207TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 36, No. 2, Summer 2002

RESEARCH ISSUESTESOL Quarterly publishes brief commentaries on aspects of qualitative and quantita-tive research. For this issue, we asked two researchers to discuss narrative research inTESOL.

Edited by PATRICIA A. DUFFUniversity of British Columbia

Narrative Research in TESOL

Narrative Inquiry: More Than Just Telling Stories

JILL SINCLAIR BELLYork UniversityToronto, Ontario, Canada

n Narrative inquiry rests on the epistemological assumption that we ashuman beings make sense of random experience by the imposition ofstory structures. That is, we select those elements of experience to whichwe will attend, and we pattern those chosen elements in ways that re ectthe stories available to us. Although the notion of story is common toevery society, the stories themselves differ widelyone of the de ningfeatures of a culture is the story structures through which it makes senseof the world. The shape of our stories, the range of roles available, thechains of causation, and the sense of what constitutes a climax or anending are all shaped by the stories with which we were raised. A key wayof coming to understand the assumptions held by learners from othercultures is to examine their stories and become aware of the underlyingassumptions that they embody. This makes narrative inquiry a particu-larly valuable approach for members of the TESOL profession, thoughnarrative approaches to understanding are becoming increasingly popu-lar in a wide range of disciplines.

Some useful introductions to the approach come from the eld ofliterary criticism, where narrative work originated (e.g., Mitchell, 1981).Historians have made clear that narrative has an inherently temporalthread in that current events are understood as rising out of pasthappenings and pointing to future outcomes (Carr, 1986; White, 1981).

208 TESOL QUARTERLY

In psychology, Polkinghorne (1988) explores narrative knowing inrelation to the human sciences; Riessman (1993) offers a clear introduc-tory methodology; and Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, and Zilber (1998) drawon individual case studies to demonstrate ways in which stories can bedeconstructed. Josselson (1996) provides a good review of ethical issuesin the use of narrative in therapeutic elds, with strong implications foreducation.

In the education eld, the work has focused mostly on teachereducation, looking at the ways in which teachers narratives shape andinform their practice. The recent emphasis on re ective practice (Schn,1983) and teacher research has strengthened the focus on listening tothe voice of teachers and hearing their stories (Bell, 1997c; Gallas, 1997;Jalongo & Isenberg, 1995). Connelly and Clandinin (e.g., 1987, 1988;Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) have led the way in adapting narrativeinquiry for educational purposes, and their work offers an excellentintroduction to the eld for teachers or teacher educators. A goodcritique of the role of story in teacher education can be found in Carter(1993).

In the eld of language education, the tradition of providing narrativeaccounts of patterns of language use is well established. Ethnographerssuch as Heath (1983), Willett (1995), and Toohey (2000) do not claim tobe narrativists but nonetheless produce powerful narratives that havehelped inform the understanding of language use. Narratives alsofeature in learner autobiographies (Davidson, 1993; Kaplan, 1993; Mori,1997), diary studies (Lvovich, 1997; Numrich, 1996), life history (Hatch& Wisniewski, 1995; Kouritzin, 2000), and case studies (Anglil-Carter,1997; Lam, 2000; Spack, 1997). Of particular interest are narrativeaccounts of language learning gathered from language educators, allow-ing for explicit analysis and re ection (Belcher & Connor, 2001; Casanave& Schecter, 1997).

In its fullest sense, narrative inquiry requires going beyond the use ofnarrative as rhetorical structure, that is, simply telling stories, to ananalytic examination of the underlying insights and assumptions that thestory illustrates (Bell, 1995, 1997a, 1997b; Conle, 1992; Golombek,1998). Narrative inquiry is therefore rarely found in the form of anarrative. Hallmarks of the analysis are the recognition that people makesense of their lives according to the narratives available to them, thatstories are constantly being restructured in the light of new events, andthat stories do not exist in a vacuum but are shaped by lifelong personaland community narratives.

