national policy on high temperature …sawic.environment.gov.za/documents/455.pdf · national...

NATIONAL POLICY ON HIGH TEMPERATURE THERMAL WASTE TREATMENT AND CEMENT

KILN ALTERNATIVE FUEL USE

CEMENT PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA AND AN EVALUATION OF THEIR ABILITY TO CO-PROCESS AFRs AND TREAT HAZARDOUS

WASTES Report No : 66011-xx Project No : E1101 Date : 5/11/2007 Author : Dr Kåre Helge Karstensen

Dr. Kåre Helge Karstensen [email protected]

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Table of content

Table of content ........................................................................................................................... 2

Acronyms and abbreviations - General ...................................................................................... 3

Glossary ........................................................................................................................... 8

1. Cement kiln technology – an introduction .......................................................................... 9 1.1 Long rotary kilns ............................................................................................................ 11

1.1.1 Long wet kilns................................................................................................. 11 1.1.2 Long dry kilns with chains.............................................................................. 11

1.2 Grate preheater kilns ...................................................................................................... 12 1.3 Suspension preheater kilns............................................................................................. 12 1.4 Shaft preheater kilns....................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Two stage cyclone preheater kilns ................................................................................. 13 1.6 Four stage cyclone preheater kilns................................................................................. 14 1.7 Four to six stage cyclone preheater kilns with precalciner ............................................ 15

2. Consumption of energy and best available techniques for production – a summary ... 16 2.1 Options for resource reduction....................................................................................... 17 2.2 Best available techniques for cement production........................................................... 18

3. Fuels storage, preparation and firing ................................................................................ 20 3.1 Alternative fuels storage, preparation and firing............................................................ 21

4. Normal emission levels and BAT for emission prevention .............................................. 25 4.1 Pollution reduction ......................................................................................................... 25 4.2 Selection of BATs for controlling emissions ................................................................. 27 4.3 BAT and BEP for controlling and minimising PCDD/PCDF emission ........................ 29

5. Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern cement production – an introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30

6. Evaluation of South African cement plants....................................................................... 34 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 34 6.2 Main findings ................................................................................................................. 36 6.3 A summary ..................................................................................................................... 46

7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 49

8. References and bibliography .............................................................................................. 51


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Acronyms and abbreviations - General

AFR Alternative fuel and raw material

APCD Air pollution control device

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

AWFCO Automatic waste feed cut-off

BAT Best available techniques

BEP Best environmental practise

BHF Bag house filter

BIF Boiler and industrial furnace

Btu British thermal unit oC Degree Celsius

CAA Clean Air Act

CEMBUREAU European Cement Association

CEMS Continuous emissions monitoring system

CEN European Standardisation Organisation

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CKD Cement kiln dust

Cl2 Molecular chlorine

CSI Cement Sustainability Initiative

DL Detection limit

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

DE Destruction efficiency

Dioxins A term/abbreviation for polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and

polychlorinated dibenzofurans (see also PCDD/Fs)

DRE Destruction and removal efficiency

Dscm Dry standard cubic meter

EC European Commission

EF Emission factor

e.g. For example

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPER European Pollutant Emission Register


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ESP Electro static precipitator

EU European Union

FF Fabric filter

g Gram

GC-ECD Gas chromatography with electron capture detector

GC-MS Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry

HAPs Hazardous air pollutants

HCB Hexachlorobenzene

HCI Hydrogen chloride

HF Hydrofluoric acid

i.e. That is

IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control

I-TEF International Toxicity Equivalency Factor

I-TEQ International Toxic Equivalent

IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

J Joules

K (Degree) Kelvin

kcal Kilocalorie (1 kcal = 4.19 kJ)

kg Kilogramme (1 kg = 1000 g)

kJ Kilojoules (1 kJ = 0.24 kcal)

kPa Kilo Pascal (= one thousand Pascal)

L Litre

lb Pound

LCA Life cycle analysis

LOD Limit of detection

LOl Loss of ignition

LOQ Limits of quantification

m3 Cubic meter (typically under operating conditions without

normalization to, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity)

MACT Maximum Achievable Control Technology

MJ Mega joule (l MJ= 1000 kJ)

mg/kg Milligrams per kilogram

MS Mass spectrometry

mol Mole (Unit of Substance)


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Na Sodium

NA Not applicable

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

ND Not determined/no data (in other words: so far, no measurements available)

NESHAP National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants

ng Nanogram (1 ng = 10-9 gram)

Nm3 Normal cubic metre (101.3 kPa, 273 K)

NH3 Ammonia

NOx Nitrogen oxides (NO+NO2)

NR Not reported

N-TEQ Toxic equivalent using the Nordic scheme (commonly used in the

Scandinavian countries)

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

O2 Oxygen

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PCA Portland Cement Association (USA)

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins

PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PCDD/Fs Informal term used in this document for PCDDs and PCDFs

PIC Product of incomplete combustion

pg Picogram (1 pg = 10-12 gram)

PM Particulate matter

POHC Principal organic hazardous constituent

POM Polycyclic organic matter

POP Persistent organic pollutants

ppb Parts per billion

ppm Parts per million

ppmv Parts per million (volume basis)

ppq Parts per quadrillion

ppt Parts per trillion

ppt/v Parts per trillion (volume basis)

ppm Parts per million


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QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control

QL Quantification limit

RACT Reasonably Available Control Technology

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RDF Refuse derived fuel

RT Residence time

sec Second

SINTEF Foundation for Industrial and Scientific Research of Norway

SNCR Selective non catalytic reduction

SiO2 Silicon dioxide

SCR Selective catalytic reduction

SO2 Sulfur dioxide

SO3 Sulfur trioxide

SOx Sulfur oxides

SQL Sample quantification limit

SRE System removal efficiency

t Tonne (metric)

TCDD Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzo-p-dioxin

TCDF Abbreviation for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobidenzofuran

TEF Toxicity Equivalency Factor

TEQ Toxic Equivalent (I-TEQ, N-TEQ or WHO-TEQ)

TEQ/yr Toxic Equivalents per year

THC Total hydrocarbons

TOC Total organic carbon

tpa Tonnes per annum (year)

TRI Toxics Release Inventory

TSCA Toxics Substances Control Act

UK United Kingdom

US United States of America

US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

VDZ Verein Deutsche Zementwerke

VOC Volatile organic compounds

VSK Vertical shaft kilns

WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development


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WHO World Health Organization

y Year

% v/v Percentage by volume

µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic meter

µg Microgram


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Glossary

AFR Alternative fuel and raw materials, often wastes or secondary products

from other industries, used to substitute conventional fossil fuel and

conventional raw materials.

Cementitious Materials behaving like cement, i.e. reactive in the presence of

water; also compatible with cement.

Co-processing Utilisation of alternative fuel and raw materials in the purpose

of energy and resource recovery.

Dioxins Together with PCDD/Fs used as term/abbreviation for

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated

dibenzofurans in this document

DRE/DE Destruction and Removal Efficiency/Destruction Efficiency.

