national policy on languages - making multicultural … australia's language policy. specific...

Lo Bianco, Joseph National Policy on LanguagesCanberra, Australian Government PublishingService, 1987, pp 1-10, 14-15, 18, 189-203.

Preamble: The Importance ofLanguage

Language is most obviously a form of humancommunication. In all its manifestations - oral,written, non-verbal - language is the mostsophisticated and fundamental form of humancommunication. It is less obvious that languagefulfils a wide range of other functions but theseare critically important to individual and sociallife. Virtually all human endeavour hascorrelates in language which is the tool humansuse to negotiate and create meaning and toarticulate their perception of experience.

The study of human individuals has allocated acentral place to language. It is centralto the intellectual development andsocialisation of children, basic to alllearning and concept formation. It is ameans of personal growth, individualcultural enrichment and recreation.Language is a source of individual,personal identity.

The study of human groups and cultures hasrevealed the centrality of language. Asthe primary means of interpretingreality, language becomes basic tocultural evolution and change and,therefore, becomes a code for theunique experiences of different culturalgroups. Language is a source of groupand cultural identity.

The study of human societies and nations givesprominence to language. Humansociety is inconceivable withoutlanguage. Language is the primarymeans for transmitting knowledge and

past achievement, for ensuring contactbetween generations. Social groupsoften mark their boundaries anddistinctiveness with language. Insociety language is an instrument ofpower and sometimes of dominationbut can become a means ofemancipation and freedom. Languageis a source of national identity.

The study of languages has revealed that theyshare universal features which make allhumans similar to each other anddistinct from other living things.Languages vary in ways which revealsome of the diversity and differencesbetween human groups. Languages arethe product of cultural, artistic,economic and intellectual endeavoursas well as the tool of them. Byrevealing ways of being human,languages are a source of humanidentity.

The modern world is undergoing a profoundand rapid revolution of technology affectingsocial relationships, cultural groupings, thestructures of knowledge and, consequently,power and social participation. In a world whichis becoming more dependent on language, itsskilled and proficient use is a key factor ineconomic and social opportunities. Democraticsocieties have a major obligation to ensure theircitizens attain the highest levels of skill inlanguage to protect and promote the rights andenhance the opportunities of individuals andgroups.

Language, therefore, impinges on all aspects ofpublic and private life and pervades all aspectsof society. Individual, ethnic, racial, andnational identification and allegiances are ofteninextricably bound up with language. Theseidentifications can shift over time. Language

1Making Multicultural Australia National Policy on Languages

National Policy on Languages

itself also changes over time and is constantlymodified by use. The task of developing explicitpolicy on language issues is, therefore, anexceedingly complex undertaking but, at thesame time, an undertaking of the utmostimportance.

Rationale

1. Language PolicyFormulation in the AustralianContext

The measures which have been adopted byAustralian public authorities in response topressing issues of language could be said toconstitute Australia's language policy. Specificresponses have been made to the needs anddemands of the society and of particularcomponent groups throughout the history ofpublic policy development in this country.These measures, however, have not been guidedby an overall, coherent and integrated policy.Nor could they become one since major gapshave been identified and the practices of lessenlightened and less well-informed times prevailin many areas. The neglect of Australia'slanguage resources has, as a consequence,become an issue of major national significance.

All societies undertake actions to manage anddirect their language resources to particularends. These actions, due to the pervasive natureof language, are not usually treated as languageplanning unless identifiable and urgentlanguage-related problems require attention.

The term "language planning" here refers to theconsciously and explicitly taken decisions aboutlanguage issues. These may encompass highlytechnical areas such as the standardisation oflanguages and the development or reform oforthographies, as well as the more socio-politicalareas such as the allocation of status toparticular languages or language varieties, theteaching of second languages and educationalpolicies regarding linguistic minorities. Suchquestions inevitably involve the interests andvalues of different groups which are bothlinguistic and non-linguistic, social, economic

and cultural (Jernudd and Neustupny, 1986).

The primary purpose of Australia's languagespolicy is to make the nation's choices aboutlanguage issues in as rational, comprehensive,just and balanced a way as possible. Languageplanning of this type requires the elaborationand declaration of principles which will guidethe process of decision making and form thebasis for the allocation of resources,accompanied by widespread consultativeprocesses to gain acceptance for these principles.The choices which are promoted will then beprincipled, deliberate choices which are capableof justification. It follows that since thesechoices are made explicitly they are able to bemodified and improved subsequently ifevaluation and review procedures find thisnecessary. This is not possible when languagepolicies are not developed explicitly.

The absence of explicit statements of theprinciples and choices does not mean thatdecisions affecting language do not occur.Rather, it results in implicit and undirectedactions and usually ad hoc and unco-ordinatedmeasures and may distort language developmentin society and its institutions. An explicitstatement of the choices made and theprinciples underlying them can give order andcoherence to the broad and otherwiseunconnected issues of language in Australia. TheSenate recognised this in its decision to addressa reference to its Standing Committee onEducation and the Arts on 25th May 1982 onthe "Development and Implementation of a Co-ordinated Language Policy for Australia". TheSenate's decision followed intense activity fromprofessional and community groups advocatingthe development and implementation of anational policy on language. The SenateStanding Committee's report of October, 1984,assembled a large amount of data andconsidered in detail a wide range of relevantissues and recommended as its firstrecommendation:

"Language policies should be developed and co-ordinated at the national level on the basis offour guiding principles, namely:


• competence in English; • maintenance and development of languages

other than English; • provision of services in languages other than

English; • opportunities for learning second languages."

Action to utilize and develop Australia's richlinguistic resources in the nation's best interestsmust start from a consideration of the linguisticdiversity of Australia, the need for nationalunity, the external, economic and political needsof the nation, and the wishes and needs ofAustralia's citizens.

National language planning therefore involvesco-ordinated effort at all levels, by responsibleauthorities, of intervention to:

• enable the nation to plan those aspects of itsinternational, trade, economic and diplomaticrelationships which relate to language in anobjective and rational way;

• initiate action to alleviate and overcomeproblems, disabilities, inequality anddiscrimination which may be encounteredbecause of language;

• enrich Australia's cultural, artistic andintellectual life;

• provide the component groups of Australia'spopulation for whom language is a definingcharacteristic, or for whom a language otherthan English is an instrument ofcommunication or a highly valued culturalpossession with recognition and support;

• improve communication in written andspoken forms of language generally in society,but particularly in schooling;

• make clear the public expectations oflanguage in all its manifestations to thecommunity generally but particularly toschool students, their families, teachers andeducation authorities, serving thereby as aconstant reference point to all those involvedin education;

• encourage and guide attempts to integratetechnological changes with language use andlearning. The form which this takes in theAustralian context is the development ofpolicy which is explicit and comprehensive.

