national peace essay contest 2007-2008 · national peace essay contest 2007-2008 natural resources...
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ScholarShip competition for high School StudentS
National Peace essay Contest2007-2008
Natural Resources and Conflict
United States Institute of Peace
Contents
Introduction 2
What Do Essay Contest Winners Receive? 2
When Is the Deadline? 2
What Does the Institute Provide to Help Students and Teachers Participate? 2
Who Is Eligible? 4
Information about the Contest Coordinator 4
How Will Your Essay Be Judged? 4
What Are the Essay Requirements? 5
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Essay Submission Checklist 7
Sample Winning Essay from 2006 10
Detachable Contest Poster Cover Interior
Directions for Entering the Contest
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IntroductionTheinternationalsystemhaswitnesseddramaticchangesintherecentpast.DevelopmentsaroundtheglobeandathomechallengeustorethinktheroleoftheUnitedStatesintheinternationalcommunity.Whatisournation’splaceinthisincreasinglycomplexglobalpicture?Howdowebestpromoterespectforhumanrightsandthegrowthoffreedomandjustice?Whatcanwedotonurtureandpreserveinterna-tionalsecurityandworldpeace?
TheUnitedStatesdependsonknowledgeableandthoughtfulstudents—thenextgenerationofleaders—tobuildpeacewithfreedomandjusticeamongnationsandpeoples.Inthebeliefthatquestionsaboutpeace,justice,freedom,andsecurityarevitaltociviceducation,theUnitedStatesInstituteofPeaceestablishedtheNationalPeaceEssayContesttoexpandeducationalopportunitiesforyoungAmericans.
The National Peace Essay Contest:
promotesseriousdiscussionamonghighschoolstu-dents,teachers,andnationalleadersaboutinterna-tionalpeaceandconflictresolutiontodayandinthefuture;
complementsexistingcurriculaandotherscholasticactivities;
strengthensstudents’research,writing,andreasoningskills;
meetsNationalContentStandards.
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What Do essay Contest Winners Receive?
College Scholarships
StatelevelselectioncategoriesincludethefiftyU.S.states,Washington,D.C.,U.S.Territories,andAmericanstudentsabroad.Firstplacestatelevelwinnerscompetefornationalawards.
1 National award, first place: $10,000*
1 National award, second place: $5,000*
1 National award, third place: $2,500*(*nationalawardsincludestateawardamounts)53 State awards, first place: $1,000 each
Invitation to the Awards Program in Washington, D.C.
First-placestatewinnersareinvitedtoWashingtonforthe
awardsprogram.The Institute pays for expenses related
to the program, including travel, lodging, meals and
entertainment.Thisuniquefive-dayprogrampromotesan
understandingofthenatureandprocessofinternational
peacemakingbyfocusingonaregionand/orthemerelatedto
thecurrentessaytopic.Programactivitieshaveincluded:
takingpartinasimulationexerciseinwhichstudentsassumerolesofnationalandinternationalleaders;examiningissues;addressingcrises,andthenformulat-ingandproposingsolutions;
meetingwithU.S.governmentofficialsandpoliticalleaders;
participatinginbriefingsbyhighly-regardedpractitio-nersandforeigngovernmentofficials;
visitinghistoricalandculturalsites;attendingamusicalorplay;
samplinginternationalcuisinesfromsomeof
Washington’smostinterestingethnicrestaurants.
When is the Deadline?Entries must be postmarked by February 1, 2008.
What does the Institute Provide to Help Students and Teachers Participate?Thisguidebookcontains,inadditiontotherequirements,lastyear’snationalwinner’sessayasasample.Also,wehavecreatedastudyguideforteachersandstudents.
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Natural Resources and Conflict
TheUnitedNationsEducation,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)definesnatu-
ralresourcesas“materialsthatoccurinnatureandareessentialorusefultohumans.”This
includes,forinstance,oil,gas,metals,gemstones,water,andwildlife.Mostcommunities,from
smalltownstolargecountries,experiencedisagreementovertheuseofnaturalresources.These
conflictsareusuallymanageablebutsometimestheybreakoutinviolence.Competitionoverthe
controlofoilproductionhashelpedfantheviolenceamongtheKurds,Sunnis,andShiitesin
Iraq,forinstance.Inothercases,thepartiestoadisputehaveusednaturalresourcestosustain
theconflict.InAngola,thegovernmentusedoilrevenuestofunditssideofthecivilwarwhile
rebelsuseddiamondsalestofundtheirefforts.Ontheotherhand,naturalresourcescanalso
beameanstobringpartiestogether.Amongthemostsuccessfulexamplesofcooperationinthe
MiddleEastarethewater-sharingagreementsbetweenIsraelandJordan.Inanotherexample,
landcontestedbetweenPeruandEcuadorhasbeenturnedintoapeaceparktocommemorate
theendofthefighting.
Ascountriesemergefromconflict,theyfrequentlymustmakeimportantdecisionsaboutthe
futureofnaturalresourcedevelopmentinordertocreateasustainablepeace.Whoownsthe
naturalresourcesandwhohastheabilityandtherighttodevelopthem?Whoshouldbenefit
fromtheirdevelopment?Howshouldtherevenuethattheseresourcesbringbefairlyshared?
