Nationalism and Nationalism and European UnityEuropean Unity

The Origin of European UnityThe Origin of European Unity

Europe was 'united' at several times in the Europe was 'united' at several times in the past, mainly in classical timespast, mainly in classical times

Roman EmpireRoman Empire ChristendomChristendom Successors like Charlemagne, Habsburgs Successors like Charlemagne, Habsburgs

claim title of Holy Roman Emperor - just as claim title of Holy Roman Emperor - just as various rulers in the Islamic world claimed various rulers in the Islamic world claimed to be Caliph to be Caliph

'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea, 'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea, c 1300-1350c 1300-1350

Warfare and the European IdeaWarfare and the European Idea

Desire to limit warfare within states was Desire to limit warfare within states was always key to the European Ideaalways key to the European Idea

George Podebrad (Hussite king of George Podebrad (Hussite king of Bohemia) scheme for a compact against Bohemia) scheme for a compact against the Turks (1458-71). Main European the Turks (1458-71). Main European Institutions:Institutions:1.1. AssemblyAssembly2.2. Court of JusticeCourt of Justice3.3. International arbitrationInternational arbitration4.4. Army Army 5.5. Confederal budget Confederal budget

French Ideals of Europe, c. French Ideals of Europe, c. 16001600

Sully's 'Grand Design':Sully's 'Grand Design':1.1. Peace in EuropePeace in Europe2.2. Joint armyJoint army3.3. Alliance against Turks and TsarAlliance against Turks and Tsar4.4. Trade promotionTrade promotion5.5. Representational central bodyRepresentational central body 6.6. French as French as lingua francalingua franca7.7. France viewed as leader France viewed as leader 8.8. A federal plan which respected national A federal plan which respected national

distinctivenessdistinctiveness9.9. Sought revival of Imperial and Papal Sought revival of Imperial and Papal

authority as sources of legitimacyauthority as sources of legitimacy

Enlightenment EuropeanismEnlightenment Europeanism Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and othersPenn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others Were cosmopolitan liberalsWere cosmopolitan liberals Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linkedEuropeanism and cosmopolitanism linked Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace, Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,

prosperity and Enlightenment prosperity and Enlightenment St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a

sentiment already took precedence over nationalismsentiment already took precedence over nationalism St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of EuropeSt Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among

peoples rather than rulerspeoples rather than rulers

The Evolution of the European The Evolution of the European IdeaIdea

Napoleon speaks of one European Napoleon speaks of one European fatherlandfatherland

After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential and popular. Influenced influential and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's Lemonnier's Les Etats-Unis d'Europe Les Etats-Unis d'Europe (1872)(1872)

Revival of interest in St Simon after WWIRevival of interest in St Simon after WWI Most schemes were federal, though some Most schemes were federal, though some

post-WWI radicals rejected the nation post-WWI radicals rejected the nation outrightoutright

Europeanism pre-1939Europeanism pre-1939 Briand envisions 'union for economic, Briand envisions 'union for economic,

political [and] social cooperationpolitical [and] social cooperation'' Took care not to infringe state sovereigntyTook care not to infringe state sovereignty Met a cool reception from most politicians Met a cool reception from most politicians

and opposition from many newspapers, and opposition from many newspapers, especially on the French rightespecially on the French right

Paneuropean ideas taken up by non-Paneuropean ideas taken up by non-Communist resistance movements during Communist resistance movements during WWIIWWII

Kalergi influences Churchill's 'United Kalergi influences Churchill's 'United States of Europe' speech of 1946States of Europe' speech of 1946

Post-WWIIPost-WWII

Favourable climate due to warFavourable climate due to war But this time, improved communications But this time, improved communications

and a more cosmopolitan temper and a more cosmopolitan temper converted the dream into a realityconverted the dream into a reality

Christian Democratic parties in Europe Christian Democratic parties in Europe with their Catholic links, romanticise the with their Catholic links, romanticise the Papal past and favour union, as do many Papal past and favour union, as do many socialistssocialists

Humanitarian, pacifist and religious Humanitarian, pacifist and religious themes blend with economic rationality of themes blend with economic rationality of free tradersfree traders

Council of EuropeCouncil of Europe

Not ECNot EC 10 original members, 1949 10 original members, 1949 Developed European Convention on Human Developed European Convention on Human

Rights (1950)Rights (1950) Elements:Elements:

• The Secretariat The Secretariat • The Committee of Ministers The Committee of Ministers • The Parliamentary Assembly The European Court of The Parliamentary Assembly The European Court of

Human Rights Human Rights • The Commissioner for Human Rights The Commissioner for Human Rights • European Commission for Democracy through Law, European Commission for Democracy through Law,

better known as the Venice Commission.better known as the Venice Commission.

Council of Europe's Cultural Council of Europe's Cultural 'Nationalism''Nationalism'

Developed European Developed European flag with 12 golden flag with 12 golden stars (1955)stars (1955)

Established 5 May Established 5 May 1949 as Europe Day 1949 as Europe Day (1964)(1964)

Anthem based on Anthem based on Beethoven's Beethoven's Ode to Ode to JoyJoy (1972) (1972)

Has 46 members Has 46 members today: distinct from today: distinct from EU, but EU, but complementarycomplementary

European CommunityEuropean Community

Council of Europe, 1949, a forerunnerCouncil of Europe, 1949, a forerunner European Coal & Steel Community, 1952European Coal & Steel Community, 1952 European Economic Community, 1957European Economic Community, 1957 EuratomEuratom Further aspects added after 1957Further aspects added after 1957 Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25

The Evolution of the European The Evolution of the European CommunityCommunity

EU StructureEU StructureEuropean

Commission (Nations appoint

commissioners, but bureaucracy tends to be idealistic and pro-Europe)