Australia's history and geography havebequeathed the nation with a unique, complexand rich linguistic situation. This policy regardsthis as a resource which requires cultivation anddevelopment. The fundamental objective oflanguage planning in Australia becomes,therefore, to ensure that Australia derivesmaximum benefit from its rich linguisticresources.

2. A National Policy

Australia is a federation and therefore a nationalpolicy involves the participation of thegovernments which comprise Australia.

Another important characteristic of a nationalpolicy on such a pervasive and important area aslanguage would be the non-party political (non-partisan) nature of principles which underlie thepolicy. This would be a recognition thatlanguage is fundamental to all public andprivate life, and as such the principles whichunderlie the decisions made about languagesshould command a national consensus. Thisconsensus is also a product of the extensiveconsultative process which accompanied theproposal, development, elaboration andpreparation phases of the national policy andthe non-partisan composition of the Senate'sStanding Committee which addressed the issue.

Stating clearly the principles and content ofAustralia's language policy enables a co-ordinated approach to be taken on questions oflanguage. This approach recognises therespective roles of the various governments andother bodies involved in the national policy onlanguages. Furthermore, it permits co-ordination of effort of the various bodiesresponsible for the implementation of aspects ofthe policy. This is particularly importantbecause since the Senate's report (and in at leastone case before it) some states have developed


language policies in particular areas such aseducation.

The precise form which the policy takes is thatof a framework of nationally shared and valuedgoals which will require further elaboration anddetailed implementation at the appropriatelevels.

Although seeking to reconcile widely divergentinterests, language policies nevertheless aim atparticular forms of social change and orientationand express particular values, in this case thatlanguage learning, maintenance andbilingualism are valuable and necessary todevelop not only for the individuals concerned,but also for the benefit of Australia. Languagepolicies, therefore, are not neutral statementsbut, rather, espouse particular values and goals.

In summary, then, a national languages policyinvolves a partnership between the States,Territories and Commonwealth of Australiaworking towards broadly shared common goals.

3. Principles UnderlyingAustralia's NationalLanguages Policy

This section sets out the general and specificprinciples upon which the languages policy isdeveloped. These can be considered thephilosophical framework which underpins thepolicy. These principles are also intended to bepractical. It is important that they be madeclear.

(a) General Principles:

• Language is dynamic and consequently isconstantly evolving and changing. Whilst thisneeds to be acknowledged it is important toassert that simultaneously there is a need forstandardising written and to a lesser extent,spoken, forms of language to enhancecommunication. A corollary of this is theimportance of promoting formally correct useand of promoting greater languagecompetence generally.

• Language is primarily an instrument ofcommunication which is evolved socially.Language also serves a wide range of cultural,artistic, intellectual, personal and groupidentification, religious, economic and socio-political functions. All languages aretheoretically capable of meeting theirspeakers' communicative needs and languageitself is both an arbitrary and aconventionalised way of representing reality.

• Action taken as a result of the nationallanguages policy will emphasise the need forsocial and national cohesion in Australiawhilst simultaneously recognising thediversity of the society and the inherentbenefits of this diversity. Australia hasadopted policies of multiculturalism i.e.equity for all community groups and culturaldiversity within national cohesion and unity.

• The language pluralism of Australia isregarded as a valuable national resourceenhancing and enriching cultural andintellectual life and as a valuable economicresource in its potential for use ininternational trade.

• Because of its central importance inAustralian life, specific planning, research andaction is necessary to enhance the competenceof Australians in English, to extend andimprove the teaching of English both as a firstand as a second language to children andadults, and to improve Australia's capacity toassist, primarily, the countries of theAsian/Pacific region with English languagetraining. Moreover, it is recognised that thereare many stable varieties of English. Some ofthese serve social and individual functionswhich are important to their speakers but arenot the standardised forms which are valuedpublicly. It is important to accept this internaldiversity of English whilst at the same timepromoting standard Australian English forformal and public uses. It is important also torecognise the national character of English asit is used in Australia and its role as aunifying element in the society and adistinguishing feature of Australia among the


English-speaking nations.

• Aboriginal languages have an ancient historyon this continent. Aboriginal languages arethe product of the unique cultural, historicaland environmental identification of theAboriginal people. Aboriginal languages havebeen used to define and interpret theAustralian landscape and environment andmany of these languages remain viable formsof communication. In addition, they arerepositories of cultural values, information onsocio-cultural organisation and law.

As Australia approaches the bicentenary ofEuropean settlement, it becomes a nationalobligation of great importance to recognize,value and take action to enhance the survival ofAboriginal languages and promote anappreciation and an awareness of them amongnon-Aborigines. Aboriginal languages are alsoimportant in strictly linguistic terms in theinsight they provide into the nature of humanlanguage in general.

• Australians speak a wide variety of otherlanguages. These are usually labelledcommunity languages and this term, for thesake of convenience, is retained in this policy.Community languages are used daily to fulfila wide range of social, familial, cultural,economic and educational purposes. Theselanguages are being developed and modifiedin the Australian context and remain themain vehicles of communication for largenumbers of Australians and the first languagesof many Australian children. Communitylanguages are recognized and supported in theAustralian languages policy.

• Australians also communicate in languagesspecially created to meet the needs of thosedisabled in some ways which impair theircapacity to use and comprehend oral and/orwritten language. These language systems arerecognised and supported in the Australianlanguages policy.

• Australia's geographical proximity in theAsian/Pacific/Indian Ocean region to

countries which use languages other thanEnglish carries specific implications for anational languages policy. Australia'sinvolvement in world affairs also impacts onthis policy. Australia's economic, trade,diplomatic, intellectual, cultural, political andsecurity interests require that a large pool ofAustralians gain skilled and proficientknowledge of the languages of our region andworld languages. For the sake of convenience,such languages are referred to as languages ofgeo-political significance to Australia.

• It is in Australia's national interests to developthe linguistic resources of its people andintegrate these skills with other broadnational goals.