The efficiency of organic compounds destruction under

Combustion in the kiln.

Kiln inlet/outlet Were the raw meal enters the kiln system and the clinker leaves

the kiln system.

Pozzolana Pozzolanas are materials that, though not cementitious in themselves,

contain silica (and alumina) in a reactive form able to combine with

lime in the presence of water to form compounds with cementitious

properties. Natural pozzolana is composed mainly of a fine, reddish

volcanic earth. An artificial pozzolana has been developed that

combines a fly ash and water-quenched boiler slag.


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1. Cement kiln technology – an introduction

Cement clinker is the intermediate product in the manufacture of the hydraulic binding agent

Portland cement. By means of a single thermal treatment, a mixture of non-hydraulic naturally

occurring minerals – limestone/chalk, quartz, clays and feldspars – is transformed into an

intimate mixture of hydraulically active minerals alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite.

This thermal treatment of heating and cooling which is responsible for this transformation is

called clinkering and involves peak material temperatures of 1450° C. The thermal process

contains the following major process steps:

• 20 to 900° C, with removal of all kinds of H2O, heating up of material;

• 600 to 900° C, with the calcination (CO2 driven out);

• 800 to 1450° C, with the completion of reactions, recrystallisation of alite and belite.

Ever since the rotary kiln was introduced around 1895, it became the central part of all

modern clinker producing installations. The previously used vertical shaft kiln is still used for

production of hydraulic lime, but only in few countries for cement clinker in small scale

plants.

The first rotary kilns were long wet kilns, where all of the heat consuming thermal process

takes place in a rotary kiln with a length to diameter (L/D) ratio of around 30 to 38, with

several support stations.

With the introduction of the dry process, optimisation led to technologies which allowed

drying, preheating and calcining to take place in a stationary installation instead of the rotary

kiln.


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The principle of the rotary kiln, invented by Frederick Ransome in England (patented in

1895), is still the central part for all industrial cement clinker production lines. No other type

of equipment has been found to suit the needs of the sintering process better, where the kiln

charge is partially liquid and sticky.

The rotary kiln consists of a steel tube with a length to diameter (L/D) ratio between 10 and

38, supported by two to seven or more support stations. The inclination of 2.5 to 4.5%

together with a drive to rotate the kiln about its axis at 0.5 to 4.5 revolutions per minute,

allows for a slow internal material transport.

In order to withstand the very high peak temperatures (gas: 2000° C, material: 1450° C), the

entire rotary kiln is lined with different types of heat resistant bricks (refractories). Most long

and some short kilns are equipped with internals (chains, crosses, lifters) to improve heat

transfer.

Major cost items of kiln operation are consumption of refractories and internals (mainly

chains) as well as general maintenance such as alignment of support stations and girth drives.

Other critical areas are the seals between the rotary kiln and the stationary installation at both

ends.

One common property of all rotary kiln systems is the long retention time in the high

temperature zone of gas and material.

The major environmental impact of cement kiln systems can be summarised as follows:

• emission of combustion gas, CO2, vapour, dust, air pollutants and noise;

• generation of dust (in some cases);

• consumption primarily of combustibles, but also of power, refractories and steel;

• the inherent potential for environmentally sustainable elimination of a large variety of

wastes.


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1.1 Long rotary kilns

Long rotary kilns can be fed with slurry, crushed filter cakes, nodules or dry meal and are thus

suitable for all process types.

The largest long kilns have L/D of 38, diameter of 7.5 m and length of 230 m. Such huge

units produce around 3600 t/d using the wet process (Belgium, US, former Soviet Union).

Long rotary kilns are designed for drying, preheating, calcining and sintering, so that only the

feed system and cooler have to be added.

1.1.1 Long wet kilns

Wet process kilns, used since 1895, are the oldest type of rotary kilns for producing cement

clinker. Because homogenisation was easier to perform with liquid material, wet raw material

preparation was initially applied. Wet kiln feed contains typically 30 to 40% of water which is

required to maintain liquid properties of the feed. This water must then be evaporated in the

specially designed drying zone at the inlet section of the kiln where a significant portion of

the heat from fuel combustion is used.

This technology has high heat consumption with the resulting emission of high quantities of

combustion gas and water vapour.

1.1.2 Long dry kilns with chains

Long dry kilns were developed in the US based on batch type dry homogenising systems for

raw material preparation. Due to their simplicity, they became popular and were used for

about 50% of the installed capacity. Because of the high fuel consumption, particularly

without heat exchanging internals, only few of them have been installed in Europe.


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High heat consumption leads also to high kiln exit gas temperature requiring water injection

before the ID fan. Therefore numerous long dry kilns have been equipped with dedusting

cyclones making them actually into one-stage suspension preheaters.

Unlike with the wet kiln, dust return is technically easy to arrange, but often results in high

external dust cycles.

Units of up to 5000 t/d with kiln dimensions of LxD = 7.5x260m were projected, however

only up to 2000 t/d kilns were actually built.

1.2 Grate preheater kilns

Grate preheater technology, perhaps better known as Lepol kilns, was invented in 1928 and

represented the first approach to let part of the clinkering process take place in an innovative

piece of equipment allowing the reduction of the rotary kiln to a L/D ratio of 11 to 16.

Nodules made from dry meal on a nodulizer disc (semi-dry process) or from wet slurry filter

cakes in an extruder (semi-wet process) are fed onto a horizontal travelling grate where

mainly preheating takes place.

In order to achieve optimum thermal efficiency, the semi-wet grate preheaters can be

equipped with triple pass gas systems and cooler waste air is used for raw material drying.

Maximum unit size built is 3300 t/d for a semi-wet kiln system.

1.3 Suspension preheater kilns

A significant development was the invention of the suspension preheater in the early 1930s.

Preheating and even partial calcination of the dry raw meal takes place by maintaining the


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meal in suspension with hot gas from the rotary kiln. Considerably larger contact surface

allows almost complete heat exchange, at least theoretically. Following different philosophies,

a variety of solutions were initially installed by the cement kiln suppliers.

1.4 Shaft preheater kilns

Shaft preheaters were built in numerous cases when suspension preheater technology was

introduced. Due to its theoretically superior heat exchange (according to the counter current

principle), several suppliers applied that technology. However, due to the difficulty of even

distribution of meal to gas, actual performance was far worse than expected, and the

technology using only shaft stages was eventually abandoned in favour of hybrid systems

with cyclone stages or pure multi-stage cyclone preheaters.

Other than the pure shaft preheaters, which were usually equipped with dedusting cyclones,

there was also a variety of hybrids with both shaft and cyclone stages. Many of those hybrids

are still in operation, however most of them have been converted to pure cyclone preheaters.

A shaft stage is considerably less sensitive to build-up problems than a cyclone stage, which

can be beneficial for the bottom stage in cases where excessive quantities of circulating

elements (chlorides, sulfur, alkalis) are present. Hybrid preheaters with a bottom shaft stage

are still available for new plants.