Thistaskisoftencomplicatedbythefactthatcontrolofnaturalresourcessometimesliesatthe
heartoftheconflict.Iftheconflictisinternational,issuesofsovereigntyandnationalpridecan
furtherconfoundthetaskofpost-conflictpeacebuilding.
In a 1500-word essay, state what you believe are the necessary elements for the devel-
opment of fair, peaceful, or effective use of natural resources after a conflict. Analyze two
case studies that illustrate your arguments by selecting two foreign conflicts in which nat-
ural resources have played a part. Of the two foreign conflict situations, at least one must
have begun in or after 1990.
Describetherolenaturalresourcesplayedineachconflict.
Explainhowtheissuesofnaturalresourceswereresolvedorattemptedtoberesolvedin
thesettlingofeachconflict.
Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwocasesyouhavechosen?
Wasonesettlementmoresuccessfulthantheother?Why?
Basedonyouranalysis,giveyourrecommendationsforhowcountriescomingoutofcon-
flictcanresolveissuesaroundnaturalresourcesinordertobuildalastingpeace,andhow
theinternationalcommunitycanhelpinthateffort.
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National Peace Essay Contest2007-2008 Topic and Question
Information about the Contest CoordinatorThecontestcoordinatoristhekeycontactbetweenstudentsandtheUnitedStatesInstituteofPeace.Thecoordinatormaybeselectedbythestudentandcanbeanyadult—teacher,parent,youthleader,etc.CoordinatorsdonotneedtocontacttheInstitutepriortosubmittingessays.
In schools and organizations, the coordinator:Overseestheselectionprocessforessayssubmittedtothecontest;
Ensuresthatessaysareconceivedandwrittenbystudentsandrepresentthestudents’ownthoughts;
Reviewstheessaystoensurethattheyfollowtheguidelines,andtocheckforgrammaticalandtypo-graphicalerrors;
Signseachstudentregistrationformtocertifycom-pliancewiththerules;
Registersonlineasacoordinator(seepage6)andsubmitsonecopyofthecompletedandsignedcoor-dinatorregistrationformalongwithfourcollatedcopiesofeachstudent’sessayaccompaniedbyacopyofthestudentregistrationform.
How Will Your essay be Judged?Essaysaresenttostate-leveljudges—qualifiedexpertsselectedbytheInstitutewhoevaluatetheessaysaccordingtothecriteriadescribedbelow.Nationalwin-nersareselectedfromamongthefirst-placestateessaysbytheInstitute’sboardofdirectors.Thedecisionsofthejudgesarefinal.TheInstitutereservestherighttopresentnoawardsatthestateandnationallevels,ortoreducethenumberofawardsifaninsufficientnum-berofdeservingentriesisreceived. Participants are notified in May of their essay’s status.StudentsandcoordinatorsshouldnotcontacttheInstituteforinfor-mationaboutthestatusoftheessays.
Anexcellentessayuseswell-researchedideasandfactstoholdtogetherlogicalandcompellingargument(s)andpresentsthoughtfulsolution(s)totheproblem.Italsoreflectsastudent’sabilitytoorganizecomplexfactsandideas,bringintheirowninterestingperspectivesandideastotheanalysisandrecommendation(s),andpayattentiontowritingstyleandmechanics(grammar,syntax,punctuation).
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ÜYoumaydownloadthestudyguidewww.usip.org/npec/
sg08.pdfaswellasthisguidebookwww.usip.org/npec/gb08.
pdf.Youmayalsorequestadditionalcopiesofthematerials
throughourWebsite,www.usip.org/ed/contactus/orderma-
Who Is eligible?Studentsareeligibletoparticipateiftheyareingrades
ninethroughtwelveinanyofthefiftystates,theDistrict
ofColumbia,theU.S.territories,oriftheyareU.S.citizens
attendinghighschooloverseas.Studentsmaybeattend-
ingapublic,private,orparochialschoolcorrespondence
program.Entriesfromhome-schooledstudentsarealso
accepted.Previousfirst-placestatewinnersandimmediate
relativesofdirectorsorstaffoftheInstitutearenoteligible
toparticipate.Previous honorable mentions are eligible
to enter.
We encourage students of all backgrounds and ability
to participate in the contest.
Studentsmusthaveacontestcoordinatorwhocanreview
theessaysandactasthekeycontactbetweenparticipants
andtheInstitute.Itistothestudent’sadvantagetohavea
coordinatorreviewtheessaytomakesureitiscomplete,has
allthenecessaryforms,isfreefromtypographicalandgram-
maticalerrors,andaddressesthetopic.Seethenextsection
forfurtherinformationaboutthecontestcoordinator.
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Senator Patty Murray (D-WA) with Washington's winner Kona Shen
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What are the essay Requirements?ForthepurposeoftheNationalPeaceEssayContest,
anessayisathree-partpaperthatlaysoutanddevel-
opsapositioninresponsetotheessaycontestques-
tion.Researchingthetopictogainagreaterknowledge
aboutcriticalissuesraisedinthequestionandtofind
examplesthatsupportyourpointsiscrucial.However,
theessayshouldbemorethanaresearchpaper,anar-
rativedescriptionofevents,orastatementofopinion.