(b) Specific Principles:

• The Australian policy on languages will becharacterised by:

(i) explicitness and clarity (permittingappropriate action by all relevantbodies and enabling review andevaluation over time);

(ii) comprehensiveness (enabling allaffected groups bodies, and languagesto participate);

(iii) balance and economy (enablingcompeting interests and claims to bemeasured against the general needs ofthe nation and the effectiveness, costand feasibility of proposed actions);

(iv) a co-ordinated and national approach(this will attempt to ensure that thevarious bodies associated with theenactment of the policy operate as faras possible with the same objectives,that there is no intrusion into theautonomous or particularresponsibilities of State and Territorygovernments, and that as far as possiblethe roles of all groups are developed asa partnership);


(v) that due weight be allocated to themaintenance and enhancement ofstandards of excellence in languageeducation (ensuring quality) and toovercoming disadvantages, socialinequalities and discrimination(redressing inequalities).

• The policy will be expressed in broad termsoverall, thereby ensuring its applicabilityacross Australia to accommodate the differentsystems, structures and processes whichoperate in the various parts of the nation andthe differences in linguistic demographywhich characterise different States andTerritories.

• Access to services and information byAustralians who do not speak English or whoare disabled in ways which involve languageought to be provided in appropriate wayswhich maximize the rights and opportunitiesof these people.

• Bilingualism will be promoted as a positivevalue to individuals and society. It will beadvocated that children who are potentiallybilingual ought to be assisted by schools todevelop this potential. Schools should beencouraged and assisted to make concertedefforts to foster the bilingualism of theirpupils during normal schooling arrangementspreferably, or in concert with communityorganisations or by other arrangements wherethis is not possible.

• No Australian resident ought to be deniedaccess to medical and health assistance, orequal, appropriate and fair treatment by thelaw including representation and other rightscommonly associated with equality orderiving from citizenship, because of languagedisabilities, or lack of adequate, or any,competence in English. It is on the basis ofthese principles that the Australian languagespolicy is developed.

4. Australia's People And OurLanguages

(a) Introduction

Australia's 16 million people daily use a widevariety of languages...

This contemporary linguistic diversity is not arecent development. Traditional Aboriginal andIslander society was multilingual with between200 and 250 distinct languages, representingapproximately 600 dialects spoken at the timeof European settlement. Most individuals andgroups were multilingual.

In the late eighteenth century English wasintroduced to Australia. The diverse origins ofthe British settlers and the spread of bothregional and social dialects among them, as wellas the later inflow of non-English speakers fromEurope, Asia and the Pacific, all affected theevolution of English in the colonies of the GreatSouth Land. From the mid nineteenth century,large sections of the population used a non-Aboriginal language other than English forvirtually all their social, familial, economic andeducational purposes. English controlled thelinguistic domains of major power and served asthe language used by non-English-speakinggroups to communicate with each other.

Between the 1914-1918 war and World War IIa trend towards English monolingualism beganand was actively promoted by Governmentintervention restricting and even suppressing theuse of other languages. There was active anddeliberate opposition to Aboriginal languages,and many became extinct.

The post-World War II migration programdramatically reversed the trend towardsmonolingualism and greatly diversified thenumber of languages spoken in Australia.Although policies of linguistic assimilation wereinitially adopted these were not accompaniedwith intervention to assist newly-arrivedchildren and adults to learn English.


These policies eventually gave way to theprovision of assistance to learners of English andin recent years, to more positive recognition ofthe value of their first languages.

Whilst recognising the importance ofcompetence in English for all, there arepersuasive reasons for the linguistic diversity ofAustralia to influence language education andservices. There are powerful reasons forAustralians to become fluent in the otherlanguages of our nation, as well as the languagesof our region and the world.

This general overview will briefly describe thecomplexity and diversity of the linguisticsituation of Australia which of necessity is abasis on which to build the policy on languages.

(b) English

Although English is the de facto nationallanguage of Australia its status as such has neverbeen declared explicitly. It is the first and usuallythe only language of about 83% of thepopulation as well as being the language of themajor and powerful institutions of the society.

English is also a major world language - pre-eminent in the field of science, technology andcommerce. It is the official and co-officiallanguage of more countries than any otherlanguage. These factors combine to lendparticular needs, demands, possibilities andresponsibilities in relation to English inAustralia and to Australia as a predominantlyEnglish-speaking nation in a multilingual,predominantly non-English-speaking, region ofthe world. These facts also have a significantimpact on choices made about languagesadditional to English in education.

The English used in Australia has been modifiedby its speakers/writers to adapt it to the newdemands and needs of its environment. TheseAustralian contexts of use for the Englishlanguage as well as the other languagebackgrounds of the users of English in Australiahave led to the evolution of uniquely Australianvarieties of English. The national character of

Australian English is accorded positiverecognition in this policy.

(c) Aboriginal Languages

Aboriginal languages are in an endangered state.The number of living languages has declineddramatically. Only fifty are considered viable.The rate of extinction is about one distinctlanguage per year. It was calculated in 1971 that114 languages were spoken by fewer than tenpeople, with a further forty-five being spoken bybetween ten and one hundred people. (Source:Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies)

The Australian languages are a distinct familyamong the languages of the world and exhibitsome features of grammar and usage which arerare. Some of the languages of the Torres StraitIslands are related to Aboriginal languages, whileothers are related to the Papuan languages.

In societies with oral language traditions thelanguages provide an irreplaceable repository ofexperience, history, mythology, spiritual belief,law and socio-cultural organisation and values.This derives from the very nature of languageitself, the major mediator between experienceand thought and culture. The Aboriginalinterpretation of Australia - its landscape,environment and the experiences of itsinhabitants - is among the most ancient of anyin the world. Being unique to this continentthese languages are an important andirreplaceable source of self-knowledge forAustralia and of inestimable value to Aboriginesand their prospects of cultural survival. Inaddition Aboriginal languages, includingCreoles and Pidgins used by Aborigines, areimportant means of communication betweenindividuals and groups, and of education andsocialisation of young children.

(d) Community Languages*

(* Names of languages in this report are thosethat have been used by authorities supplyingdata. They are not necessarily the namespreferred by users of those languages.)