RESEARCH ISSUES 209

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF NARRATIVE INQUIRY

Narrative inquiry involves working with peoples consciously toldstories, recognizing that these rest on deeper stories of which people areoften unaware. Participants construct stories that support their interpre-tation of themselves, excluding experiences and events that underminethe identities they currently claim. Whether or not they believe thestories they tell is relatively unimportant because the inquiry goesbeyond the speci c stories to explore the assumptions inherent in theshaping of those stories. No matter how ctionalized, all stories rest onand illustrate the story structures a person holds. As such they provide awindow into peoples beliefs and experiences.

Narratives allow researchers to present experience holistically in all itscomplexity and richness. They are therefore powerful constructions,which can function as instruments of social control (Mumby, 1993) aswell as valuable teaching tools (Egan, 1988). Canagarajah (1996) arguesthat narratives function in opposition to elitist scholarly discourses andthat their use in research offers an opportunity for marginalised groupsto participate in knowledge construction in the academy.

What value does narrative offer as a research approach, and what doessuch an approach allow researchers to discover? To illustrate the ad-vantages, I draw on a research project of my own, examining L2 literacy.Baf ed by the disjunction between research claims that L1 literacy skillsare easily transferred and my own experience of the dif culties encoun-tered by adult literacy learners, I sought a richer understanding of theissues involved than seemed possible with most research methods. Forthe reasons detailed below, I decided to study my own attempt to developChinese literacy using a narrative approach (Bell, 1997a). Narrative allows researchers to understand experience. Peoples lives

matter, but much research looks at outcomes and disregards theimpact of the experience itself. In my case, the narrative approachhighlighted the unexpected physical impact of the learning struggle.

Narrative lets researchers get at information that people do notconsciously know themselves. Analysis of peoples stories allowsdeeply hidden assumptions to surface. My efforts to develop Chineseliteracy allowed me to discover assumptions about the goals, pur-poses, and methods of literacy that I had no idea I held. Asre ections of standard Western stories of literacy, these assumptionshad direct implications for teaching and learning.

Narrative illuminates the temporal notion of experience, recogniz-ing that ones understanding of people and events changes. In mywork, this was demonstrated by my shifting interpretation of myChinese tutors actions and my changing notions of good teaching

210 TESOL QUARTERLY

practice (Bell, 1997b). Other research methods would have capturedunderstandings at certain points, not at the important interveningstages.

Any research method, of course, has its limitations, and narrative isnot suitable for all inquiries. The time commitment required makes itunsuitable for work with a large number of participants. It also requiresclose collaboration with participants and a recognition that the con-structed narrative and subsequent analysis illuminates the researcher asmuch as the participant. Ethical issues are some of the most serious onesto be addressed. Exchanging stories is often understood within a largerstory of friendship, so researchers may nd disengagement dif cult atthe end of the research project. More seriously, when researchers takepeoples stories and place them into a larger narrative, they are imposingmeaning on participants lived experience. Although good practicedemands that researchers share their ongoing narrative constructions,participants can never be quite free of the researchers interpretation oftheir lives. The effects of this imposed re-storying can be powerful( Josselson, 1996).

Stories are inherently multilayered and ambiguous, so the constructednature of truth and the subjectivity of the researcher (Peshkin, 1988) areparticularly evident in this work. This subjectivity raises the question ofwhat the criteria should be for the assessment of narrative research(Carter, 1993; Josselson, 1996; Lieblich et al., 1998). Although this topicwas well explored during the 1990s, de nitive criteria are still underdiscussion. Connelly and Clandinin (1999) summarise the issue asfollows:

Narrative researchers are concerned with the representation of experience,causality, temporality and the difference between the experience of time andthe telling of time, narrative form, integrity of the whole in a researchdocument, the invitational quality of a research text, its authenticity, ad-equacy and plausibility. Currently in narrative inquiry, it is important for eachresearcher to set forth the criteria that govern the study and by which it maybe judged. It is also the case that others may quite legitimately adopt othercriteria in support of, or in criticism of, the work. (p. 139)