Your essay should have the following structure.
Introduction:Introducethesubjectand state your
thesis. Theobjectiveistodemonstratethatyouunder-
standtheessaycontestquestionandhaveformeda
responsetoit.
Body:Developyourargumentsandassertionsusing
researchandanalysis.Theprocessofanalysismay
includecomparingandcontrasting,differentiating
amongseveralideasorevents,critiquingavarietyof
perspectives,interpretingresults,ordrawinginferences.
Be sure to identify the sources of your information or
ideas using a standard citation method.
Conclusion:Summarizetheresearchandanalysis
presentedintheessayandsetforthyourconclusions.
Drawingonideasalreadypresented,youshoulddem-
onstratethatyourconclusionssupportthethesisyou
putforwardintheopeningparagraphs.Youraimisto
convincethereaderthatyourthesis,facts,andanalysis
arereasonableandvalid.
Credit the Sources of Information and Ideas:Use a
standardized method and style suchasMLAorAPAto
consistentlygivecredittothesourcesoftheideasand
informationusedinyouressay.Usein-text citations,
footnotes, or endnotestogivecredittothesourcesof
yourinformationorideas.Alsoincludeabibliography
or a references listtolisttheworksthatyouhave
citedinyouressayorhaveconsultedinordertowrite
youressay.
Essaysthatuseavarietyofsources—academicjour-
nals,newsmagazines,newspapers,books,government
documents,publicationsfromresearchorganizations—
farebetterinthecontest.General encyclopedias are
not acceptable as sources.Essayscitingencyclopedias
innotesorbibliographymaybedisqualified.The Internet
or World Wide Web should not be the only source
for your essay. WhencitingInternetsources,youmay
includethefollowinginformation:author(s),titleofwork,
Internetaddress,anddateinformationwasaccessed.
Your essay must:
Addressallpartsofthisyear’scontestquestionin
English.Essaysonpreviousyear’sorothertopicswill
bedisqualified;
NOThaveyourname,teacher’sname,orschoolname
anywhereontheessay;
Betyped,double–spaced,ononesideofwhite8½by
11inch(lettersize)paperwithleftandrightmargins
at1¼incheseach.Fontmustbenosmallerthan12
pointTimesorsimilarlysizedfont;
Haveatitleandpagenumbers;
Havenomorethan1,500words(approximatelyfive
pages).Thewordcountlimitincludesallwordsinthe
textbutdoesnotincludethebibliographyandnotes;
Followacceptedstandardsregardingattributionof
quotations,arguments,andideasofothers;
Includestandardizedcitationsandabibliographywith
Internetsourceslistedseparately.
You must submit:
Fourstapled,legible,collatedcopiesofyouressay,
alongwiththecompletedregistrationform,toyour
contestcoordinatorwellinadvanceoftheFebruary
1,2008postmarkdeadline.Ifyouregisteredonline,
includetheessayIDnumberfoundonyourregis-
trationformatthetoprightcornerofthefirstpage
ofeachofthefourcopies.Attachonecopyofyour
studentregistrationformtothetopofthefirstessay
copy.Yourcoordinatorwillsubmityouressayentry
packettotheInstitutewiththecoordinatorregistra-
tionform.
Thestudentregistrationformmustbesignedbythe
studentandthecoordinator.
Thewordcountsectionoftheregistrationformmust
befilledoutwithanexact number.
Acoordinatorformmustaccompanythestudent’s
entry.
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Directions for entering the Contest:! To expedite the winner selection process, we ask that you complete your registration form online.
! You will need to have the following information on hand when you go online to register:
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Note About Internet Access: Ifthecoordinatorandthestudent(s)donothaveeasyaccesstotheInternet,theregistrationformsonpage8and9ofthisguidebookmaybeused.YoumayignoretheinstructionsregardingthecontestcoordinatorIDnumberand/oressayIDnumberifthisisthecase.Wewillprocesstheregistrationformsandessayswithoutanypenaltyorprejudice.
Essaytitle
Exactwordcount
Studentname,address,homephone,e-mail
Gradeinschool,anticipatedgraduationdate,gender
CoordinatorregistrationIDandname
Schoolnameandaddress
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If you’re a STUDENT
! You will need to have the following information on hand when you go online to register:
Coordinatorname,address,phone,e-mail
Student’sschooladdressifdifferentfromthecoor-dinator’saffiliation
Informationonhowyouheardaboutthecontest,howyoureceivedcontestguidebookand/orstudyguide,andwhetheryouusedthestudyguide
Numberofstudentswhoparticipatedbywritinganessay
Numberofessayssubmittedthisyear
Ifateacher:subjectstaught,gradelevelstaught
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If you’re a COORDINATOR
Student:
Letyourcoordinator(seepage4)knowaboutyourintentiontoenterthecontest.Ifyourcoordinatorisnotfromyourschoolanddoesnotbelongtoanorganizationoraclub,giveyourschoolnameandaddresstoyourcoordinator.
Followtheessayguidelinescarefullytowriteyouressay.Whenthefinaldraftisready,askyourcoordinatortoreviewittomakesureyouhavefollowedalltheguide-linesanddirections.