Australia's multilingualism includes a largenumber of non-Aboriginal languages other thanEnglish, of European, Asian, Pacific and otherorigins. Some of these languages are spoken bylarge numbers of speakers, usually concentratedgeographically in urban areas with a long historyof presence in Australia. Others have equallylong histories in Australia and large numbers ofspeakers, but are used by geographicallydispersed communities. Others are spoken bysmall and recently arrived communities or bysmall but long established communities.

There are no simple ways of categorisingAustralia's multilingualism. The importantaspect to recognize is that between 15% and20% of Australians daily use a language otherthan English and that for a significant furtherpercentage there is some cultural, emotional orother form of identification and attachment tosuch a language. Many thousands of Australianschool children begin school each year speakingonly such a language or speaking a variety ofsuch a language. Many other children comefrom homes where a community language or anon-standard variety, a dialect, or a variety ordialect heavily influenced by English is spoken.

Community languages are adapted to their newenvironment, although unlike Aboriginallanguages, they are not unique to it. Theselanguages have been modified to express thenew experiences of their speakers and, as such,have evolved features such as pronunciations,new words, metaphors and intonations whichmark them as truly Australian.

The communication disabled, particularly deafpeople, have evolved languages which are stableand share many of the characteristics ofcommunity languages. Australian Sign Languageis the language of over 7,000 deaf people and isused by thousands of others who, however, arenot dependent on it.

The linguistic diversity of Australia has social,cultural and economic potential to offer thiscountry. Most non-English-speakingcommunities in Australia wish to maintain anddevelop their languages in the Australian context

whilst acquiring and using English too, andthere are important emotional, cultural,intercultural social and educational reasons whythis is desirable for Australia.

(e) Other Languages for, and of, Australians

Apart from mother tongue learning inAboriginal and non-Aboriginal communitylanguages which is justified on educational,psychological, familial, and social grounds andthe universal learning of English which isjustified on social, national, educational andeconomic grounds, Australians need, learn andknow other languages as well.

Individuals have always pursued studies in awide range of languages for communicativepurposes, for cultural, literary and artisticpurposes and also for more strictly academicpurposes. These endeavours are an essentialcharacteristic of a diverse and relatively highlyeducated society and such studies are supportedfor their contribution to intellectual and culturallife generally. It is possible, however, to identifya range of languages which, nationally, Australiaought to promote. It is useful to categorise theselanguages as geo-political languages.

Since Australia is predominantly an English-speaking country, the choice of secondlanguages can be greater for Australian studentsthan it may be in many other countries. This isdue to the great demand which exists forEnglish worldwide. Australia's geographynecessitates a policy of language teachingchoices which gives prominence to importantlanguages of our region as second languages.

Australia’s role as a member state of a largenumber of international organizationsnecessitates a policy of language teachingchoices which includes important languagesused in world forums or which are spoken bypeople in many countries. Languages ofgeographical and global significance mustfeature prominently among the languagesacquired by Australians, whether these are theirfirst languages (eg Chinese Australians studyingChinese), their second languages (eg English


speakers learning Chinese) or third languages(eg bilingual Australians of Warlpiri and Englishor Greek and English background studyingChinese).

It is in Australia's interest to develop high levelsof competence in languages of geo-politicalsignificance. Many such languages overlap withcommunity languages and therefore there aremany young Australians whose potentialbilingualism ought to be fostered in theirinterest and in the nation's interest.

5. Languages: Learning;Maintenance; Attrition; Death:

The facts and figures which attest to thejustification for policy formulation and theurgency of principled action on languageissues.

There are a wide range of language problemsconfronting Australia. These can be overcomeby concerted action, guided by explicit andconsensually-based policy directions. Theseproblems are domestic and external.

• Domestically there are limitations to theeducational, social and economicopportunities of large numbers of Australianswhich derive exclusively, or substantially, fromquestions of language (invariably being lackof proficiency in English). In addition, manycomponent groups of Australian societydepend on a language (or a language variety)with which they identify, to promote, even insome cases to ensure, their cultural survival asdistinct groups.

• Externally there are political, economic anddiplomatic constraints on Australia which canbe confronted by improving and extendinglanguage teaching and maintenance efforts,consonant with broader national, economicand political goals.

In addition to the necessity for developingprincipled action to address domestic andexternal problems associated with or derivedfrom language, Australia stands to gain in both

practical and less tangible ways by addressinglanguage questions positively. The fullestdevelopment of our cultural, intellectual andeconomic potential can be realized byovercoming the past neglect of Australia'slinguistic resources.


Summary andRecommendations

The National Policy on Languages is containedin a report which is divided as follows:

• Part one is a rationale for having a nationalpolicy on language issues.

• Part two is the policy itself, containingrecommendations for implementation.

• Part three consists of the contributions of theStates and Territories.

• Part four is the bibliography.

Rationale

First, the activity of language policy formulationin the Australian context is discussed. Such anactivity is known as language planning whenexplicit statements and programs are made andenacted to respond to urgent problems of alinguistic nature. Choices and priorities need tobe made and set since language pervades all ofpublic and private life. The context means thatthe federal nature of Australia, consisting of atleast eight governments, influences the type oflanguage planning possible in Australia.Therefore it is necessary that broad statementswith clear principles be enunciated so that thelanguage problems which face the country as awhole can be tackled at the various relevantlevels by the appropriate authorities.

These principles are that the nature of languageas dynamic and arbitrary needs to beacknowledged, as does the need to enhancelevels of competence and standardization toachieve better communication. The differentlanguages spoken in Australia are recognised.Other principles relate to the need for abalanced, comprehensive and just approach tolanguage issues.

The language problems which the policy mustaddress are:

• the overcoming of injustices, disadvantagesand discrimination related to language;

• the enrichment of cultural and intellectual lifein Australia;

• the integration of language teaching/learningwith Australia's external (economic andpolitical) needs and priorities;

• the provision of clear expectations to thecommunity about language in general andabout language in education in particular;

• support for the component groups ofAustralian society (ethnic communities, thedeaf and Aboriginal groups), for whomlanguage issues are very important, withrecognition and encouragement, andguidance in attempts to link technology andlanguage use and learning.

Following this introductory section whichoutlines the principles and approaches of thepolicy, there is a descriptive section onAustralia's linguistic demography. Briefly, thisrefers to English as it is spoken in Australia, thesituation of Aboriginal languages, thewidespread linguistic diversity of Australia dueto the post-war immigration program and thelanguages which Australians have traditionallystudied.