Typical capacities of shaft preheater kilns were up to 1500 t/d, whereas hybrid systems can

produce 3000 t/d and more.

1.5 Two stage cyclone preheater kilns

The cyclone preheater with 2 stages was often applied to convert wet kilns to dry process, or

for new plants with high inputs of circulating elements (sulfur, chloride, alkalis) before kiln

gas bypass technology was developed.


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The 450 to 500° C hot exhaust gas must be cooled with air before entering the kiln ID fan and

can then be used for raw material drying.

1.6 Four stage cyclone preheater kilns

The four stage cyclone preheater kiln system was standard technology in the 1970s. Many

plants were built in the 1000 to 3000 t/d range, some of them equipped with planetary coolers.

The exhaust gas with a temperature of around 330° C is normally used for raw material

drying.

Pressure drop across the preheater is about the same as for a modern 5-stage preheater with

precalciner because of the older cyclone design used in earlier years.

When the meal enters the rotary kiln, calcination is already about 30% completed.

In earlier years, insurmountable problems were encountered with four stage preheaters where

excessive inputs of circulating elements (chlorides, sulfur, alkalies) from feed and/or fuel

occurred. Highly enriched cycles of those elements lead to build-ups in cyclone and duct

walls frequently causing blockages and kiln stops of several days duration. Only the kiln gas

bypass solved the problem later on, however at cost of higher heat and material consumption

as well as the need for dust disposal.

Almost all four stage suspension preheaters have a rotary kiln with three supports, which has

been the standard concept after about 1970. Sizes from 3.5 to 6 m diameter have been built

with L/D ratios being in the range of 13 to 16.

Mechanically simpler than the long wet and dry kilns, it is probably the most widely applied

kiln type today.


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1.7 Four to six stage cyclone preheater kilns with precalciner

Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner (PC) are considered standard

and BAT technology for ordinary new plants.

The size of a new plant is primarily determined by predicted market developments, but also

by economy of scale. Typical unit capacity for new plants in Europe today is 3000 to 5000 t/d.

Technically, larger units with up to 15,000 t/d are possible, and three 10,000 t/d kilns are

currently in operation in fast growing Asian markets.

A 5-stage preheater-precalciner kiln with 3000 t/d is used as basis for the relative performance

figures.

Earlier precalciner systems had only 4 preheater stages with accordingly higher exhaust gas

temperature and fuel consumption.

Where natural raw material moisture is low, 6 stage preheaters can be the preferred choice,

particularly in combination with bag filter dedusting.

Where excessive inputs of circulating elements exist, a kiln gas bypass is required to maintain

continuous kiln operation. However, due to the different gas flow characteristics, a bypass has

a much higher efficiency than a straight preheater kiln.

In spite of the fact that the meal enters the kiln 75 to 95% calcined, most precalciner kilns are

still equipped with a rotary kiln with a calcining zone, i.e. with a L/D of 13 to 16 like the

straight preheater. Largest preheater/precalciner kilns with three supports are in operation for

10,000 t/d in Thailand, with DxL of 6.0 x 96 to 100m.


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2. Consumption of energy and best available techniques for

production – a summary

Cement manufacturing is an energy intensive process. The specific thermal energy

consumption of a cement kiln varies between 3000 and 7500 MJ per ton of clinker, depending

on the basic process design of the plant.

The dominant use of energy in cement manufacture is as fuel for the kiln. The main users of

electricity are the mills (raw grinding, finish grinding, cement mills and coal mills) and the

exhaust fans (kiln/raw mill and cement mill) which together account for more than 80% of

electrical energy usage. On average, energy costs, in the form of fuel and electricity, represent

50% of the total production cost involved in producing a tonne of cement. Electrical energy

represents approximately 20% of this overall energy requirement.

The theoretical energy use for the burning process (chemical reactions) is about 1700 to 1800

MJ/tonne clinker. The actual fuel energy use for different kiln systems is in the following

ranges (MJ/tonne clinker):

• about 3000 for dry process, multi-stage cyclone preheater and precalciner kilns;

• 3100-4200 for dry process rotary kilns equipped with cyclone preheaters;

• 3300-4500 for semi-dry/semi-wet processes;

• up to 5000 for dry process long kilns;

• 5000-6000 for wet process long kilns;

• 3100-4200 for vertical shaft kilns.


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The actual use of energy for the production of one ton of clinker is from 70 to 250 percent

higher than the theoretical energy need. This clearly shows the potential for improvement of

energy use through upgrades and process optimisation.

The specific electrical energy consumption ranges typically between 90 and 130 kWh per ton

of cement.

2.1 Options for resource reduction

A technique to reduce energy use and emissions from the cement industry, expressed per unit

mass of cement product, is to reduce the clinker content of cement products. This can be done

by adding fillers, for example sand, slag, limestone, fly-ash and pozzolana, in the grinding

step. In Europe the average clinker content in cement is 80-85 %. Many manufacturers of

cement are working on techniques to further lower the clinker content. One reported

technique claims to exchange 50% of the clinker with maintained product

quality/performance and without increased production cost. Cement standards define some

types of cement with less than 20 % clinker, the balance being made of blast furnace slag.

Ordinary Portland cement is composed of 95-100 % of Clinker. Portland pozzolana cement II

B-P however contains only 65-79 % of clinker, i.e. to produce 1 ton of II/B-P you need 650

kg of clinker compared to 950 kg of clinker for the ordinary Portland cement. This is not only

saving raw materials but also reduces the CO2 emission which will related to the same ratio,

i.e. 950/650 = 1.46 times more CO2 emission for the production of ordinary Portland cement

compared to the II/B-P cement.

Recycling of collected dust to the production processes lowers the total consumption of raw

materials. This recycling may take place directly into the kiln or kiln feed (alkali metal

content being the limiting factor) or by blending with finished cement products.

The use of suitable wastes as raw materials can reduce the input of natural resources, but

should always be done with satisfactory control on the substances introduced to the kiln

process.


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Kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered standard

technology for ordinary new plants, such a configuration will use 2900-3200 MJ/tonne

clinker. To optimise the input of energy in other kiln systems it is a possibility to change the

configuration of the kiln to a short dry process kiln with multi stage preheating and

precalcination. This is usually not feasible unless done as part of a major upgrade with an

increase in production. The application of the latest generation of clinker coolers and

recovering waste heat as far as possible, utilising it for drying and preheating processes, are

examples of methods which cut primary energy consumption.

Electrical energy use can be minimised through the installation of power management

systems and the utilisation of energy efficient equipment such as high-pressure grinding rolls

for clinker comminution and variable speed drives for fans.

Energy use will be increased by most type of end-of-pipe abatement. Some reduction

techniques will also have a positive effect on energy use, for example process control

optimisation.