GooverthelistatthebottomofthispagetomakesureyouhavealltheinformationyouwillneedtoregisteryourentrythroughourWebsite.Onlineregistrationismandatoryforstudentsandcoordinators.(Seebelow:NoteAboutInternetAccess)
Getyourcoordinator’sIDnumber.(Ifyourcoordinatorhasnotregistered,showyourcoordinatorthecoordina-torsectionofthispage.)
Gotowww.usip.org/npec/register.Followdirectionstofilloutthestudentregistrationform.
Aftersubmittingyourinformation,printouttwocopiesoftheregistrationform.Sendonecopytous,andkeeponeforyourrecords.
Includeatthetoprightcornerofthefirstpageofyouressaystheregistrationnumberfoundonyourregistra-tionform.Ifyouhavealreadyprintedoutyouressayandmadecopies,writeitbyhand.
LookovertheChecklistonpage7.
Whenyouressayisready,giveonesignedcopyofyourstudentregistrationformandfourstapledcopiesofyouressaytoyourcoordinator.
Besuretokeepacopyoftheessayandregistrationform.
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Coordinator: (see page 4)
Beforestudentsbegintowritetheiressays,andafterstudentshavetheiressaysready,reviewtheEssaySubmissionChecklist(onpage7)withstudents.
Gooverthelistatthebottomofthispagetomakesureyouhavealltheinformationneededtoregisteronline.Onlineregistrationismandatoryforcoordi-natorsandstudentsunlessInternetaccessisnotpos-sible(SeeNoteAboutInternetAccessbelow).
Gotowww.usip.org/npec/registertoregisterasacoordinator.
Followdirectionsonlinetofilloutthecoordinatorregistrationform.Printoutacopyoftheregistrationformtoincludewiththestudententries.Ifyoufinderrorsorwouldliketoupdatetheinformationafterprintingtheform,makethechangebyhandandputyourinitialsnexttoeachchange.Keepacopyoftheformforyourrecords.
GiveyourstudentsyourcoordinatorIDnumberlistedonthecoordinatorregistrationform.Thestudentsneedthisinformationtofillouttheirstudentregistra-tionformonline.
Collectthestudentregistrationformsalongwiththeessays.Signeachstudent’sregistrationformtocertifythattheessayisthestudent’swork.
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United States Institute of Peace
www.usip.org
TheUnitedStatesInstituteofPeaceisanindependent,non-partisaninstitutionestablishedandfundedbyCongress.Itsgoalsaretohelppreventandresolveviolentconflicts,pro-motepost-conflictpeacebuilding,andincreaseconflict-man-agementtools,capacity,andintellectualcapitalworldwide.TheInstitutedoesthisbyempoweringotherswithknowl-edge,skills,andresources,aswellasbyitsdirectinvolvementinconflictzonesaroundtheglobe.
J. Robinson West (Chair)ChairmanPFCEnergyWashington,D.C.
María Otero (Vice Chair)PresidentACCIONInternationalBoston,Mass.
Betty F. BumpersFounderandformerPresidentPeaceLinksWashington,D.C.
Holly J. BurkhalterVicePresidentofGovernmentAffairs,InternationalJusticeMission,Washington,D.C.
Chester A. CrockerJamesR.SchlesingerProfessorofStrategicStudiesSchoolofForeignServiceGeorgetownUniversityWashington,D.C.
Laurie S. Fulton, PartnerWilliamsandConnollyWashington,D.C.
Charles HornerSeniorFellowHudsonInstituteWashington,D.C.
Mora L. McLeanPresidentAfrica-AmericaInstituteNewYork,N.Y.
Barbara W. SnellingFormerStateSenatorandformerLieutenantGovernorShelburne,Vt.
Board of Directors
Members ex officio
Barry LowenkronAssistantSecretaryofStateforDemocracy,HumanRightsandLabor
Peter W. RodmanAssistantSecretaryofDefenseforInternationalSecurityAffairs
Richard H. SolomonPresidentUnitedStatesInstituteofPeace(nonvoting)
Frances C. Wilson LieutenantGeneral,U.S.MarineCorps;President,NationalDefenseUniversity
Mail the essays and registration forms to:
United States Institute of PeaceNational Peace Essay Contest 1200 17th Street NW, Suite 200Washington, DC 20036-3011
essay Submission ChecklistHaveyoumadesurethatyourname,school,orcitydonotappearanywhereontheessaymanuscript?Isyouressaynomorethan1,500wordslong?Haveyoufilledintheword-countsectionontheapplica-tionform?IsyouressaywritteninEnglish?Doesyouressayaddressallpartsofthecontesttopic?Haveyougivenyouressayatitle?Haveyouscrupulouslyfollowedacceptedstandardsregardingattributionofquotations,arguments,andideasofothers?Doesyouressayhavestandardizedcitationsandabibli-ography?AreyourInternetsourceslistedseparatelyfromyourothersources?Isyouressaytyped,double-spaced,withleftandrightmarginssetat1¼inches,ononesideofwhite8½by11inchpaper?(Pleasedonotputessaysinbinders.)Haveyounumberedthepagesofyouressay?HasyourcontestcoordinatorcompletedtheCoordinatorRegistrationForm?Haveyoufilledout,printedout,andsignedtheStudentRegistrationForm?(Readthepledgecarefully.Insigningit,youcertifythattheessayisyourownwork.)Hasyourcontestcoordinatorsignedyourstudentregis-trationform?Haveyoumadefourlegible,collatedcopiesofyouressay,includingthebibliography?Haveyoustapledeachcopyofyouressay?Haveyouattachedyourstudentregistrationformtothetopcopyofyourfouressays?Haveyoumadeacopyofyouressayandthestudentreg-
istrationformtokeepforyourownrecords?