The next section is primarily statistical. Bringingtogether both domestic and external needs, thispart of the rationale puts together data on thelanguage problems which confront Australia.These are the problems which need a coherentoverall policy so that they can be tackledadequately.

Briefly summarised they are as follows:

English:

• Inadequate past attempts to tackle adultilliteracy levels;

• Persistently high levels of inability touse/comprehend English among recent and

1 0Making Multicultural Australia National Policy on Languages

long-standing immigrants;

• Deficiencies in English as a Second Languagefor children.

Languages Other ThanEnglish:

• Very few English-speaking Australians acquiresecond languages;

• Declining numbers of schools and studentsteach/learn second languages;

• Only a tiny proportion of students study alanguage of Australia's major trading partners;

• Only 14.6% of boys study a second language,whereas 20% of girls do so;

• Smaller schools, rural schools and schoolswith low numbers of non-English-speakingbackground students are much less likely tobe teaching second languages;

• Almost half of all Australian students NEVERstudy a second language for any period oftime at all;

• HSC levels of study for second languageshave declined to about 12% compared toover 40% over two decades ago;

• The tertiary sector greatly over-emphasisesliterature as distinct from practicalcommunication skills. The language studentnumbers at tertiary level are very low;

• The after-hours/insertion modes enroll verylarge numbers of students in language classes;these have greatly increased in recent years;

• Research shows that there are substantiallevels of movement away from the use oflanguages other than English by the secondgeneration in immigrant families, althoughstrong attachments remain to the languagetheir families use and with which theyidentify;

• In the case of Aboriginal languages such shiftoften signifies the death of the languages.Currently about one language per yearbecomes extinct. Only a small number ofAboriginal languages remains viable.Aboriginal communities sometimes identifywith a creole as a marker of Aboriginality butthe cultural significance of traditionallanguages is very strong.

Tourism

• Tourism is a major potential revenue-generating source for Australia. Internationalvisitors from Germany and Japan are amongthe "above-average" expenditure groups, andthe Japanese are the most promising futuresource country. Interpreting/translatingservices need to be brought into line withsuch needs.

Interpreting And Translating

• Significant unmet needs exist for ethnicminorities, especially in situations of stress(for example, medical and legal situations)where otherwise adequate English levels havebeen found to be inadequate. The great bulkof the post-war migration group now findsitself as an aging population, frequentlyreverting to the use of the first language only.Similarly there are unmet needs for the deaf,for Aborigines and also for servicing thetourist industry.

Data are also provided about the media, bothprint and electronic and public libraries inrelation to languages.

The section entitled "Dimensions andJustifications for Second Language Learning"discusses four major social goals connected withlanguage teaching and learning which justifymajor efforts to improve Australia's presentsituation.

• Enrichment: cultural and intellectual

• Economic: vocations and foreign trade


• Equality: social justice and overcomingdisadvantages

• External: Australia's role in the region and theworld

Enrichment: is the traditional justification forteaching second languages. Essentially thearguments which have been put in the past arestill valid, but the cultural and intellectualreasons are now both more immediate (becauseof immigration, greater travel and advances incommunications technology in particular) andbetter researched. The evidence for theintellectual benefits for children frombilingualism is strong. However soundeducational programs where two languagesconcerned are highly valued are needed toproduce such benefits. Culture and language arevery closely connected with languages revealingmuch about the cultures which produce andsustain them. Such benefits and values apply toany language and to all children. Mosteducation systems in the world give a prominentplace to language learning. Australian childrenwould be disadvantaged by a monolingualeducation, especially when the domesticpotential for encountering and using secondlanguages is so great.

Economics: this section contains manyquotes to show that other major English-speaking countries recognize that dependingonly on English in the world of business can bea major disadvantage. Australia's trade is mostlyconducted with non-English-speaking countries,particularly Asian countries. The link betweeneconomics, trade and languages is not a simpleand direct one, since languages are not onlyuseful in negotiations - sometimes indispensableto avoid dependence - but also in getting toknow markets, predicting demand for goodsand services, ways of marketing and so on.Other economic dimensions of languages areAustralia's role as an education provider for theregion and the use of languages as an ancillaryskill in servicing the multilingual communitywhich is present day Australia.

Equality: this section deals with the

correlation between social inequalities andlanguage. These relate to the employment andoccupational disadvantages of limited-English-speaking Australians and the educationalproblems which correlate with level of English.In addition, non-standard and dialect forms ofEnglish speech are stigmatized and denigratedand so are other languages, particularlyAboriginal languages. Deafness and othercommunication disabilities also producedisadvantages in the information-dependentsociety towards which present-day Australia isevolving.

The final dimension is the external one. Thisdeals with Australia's role in the Asian-Pacificregion of the world particularly, but with therest of the world more generally.

The last part of the rationale deals with fourareas of concern to planning. Firstly, an attemptis made to show that the "needs" of the nationand the community are "inter-dependent"rather than conflicting. Secondly, the standingof English as a major world language isaddressed in both economic terms and in termsof population projections which show a range ofother languages growing at a much faster rate,in first language terms, than English. Thirdly,the prospects for maintenance or loss ofminority languages are considered. A briefconcluding sub-section mentions the need forco-ordination of effort on language planningwork in Australia.

Policy

The policy contained in the report is discussedunder the headings:

• the status of languages

• the teaching and learning of languages

• language services

• Advisory Council

Some sections contain case studies whichilluminate the discussion and help to increase

1 2Making Multicultural Austral ia National Policy on Languages

the practical orientation of the documentoverall.

Section A deals with the status of languages inAustralia. It begins by stating that legislativeaction on this matter is undesirable andinappropriate. Although English is Australia's defacto official language, it has no legal status. Thepolicy asserts that English is the nationallanguage of Australia, that Australian English isthe uniquely Australian way of using Englishwhich ought to be used with confidence hereand overseas, and that the social dialects ofEnglish in Australia serve valuable groupidentity functions for their speakers. Educationmust aim to enable such speakers to addstandard English to the forms of language theyspeak and know or else they will inevitably besubjected to social and economic penalties inthis society. The need for public authorities touse plain English, to reject sexist and racistlanguage and, also, to continue the practice ofusing Aboriginal place names are all mentioned.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island languages, aswell as creoles and pidgins used by them, areacknowledged to be legitimate forms ofcommunication, appropriate for communicatinginformation about government services andprograms. In addition, the very poor level ofawareness of such languages and theirstigmatization and denigration by non-Aborigines is deplored. Other questions relatingto their status are considered.

