZanzibar seaweed trade collapsedmainly because wild seaweedsharvests could not satisfy demand,and the wild crop could notcompete with the cleaner, farmedseaweed from the Philippines.

Seaweed farming, however,ensured a continuous supply to theindustries, thus making farmingprofitable. In the mid-1980s, thefirst experiments with seaweedfarming in Tanzania wereconducted. However, due to lack offunding, commercial productiondid not start until 1989 whenprivate entrepreneurs startedexperimental farms in Paje andJambiani on Unguja Island,Zanzibar. By 1992 seaweed wasalso farmed on Pemba and MafiaIslands. On Mainland Tanzaniacommercial seaweed farmingstarted in 1995.

When seaweed farming started

on in 1989, both men and womenparticipated. Slowly, in most areasmen went back to fishing andactivities that were triggered bytourism such as road and houseconstruction, making lime andworking in guesthouses.Today onUnguja Island, seaweed is farmedmostly by women; however, onPemba Island, Zanzibar, seaweed isfarmed mainly by men.Thedifference is the topography, whichdetermines the farming technique,of the two islands. Unguja hasshallow bays and intertidal areasthat allow farming at low tides.Thetechnique used is fixed woodenpegs in the sediment with nylonropes holding seaweed tied to thepegs. On Pemba, seaweed isfarmed in deeper waters and thelong line (floating method) is used.Here farmers use boats or canoesto reach their farms.Women, whocontinue to attend to agriculture,fishing, caretaking, etc., do notparticipate. On Mainland Tanzania,although the use of pegs domin-ates, both sexes are involvedequally in the farming. Limitedalternative economic activities(lack of a large tourism industry)causes men to participate inseaweed farming.

To a great extent, seaweedfarming replaced the use ofdestructive fishing methods,especially dynamite fishing whichhas destroyed much of the marineenvironments. Of the two incomeproducing activities, most fishers

changed from destructive fishingmethods to seaweed farming.

Benefits of SeaweedFarming

Seaweed farming is moreprofitable than traditional activitiessuch as handicraft, collectingoctopus, fishing, petty trade andagriculture. In Tanzania, forexample, a seaweed farmer with aplot of 50 ropes can make 13,000Tshillings (US$22.7) per harvest.Most farmers have more than oneplot and can harvest every two tothree weeks (the minimum wage inTanzania is US$600 per year,gross). As a comparison, a cap/hat(handicraft) that takes three ormore months to make sells atabout US$2. An ordinary fishermakes about US$565 per year,gross income, whereas a seaweedfarmer makes about US$1,000 peryear. In addition, seaweed farmsattract some fish species allowingfarmers to provide for their familywhile farming.

Negative Impacts ofSeaweed Farming

Seaweed farming also has somenegative direct and indirect impactson the intertidal organisms such aschanges in organism abundance andbiodiversity. Intertidal areasbecome barren and in some areasalgae has overgrown. Farmers,being scared of a sea urchin’spoisonous spines, kill those foundin their farms.When seaweed isgrown on top of seagrass, theseagrass dies. Also, opportunisticorganisms, such as tubeworms, usethe dead seagrasses as shelters;

Seaweed Farming in Tanzania



farmers’ movements causedisturbance of the substrate,exposing and resuspending the clayin the substrate; and clay is carriedaway leaving behind coarse sand.When under stress, the farmedseaweed Eucheuma produces toxicchemicals were likely to affectother intertidal organisms.

Seaweed farming has also affect-ed social structure.TraditionallyZanzibari women had no means ofearning cash income. The seaweedfarming income gave them moneypower, placing them in a differentsocial role. Family conflicts havearisen resulting from the wives’changed role in the family. Somewomen give part of their earningsto their husbands to be allowed tocontinue farming.

Another obstacle was taking care

of young children when farming. Asa result of the accidental death of achild, Unguja farmers contributedpart of their earnings to build a daycare center to care for childrenwhile mothers farmed. Otherconcerns include children leavingschool early to earn farmingincome, sun-related illness, anddangerous marine organisms.

Impacts of SeaweedFarming

The Institute of Marine Sciences(IMS), University of Dar es Salaam,conducted the first environmentalimpact study of seaweed farmingbetween 1992 and 1995.This andother studies showed that seaweedfarming has improved the standardof living for farming families.Farmers are able to purchase itemssuch as radios, kitchenware, cloths,

and furniture; many old homeshave been improved and newhouses built; and the number ofchildren suffering frommalnutrition has decreased. Studiesby the IMS contributed to theestablishment of commercialseaweed farming on the coast ofMainland Tanzania. By mid-1996,21 villages were participating inseaweed farming, now more than30 villages are involved.