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Four copiesofeachessaymustbesubmittedwiththestu-dentregistrationformortheessaywillnotbeforwardedforjudging.TheInstitutewillnotberesponsibleforentriesarrivingafterthejudgingprocessbeginsduetomaildeliveryproblemsanderrorsresultingfromhand-writtendocumentsandregistrationformsthatareincorrectlyfilledout.Essaysubmissionsmustbepostmarked no later than February 1, 2008.
For more information: Phone:(202)429-3854 Fax:(202)429-6063 E-mail:[email protected]: www.usip.org/npec
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For additional help writing your essay, use our online study guide: www.usip.org/npec/08sg.html.
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2007–2008 STudENT REgISTRATIoN FoRM(Type or print in black ink.)
Student Information
EssayTitle_________________________________________________________________________________
Name___________________________________________________________________________________
HomeAddress______________________________________________________________________________
City________________________State_________ZipCode___________Country_____________________
GradeinSchool____________________________ AnticipatedGraduationDate_________________________
GenderqMq FCitizenship ____________________________________________________________
HomeTelephoneNumber(__________)________________________________________________________
E-mailAddress______________________________________________________________________________
Howmanywords(countingarticlesandquotations)areinyouressay?________________________________
Didyoushareyouressaywithothers?_________Ifso,how? ________________________________________(Was it published in a school newspaper, posted on a bulletin board, discussed in your youth group?) Note: Publication or sharing of essays is not required.
Howdidyouhearaboutthecontest? ___________________________________________________________
School Information
NameofSchool_____________________________________________________________________________
MailingAddress_____________________________________________________________________________
City________________________State_________ZipCode___________Country _____________________
Coordination Information
Coordinator Name ___________________________________________________________________________
CoordinatorIDnumber(ifcoordinatorregisteredonline)____________________________________________
MailingAddress(ifdifferentfromschoolinformation) ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Certification Information
Ipledgethatthisessayismyownwork.IagreetoabidebyallguidelinesandrequirementsoftheNationalPeaceEssayContest.IunderstandthatmyessaywillnotbereturnedandwillbecomethepropertyoftheUnitedStatesInstituteofPeacetouseatitsdiscretion.
SignatureofStudent______________________________________________Date_________________________
IhavereviewedthisessayandfoundthatitmeetstherequirementsoftheNationalPeaceEssayContest.Tothebestofmyknowledge,thisessayisthisstudent’sownwork.
SignatureofContestCoordinator____________________________________Date_________________________
Cuthere
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First M.I. Last Suffix
USIP USE ONLY
CF CT DL
SF ENC WC
TOP INT INC
Please register online. Use this form only if the Internet is not easily available.
All informAtion is required. Incorrect, incomplete, or illegible forms mAy leAd to disquAlificAtion.
(FORMS MAY BE PHOTOCOPIED.)
(StudentslivingoutsidetheUnitedStatesmustbeU.S.citizenstobeeligiblefortheNationalPeaceEssayContest.)
CoordinatorName(Pleasecircle)Dr.Ms.Mr.____________________________________________________________________________
Relationshiptostudent:qTeacherqParentqClubSponsorqOther_____________
NameofSchoolorOrganization _____________________________________________________
MailingAddress___________________________________________________________________
City__________ State _______________ZipCode ______ Country______________________
Telephone(______)__________________________Besttimeofdaytoreachyou____________
E-mail__________________________________________________________________________
SubjectsTaught___________________________________________________________________
GradeLevelsTaught_______________________________________________________________
Howmanytimeshaveyouparticipatedinthecontest,includingthisyear?___________________
HowdidyoulearnabouttheNationalPeaceEssayContest?_______________________________
Howdidyouobtaincontestguidebook?qdownloadedPDFqMailqOther:
DidyouusetheNPECStudyGuide?YesqNoq
Howdidyouuseit?_______________________________________________________________
Wouldyouliketoreceivematerialsfornextyear’scontest?YesqNoq
Checkonedemographicdescriptionthatbestfitsthestudent'sschool:______________________qUrbanqUrban-suburban(suburboflargemetropolitanarea)qRural-suburban(suburbofmediumtosmallcity)qRural
Participation Information
Totalnumberofyourstudentsparticipatinginwritinganessaythisyear_____________________Totalnumberofessayssubmittedthisyear_____________________________________________
If the essays were prepared for a class or extra-credit assignment, please provide the name of the class in which the assignment was given. If the essays were for a club activity, provide the name of the club and its purpose.
GeneralClassAssignment___________________________________________________________
Extra-CreditAssignment____________________________________________________________
ClubActivity_____________________________________________________________________
PleaseusethespacebelowtoprovidetheInstitutewithanyadditionalinformationabouthowyouusedtheessaytopicwithyourstudents,club,orgroup.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
First M.I. Last Suffix
Please register online. Use this form only if the Internet is not easily available.