Other languages used in the community byethnic communities and by the deaf aresimilarly recognised and discussed.

English For All

1. English Language and Learning Project(ELLP)

That the Commonwealth Schools Commissionestablish an in-service education, professionaldevelopment and materials developmentprogram combining the Early Literacy In-serviceCourse and the Basic Learning in PrimarySchools Program. This is to be offered to

teachers from the infants to junior secondaryschool levels inclusive. That prominence begiven to dialect and second language aspects ofEnglish learning as well as stress on functionaldevelopment in English.

Although the majority of the targeted teachersfor participation in this course ought to beEnglish teachers, specific attention ought to begiven to the active recruitment of subjectteachers so that a focus is allocated to differentcurriculum areas over time. For example, for1988, science and mathematics teachers,including advisory and subject associationrepresentatives, ought to be encouraged toparticipate. This project is to be subject tocontinuing monitoring and evaluation.

2. The establishment of a key centre ofapplied English language research and teaching.This ought to be canvassed by theCommonwealth Tertiary EducationCommission in its forthcoming triennial reportand is to follow the issuing of invitations totertiary institutions for proposals. The centre isto be expressly concerned with ESL for childrenand adults as well as other English languagedevelopment issues. It is probable that aconsortium within one city would be required,capitalizing on the different strengths in existinginstitutions.

3. The establishment of a standing committeeon English and Learning of the AdvisoryCommittee on the Australian Languages Policy(ACALP).

A key and urgent role of the standingcommittee is to develop and disseminatenational guidelines on language in teachereducation for discussion and, ultimately, forimplementation by teacher educationauthorities.

4. That ESL for children be recognised as anintegral part of all English languagedevelopment.

The New Arrivals component of theCommonwealth English as a Second Language


Program ought to be expanded so that eligiblestudents are able to participate for up to 12months in intensive English. This participationought to consist of two types of experience:intensive learning of English in language centresand intensive learning of English in schools.The time allocated to each is to be determinedat local levels according to the needs of thestudents. Such students ought to be offered abroad curriculum and this will necessitate someinstruction in the mother tongue where this ispossible to arrange.

The General Support element ought to beexpanded and reconceptualised as a professionaldevelopment program. Whilst continuingprimarily to employ specialist ESL teachers, asignificant emphasis is to be placed on theextension of their role as resource personnel, inteam teaching, curriculum and materialsdevelopment work with generalist and othersubject teachers. This will require attention tospecialist and generalist ESL teacher training, inaccordance with the recommendations of the1984 "National Follow-up Conference onTESOL Teacher Education". A major focus ofthis program is to be English for AcademicPurposes for senior secondary ESL students andthe stimulation of language across thecurriculum approaches, as well as theintegration of new arrivals, subsequent to theirparticipation in intensive English, into regularschools.

5. That the Commonwealth SchoolsCommission finalise the development of theindex of needs for funding allocation, evaluationand accountability purposes, as well as forcurriculum planning purposes as recommendedby Campbell and McMeniman (1985). Anexpress focus of this is to describe attainableobjectives for ESL under different conditionsand programs.

6. That the ESL program for childrendevelop triennial plans and issue these fordiscussion and comment in each year of theirimplementation.

7. Adult ESL Learning

(a) The development of an index of needsfor funding allocation, evaluation,accountability and curriculumplanning purposes is required for adultESL learners, both immigrant andAboriginal.

(b) This policy strongly endorses theimplementation of therecommendations of the review of theAdult Migrant Education Program(Campbell 1985).

(c) There is a need for greater co-ordination of all programs for adultESL learners at the Commonwealthlevel.

(d) There is a need to integrate adult ESLlearning with the range of pre-vocational, vocational and recreationalcourse offerings of the TAFE sectorand the course offerings of other adulteducation providers.

(e) The ACALP is to convene a TESLstanding committee whose purpose itwill be to bring together at a nationallevel ESL providers both for childrenand adults so that maximuminformation exchange and co-ordination of effort and planning isundertaken. This is particularlyimportant at the marginal levels ofresponsibility of different programs, forexample, school ESL and the AdultMigrant Education Program, TAFEadvanced English and the AdultMigrant Education Program.

8. Teacher Education

In its next triennial report, the CommonwealthTertiary Education Commission shouldstimulate teacher training institutions to addressthe content of language in education programs,ensuring that all pre-service and in-serviceeducation and training includes components on


language and learning, ESL and bilingualism.The national guidelines on language ineducation which were mentioned in 3. above areto form a basis for language educationexpectations in teacher preparation courses.Funds are to be allocated to stimulate specificinitiatives in this area.

9. An independent expert panel should beestablished to review the accredited schools forEFL in Australia and Australian offshoreofferings in EFL and supplement the presentpeer review available to accrediting authorities.The panel is to operate to maintain standards inEFL by advising relevant CommonwealthDepartments. Australia should assist Englishlanguage development in the region in the waysit is presently doing but needs to increasetargeted aid, such as the provision of aid toprovincial advisers/consultants who assistteachers in the region, by providing programswhich link them with their peers in Australia.

10. Adult Literacy

It is proposed that a concerted and well-plannedcampaign be implemented during 1988 toattempt to improve levels of adult literacy.

Aboriginal And Torres StraitIslander Languages

11. A program of support for Aboriginallanguages is proposed with a more specificallyeducational focus. This will consist of a three-year National Aboriginal Languages Project(NALP) to be managed within theCommonwealth Education Portfolio.

The NALP is to be seen as an educationalprogram with the purposes of providingsupplementary funding to initiatives inAboriginal language education to State/Territoryand non government education authorities orschool communities for projects.

The Commonwealth Schools Commission is tobe requested to develop the specific guidelines,evaluation and other measures to enable theNALP to become operational efficiently.

The NALP ought to be responsible for thedisbursement of the following amounts:

1987-88 $1.0m

1988-89 $2.5m

1989-90 $2.5m

through the Aboriginal Education Unit.

12. The Advisory Council on an AustralianLanguages Policy (ACALP) ought to constitutea standing committee to be serviced by theAboriginal Education Unit. The standingcommittee is to be responsible for advising onthe operation of the NALP, and for thefacilitation and integration of developments inthe Aboriginal languages area generally.