For further information contact:Flower Msuya, IsraelOceanographic and LimnologicalResearch,The National Centre forMariculture, P.O. Box 1212, Eilat88112 Israel.Tel: 972 7 6361452.Fax: 972 7 6375761. E-mail:[email protected]

By Marion Glaser andMonica Grasso

Environmental functions relateto the capacity of natural

systems and processes to providegoods and services which, directlyor indirectly, satisfy human needs.Mangroves provide many impor-tant environmental functions.Typically, the extractable harvestsof the mangrove ecosystems areimportant in poorer tropicalcoastal areas, not only forcommercial uses but also forsubsistence. By definition, suchsubsistence use does not passthrough formal markets.Particularly in regions withimportant subsistence sectors,classic market-based productionevaluations of mangroveecosystems are likely understatethe true social cost of possiblealternative uses or conversions ofthe mangrove ecosystem.

Moreover, most ecologicalfunctions also lack market pricesand, as a result, their economicvalue is often ignored orunderestimated. However, the useof monetary valuation, be it in thecontext of cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis, constitutes aclear and effective way ofcalibrating information for a rangeof diverse cultural, ecological,economic, social and otherconcerns. It is essential to providesuch information as an input intoongoing, resource-use decision-making, and alternatives tocomprehensive monetary valuationof ecosystems for this purpose arenot available. For these reasons,economic valuation techniqueswere used for mangrove manage-ment research in northern Brazil.This was done despite some clearproblems associated with the use ofmonetary valuation techniques in

Economic Valuation of a Mangrove Ecosystem:Practical Implications for Management

the natural resources sector.This article is based on field

research carried out between1996-1998 by the socioeconomicgroup of the Mangrove Dynamicsand Management Project(MADAM) in a coastal area (CaetéBay, Bragança municipality) of ParáState, northern Brazil.

The study’s main objectives are:• To present a socioeconomicapproach for the valuation ofmangrove ecosystems in a devel-oping country • To introduce some first resultsfrom the application of thisapproach in a coastal mangrovearea of northern Brazil • To discuss the implications ofutilizing the results for mangroveand associated coastal managementplanning

Socioeconomic surveys were themain basis for the economic

(continued page 28)

AS

SE

SS

ME

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valuation of the mangroveecosystem. Such surveys areversatile tools since they reveal thevalue to humans for some physicalfunctions.They also generateknowledge of the relationshipbetween society, the economy andecosystems.

MethodologyThe research area is the

mangrove ecosystem on both sidesof Caeté Bay.The area of primaryhuman interaction (i.e.,production/extraction activities)with those mangroves determinedthe geographic limits.

In this area a Community-BasedStatistical Survey (CBS) was doneto determine the actual geographicarea and population size ofinteraction with the mangroves andmangrove-related resources.Interviews and field visits wereconducted with town and villageleadership and local governmentofficials. Over 50 villages, plus thetown of Bragança, were identified.Information on mangrove and fishproducts use was gathered onindividual households in 21 ruralcommunities. An Urban Survey, areplication of the household-levelsurvey complemented by questionson household structure and incomewas undertaken in two areas of thetown of Bragança in June 1997.

Mangrove productivity andhousehold production studies weredone to obtain information,including but not limited to,information about family structureand dependency, income, economicactivity of household members,products collected from themangrove, among others. Some250 households were visited onceat two-week intervals to captureseasonal or moon-phase-relatedproduction variations.

A tourism survey evaluated therelationship between rate of tourist


were prioritized in order of highestuse among households• The economy-ecosystem linkagesat the household level for the ruraland urban areas were determined• A database of household types, interms of mangrove uses, wasestablished for the rural areaThe Urban Survey

The survey showed thatrelatively high numbers of urbanresidents produce mangroveproducts for sale. However, despitethe methodological bias towardssurveying urban areas with moreintensive mangrove product use,direct mangrove use was found tobe much less diverse and intensivein the urban than rural area.Moreover, subsistence use ofmangrove products is much rarerin the urban than rural area, and isrestricted to the very pooresthouseholds.The Production Study