2.2 Best available techniques for cement production

Technological advancement of the cement industry will concentrate on the further

development of new technology, on the utilization of secondary materials and other

supplementary cementitious materials. In recent years, improvement of cement production

lines with precalcining systems includes the new homogenization technology, new preheating

and precalcining systems with the capacity of up to ten thousand tons of cement per day,

various new types of crushing and grinding systems, new operation and management systems,

new environmental protection measures such as the use of new bag dust collector and low

NOx burner. The utilization of secondary materials and supplementary cementitious materials

may save huge amounts of natural resources.

Dry preheater/precalciner kilns are regarded to be the best available techniques (BAT) and to

constitute the Best Environmental Practise (BEP). These technologies are also the most


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economically feasible option, which constitutes a competitive advantage and thereby

contributes to gradually phase out older, polluting and less competitive technologies.

For new plants and major upgrades the best available techniques for the production of cement

clinker is a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination. A smooth and

stable kiln process, operating close to the process parameter set points, is beneficial for all

kiln emissions as well as the energy use. This can be obtained by applying:

- Process control optimisation, including computer-based automatic control

systems.

- The use of modern fuel feed systems.

• Minimising fuel energy use by means of:

- Preheating and precalcination to the extent possible, considering the existing

kiln system configuration.

• Careful selection and control of substances entering the kiln can reduce emissions and

when practicable, homogenous raw materials and fuels with low contents of sulfur,

nitrogen, chlorine, metals and volatile organic compounds should be selected.


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3. Fuels storage, preparation and firing

Three different types of conventional or fossil fuels are used in cement kiln firing in

decreasing order of importance:

• pulverized coal and petcoke;

• (heavy) fuel oil;

• natural gas.

Conventional fuels are today increasingly substituted by non-conventional, non- fossil

(gaseous, liquid, pulverized, coarse crushed) alternative (or secondary) fuels for resource

efficiency and economical reasons.

In order to keep heat losses at minimum, cement kilns are operated at lowest reasonable

excess oxygen factors. This requires highly uniform and reliable fuel metering as well as the

fuel being present in a form which allows for easy and complete combustion (fuel preparation

process and fuel storage).

These conditions are fulfilled by all pulverized, liquid and gaseous fuels, be it conventional or

alternative fuels. The main fuel input (65 – 85%) has therefore to be of this type whereas the

remaining 15 – 35% may be fed in coarse crushed or lumpy form.

Fuel feed points to the kiln system are:

• via the main burner at the rotary kiln outlet end;

• via a feed chute at the transition chamber at the rotary kiln inlet end (for lump fuel);

• via fuel burners to the riser pipe;


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• via precalciner burners to the precalciner;

• via a feed chute to the precalciner (for lump fuel);

• via a mid-kiln valve to long wet and dry kilns (for lump fuel).

The fuel introduced via the main burner to the hot zone of the rotary kiln therein produces the

main flame with flame temperatures around 2000° C. For process optimisation reasons the

flame has to be adjustable within limits.

The flame is shaped and adjusted by the so called primary air (10 – 15% of total combustion

air) through interaction of the outer axial air ring channel as well as of the conical inner air

ring channel of the (main) burner

3.1 Alternative fuels storage, preparation and firing

Alternative fuels can be subdivided into five classes:

• Gaseous alternative fuels, for example coke oven gases, refinery waste gas, pyrolysis

gas, landfill gas, etc.

• Liquid alternative fuels, for example low chlorine spent solvents, lubricating as well as

vegetable oils and fats, distillation residues, hydraulic oils, insulating oils, etc.

• Pulverized, granulated or fine crushed solid alternative fuels, for example ground

waste wood, sawdust, planer shavings, dried sewage sludge, granulated plastic, animal

flours, agricultural residues, residues from food production, fine crushed tyres, etc.

• Coarse crushed solid alternative fuels, for example crushed tyres, rubber/plastic waste,

waste wood, reagglomerated organic matter, etc.


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• Lump alternative fuels, for example whole tyres, plastic bales, material in bags and

drums, etc. Gaseous, liquid, and finely pulverized alternative fuels can be fed to the

kiln system via any of the feed points mentioned in the previous chapter. Coarse

crushed and lump fuels can (with some exceptions) be fed to the transition chamber or

to the mid-kiln valve only.

Alternative fuels preparation is usually performed outside the cement plant by the supplier or

by specialist organizations. The preparation processes are therefore not dealt with here.

So alternative fuels only need to be stored at the cement plant and then proportioned for

feeding them to the cement kiln.

Since alternative fuel supplies tend to be variable in rapidly developing “waste” material

markets it is often recommended to design alternative fuel plants as multi- purpose plants

from the very beginning.

Figure 1 Multi purpose plant for liquid AFRs


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Figure 2 Multi purpose plant for granulated AFRs

Figure 3 Multi purpose plant for lump AF


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Figure 4 Tyre handling concept


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4. Normal emission levels and BAT for emission prevention

Average emission data (long term average values) from European rotary cement kilns in

operation are summarised in the table below. The figures given are representative of the

ranges within which kilns normally operate. Due to the age and design of the plant, the nature

of the raw materials, etc., individual kilns may operate outside these ranges.

Table 1 Long term average emission values from European cement kilns

Emission mg per standard cubic meter [mg/Nm3]

Dust 20 – 200

NOx 500 – 2000

SO2 10 – 2500

Total organic carbon (TOC) 10 – 100

CO 500 – 2000

Fluorides < 5

Chlorides < 25

PCDD/F < 0.1 [ng/Nm3]

Heavy metals:

- class 1 (Hg, Cd, Tl) < 0.1

- class 2 (As, Co, Ni, Se, Te) < 0.1

- class 3 (Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, Mn, V, Sn) incl. Zn < 0.3

4.1 Pollution reduction

Major emissions from cement manufacturing plants traditionally are airborne pollutants and

powered dust from the kiln and its emissions. Pollutants are mainly particulates from a

number of solid processing and handling operations, CO2, SO2 and NO2.


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Relatively speaking, SO2 and NO2.emissions from cement industries are small, and they

represent less than 2% of the total emitted of these compounds in USA and Europe. In recent

years, as a result of advanced control technology and equipment design, such as electro static

precipitator and bag filter facilities, significant progress has been reached in reducing air

emissions from the cement industrial sector. For a new plant today, air pollution emissions are

significantly lower than those from typical facilities built 30-40 years ago.

World wide, the cement industry produces about 5 % of global manmade CO2 (Worrell et al,

2001). As the industry produces an equal weight of CO2 and clinker, any cost imposed on the

reduction of CO2 emission to the atmosphere and any management plan can have a significant

impact on the industry’s financial performance. At the present rate of many CO2 management

expenses on the market - in the range of $ 10 to $ 25/ton and expected to rise as the public

demand its treatment - many cement enterprises will not be able to foot the bill, unless their

production capacities are increased and are big enough to bear the cost.