The composition of the standing committeeought to be devised by the National AboriginalEducation Committee, comprise a majority ofAboriginal people, and be chaired by anAboriginal person with professional, preferablylinguistic, training. The Australian Institute ofAboriginal Studies, the Aboriginal LanguagesAssociation, the NT Department of Education,the School of Australian Linguistics andBatchelor College ought to be represented on it.Torres Strait Islander representation is to beprovided directly by educational advisory groupsof the Torres Strait Islanders.

Other functions of the Committee shall be:

• to convene an annual workshop of Aboriginallanguage speakers, teachers and linguistsinvolved in practical work relating to therecording and maintenance of Aboriginallanguages;

• to identify and encourage relevant linguisticand/or educational research of a practicalvalue for bi-lingual educational programs;

• to encourage and assist Aboriginal peopleconcerned with language in the attainment offormal linguistic skills;

1 5Making Multicultural Austral ia National Policy on Languages

• to advise researchers and funding agencies ofresearch priorities with regard to Aboriginallanguages, including salvage and maintenancework;

• to monitor and advise on the provision oflanguage services for Aboriginal clients;

• to represent the language interests of allAboriginal people.

The Chairperson of the Standing Committeeshould be a member of the ACALP.

13. The Commonwealth Tertiary EducationCommission ought to provide the appropriatefunding for the establishment of a key centre oflanguage teaching and research on Aboriginallanguages. The base for such a centre ought tobe the Batchelor College, Northern Territory,though it may operate a split campusarrangement with the Institute for AboriginalDevelopment in Alice Springs. The operation ofthis centre is to be negotiated with appropriatebodies. The centre is to be a national centre. Animmediate priority for its work is to acceleratethe training of Aboriginal bilingual teachers inremote areas, as well as on campus and toaddress bilingual education needs generally in itsprograms.

14. As part of the development of a languageawareness program for junior secondary schoollevel, the Curriculum Development Councilought to include Aboriginal language issues,including socio-linguistic and cultural questions,in a coherent course, using existing materials.This ought to be promoted widely andenergetically among all language teachers andState/Territory government and non-government curriculum authorities.

A Language Other ThanEnglish For All

15. The Commonwealth Schools Commissionought to establish an Australian SecondLanguage Learning Program. The ASLLP shalloperate two funding schemes.

(1) A contractual/agreement schemedirectly with education authorities(70% of the funds).

(2) A submission-based scheme (30% ofthe funds).

The following arrangements with regard to thecontractual/agreement scheme are desirable:

During early third term of 1987 (andsubsequent years) a meeting of onerepresentative from each educationauthority with appropriateCSC/Commonwealth Education/CDCofficials take place. Each authority is topropose a small number of keyinitiatives.

Desirably, these are to be presented as inter-systemic State or Territory proposals.

The contractual/agreement scheme will involvethree-year projects which the State/Territory orparticular authority would propose.

The contract/agreement would involve:

• partial matching of funds in increasingproportions over time such that carriage ofthe project would be an authorityresponsibility at the termination of the periodfor which the contract/agreement is made,usually three years;

• the dissemination of detailed information onthe progress, findings and outcomes of theinitiatives at annual meetings convened underthe auspices of the ASLLP;

• the carriage of projects on behalf of thenation such that major curriculum ormaterials development projects would bedisseminated and shared widely onproduction.

It is important that the ASLLP be devised insuch a way that only programs and initiativeswhich stress excellence are supported.


Each State/Territory should be supported forinitiatives to which an undertaking is made forcontinuity and levels of matched funding. Amaximum of three projects/programs perState/Territory seems desirable.

ASLLP funds

1987-88: $7.5m

1988-89: $7.5m

1989-90: $7.5m

The submissions-based scheme would comprise30% of the funds of the ASLLP. These would beadvertised publicly. Grants ought to be made onan annual non-renewable basis to supportinnovative or high quality projects in languageeducation in States or Territories.

16. ACALP is to convene a Languages otherthan English Standing Committee.

This Standing Committee of the ACALP is toconvene an assessment panel along withrepresentatives of the Commonwealth SchoolsCommission, to assess the proposals andrecommend projects for funding.

17. Key Centres of Teaching and Researchinto Language

During the next triennium of funding theCTEC ought to provide additional tagged fundsfor the establishment of key centres of research,teaching and information on language. Theseare to deal with the following areas:

(a) Aboriginal languages and Bilingualeducation.

(b) An Institute of Community Languages.

(c) An applied English Centre.

(d) One Centre whose responsibilities itwill be to provide intensive,continuation and refresher languagetraining for the Australian

representatives overseas.

(e) The establishment of a nationalclearing house on language teaching,research and information, assessingcurriculum data bases.

(f ) A centre offering a program ofeducation for the deaf at tertiary level,using sign language, particularly incourses for professional training ineducation.

(g) Specific tagged funding to tertiaryinstitutions which undertake to offeror extend present provisions inteaching the Asian languages in thecategory of languages of widerlearning, offering practical languageeducation and the possibility ofcombined specializations ineconomically related areas.

The ACALP is to be requested toconsider further the establishment ofthese centres and report to theCommonwealth Governmentfollowing its Winter 1987 meetingwith a more definite listing and detail.

18. The Australian Bicentennial Authority hasdecided to endow a broadly-based foundationwith multicultural aims. Such a foundationcould contribute significantly to the objectivesof this policy, particularly if it were to specifythat its aims and objectives could be achievedthrough languages. It is recommended that theACALP address the potential role of such afoundation for languages in Australia. It isdesirable that the government make a financialcontribution of approximately $1.0m to thefoundation on condition that it be entitled theBicentennial Languages Foundation and that itoperate to the advantage of Australia's linguisticresources and their interconnection withcultural diversity and pluralism. The ACALPought to address this question at its firstmeeting.


19. Teacher Development

In its next triennial report, the CommonwealthTertiary Education Commission shouldstimulate teacher training institutions to addressthe teacher education proposals outlined in"Teacher Education, Recruitment andEmployment", for teachers of languages otherthan English.

Funds are to be allocated to stimulate specificinitiatives in this area.

20. The Commonwealth Schools Commissionought to elaborate the proposals made on"ethnic schools" under the section "Choosingthe Languages", renaming them Part-TimeCommunity Language Schools and, inconsultation with the standing committee ofACALP, make financial and administrativerecommendations to the government as soon aspossible.