Fishers’ net monthly revenuefrom the mangrove ecosystem wasfound to be between US$50-1,000. However, the aggregatedvalue for the mangrove will beunderestimated if based solely onthe fishers’ income, approximatelyUS$228/ha/year (not a final value,research still in progress), due tothe poverty of local mangrovefishers in the area.Tourism

During February 1997, 185tourists visiting the area wereinterviewed. Seventy-five percentof respondents were male, with anaverage age of 33 years.The mainrecreational activities were fishing,boating and consumption of localfishery products.Existence Value-ContingentValuation

About 185 respondentsparticipated in the survey.Thequestions used were close-ended,with two possibilities of bid values(the values presented to the people interviewed). Answers

visitation and the mangroves’function of providing fisheryproducts.The influence of theecosystem’s natural beauty onvisitation rates was also assessed. Inaddition to questions related to thevisit (reason, expenses and lengthof stay), tourists also answeredquestions on the cost of travel.

The existence value of themangroves for visitors wasdetermined using the ContingentValuation Survey. Potentialalternative uses were the conver-sion of the mangrove area to clearcutting for charcoal, use as pastureor for real-estate enterprises.Thespecific objective of the contingentvaluation survey was to estimatethe economic net benefits tosociety from preserving themangroves.We hypothesize thatindividuals would be worse off ifthis specific mangrove area was lostto another use.This economic losswould take the form of a reductionin personal welfare to visitors whowere assumed to be willing to payan amount to prevent the areafrom being converted to anotheruse.

The socioeconomic approachrevealed relationship between themangrove ecosystem and the localeconomic system. Although someecological functions of theecosystem were not evaluateddirectly, it was possible to infer avalue for the ecosystem to societyby identifying how the ecosystemhelps to alleviate poverty areaswhere most household depend onthe mangrove and have few otherincome or employment options.

Results The CBS

The CBS delivered a first set ofresults:• Eighteen Caeté Bay mangroveproducts were identified as usedfor subsistence and commercialpurposes.• The 18 major mangrove products

(continued from page 27)Mangroves


presented the expected behavior,i.e., declining percentages as theprices go up.

Practical Applicationand Outlook

Throughout the three MADAMphases, the integration of researchresults into policy relevantframeworks (decision-supportsystems) is ongoing. However, sincethe policy process does not waitfor the conclusion of researchprojects, the research results arealready in demand to guide officialdecisionmaking.Thus, in responseto a demand from decisionmakers,the results of the socioeconomicand natural science working groupshave provided data for thedevelopment of resourcemanagement legislation.Themangrove resource with thehighest ecosystem and localsocioeconomic importance was themangrove crab (over half the ruralpopulation financially depended onmangrove crab collection).Management measures initiallydesigned to address ecologicaldangers have been modified toincorporated the social andeconomic importance of theresource as revealed by theresearch data. In practice, this hasmeant that draft legislation for a defacto year-round prohibition oncrab collection was modified to aprohibition during the mainreproductive period with a view tointroducing an additionalprohibition for a three to fourmonth period with compensationto collectors for income loss.Tomaximize the applicability ofresearch results, the second phaseof the MADAM socioeconomicresearch focuses on thosemangrove products which have thehighest social and economicimportance, and compares theeffects of alternative, ecologicallydesirable management approaches.

The economic valuationapproach assigned no value tomangrove services such aspollution absorption, coastalprotection and carbon dioxideabsorption. At present, a smallpopulation and lack of pollutingindustries suggests a low value.Moreover, the absence ofhurricanes in coastal northernBrazil renders the coastalprotection function of themangroves insignificant.

Equity is a major concern insocioeconomically-based economicvaluations. In the Caeté Bayvillages, mangrove subsistenceproduction among poor householdsis high. By definition, subsistenceproduction does not pass throughmarket channels; alternative modesof value attribution can be selectedby the evaluator.Where subsistenceproduction is high and occursamong the poorest households, themarket prices assigned assume apurchasing power these productsrarely have.The same applies forassigning the price of a substitute-marketed product.The assumptionthat a product used purely forsubsistence will be substituted byan alternative product can beextremely inequitable when thefunction of the subsistence productis only to support the householdover periods of extreme economicneed. In the research example, theuse of the price of alternativeproducts available for sale is greatlyat odds with the actual real-lifealternative (hunger or worse) forthe resource users.