Increasing the use of alternative fuels and raw materials can reduce the use of virgin materials

including limestone and petroleum products, and can reduce CO2 emission and production

costs. Alternative and substituted materials as fly ash from power plants, steel mill slugs, and

pozzolanic substances can be used in cement to replace some of the limestone, and the quality

of the product is not affected in applications.

The following measures are recommended with regards to achieve emission reduction:

1. A well defined emission inventory and reporting process with emission

reduction cost estimates;

2. A program for effective communication with the local stakeholders including

regulatory personnel;

3. A program to define the emission reduction targets and timetable;

4. In order to win confidence, the industry needs an effective way of monitoring

and reporting emissions which can address the safety concerns of the public

and product quality concerns of the users.


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4.2 Selection of BATs for controlling emissions

Best available techniques can be selected which may be of broadly equal applicability on a

new installation for the abatement of the different potential pollutants. For this purpose a new

installation is assumed to be a modern dry process kiln of large capacity. Selection of a

particular BAT from the clusters of BATs will require evaluation of the factors relevant to a

particular case.

Many BATs are only suitable for dry preheater process plants and, where appropriate,

references are made to long dry or wet kilns.

High dust emissions, before abatement, are inherent in the process. So too are NOx emissions

but these can also be influenced by the plant equipment used and the way the plant is

operated. The potential for emissions of SO2, VOC and dust is primarily dependent on the

nature of the raw materials.

Assessment of BAT for existing plants is more complex than for new plants because of the

greater variety in the processes and equipment designs in use, space and layout restrictions,

etc., as well as the nature of the raw materials. These factors can have a very marked effect on

the costs of applying abatement techniques and so the ‘availability’ of a BAT is affected. This

means that a wider range of BATs needs to be available and evaluated for each case. It also

means that it will often not be economically viable to achieve the emission standards that can

be achieved with a new plant.

When evaluating alternative investments at an existing plant, it is important that the remaining

economic value of existing pollution equipment is added to the investment cost, if the existing

pollution control equipment to be replaced is still efficiently operable.

Emissions from cement manufacture essentially have no cross-media impact as there are

rarely significant emissions to land or water. Abatement techniques for emissions to air can be

interlinked in two main respects. Control of kiln burning to minimise SO2 emission can


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increase NOx formation, and vice versa, so an operating balance has to be struck. Secondly

some techniques may abate more than one type of emission.

The degree of abatement achievable, particularly for primary reduction measures, is not

accurately predictable.

Electrostatic precipitators (EPs) and bag filters (BFs) are BAT for dust emissions from both

kilns and clinker coolers. For cement mills, efficiently operable EPs continue to be used.

When they have to be replaced, as when new abatement equipment has to be built, bag filters

are BAT. Costs preclude bag filters from being installed for kilns and coolers of existing

installations if electrostatic precipitators are already fitted.

For new kilns, one cluster of BATs for NOx control may be identified as:

• optimisation of clinker burning process;

• expert system for kiln operation;

• low NOx burner;

• multi-stage combustion in pre-calciners (dry kilns only);

• add water to flame or fuel to kiln;

• selective non-catalytic reduction (dry process) (SNCR).

SNCR is distinguished by relatively limited operational experience but abatement efficiency

can be quite high. Add water to flame or fuel to kiln may enable the use of alternative fuels to

reduce NOx. Optimisation of clinker burning process can also contribute to SO2 reduction. For

new kilns an emission level of 500 mg/Nm3 (long term average) should be achievable.


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4.3 BAT and BEP for controlling and minimising PCDD/PCDF emission

The following primary measures are considered to be most critical in avoiding the

formation and emission of PCDD/F from modern cement kilns and seems in most cases to be

sufficient to comply with an emission level of 0.1 ng PCDD/F I-TEQ/Nm3:

Quick cooling of kiln exhaust gases to lower than 200 oC in long wet and long dry

kilns without preheating. In modern preheater and precalciner kilns this feature is

already inherent in the process design.

Limit or avoid alternative raw material feed as part of raw-material-mix if it includes

organics.

No alternative fuel feed during start-up and shut down.

Monitoring and stabilisation of critical process parameters, i.e. homogenous raw mix

and fuel feed, regular dosage and excess oxygen.


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5. Utilisation of alternative fuels and raw materials in modern

cement production – an introduction

In the burning of cement clinker it is necessary to maintain material temperatures of up to

1450 °C in order to ensure the sintering reactions required. This is achieved by applying peak

combustion temperatures of about 2000 °C with the main burner flame. The combustion gases

from the main burner remain at a temperature above 1200 °C for at least 5-10 seconds. An

excess of oxygen – typically 2-3 % – is also required in the combustion gases of the rotary

kiln as the clinker needs to be burned under oxidising conditions. These conditions are

essential for the formation of the clinker phases and the quality of the finished cement.

The retention time of the kiln charge in the rotary kiln is 20-30 and up to 60 minutes

depending on the length of the kiln. The figure below illustrates the temperature profiles for

the combustion gases and the material for a preheater/precalciner rotary kiln system. While

the temperature profiles may be different for the various kiln types, the peak gas and material

temperatures described above have to be maintained in any case. The burning conditions in

kilns with precalciner firing depend on the precalciner design. Gas temperatures from a

precalciner burner are typically around 1100 °C, and the gas retention time in the precalciner

is approximately 3 seconds.

Under the conditions prevailing in a cement kiln – i.e. flame temperatures of up to 2000 °C,

material temperatures of up to 1450 °C and gas retention times of up to 10 seconds at

temperatures between 1200 and 2000 °C – all kinds of organic compounds fed to the main

burner with the fuels are reliably destroyed. The combustion process in the main flame of the

rotary kiln is therefore complete. No (hydrocarbon type) products of incomplete combustion

can be identified in the combustion gases of the main burner at steady-state conditions.

The cement manufacturing process is an industrial process where large material volumes are

turned into commercial products, i.e. clinker and cement. Cement kilns operate continuously

all through the year – 24 hours a day – with only minor interruptions for maintenance and

repair. A smooth kiln operation is necessary in a cement plant in order to meet production

targets and to meet the quality requirements of the products. Consequently, to achieve these


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goals, all relevant process parameters are permanently monitored and recorded including the

analytical control of all raw materials, fuels, intermediate and finished products as well as

environmental monitoring.

With these prerequisites – i.e. large material flow, continuous operation and comprehensive

process and product control, the cement manufacturing process seems to be well suited for co-

processing by-products and residues from industrial sources, both as raw materials and fuels

substitutes and as mineral additions. The selection of appropriate feed points is essential for

environmentally sound co- processing of alternative materials, i.e.:

• Raw materials: mineral waste free of organic compounds can be added to the raw meal

or raw slurry preparation system. Mineral wastes containing significantly quantities of

organic components are introduced via the solid fuels handling system, i.e. directly to

the main burner, to the secondary firing or, rarely, to the calcining zone of a long wet

kiln (“mid-kiln”).

• Fuels: alternative fuels are fed to the main burner, to the secondary firing in the

preheater/precalciner section, or to the mid-kiln zone of a long wet kiln.