21. The Curriculum Development Council isrequested to address the matters referred to it,specifically the expansion of the ALL Project,the year 12 assessment project and thedevelopment of guidelines and models forlanguage awareness programs at juniorsecondary level as described under the sectionentitled "Choosing the Languages" andelsewhere in the report.

22. The Australian Education Council oughtspecifically to advocate the development ofmodels for offering wider numbers of languagesas well as the promotion of the benefit anddesirability of a language other than English forall Australian students.

23. Interpreting and Translating

Interpreting and translating ought to beregarded as an aspect of service provision inAustralia rather than a welfarist program for thedisadvantaged. To this end the continuedprofessionalization of the field is urgentlyrequired. It is important that this extend to thedevelopment of control of entry mechanismsand registration of interpreters/translators so

that professional, accredited personnel only areused.

24. As far as the conduct of business in theregion is concerned, there is a major need forthe training of high level Interpreters/Translatorsin Indonesian/Malay, Japanese and MandarinChinese in specialised, technical fields. Trainingcentres need to be concentrated so that a spreadof languages across Australia can be assured.

25. Special attention needs to be paid todeveloping training in Aboriginal languages andfor the deaf. The creation of the key centres forteaching, information and research on languagein each of these two areas offers the potential forthese needs to be addressed. NAATI and theCommonwealth Tertiary EducationCommission are requested to collaborate on theestablishment of such training at the proposedcentres.

26. It is desirable that the government provideadditional funds to NAATI to meet pre-specified plans in particular areas of need.

27. Languages, the Media and ModernTechnology

In unplanned ways the media impacts oninformal learning of languages, especiallyEnglish. It is important that the ACALP, inpursuing its work of attending to theimplementation of this policy, pay systematicattention to the possibilities which moderntechnologies offer for planned languageeducation, specifically:

(i) the opportunity for creative use oftechnology for language maintenance,extension and learning in a wide rangeof languages.

(ii) the provision of appropriateinformation to the "information poor".

28. Libraries

That libraries, guided by the National and Statelibraries, and in consultation with all relevant


user groups, develop a 5-year plan to:

• increase stocks of materials in languages otherthan English, to provide both for advancedlearners of those languages as well as thecommunity of readers of those languages inAustralia.

• to increase holdings suitable for learners ofboth English and other languages.

• to continue to diversify materials stocked,through the provision of talking books, etcetera, to maximise access to libraries for theilliterate and the print-handicapped.

This plan is to explore the potential of librariesto offer assistance to business personnel byproviding specialist literature, information andexhibitions on Asian languages, business, cultureand trade, in conjunction with Australian tradepersonnel and offices overseas.

A staged program permitting sources to beestablished and secured and consisting of $1.0min each of three years 1987-88, 1988-89 and1989-90 ought to be provided for this purpose.This program may be seen as a once-onlyinitiative to accompany the national languagespolicy.

29. Language Testing

A language testing unit is proposed. Its purposeis to concentrate expertise in the development ofAustralian tests of language for academic,occupational and other purposes. In addition todesigning tests the Unit would co-ordinatemarking, publishing and disseminatinginformation to prospective candidates and theprovision of "follow-up" advice. The Unit oughtto form part of the Commonwealth EducationPortfolio initially but operate under the auspicesof the ACALP. It would ultimately be locatedwithin the national key centre of appliedEnglish.

A fee comparable to the fee levied on candidatesof the TOEFL test (Test of English as a ForeignLanguage of Princeton University) for foreign

students wishing to study in the USA ought tobe levied.

In the medium term the Unit would seem tohave the potential to be substantially, possiblyfully, self-supporting.

Its establishment cost would be approximately$250,000 per annum. With approximately10,000 tests per annum a $50 levy per testwould recoup initial costs.

30. Advisory Council on Australia'sLanguages Policy

An Advisory Council on Australia's LanguagesPolicy is proposed as the structure for ensuringthat the diverse elements of language consideredin this policy are co-ordinated and integrated.

The Advisory Council on Australia's LanguagesPolicy ought to have four standing committeesand temporary task force committees andAssociated Centres. The temporary committeesshould be allocated special tasks whosecompletion will constitute the termination ofthe committee. On the establishment, in time,of the proposed key centres on language,teaching and research, they should be designatedAssociated Centres, charged with theimplementation of key aspects of the policy andgranted membership of ACALP when they arefully operational.

Standing Committees

• English and learning

• Aboriginal and Islander languages

• Languages other than English

• Language services and the communicationdisabled

Temporary Committees

• Adult literacy action - 1988 campaign

• Teaching English as a second language -


coordinating committee

The terms of reference for ACALP shall be:

• To convene a Spring, Summer, Autumn andWinter meeting each year

• To provide advice to government on theimplementation and further development ofthe national policy on languages

• To ensure the coherence of the work of thestanding committees and temporarycommittees

• To provide a forum for discussion of languageissues

• To keep abreast of international developmentson language issues

• To issue a newsletter subsequent to eachmeeting

• To produce an annual report for all itsoperations, including the standingcommittees, for presentation to Parliament

• To co-ordinate national activities on languageissues.

During 1987/1988 the ACALP shall specificallyaddress the following questions as well:

(1) The detailed elaboration of theproposal for key centres of languageteaching and research.

(2) The development of the plan ofimplementation of the Adult LiteracyAction 1988 campaign for which theACALP shall constitute a temporarycommittee.

It is recommended that $5m be madeavailable in 1987/88 for this campaignwhich is to be implemented on theexpert advice and guidance of adultliteracy groups.

(3) The overseeing of the programsrecommended under English for AllAboriginal and Torres Strait IslanderLanguages, and A Language other thanEnglish for All, through their specially-constituted Standing Committees.

(4) The ACALP is to encourage allState/Territory Governments and allCommonwealth Departments toaddress the application of theprinciples espoused in this policy intheir programs and practices.

(5) The convening of a committee to co-ordinate ESL activities at the nationallevel.

(6) The identification of gaps and neededimprovements in the nationallanguages policy and proposed actionsin such areas.

(7) The question of the role and directionsof the Bicentennial Foundation asdescribed under II-B.

(8) The desirability of the establishment ofa National Advisory Committee of theDeaf and the role and composition ofsuch a body.

(9) The standardisation of AustralianEnglish and the adequacy of currentactivities in this field.


national policy on languages - making multicultural … australia's language policy. specific...

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