The inclusion of equity criteriawould allow an element of socialjustice to be incorporated into thevaluation exercise. It may thereforebe appropriate to employ higherweighting of the costs and benefitsof poorer ecosystem stakeholdersvia an inequality coefficient.However, the weighting in the finalanalysis always includes a political

decision about the degree ofdesired equity, or conversely thedegree of acceptable inequality.

It must be concluded that theuse of conventional valuationtechniques needs to includedistribution aspects, particularlyfor environments where poverty

and destitution are common. If notcritically examined and appro-priately corrected, market-baseddecision aids such as theconventional economic valuationcan fail to reflect morecomprehensive perceptions ofvalue and may result inmanagement policies seriously atodds with social sustainabilityobjectives.

For further information contactDr Marion Glaser, Centre forMarine Tropical Ecology (ZMT),Fahrenheitstr 1, 28359 BremenGermany. FAX: 0049 421 2208330 E-mail: [email protected]; or Monica Grasso,International Society for EcologicalEconomics, P.O. Box 36,Solomons, MD 20688 USA.Tel:

Study area


By Ivica Trumbic andAleksandar Bjelica

In 1994, the Priority ActionsProgramme Regional Activity

Centre (PAP/RAC) in Split,Croatia, conducted an analysis ofeconomic instruments used in theMediterranean.The approach wasbased on the experience of theOrganization for EconomicCooperation and Developmentmember countries. A questionnairewas used to collect information onthe existing conditions in mid-1994.The countries of: Albania,Cyprus, Croatia, Egypt, France,Israel, Italy, Libya, Morocco, Syriaand Tunisia were assessed.

Economic instruments are beingimplemented to provide a certainlevel of environmental protectionand avoid additional economiccosts.These instruments are usuallypreferred to existing commandregulatory policies, since theyallow polluters greater flexibility inachieving the required pollutionlevel, and they stimulate rapidtechnology change in pollutionabatement. Another argument, stillunexplored and controversial in theuse of economic instruments, is theso called ‘double-dividend effect.’Here, some studies suggest thateconomic instruments could beapplied in a way that would notjust reduce the pollution level, butalso reduce taxes and increaseemployment.The main environ-mental problems in coastal areasare urbanization of agriculturalland, increasing population andassociated increased sewage andsolid waste, and discharge of wastewater into the sea and othersurface waters.

Important economic activities inMediterranean coastal areas include

tourism, agriculture andtransportation. Conflicts occurmost frequently betweenagriculture and fishing; industryand tourism; and cities (urbanwaste) and the naturalenvironment.

The Mediterranean countrieshave developed natural resourcemanagement programs for theirindividual environmental problems.Generally, environmentalmanagement is centralized and theadministrative machinery acts onthe regional and local level.Ministries and governmentinstitutions are directly involved inenvironmental management, whilenongovernmental organizationsparticipate to a lesser extent.

An analysis of the application ofeconomic instruments in theMediterranean countries hasshown that economic instrumentsare being used and are widelyapplied in the fields of waterprotection, land management, andindustrial and solid waste–the areaswith the most apparentenvironmental problems.Theanalysis identified charges andresource pricing, and subsidies asthe most effective economicinstruments currently in use.

Difficulties most frequentlyencountered in applying economicinstruments are poor organization,nonconformity of economicinstruments with practice,inadequate environmentalmonitoring, inappropriate use ofeconomic instruments, uncertaintywhether tax proceeds are beingused for maintaining and improvingthe natural resources, and small,inconsequential fines.

It appears that overall, economicinstruments are efficient and their

application does result in thereduction of environmentalpollution and improvement ofenvironmental quality. Economicinstruments with incentives forcompliance have proven to bemore effective than those withoutan incentive.

Some of the assessed countrieshave experience in the implement-ation of economic instruments(France, Israel, Italy and Tunisia),and some have very littleexperience (Croatia, Albania,Morocco and Syria). In some,economic instruments are yet to beapplied (Cyprus, Egypt and Libya).

It is hoped that those countriesnot yet applying economicinstruments will learn from thesuccesses and failures of thosecountries currently using thesemethods.

For further information contact:Ivica Trumbic, Priority ActionsProgramme Regional ActivityCentre, Kraj sv. Ivana 11, HR-21000 Split, Croatia.Tel: +385 2134 34 99. Fax: +385 21 36 16 77.E-mail: [email protected].