• Mineral additions: mineral additions such as granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash

from thermal power plants or industrial gypsum are fed to the cement mill. In Europe,

the type of mineral additions permitted is regulated by the cement standards.

In addition to regulatory requirements, the cement producers have set up self- limitations such

as

• To prevent potential abuse of the cement kiln system in waste recovery operations

• To assure the required product quality

• To protect the manufacturing process from operational problems

• To avoid negative impacts to the environment, and

• To ensure workers’ health and safety.


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Figure 5 Gas and material profiles in cyclone preheater/precalciner system

in compound operation (CEMBUREAU, 1999)

The cement manufacturing process is a large materials throughput process with continuous

operation and comprehensive operational control. Therefore, it has a large potential for co-

processing a variety of materials from industrial sources.

Wastes and hazardous wastes in the environment represent a challenge for many countries,

but cement kiln co-processing can constitute a sound and affordable recovery option. Cement

kilns can destroy organic hazardous wastes in a safe and sound manner when properly

operated and will be mutually beneficial to both industry, which generates such wastes, and to

the society who want to dispose properly of such wastes in a safe and environmentally

acceptable manner. The added benefit of non renewable fossil energy conservation is

important, since large quantities of valuable natural fuel can be saved in the manufacture of

cement when such techniques are employed.

Since the early 70s, and particularly since the mid 80s, alternative – i.e. non-fossil – raw

materials and fuels derived mainly from industrial sources have been beneficially utilised in


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the cement industry for economic reasons. Since that time, it has been demonstrated both in

daily operations and in numerous tests that the overall environmental performance of a

cement plant is not impaired by this practice in an appropriately managed plant operation.

Cement kilns make full use of both the calorific and the mineral content of alternative

materials. Fossil fuels such as coal or crude oil can be substituted by combustible materials

which otherwise would often be landfilled or incinerated in specialised facilities.

The mineral part of alternative fuels (ashes) as well as non-combustible industrial residues or

by-products can substitute for part of the natural raw materials (limestone’s, clay, etc.). All

components are effectively incorporated into the product, and – with few exceptions – no

residues are left for disposal. The use of mineral additions from industrial sources substituting

clinker saves both raw material resources and energy resources as the energy intensive clinker

production can be reduced.

With the substitution of fossil fuels by (renewable) alternative fuels, the overall output of

thermal CO2 is reduced. A thermal substitution rate of 40% in a cement plant with an annual

production of 1 million tons of clinker reduces the net CO2 generation by about 100,000 tons.

Substitution of clinker by mineral additions may be more important as both thermal CO2 from

fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials is reduced.

Since only moderate investments are needed, cement plants can recover adequate wastes at

lower costs than would be required for landfilling or treatment in specialised incinerators. In

addition, public investment required for the installation of new specialised incinerators would

also be reduced. Substitute materials derived from waste streams usually reduce the

production cost in cement manufacturing, thus strengthening the position of the industry

particularly with regard to imports from countries with less stringent environmental

legislation. It will also facilitate the industry’s development of technologies to further clean

up atmospheric emissions.


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6. Evaluation of South African cement plants

The objective of this study has been to compare the cement kiln technology used

internationally and that currently used in South Africa and to evaluate their ability to co-

process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes in these kilns.

6.1 Introduction

Ten out of eleven South African cement plants was visitited in the period August to October

2007. Most South African cement plants have expressed interest in replaceing fossil fuel and

virgin raw materials with alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) and developed subsequent

environmental impact assessments (EIAs). Some plants are not going to use AFRs.

The South African cement industry is characterized by cement plants that vary in age from

“recently” commissioned plants (some are under construction) to plants built in the early

1930’s, all of which incorporate old and new technologies. All South African cement plants

produce Portland cement and blended cement products such as CEM I, and more recently

CEM II and CEM III products, which are also the most common manufactured cement

products in South Africa. Portland cement is a fine, typically grey powder comprised of

dicalcium silicate, tricalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and tetracalcium alumino-ferrite,

with the addition of 2-5% calcium sulphate (gypsum). Different types of Portland cements can

be created depending on the application, as well as the chemical and physical properties

desired.

The exacting nature of Portland cement manufacture requires some 80 separate and

continuous operations, the use of large-scale heavy machinery and equipment, and large

amounts of heat and energy. Large volumes of fossil fuels (in solid and liquid form) are

required to maintain high combustion levels in kilns. Coal, hard coal, coke, and pet coke are

used in this process. The capital investment per worker in the cement industry is among the


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highest in all industries. All local cement produces have to comply with the European Norm

Standards for cementitious products.

Figure 6 South Africa’s cement industry facilities (derived from CNCI report)

The figure is from Vincenzo, 2004 (source unknown to the author).


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6.2 Main findings

The main findings of the visits can be summarized as follows:

• The South African cement industry consists of four main companies, Pretoria Portland

Cement (PPC), Natal Portland Cement (NPC-Cimpor), Lafarge, & Holcim-Afrisam.

They have 11 plants and 20 kilns, distributed all over the country. At least two new

kilns are under construction and some are planned.

Figure 7 Nathal Portland Cement, Port Shepstone. A new modern kiln is soon

ready for operation (preheater tower on the right).


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• Current production in the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 8 million tons of

clinker per year and the production capacity may increase by as much as 60% by

2014.

• Current coal use in the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 1.3 mill t/y.

• Current electricity use of the kilns planning to use AFR is approximately 1 mill

MWh/y.

Figure 8 Pretoria Portland Cement, Port Elizabeth

• The South African cement industry uses a mix of older long dry kilns (with and

without limited preheating) and modern short dry kilns with preheating (some with


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precalciner). The best available technique for the production of cement clinker today is

a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating and precalcination.

• Kilns without preheating of the raw material require more energy.

• All the visited plants are either using electro static precipitator or bag filters for dust

removal and seem to be in compliance with local regulation. The Provincial emission

limits vary widely; the emission limits for dust is generally higher in South Africa than

in Europe.

Figure 9 Holcim Ulco


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• The environmental performance of the plants visited is variable, especially on the dust

and NOx emissions. It can be expected that the plants will be within normal emissions

levels when it comes to the major air pollutans (see table 1).

Figure 10 Lafarge Licthenburg

• Most of the cement companies have implemented an environmental management

system and are certified according to ISO 14001.


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• Some of the long dry kilns have no exit gas conditioning or cooling before the gas

enters to the air pollution control device (electro static precipitator), implying that the

temperature will be in the range of 200-400 0C, which under unfavorable conditions

may contribute to the formation and release of dioxins; this should be checked.

Figure 11 Pretoria Portland Cement Slurry

• All the plants recive electricity from the grid, i.e. Escom. Most of the plants said they

experience dips in power with subsequent process and air pollution control instability.

• The water supply seems to be limited in some plants but may only be a concern for

future expansions.


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• The plants seem to have variable or inconsistent monitoring and reporting

requirements (varies with and within the province).