CONCLUSION

As a new research method, narrative inquiry offers promise but alsopitfalls. For the eld of L2 education, the promise holds particularappeal. Elbaz (1983) has demonstrated that teachers knowledge islargely held tacitly in holistic, often narrative, forms, suggesting thatnarratives of teaching will allow new ways to understand the experienceof L2 classrooms. Narrative also offers teachers the possibility of under-

RESEARCH ISSUES 211

standing their students in new ways. Communicating through story isarguably less linguistically demanding than setting out propositionalknowledge, increasing the chances of teachers being informed by theirlearners. In addition, issues that directly affect the ways in which learnersexperience immigration, settlement, and language learning are wrappedin the stories they hold. For these reasons, narrative seems a natural toolfor the L2 researcher. However, the dif culty of assessing narrativeinquiry via traditional methods makes it unlikely that conservativestakeholders, such as school boards, will easily embrace insights drawnfrom such work. Finally, the deliberate attempt to seek out the voice ofwomen and other marginalised groups carries with it the inherent riskthat serious research will be dismissed for its failure to conform toprevious research standards. Furthermore, for ethical reasons, the voicesof research participants should be explored in a respectful manner.

THE AUTHOR

Jill Sinclair Bell is a professor in the Faculty of Education at York University, whereshe teaches courses in language, literacy, and narrative inquiry. She has published arange of books and articles on issues related to L2 literacy.

REFERENCES

Anglil-Carter, S. (1997). Second language acquisition of spoken and writtenEnglish: Acquiring the skeptron. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 263287.

Belcher, D., & Connor, U. (Eds.). (2001). Reections on multi-literate lives. Clevedon,England: Multilingual Matters.

Bell, J. S. (1995). The relationship between rst and second language literacy: Somecomplicating factors. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 687704.

Bell, J. S. (1997a). Literacy, culture, and identity. New York: Peter Lang.Bell, J. S. (1997b). Shifting stories: shifting frames. In C. P. Casanave & S. Schecter

(Eds.), On becoming a language educator (pp. 133144). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Bell, J. S. (Ed.). (1997c). Teacher research in second and foreign language education

[Special issue]. Canadian Modern Language Review, 54(1).Canagarajah, A. S. (1996). From critical research practice to critical research

reporting. TESOL Quarterly, 30, 321331.Carr, D. (1986). Time, narrative and history. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Carter, K. (1993). The place of story in the study of teaching and teacher education.

Educational Researcher, 22(1), 512, 18.Casanave, C. P., & Schecter, S. R. (Eds.). (1997). On becoming a language educator:

Personal essays on professional development. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in

qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Conle, C. (1992). Language, experience and negotiation. Curriculum Inquiry, 22,

162190.Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1987). On narrative method, biography and

narrative unities in the study of teaching. Journal of Educational Thought, 21, 130139.

212 TESOL QUARTERLY

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners: Narratives ofexperience. New York: Teachers College Press.

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1999). Narrative inquiry. In J. P. Keeves &G. Lakomski (Eds.), Issues in educational research (pp. 132140). New York: PergamonPress.

Davidson, C. N. (1993). 36 views of Mount Fuji: On nding myself in Japan. New York:Dutton.

Egan, K. (1988). Teaching as story telling: An alternative approach to teaching and thecurriculum. London: Routledge.

Elbaz, F. (1983). Teacher thinking: A study of practical knowledge. London, England:Croom Helm.

Gallas, K. (1997). Sometimes I can be anything: Power, gender and identity in a primaryclassroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

Golombek, P. R. (1998). A study of language teachers personal practical knowledge.TESOL Quarterly, 32, 447464.

Hatch, J. A., & Wisniewski, R. (Eds.). (1995). Life history and narrative. London:Falmer Press.

Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities andclassrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Jalongo, M. R., & Isenberg, J. P. (1995). Teachers stories: From personal narrative toprofessional insight. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Josselson, R. (Ed.). (1996). Ethics and process in the narrative study of lives. NewburyPark, CA: Sage.