Economic Instruments used in Coastal ZoneManagement in the Mediterranean


Disaster by Design:A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States

Dennis S. MiletiJoseph Henry Press, 1999

Over time, events have shown that natural disasters and the technological hazards that may accompanythem are not problems that can be solved in isolation. Losses from hazards-and the fact that the United Statescannot reduce them-result from a shortsightedness of the human relationship to the environment. More

simply, accepted methods of coping with hazards have been based on the ideathat people and technology can control nature.This has not worked. Instead,the nation must shift to a policy of “sustainable hazard mitigation.”This conceptlinks wise management of natural resources with local economic and socialresiliency. Recent natural disasters have emphasized that it is increasingimportant to understand the social science aspect (economic, social and

political ramifications) of natural disasters.This summary, and the report it is based on, outlines a comprehensive approach to

enhancing society’s ability to reduce the costs of disaster.Topics include fostering local sustainability; usingmitigation tools such as land use planning and advanced warning systems and improving engineering andinsurance coverage. Also of paramount importance is to establish government policies and conduct hazard andrisk assessments, as well as exchanging information and experiences by developing a comprehensive,internationally-supported and shared database on hazards that occur worldwide.

For information and/or copies contact: National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Lockbox285,Washington, DC USA 20055.Tel: 202-334-3313. Fax: 202-334-2451.Website:

Marine and Coastal Geographical Information SystemsEdited by Dawn J.Wright and Darius J. Bartlett

Taylor and Francis, 1999

This book addresses basic and applied scientific problems in deep-sea and coastal science usingGeographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies.

Part 1 covers the conceptual and technical issues associated with the use of GIS. Issues include datamodels for marine and coastal GIS; an algorithmic approach to marine GIS; representation of variability inmarine environmental data; and coastal geomorphology 3-D GIS.

Part II covers the applications of GIS including real-time GIS for marine applications; applications tofisheries management and electronic chart display and information systems;and more.

In addition, institutional issues such as managing coastal data sources, applications to maritime boundarydelimitation, and information quality consideration are discussed. Mapping capability and other topics arealso discussed.

“Monographs in GIS” series (# 0-7484-0862-2 Hbk). Addition information and ordereds online atWebsite: http://wwws.thomson.com/pub/routeldge/order_blank.html, 348 pp.

The Emergency Information Infrastructure Partnership (EIIP) hosts several E-maildiscussion lists through its Emergency Management Forum (EMForum) including:

[email protected] - research, reference sources, higher [email protected] - contingency planning and business continuity [email protected] - notification of EIIP events and activities [email protected] - Firefighting.Com & Associates News [email protected] - opinions, comments about government roles [email protected] - in support of the FEMA’s higher education [email protected] - implementing “Disaster Resistant Communities”[email protected] - the EIIP monthly newsletter [email protected] - planning, training, exercises, evaluation [email protected] - jobs, conferences, announcements, educational opportunities [email protected] - issues in public and individual assistance programs [email protected] - serving the public during the first critical hours [email protected] - issues in emergency information technology [email protected] - vital contributions of volunteers, NGOs [email protected] - FEMA’s Act Now Preparedness Updates [email protected] - National Fire & Rescue News

To subscribe contact EIIP at E-mail: [email protected] or see the EMForum website - http://www.emforum.org

SELECTED WORLDWIDE WEB/INTERNET INFORMATION SOURCEShttp://www.disasters.org/emgold/index.htmEmergency Management Gold©1999 (EMGold) is a multilingual site to assist those who use English as a second language. Languagesare French (Francias), German (Deutch), Italian (Italiano), Portugese (Portugeze), Spanish (Espanol). EMGold’s listing of theGLOBAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (GEMS) (c)1999http://www.disasters.org/emgold/libraryEM Gold gives one of the most comprehensive country by country indexes of disaster-related websites. For example: (underlineditems are website links)American Samoa (Unincorporated Territory-Pacific) Claimed in 1900. Area is 75 square miles consisting of five volcanic islands.Capital is Pago Pago. Climate is tropical. Population is 50,923 and is ethnically Polynesian. Official language is English. Unit ofcurrency is the U.S. Dollar.Antigua & Barbuda: (country information) Emergency Guidance, Mitigation Plan for Schools Against Natural DisastersBelgum: (country information) Protection Civile Belgium, Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Red CrossBosnia: (country information) Dinar. Bosnia InformationTurkey:(country information) Telsiz ve Radyo Amatrleri Cemiyeti (TRAC) (ARES)Venezuala: etc. VietNam: etc. Yugoslavia : etc. Zimbabwe: etc.EMGold’s Virtual Library is an integration of information relating to Academia (Education), Business and Industry, Government(Federal, State and Local) and Volunteers (NGOs) in Emergency Management.Topics include: Academia, Associations, Computers,Conferences, Earth Science, Maps, Media and Medical. EMGold’s ALERTS directoryhttp://www.disasters.org/emgold/Alerts.htmThis site gives information on current disasters worldwidehttp://www.colorado.edu/hazards/Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, Boulder, USA, is a national and international clearinghouse for information onnatural hazards and human adjustments to hazards and disasters.The following is a selected list of websites obtained from the NaturalHazards Center and other sites. By visiting these websites and their links, one can compile a network of websites and communicationson all aspects of natural hazards and disasters.http://www.fema.govThe Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Website now contains thousands of pages of hazards/disaster information.http://www.redcross.orgThe American Red Cross provides extensive information on disaster mitigation, management, and recovery.