• Some plants only measure the main air pollutants, as dust, SO2 and NOx, which is

often more for process than environmental control.

• Some plants have implemented a comprehensive measurement surveillance of their

stack emissions, consisting of the latest continuous emission monitors (CEMs)

installed in the stacks for on-line measurements of the main air pollutants. These

companies also do independent sampling and analysis of trace pollutants like acid

gases, heavy metals and dioxins on a regular basis.

Figure 12 Holcim Dudfield


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• Some kilns have already used alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) for some

years (started 2001-2002), specifically spent pot lining (SPL) from the Aluminum

Industry. They generally use both fractions, i.e. the carbon fraction which can contain

6-14 MJ/kg of energy, and the refractory fraction, which contains alternative raw

materials components as aluminium and silica. Both fractions contain however

cyanide, fluoride and sodium; the last two elements can cause problems in the process

and the quality if not properly controlled.

Figure 13 Pretoria Portland Cement Dwaalboom. A new line and preheater tower is

under construction.

• Some kilns use boiler and fly ash as an alternative raw material or mineral substitute,

but these are often blended with cement and needs not to be processed.


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• All the cement companies have a dedicated AFR-organisation in place but will need to

develop necessary laboratory capacity for input control.

Figure 14 Control room at PPC Hercules, Pretoria.

• Most of the plants lack equipment for receiving, preparation/pre-treating and feeding

AFR and eventually hazardous wastes. Most of the cement companies have enough

space in their premises to allow AFR-activities, but safety and environmental

protection must follow high standards.

• There seems to be no regulation in place for storage and pre-treatment of AFRs (and

hazardous wastes).


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Figure 15 PPC Riebeck, Western Cape. Long dry kiln without exit gas conditioning/

cooling. No plans to use AFRs.

Figure 16 PPC Riebeck, Western Cape. Long dry kiln with exit gas conditioning/

cooling (kiln to the left). No plans to use AFRs.


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• Most plants are located far away from industrial areas and waste generation centers

and its questionable if large scale transport of AFRs and hazardous wastes, at least to

to some of these plants, will be economic viable.

• Several kilns are using planetary cooler.

• With increasing costs of energy and raw materials, as well as stricter emission

regulation, it can be expected that some of the existing South African kilns will be

closed and replaced with modern and energy efficient technology.

Figure 17 PPC De Hoek, Western Cape.


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6.3 A summary

All of the kilns visited could, from a technical standpoint, be able to co-process AFRs and

treat hazardous wastes adequately, provided that they were able to prepare and feed the

materials properly, i.e. expose them for high enough temperatures etc. (see chapter 5).

Compared with “international” technology, for example in Europe, many of the South African

kilns, especially the long dry without preheating or exit gas conditioning, are old with low

energy efficiency and low environmental performance. It is doubtful if it’s economical

feasible to upgrade these kilns and improve the performance significantly.

Most of the “new” South African kilns are comparable to “international” performance

standards, i.e. equipped with preheaters (and calciner), efficient clinker coolers and raw mills,

exit gas conditioning, sufficient air pollution abatement capacity, on-line emission monitors,

and independent measurements of for example dioxins. It would probably be economic

feasibile to upgrade all of the “new” South African kilns to comply with for example the EU

emission limit values (those who are not already).

“Inherent” kiln features is however not enough to be qualified to co-process AFRs and treat

hazardous wastes adequately seen from an institutional and social point of view. The plants

will need qualified and skilled employees to manage AFRs and hazardous wastes, as well as

health, safety and environmental issues; they will need adequate emergency and safety

equipment and procedures, and regular training; they will need authorised and licensed

collection, transport and handling “systems”; they will need safe and sound receiving, storage,

preparation and feeding facilities; they will need adequate laboratory facilities and equipment

for AFR and hazardous waste acceptance and feeding control; and they would need to

demonstrate the destruction performance of hazardous wastes through test burns.

A summary of the the gross production and consumtion data and the environmental

performance for the kilns visited, are given on the next two pages (not all of these plants plan

to use AFR). Company name and kiln location is given at the top of the column.

CompanyPlant location/name Ulco

Kiln # #2 #3 #5 # 1 # 2 # 2 # 3

Clinker production (t/y) ~780000 ~1100000 ~130000 587153 uc 664 983 675 349

Coal consumption (t/y) ~130000 ~160000 ~170000 74793 109552,0 109248,8

Electricity consumption (MWh/y) ~110000 43804

Energy consumption (MJ/t clinker) <5.000 <4.000 <4.000 3,52 3924 3825

Kiln type / Process technology FLS/DS2 FLS/PC4 Polysius PC4 4 PH 4 PH/PC air through air separator

Exit gas cooling/conditioning Conditioning tower Conditioning tower Conditioning tower Yes Yes 135°C 140°C

By-pass No No No No No no no

Air Pollution Control Device's) Bag Filter Bag Filter EP ESP Bag house Oldham EP1000 Oldham EP1000

Temperature in APCD / stack (0C) ~160/~150C ~160/~150C ~160/~150C 130 112°C 139°C

Dust recovery(?) 99,997% 99,997% >98% Yes, back to kiln Recovered dust fed back into process.

On-line emission gas monitoring (system and parameters) Opsis/Durag Opsis/Durag Opsis/SICK yes not available not available

Emissions: Dust (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 14 (CEM) 9 (CEM) 129 (CEM) 70 - continuous 73 daily 95- daily

NOx (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 590 (CEM) 450 (CEM) 680 (CEM) 540 - continuous 1000 (weekly) 950 (weekly)

SO2 (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 40 (CEM) 8 (CEM) 3 (CEM) 2.8 - continuous 0 (weekly) 0 (weekly)

VOC / TOC (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 4.6(CEM) 3 (CEM) 2 (CEM) 25 - once off in 2003 Not measured

HCl (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 9.7 (CEM) 10.8 (CEM) 13 (CEM) 0 - once off in 2002 Not measured

HF (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements n/a <1 (CEM) <1 (CEM) 0 - once off in 2002 Not measured

PCDD/PCDF (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 0,0023 0,0016 0,0065 0.001 once off in 2002 Not measured

PCBs (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 0,0000 0,0013 0,0013 .001 - once off in 2002 Not measured

Heavy metals (µg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements See attachment See attachment See attachment 2336 - once off in 2002 Not measured in gas but dust.

Co-processing AFR and/or mineral substitutes (types and volumes t/y) Nil Nil Nil No No AFR

Infrastructure and equipment for AFR-handling, pre-treatment and feeding Limited Limited Limited No No AFR

Environmental management system, e.g. ISO 14001 Certified Certified Certified redited for ISO 14001 in 2004 Lafarge environmental standards.