2007-2008 CooRdINAToR REgISTRATIoN FoRM
�(FORMS MAY BE PHOTOCOPIED.)
(Type or print in black ink.)
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SamPle eSSaY 200�-200� WINNINg eSSaY
Defusing Nuclear Tensions Through Internationally Supported Bilateral CollaborationsSincethedawnofthenuclearageandthesubsequentonsetoftheColdWar,tensearmsraceshaveswepttheworld,threateningglobalsecurity.Manynations,however,haverecognizedthedangerofglobalproliferationandchosentodismantletheirnuclearprograms.1WhilecountriessuchasBrazilandArgentinahavedismantledtheirprogramsrapidlyandsuccessfully,othernuclearstates—suchasIndiaandPakistan—havebeenunabletodefusetheirstrainedrelationsandremainnuclearcompetitors.Thesetwosituationsrevealthatdisarmamentismostsuccessfulwhentheinternationalcommunitysupports—ratherthaninterfereswith—bilateralcollaborationand,mostimportantly,whenthedecisiontodisarmisprimarilyautonomousandself-motivated.ThoughthestrainedrelationsbetweenBrazilandArgentinapeakedinthelate1970s,the“rivalryandsubtletensionsbetweenthetwocountriescanbetracedbacktocolonialdays.”2AsBrazilgainedinternationalrecognitioninthe20thcentury,Argentinaaccelerateditsnuclearprograminanefforttocheckitsrival’sburgeoningpower.Argentina’snuclearprogramadvancedquicklyand“bytheearly1980swasthoughttobeaboutfiveyearsaheadofBrazilinhavingthecapa-bilitytoproducematerialsuitableforanuclearweapon.”3RecognizingArgentinaasaviablethreat,Brazilconsequentlyincreaseditsnuclearcapabilities;thenationalismandrivalrybetweenthetwoLatinnationshadbecomeanessentialpartofthecountries’nucleararsenals.
TheworldsupportedthenuclearprogramsofBrazilandArgentinabyprovidingsuppliesandassistance.Inthe1940s,Brazil’snuclearprogramwasadvancedwhentheUnitedStatesagreedtogiveBraziltechnologicalinformationonnucleararmsinexchangeforminingrights.4Bythemid-1950stheUnitedStates“retainedultimatecontrolovertheprocesses”ofBrazil’s“AtomsforPeace”programandoversawitsextractionofuranium.Itwasn’tuntil1975thatBrazilwouldboldlyassertitsautonomybyannouncingitwouldhenceforthreceiveitsnucleartechnologyfromWestGermany,nottheUnitedStates.5
AsaresultofBrazil’s1973petroleumcrisis,ErnestoGeisel,thenewlyelectedpresident,begantoredirectthecountry’snuclearprogramtoaddressitsenergyneeds.6Itwas“withthearrivalofdemocraticallyelectedregimesinthe1980s...thatsignificantprogresstowardcooperationbegantobemade7astheseprogramswereaccelerated.InArgentina,PresidentRaulAlfonsinhandedoverthecountry’snuclearprogramtociviliancontrolandintroducedlegislation“tolegallyprohibitdevelopmentofnuclearweapons.”Bychoosingtodisengagefromthearmsraceinordertoaddressinternalproblems—achoicesupportedbyciviliansinbothcountries—BrazilandArgentinawereatlastabletopursuedisarmament.8
In1980,thehistoricBrazilian-ArgentineAgreementonthePeacefulUseofNuclearEnergyestablished“technicalcooperationandcoordinationofciviliannuclearpolicy.”9Astringoftreatiesfollowed,whichemphasizedtheimportanceofmutualtransparencybetweenthetwocountries’nuclearprogramsandallowedthetwocountriestoinspecteachother’snuclearpowerplants—eventhosetowhichtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencydidnothaveaccess.10Bytheendofthe1990s,bothBrazilandArgentinahadratifiedtheTreatyofTlatelolco,whichcreatedtheLatinAmericanNuclearWeaponsFreeZone,andtheNuclearNon-ProliferationTreaty.Atlast,theyhadconcludeda“seriesofagree-mentsthatdefusedthenuclearrivalrybetweenthetwocountriesandcommittedbothtoexclusivelypeacefuluseofnucleartechnology.”11
Acrosstheworld,inSouthAsia,IndiaandPakistanhavebeeninvolvedinanucleararmsracethathasoutlastedtheColdWar.Therivalrybetweenthesetwocountriesdatesbacktotheirpartitionin1947,andtheirconflictshavebeenmorevolatileandtheirnegotiationslessflexiblethanthoseofBrazilandArgentina.12Throughoutthe20thcentury,bothIndiaandPakistanweremanipulatedbytheinternationalcommunity,andneithercountryhasachievedindependencefrommanipulativepressuresinordertosuccessfullydisarmandachievepeaceintheregion.