ELECTRONIC RESOURCES SPECIAL SECTION

Av a i l a b l e o n t h e Wo r l d w i d e We bhttp://crc.uri.edu/comm/htmlpubs/ic/index.html



http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/programs/emergenc/prevent/prev_em.htmThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) hasissued several on-line Prevention Guides to Promote Your Personal Health and Safety Before, During and AfterEmergencies and Disasters in both English and Spanish.http://hoshi.cic.sfu.ca/~anderson/The Emergency Preparedness Information Exchange (EPIX) is one of the most comprehensive. EPIX containsextensive information about both current situations and disaster management generally. Simon Fraser University,British Columbia, Canada.http://web20.mindlink.net/sarinfo/sarinfo.htm The SARINFO Home Page provides information on search and rescue.The site includes an extensive file library.http://www.iaem.comThe International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM - formerly the National Coordinating Council onEmergency Management) website includes information on emergency management and on its Certified EmergencyManager program.http://www.disastercenter.com/home.htmThe Disaster Center is a ganglion of Web links, bulletin boards, forums, and pages of all kinds dealing with disasters.The site assembles and arranges disaster information from hundreds of others sites and adds information of its ownto produce an extensive reference resource.http://www.yahoo.com/Environment_and_Nature/Disasters Yahoo includes a section devoted to disasters that interested persons can consult to determine the latest Netresources.http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/urban/dis_man/dis_man.htmThe World Bank established a new Disaster Management Facility (DMF) to ensure that disaster prevention andmitigation are integral parts of development programs.http://www.unige.ch/idndrThe Directory for Disaster Reduction Institutions was created by the United Nations and the University of Geneva.It contains information on collaboration, research support and training at the local and regional levels.http://www.disaster.info.desastres.net/crid/eng/index.htmThe Regional Disaster Information Center (Centro Regional de Informacion Sobre Desastres - CRID) website forLatin America and the Caribbean facilitate access to technical and scientific information on disaster prevention.http://www.epc-pcc.gc.caEmergency Preparedness Canada (EPC) offers emergency management and preparedness information in English oren francais.http://www.ema.gov.auThe redesigned Emergency Management Australia (EMA) website includes sections on personal safety, schoolresources, general and current emergency management issues and others.http://www.adpc.ait.ac.th/Default.htmlThe Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok, website focuses on Asia and the Pacific.http://incede.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/intro/glodisnet_subject.htmlInternational Center for Disaster-Mitigation Engineering (INCEDE) at the Institute of Industrial Science, Universityof Tokyo contains websites and documents on all disasters focusing in the Asian region. It is a good source ofalternative WWW on disasters.

These represents only the tip-of-the-iceburg for informative websites. Most any of the above sites willlink to numerous other excellent sites.

More Websites


The Global Trade in CoralGreen and Shirley, 1999

Published by World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK, 70 pp, ISBN: 1-899628-13-4

In the last decade there has been a large increase in the global trade of live coral for aquaria.TheWorld Conservation Monitoring Centre looked at trade in live coral from the ecological and economicperspectives.The study identified the taxonomic composition of the trade and the quantities of coralpassing between nations.This illustrates the links between major exporters and importers. Data ispresented on the practicalities of monitoring international trade in coral at the global scale. Exportand retail prices are used to estimate the revenue to exporting nations. Size and growth-rate dataused to assess the sustainability of the trade in live coral is also presented.