Reliable and adequate electricity supply (?) Yes - Eskom Yes - Eskom Yes - Eskom Yes

Reliable and adequate water supply (?) Yes - Own Yes - Own Yes - Own Yes

Laboratory for quality control Yes Yes Yes Yes

Laboratory for control of AFR (?) Partial Partial Partial No No AFR

AfrisamDudfield

~150000

NPC-CimporSimuma

Yes, Boreholes

yes

LafargeLIC

214 874

Yes, Eskom supply


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Plant location/name

Kiln # # 5 # 6 # 7 # 8 #4 #5 #5 #6 #1 #2 #1 #2

Clinker production (t/y) 155000 155000 295000 776000 169000 357000 357000 450000 621000 1024000

Coal consumption (t/y)

Electricity consumption (MWh/y)

Kiln type / Process technology Long Dry Long Dry 1 St PH 4 St PH 1 St PH 4 St PH 4 St PH 4 St PH 5 St PH 6 St PC (ILC)

Exit gas cooling/conditioning No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

By-pass No No No No No No No No No No

Air Pollution Control Device's) ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP ESP Bag House

Temperature in APCD / stack (0C) 250 250 318 120 130 130 125 112 150 80

Dust recovery(?) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

On-line emission gas monitoring (system and parameters) Dust Dust Dust Opsis Dust Opsis Dust Opsis Dust Opsis

Emissions: Dust (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 250 250 100 80 200 120 150 150 150 150

NOx (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 1400 1400 800 700 1400 1200 900 800 1400 1000

SO2 (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements 200 200 130 <10 10 10 180 180 1,7 1,7

VOC / TOC (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements

HCl (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements <1 2 2 6 Not Available

HF (mg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements <0.4 <0.1 <0.1 0,4 Not Available

PCDD/PCDF (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements

PCBs (ng TEQ/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements

Heavy metals (µg/Nm3) - Average value and number of measurements

Co-processing AFR and/or mineral substitutes (types and volumes t/y) None None SPL Volume N/A

SPL Volume N/A

SPL Volume N/A

SPL Volume N/A None None SPL

Volume N/ASPL

Volume N/A

Infrastructure and equipment for AFR-handling, pre-treatment and feeding None None Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding Feeding

Environmental management system, e.g. ISO 14001

Reliable and adequate electricity supply (?)

Reliable and adequate water supply (?)

Laboratory for quality control

Laboratory for control of AFR (?)

Jupiter De Hoek RiebeeckDwaalboom Port Elizabeth

Reliable Reliable

Not available

Slurry Hercules

Not available

Not available

ISO 14001

Reliable - Power outages 1 per month

28000

Not Available

Yes

Integrated into plant Lab Integratd

Not Available

Reliable

ISO 14001

Yes

130000

Not available

Not available

30

1400

Not Available

Not Available

Not Available

Not available

Not Available

Not Available

#3

Not considered due to the fact that the kiln will not use

Secondary Fuels

80000

ISO 14001

Reliable

Reliable

Not Available

ISO 14001

Reliable

Reliable

Not Available

Not Available

Not Available

Not Available

Yes

Not applicable

Not applicable

130000

Not Available

Not Available

Not Available

Yes

Integratd

90000

270

Yes

Dust

Reliable

200

Reliable

SPL Volume N/A

Feeding

ESP

Not Available

ISO 14001

12

<0.5

Not Available

Not Available

Long Dry Kiln

No

No

#4

197000

Not considered

due to the fact that the kiln will not use Secondary

Fuels

274000 110000 120000 250000

Yes

Integratd

50000

7. Conclusion

The objective of this study has been to compare the cement kiln technology used

internationally and that currently used in South Africa and to evaluate their ability to co-

process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes in these kilns.

The South African cement industry consists of four main companies, Pretoria Portland

Cement (PPC), Natal Portland Cement (NPC-Cimpor), Lafarge, & Holcim-Afrisam. They

have 11 plants and 20 kilns, distributed all over the country. At least two new kilns are under

construction and some are planned. Current production in the kilns planning to use AFR is

approximately 8 million tons of clinker per year and the current coal consumption is

approximately 1.3 mill t/y.

Cement kilns have proven to be effective means of recovering value from waste materials and

co-processing in cement kilns is now an integral component in the spectrum of viable options

for treating hazardous and industrial wastes, mainly practised in developed countries. A

modern preheater cement kiln possess many inherent features which makes it ideal for

hazardous waste treatment; high temperatures, long residence time, surplus oxygen during and

after combustion, good turbulence and mixing conditions, thermal inertia, counter currently

dry scrubbing of the exit gas by alkaline raw material (neutralises all acid gases like hydrogen

chloride), fixation of the traces of heavy metals in the clinker structure, no production of by-

products such as slag, ashes or liquid residues from exit gas cleaning and complete recovery

of energy and raw material components in the waste. The most effective way of reducing raw

material consumption, energy use and emissions from the cement industry is to reduce the

clinker content of cement products by using secondary raw materials and mineral additives;

then both thermal CO2 from fossil fuels and CO2 from the decarbonation of raw materials are

reduced.

The cement industry has capacity to treat a significant part of South Africa's own waste and

all companies are today interested in co-processsing. The joining of the cement industry to the

waste management needs in South Africa could, under a well managed and controlled

environment, provide a viable, economical and environmentally sound mean of treating many


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hazardous and non-hazardous industrial wastes. Some of the cement companies are planning

to build blending platforms for waste fuel in Durban and Gauteng and some kilns have

already been useing alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR) for some years, specifically

spent pot lining (SPL) from the Aluminum Industry. Some kilns use boiler and fly ash as an

alternative raw material and mineral substitute.

Compared with “international” technology, for example in Europe, many of the South African

kilns, especially the long dry without preheating or exit gas conditioning, are old with low

energy efficiency and low environmental performance. It is doubtful if it’s economical

feasible to upgrade these kilns and improve the performance significantly.

Most of the “new” South African kilns are comparable to “international” performance

standards, i.e. equipped with preheaters (and calciner), efficient clinker coolers and raw mills,

exit gas conditioning, sufficient air pollution abatement capacity, on-line emission monitors,

and independent measurements of for example dioxins. It would probably be economic

feasibile to upgrade all of the “new” South African kilns to comply with for example the EU

emission limit values (those who are not already).

All of the kilns visited would, from a technical standpoint, be able to co-process AFRs and

treat hazardous wastes. “Inherent” kiln features, as high temperatures and long residence

time, is however not enough to be qualified to co-process AFRs and treat hazardous wastes

adequately seen from an institutional and social point of view. The plants will need qualified

and skilled employees to manage AFRs and hazardous wastes, as well as health, safety and

environmental issues; they will need adequate emergency and safety equipment and

procedures, and regular training; they will need authorised and licensed collection, transport

and handling “systems”; they will need safe and sound receiving, storage, preparation and

feeding facilities; they will need adequate laboratory facilities and equipment for AFR and

hazardous waste acceptance and feeding control; and they would need to demonstrate the

destruction performance of hazardous wastes through test burns.

Those kilns who have conducted dioxin and furan measurements show very low levels. No

laboratory can however perform this analysis in South Africa for the time being.


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