India’smotivationtodevelopnuclearweaponsstemmedfromitswishtoprotectitselffromborderingcountries,aswellasitsdesiretoassertitselfasamajorworldpower.Sincethemid-1950s,IndiahasbeenthreatenedbyitsneighborsPakistanandChina.ChinadetonateditsfirstnuclearbombinOctober1964,and—notcoincidentally—Indiawasthenextcountrytofollow,inMay1974.Pakistanbegandevelopinganuclearbombin1972inordertocompetewithandprotectitselffromIndia’smilitarycapabilities.Intheyearsthatfollowed,tensionsescalated,andbythe1980s,thetwocountrieswerecompetinginanarmsracethatcreatedwidespreadfearofnuclearArmageddon.Thesefearsseemedjusti-fiedwhen,in1998,Indiadetonated“apeacefulnucleardevice”undergroundandPakistanreactedquickly,detonatingitsownundergroundnuclearbombsjustmonthslater.13
Upuntilthe1990s,theUnitedStateschosetosupportPakistanwhiletheUSSRalliedwithIndia,demonstratinghowrelentlesslyColdWarpoliticsexacerbatedthesituation.14ChinacontributedtotheproblembyprovidingPakistanwithsuppliesforitsnuclearprogramandarmingtheothercountriesthatborderIndia.15Duringthistime,notonlydidpowerfulnationsnotactivelysupportnonproliferationbetweenIndiaandPakistan,theyworseneditbymanipulatingthesituationfortheirownpurposes.
KoNa l. SHeN The Northwest School, Seattle, WA Coordinator: Mr. Jeff Blair
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UnlikeSouthAsia,SouthAmericawasnotconsideredacrucialregionbyeithertheAmericansortheSoviets.16Inretrospect,itisclearthatthiswasakeyreasonwhyBrazilandArgentinaneverreachedthelevelofpoliticalandnucleartensionthatIndiaandPakistancurrentlysustain.UnlikeIndiaandPakistan,countriesinLatinAmericawereneverdelib-eratelypittedagainsteachotherinordertoprovideanothercountryanadvantage.
SincetheconclusionoftheColdWar,thegoalsoftheinternationalcommunityhaveshifted,andthedisarmamentofIndiaandPakistanhasbecomeapriority.17However,theprocesshasbeenfrustratinglyslow,largelyduetoalackofstabilitywithinbothcountries,aswellastheunwillingness—especiallyonIndia’spart—toriskvulnerabilityinthepeaceprocess.Becauseofthesensitivehistoryofconflictbetweenthetwonations,theyareintenselydefensivewhendealingwithoneanother,unlikeBrazilandArgentina,whoweresignificantlymorewillingtoresolvetheirdifferences.
Inrecentyears,tensionsbetweenIndiaandPakistanhaveeasedslightly,creatingopportunitiestode-escalatethesitu-ation.PakistanhasapproachedIndiawithproposalstocreateanuclear-freezoneinSouthAsia,todisarmandsigntheNon-ProliferationTreaty,andtoparticipateinregionalconferencesonnon-proliferation.However,threatenedbyChina’saggressivenuclearprogram,Indiahasdeclined.Theonlyprogressthathasbeenmadeincludesa“nofirstuse”agreementandanagreementtosupporttheComprehensiveTestBanTreaty,which,thoughencouraging,isnotenoughtoleadtodisarmament.18
AslongasIndiacontinuestofeelthreatenedbyChina,itseemsunlikelythatanagreementwillbereachedwithPakistan.Evennow,IndiaissuspectedofdevelopingnuclearmissilesthatcouldreachChina’sindustrialheartland,andPakistanisknowntopossessweaponsthatcouldreachMadras,onthesoutheasterncoastofIndia.19ThoughIndiastillconsidersnuclearweaponstobea“cost-effectivepoliticalcountertoChina’snuclearprogram,”20ithassuggestedthatitisopentosigningarevisedversionoftheNuclearNonproliferationTreaty,onethatrequiresthefivedeclarednuclearstatestodecreasetheirarsenals.21
Thecontroversyoverthenuclearstates’arsenalsprovidesthefivestateswithanopportunitytoincreasenon-prolifera-tioneffortsbyleadingthroughexample.Itisthedutyofthesestatestodemonstratethefeasibilityofdisarmamentbydownsizingtheirownnuclearprograms.TheUnitedStatesalonestillhas10,000warheadsandisplanningtorebuildnuclearmanufacturingplantsthathavebeenclosedsincetheendoftheColdWar.22Neitherpolicysupportsnon-prolif-eration.
Countriesthathavedisarmedsuccessfully,suchasBrazilandArgentina,arealsopowerfuladvocatesfornonprolifera-tionbecausetheyareabletodemonstratethatnucleararmsarenotanessentialpartofnationalsecurity.Furthermore,allcountriesmustrefrainfromundermininginternationaltreatiesbydemandingspecialprivileges.ThedoublestandardsthatsuchnationsastheUnitedStatesclingtocreatedistrustamongallmembersoftheinternationalcommunityanddestabilizenon-proliferationefforts.23
Asthedisarmamentmovementcontinuestoworktowardsinternationalnon-proliferation,itwillbenecessarytoestablishconditionsinwhichnuclearstateswillbeabletoreachpeacefulagreements.AsBrazilandArgentinademon-strated,itisnecessaryfortheautonomyofthenationsinvolvedtobesupported.AstheworldconsidershowtoresolvetheconflictbetweenIndiaandPakistan,itmustrealizethatneitherbilateralagreementsnorinternationaltreatieswillsufficewithouttheother.Countriesmustactivelystrengthenthetreatiesbyimprovingtheirownnuclearpoliciesandreducingtheirownnucleararsenals.Itisonlywiththecompletecooperationofallnationsthatoursocietywillbeabletoprogresstowardscompletenonproliferation,resultinginanincreasedlevelofglobalsecuritythatwillbenefitallmembersoftheinternationalcommunity.