Kaplan, A. (1993). French lessons: A memoir. Chicago: University of Chicago PressKouritzin, S. (2000). A mothers tongue. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 311323.Lam, W. S. E. (2000). Second language literacy and the design of the self: A case

study of a teenager writing on the Internet. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 457482.Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (1998). Narrative research: Reading

analysis and interpretation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Lvovich, N. (1997). The multilingual self: An inquiry into language learning. Hillsdale, NJ:

Erlbaum.Mitchell, W. J. T. (Ed.). (1981). On narrative. Chicago: The University of Chicago

Press.Mori, K. (1997). Polite lies: On being a woman caught between cultures. New York: Henry

Holt.Mumby, D. K. (Ed.). (1993). Narrative and social control: Critical perspectives. Newbury

Park, CA: Sage.Numrich, C. (1996). On becoming a language teacher: Insights from diary studies.

TESOL Quarterly, 30, 131153.Peshkin, A. (1988). In search of subjectivityones own. Educational Researcher, 17(7),

1722.Polkinghorne, D. E. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany, NY:

SUNY Press.Riessman, C. K. (1993). Narrative analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Schn, D. (1983.) The reective practitioner. New York: Teachers College Press.Solomon, Y., & ONeill, J. (1998). Mathematics and narrative. Language and Educa-

tion, 12, 210221.Spack, R. (1997). The acquisition of academic literacy in a second language: A

longitudinal case study. Written Communication, 14, 362.Toohey, K. (2000). Learning English at school: Identity, social relations, and classroom

practice. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

RESEARCH ISSUES 213

White, H. (1981). The value of narrativity in the representation of reality. In W. J. T.Mitchell (Ed.), On narrative (pp. 124). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Willett, J. (1995). Becoming rst graders in an L2: An ethnographic study of L2socialization. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 473536.

Narrative Study: Whose Story Is It, Anyway?

ANETA PAVLENKOTemple UniversityPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, United States

n In the past three decades, narratives and, in particular, stories peopletell about their lives have become the focus of the evolving interdiscipli-nary eld of narrative study (Bruner, 1990; Linde, 1993; Ochs, 1997;Rosenwald & Ochberg, 1992; Sarbin, 1986), which posited narrative asthe central means by which people give their lives meaning across time:We dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate,hope, despair, plan, revise, criticize, gossip, learn, hate and love bynarrative (Hardy, 1968, p. 5). Consequently, narratives have gainedincreasing stature outside the elds of literature and folklore, becomingboth a focus of research and a rich source of data in several areas oflinguistics, in particular L1 acquisition, linguistic anthropology, socio-linguistics, and language education (e.g., Berman & Slobin, 1994; Chafe,1980; Johnstone, 1996; Tannen, 1980, 1982, 1993). Recently, narrativestudy, in particular language learner narratives, has also received in-creased attention in the elds of TESOL and second language acquisi-tion (SLA). Researchers acknowledge that narratives elicited from thelearners, as well as published language learning autobiographies, are alegitimate source of data in the hermeneutic tradition, complementaryto more traditional empirical approaches (Kanno, 2000a, 2000b; Kouritzin,1999, 2000; McMahill, 2001; Norton, 2000; Pavlenko, 1998, 2001a,2001b, in press; Pavlenko & Lantolf, 2000; Schumann, 1997).

Whereas Bell (this issue) offers an introduction to narrative inquiry, Ifocus on narrative study and discuss ways in which teachers and research-ers can examine personal narratives, regardless of whether the outcomeis also a narrative or a more traditional academic article, or simplyenhanced understanding in the classroom.1 There is no doubt thatrecent developments that legitimize personal narratives are extremelyimportant for the TESOL eld, as they allow for both teachers and

1 Narrative inquiry is usually understood to be a an ethnographic approach to elicitingunderstandings, whereas narrative study has a greater focus on narrative construction from avariety of perspectives.