Available from:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge,CB3 0DL, United Kingdom.Tel: 44 1223 277314. Fax: 44 1223 277136. E-mail:[email protected]: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/

The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards:Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the EnvironmentPublished by Island Press. Price: Paper: $30.00. 210 pp. ISBN: Paper: 1-55963-756-0

Society has limited dollars to invest in hazard mitigation.The question is:Which actions will be most cost effective, considering all impacts and costs?

In 1997, the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment began a two-year study to develop newstrategies to identify and reduce the costs of weather-related hazards associated with rapidly increasing coastal development.TheHidden Costs of Coastal Hazards offers the first in-depth study that considers the costs of hazards to: natural resources, socialinstitutions, business and the environment.

Hurricane Hugo, which struck South Carolina, USA, in 1989, provides information on the full range ofeconomic costs caused by a major coastal hazard event.Using Hurricane Hugo, the authors looked at pre-and post-hazard information and recommend ways to improve assessments and to form a comprehensiveframework for developing and implementing mitigation strategies.To do this, the book:

• Describes and examines unreported, undocumented and hidden costs such as losses due to businessinterruption, reduction in property values, interruption of social services, psychological trauma, damageto natural systems and others

• Examines the concepts of risk and vulnerability and discusses conventional approaches to riskassessment and the emerging area of vulnerability assessment

• Documents the impact of Hurricane Hugo and provides insight from some of the survivors

The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards takes a structured approach to the problem, suggesting anew framework for community-based hazard mitigation, and offering specific recommendations.Decisionmakers–both policymakers and planners–who are interested in learning about the categories of costs andrisk associated with coastal hazards will find the book a unique source of new information and insight, as will private-sectordecisionmakers, including lenders, investors, developers and insurers of coastal property.

The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment is a nonprofit institution dedicated to improving thescientific and economic foundation for environmental policy by fostering collaboration among industry, environmentalorganizations, government, and academia. Available from: Island Press, Box 7, Dept 2NET, Covelo, CA 95428 USA.Tel: 800-828-


Hurricane predicting, as explainedby Ginis (page 2), has improvedsignificantly over the last decadeand will continue to improve withthe use of new technologies.Mashriqui and Pine (page 6)discuss the use of real-time, three-dimensional flood models toprovide input to decisionsregarding evacuation routes,shelters, and the impacts to publicutilities. Appendini and Lizárraga-Arciniega (page 11) used pre-andpost-El Niño data in Mexico toadvocate pre-hazard modeling andplanning to minimize shorelineerosion. Gelfenbaum, Jaffe, Nealand Davies (page 7) discuss howthe analysis of a single hazard eventcan be used to plan for futureevents, as well as decipher pastevents worldwide.

As population grows anddemand for new developmentincreases, so does the risk ofdeveloping in marginal lands, suchas beaches and wetland areas, thatare vulnerable to hazards,. Pethickand Lowe (page 21) illustrate theill effects of long-term land usechoices which led to alteredestuarine systems and increasedvulnerability to flooding and sea-level rise. Here, mitigation and“recovery” efforts will not be aone-time intervention, but willrequire long-term restoration andpolitical will to affect such change.Burrill, Burbridge and Humphrey(page 16) furthered this pointnoting that again human activities,not Mother Nature, have seriouslyaltered the European coast leavinginhabitants battling evolvinghazards and significantly increasingtheir vulnerability to individualhazards. Gibson (page 24) outlinesBelize’s new coastal managementprogram that was enacted last year.Integrated programs such as thisprovide excellent opportunities for

Complacency or Action?(continued from page 1)

partnerships in planning andimplementation and to proactivelyexplore hazard mitigation as a keytool in regulatory and non-regulatory program elements.

In El Salvador, poverty,population expansion and civilconflict have driven manyhouseholds to the coast, resultingin increased pressure on the naturalresources and coastal areas.Gammage, Machado and Benitez(page 14) report on the challengesfaced when introducingappropriate technology to decreaseutilization of limited resources(fuelwood from mangroves) thatprotect coastal communities fromflooding and erosion. Similarly, inBrazil the mangrove environment isbeing placed under great pressureby communities. Glaser and Grasso(page 27) discuss the economicvalue of the mangrove ecosystem interms of what is and is not talliedin an economic evaluation.This isimportant because beforemanagement decisions are made, itis necessary to look at the value(not in monetary terms) of theresource to a community.