Endnotes1.GrahamJr.,Thomas.DisarmamentSketches:ThreeDecadesofArmsControlandInternationalLaw.Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2002,p.313-34.2.Selcher,WayneA.“Brazilian-ArgentineRelationsinthe1980s:FromWaryRivalrytoFriendlyCompetition.”JournalofInteramericanStudiesandWorldAffairs.1985:25-53.JSTOR.TheNorthwestSchool,Library,Seattle.25January2006www.jstor.org/search.3.Jones,RodneyW.,MarkG.McDonough,TobyF.DaltonandGregoryD.Koblentz.“Argentina.”CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.1998.CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.24January2006http://www/cep.org/programs/npp/nppargn.htm.4.”CountryProfiles:ArgentinaandBrazil.”DisarmamentandPeaceEducation.27Feb.2002.GlobalSecurityInstitute.23Jan.2006http://www.gsinstitute.org/dpe/countries/argentina_brazil.html.5.“NuclearWeaponsPrograms.”WeaponsofMassDestructionAroundtheWorld.6Oct.1999.FederationofAmericanScientists.25Jan.2006http://fas.org/nuke/guide/brazil/nuke.6.Ibid7.Jones,RodneyW.,etals.“Argentina.”8.“CountryProfiles:ArgentinaandBrazil.”9.Ibid10.Jones,RodneyW.,etals.“Argentina.”11.“CountryProfiles:ArgentinaandBrazil.”12.Bidwai,PrafulandAchinVanaik.NewNukes:India,PakistanandGlobalNuclearDisarmament.Northampton:InterlinkPublishing,2000,p.112-113.
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13.Ibid.14.“IndiaForeignRelations.”IndiaGuideandResourceInformation.2000.IndianChild.23Jan.2006http://www.indianchild.com/india.htm.15.“PakistanNuclearWeapons.”WeaponsofMassDestructionAroundtheWorld.11Dec.2002.FederationofAmericanScientists.21Jan.2006.http://ww.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke.16.“LatinAmericaafterWorldWarII.”ColdWarinLatinAmerica.ShannonL.Duffy,Ph.D.25Jan.2006.http://www.loyno.edu/~seduffy/coldwarlatinam.html.17.Bidwai,Prafuletal.NewNukes:India,PakistanandGlobalNuclearDisarmament.18.Ibid.19.Ibid.20.“NuclearPowerinIndiaandPakistan.”NuclearIssuesBriefingPaper45.Oct.2005.UraniumInformationCentre.21.Ibid22.Sterngold,James.“UpgradesPlannedforU.S.NuclearStockpile;AgencyLeaderExpectsSignificantWarheadRedesigns.”SanFranciscoChronicle.15Jan.2006.SFGate.com.22Jan.2006http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/01/15/MNGTTGNL5P1.DTL..23.“WeakProspectsforNuclearNonproliferationEfforts.”ByDanielSchorr.AllThingsConsidered.NationalPublicRadio.KUOW,Seattle.2May,2005.“CountriesReviewNuclearNonproliferationTreaty.”ByMicheleKelemen.AllThingsConsidered.NationalPublicRadio.KUOW,Seattle.2May,2005.
BibliographyWorks Cited:Aizenstat,A.J.SurvivalforAll:TheAlternativetoNuclearWarwithaPracticalPlanforTotalDenuclearization.NewYork:Billner&RouseInc.,1985.Bidwai,PrafulandAchinVanaik.NewNukes:India,PakistanandGlobalNuclearDisarmament.Northampton:InterlinkPublishing,2000.Cheney,GlennAlan.NuclearProliferation:TheProblemsandPossibilities.NewYork:GrolierPublishing,1999.“CountriesReviewNuclearNonproliferationTreaty.”ByMicheleKelemen.AllThingsConsidered.NationalPublicRadio.KUOW,Seattle.2May,2005.GrahmJr.,Thomas.DisarmamentSketches:ThreeDecadesofArmsControlandInternationalLaw.Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2002.Maddox,RobertJames.WeaponsforVictory:TheHiroshimaDecisionFiftyYearsLater.Columbia:UniversityofMissouriPress,1995.Roussopoulos,DimitriosI.TheComingofWorldWarThree:FromProtesttoResistance/theInternationalWarSystem(Volume1).Buffalo:BlackRoseBooks,1986.Schell,Jonathan.TheGiftofTime:TheCaseforAbolishingNuclearWeaponsNow.NewYork:MetropolitanBooks,1998.“WeakProspectsforNuclearNonproliferationEfforts.”ByDanielSchorr.AllThingsConsidered.NationalPublicRadio.KUOW,Seattle.2May,2005.
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