Complacency can be blamed forincreased risk in many regions ofthe world. Ramsey’s observationsin Micronesia target the absence ofa significant destructive event inrecent memory. He notes that sincethe last major disaster in 1905,virtually the entire population baseand most of its infrastructure hasbeen built on the coast, leaving thepeople or residence extremelyvulnerable.

Triggered by the partial collapseof the insurance industry in Floridaafter Hurricane Bob, the UnitedStates has enhanced its efforts inhazard mitigation research andimplementation.The twoarticles–East (page 18) andSteinberg (page 19)–agree that it isnot possible to control theoccurrence of natural disasters;

however, it is possible to takemeasures to reduce their impactsby building partnerships among abroad group of constituencies forboth pre-disaster and recoveryphases. Both programs recognizehow crucial the business com-munity is for the recovery ofservices and supplies, thus makingpublic/private partnerships key forboth mitigation and disastermanagement.

Despite the great technologicaladvances in forecasting andmodeling, natural hazards still takea huge toll in human life and, oftenas devastating, loss of property andeconomic collapse.The enormouseconomic losses are sobering andshould provide great incentive tochange the status quo.Vogel (page22) explains the short- and long-term economic effects of a naturaldisaster (e.g., employment shifts,housing sales, etc.). Using recenthurricanes affecting the Floridacoast, he looks at the type ofproperty damaged as a factor indetermining economic impacts.Though not news to anyone, henotes that the human population,though well aware of the inevitableoccurrence of a disaster, continuesto rebuild in those areas hardesthit.

While disaster brings muchdespair and loss, it does offer anopportunity to rebuild with moreconsciousness and thought. In1998, Hurricane Mitch’s mercilessdestruction of Central Americareceived worldwide attention.Theimpacts were even moredevastating due to poverty andsocial and environmental factors.Franklin (page 4) discusses the rolethe Inter-American DevelopmentBank took through mitigationduring reconstruction; thisprompts one to imagine the impactof donor agencies in promotingmitigation as a key developmenttool.

(continued page 36)

structure and physical abilityoften negate any action.

The concept of hazardmitigation is age old. Fishersworldwide have been buildingtheir huts on stilts and findingsafe havens for their boats duringa storm.What is new is theapparent increased rate at whichnatural events are occurringand/or the attention that theyraise, perhaps due to enhancedworldwide communication orincreased economic value oflosses and recovery.What isneeded now is to take theopportunity to plan for theinevitable in every way to savelives and reduce severe economicdistress.We need to learn fromexperience, be proactive throughprediction and modeling,undertake proactive planninginitiatives, ensure proper policydevelopment andimplementation, provideeducation and outreach, andcultivate partnerships andincentives. Having done this,when “that” event occurs, weneed to ensure that our efforts inprediction, outreach and disasterplanning have resulted inincreased success for safety and

Coastal Resources CenterUniversity of Rhode IslandNarragansett Bay CampusNarragansett, RI 02882 USA

Address service requested

Printed on recycled paper

NonprofitOrganizationU.S. Postage

PAIDWakefield, RIPermit No. 19

Outreach is essential whendeveloping strategies for hazardmitigation. In Indonesia, theCoastal Resources ManagementProject is developing a programto strengthen local capacity toaddress natural resourcemanagement, including erosionand flooding. Gosal (page 10)discusses the introduction ofcommunity monitoring of coastalprocesses as a first step todeveloping and implementing alocal management plan.

An area not addressed in thisissue, yet still important, is pre-hazard safety preparation(shelters, evacuation routes,helicopter or boat rescue, etc.).People management, particularlyin distress situations, is not easyand often not well organized.Progress in this area has improvedsignificantly; however, as coastalpopulations grow the problemonly grows.The United States andsome other developed countriesare addressing evacuationstrategies for many types ofhazards; however, the challengesare greater in developingcountries where poverty, social

evacuation. As important, whenrebuilding is initiated, we mustbalance the needs of getting thecommunity back to workingorder and rebuilding in a wisefashion.The goal is to minimizethe loss next time, because it willhappen again, if not in ourlifetime in our children’s.

Pamela Rubinoff is theMexican program manager (Tel:401 874 6135. E-mail:[email protected]) and Noelle F.Lewis is the managing editor ofInterCoast at the CoastalResources Center, University ofRhode Island, Narragansett, RI02882 USA.Tel: 401 874 6870.Fax: 401 789 4670. E-mail:[email protected] .

Complacency or Action(continued from page 35)