European Parliament

(parties are based on national ones, but MEPs

tend to be more pro-Europe)

Council of Ministers (Mainly an organ for

intergovernmentalism and national interest politics,

but QMV operates)

European Court of Justice (ECJ) (Decisions tend to

infringe upon national sovereignty)

Nation-State Sovereignty/

Identity

The Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative ProcessThe Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative Process

EU structureEU structure Degree of centralisation varies by Degree of centralisation varies by

function:function:• A A Federation (i.e. 'State')Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary in monetary

affairs, agricultural, trade and affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy. Also in legal-social environmental policy. Also in legal-social aspects and citizenshipaspects and citizenship

• A A ConfederationConfederation in social and economic in social and economic policy, consumer protection, internal affairspolicy, consumer protection, internal affairs

• An An International OrganisationInternational Organisation in foreign in foreign affairsaffairs

Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)

Since Nice Treaty (2000), an increasing Since Nice Treaty (2000), an increasing number of decisions taken by QMV rather number of decisions taken by QMV rather than unanimitythan unanimity

QMV threshold set to fall from 71% to 62%QMV threshold set to fall from 71% to 62% Means that nations no longer have a veto Means that nations no longer have a veto

on integration. A step favouring on integration. A step favouring integration rather than nationalism integration rather than nationalism (intergovernmentalism)(intergovernmentalism)

Council of MinistersCouncil of Ministers

Shift from Unanimity to QMVShift from Unanimity to QMV

27 new provisions are passing in whole or in 27 new provisions are passing in whole or in part from unanimity to a qualified majority, part from unanimity to a qualified majority, including:including:• judicial cooperation in civil mattersjudicial cooperation in civil matters• industrial policyindustrial policy• measures to facilitate the free movement of citizensmeasures to facilitate the free movement of citizens• economic, financial and technical cooperation with economic, financial and technical cooperation with

third countriesthird countries• the appointment of members of certain institutionsthe appointment of members of certain institutions

the move to qualified majority voting was not the move to qualified majority voting was not accepted for social and tax policy.accepted for social and tax policy.

EU Citizenship vs NationalEU Citizenship vs National

Freedom to move and take up Freedom to move and take up residence anywhere in the Union; residence anywhere in the Union;

The right to vote and stand in local The right to vote and stand in local government and European government and European Parliament elections in the country of Parliament elections in the country of residenceresidence

Clearly gives foreigners important Clearly gives foreigners important rights within nation-statesrights within nation-states

Balance between Nation and Balance between Nation and EUEU

Always a balance between nation-state Always a balance between nation-state interests and pan-European interest interests and pan-European interest

Battle goes on between and within Battle goes on between and within institutionsinstitutions

Balance between Euro-idealism and Balance between Euro-idealism and proponents of national interest proponents of national interest ('intergovernmentalism')('intergovernmentalism')

Sometimes interests of small nations Sometimes interests of small nations dovetail with that of integrationists (they dovetail with that of integrationists (they have more clout to gain from being part of have more clout to gain from being part of Europe )Europe )

European Court of JusticeEuropean Court of Justice A more direct proponent of integration than even A more direct proponent of integration than even

the Commissionthe Commission One judge per state, but decisions based on One judge per state, but decisions based on

simple majoritysimple majority Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-general Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-general

may often be Euro-idealists or activist in their may often be Euro-idealists or activist in their philosophyphilosophy

Van Gend en LoosVan Gend en Loos case (1963) gives individuals case (1963) gives individuals rights under EU law against their nation-statesrights under EU law against their nation-states

Costa v. ENELCosta v. ENEL case (1964): where national and case (1964): where national and EU law conflict, latter is supremeEU law conflict, latter is supreme

ECJ Positive and Negative ECJ Positive and Negative IntegrationIntegration

Promotes 'negative integration': Promotes 'negative integration': barriers to intra-EU activity declared barriers to intra-EU activity declared invalidinvalid

Promotes 'positive integration': EC Promotes 'positive integration': EC legal regimes constructed to replace legal regimes constructed to replace national onesnational ones

Negative Integration: 1974 case Negative Integration: 1974 case declared rules which hinder intra-EC declared rules which hinder intra-EC trade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijontrade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijon

ECJ Positive IntegrationECJ Positive Integration

Examples:Examples:• Gender Equality: Art. 119 of EEC Treaty: Gender Equality: Art. 119 of EEC Treaty:

'equal pay for equal work''equal pay for equal work'• EU as 'Social Community', despite EU as 'Social Community', despite

opposition from UKopposition from UK• Opens up a flood of litigation from Opens up a flood of litigation from

womenwomen

EU ExpansionEU Expansion

Impact of ExpansionImpact of Expansion

Expansion to 25 will dilute integrationExpansion to 25 will dilute integration Harder for a common foreign policy and Harder for a common foreign policy and

common actioncommon action More poor countries will put strain on EU More poor countries will put strain on EU

budget - unlikely that wealthy countries budget - unlikely that wealthy countries will contribute more (EU budget around will contribute more (EU budget around 1.5% of EU GDP)1.5% of EU GDP)

Turkey and E Europe: Unclear where limits Turkey and E Europe: Unclear where limits lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie. No lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie. No longer between Tsar and Sultan)longer between Tsar and Sultan)

Possible 'Two-Speed' EuropePossible 'Two-Speed' Europe

Problems with European Problems with European Cultural or Civilizational IdentityCultural or Civilizational Identity

Exclusive or Partial Items:Exclusive or Partial Items:

• Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, non-Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, non-Christian)Christian)

• Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?)Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?)• Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam, Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam,

Catholicism?)Catholicism?)• Caucasian ‘race’ (US, non-white Europeans?)Caucasian ‘race’ (US, non-white Europeans?)• Geography (but what about EU expansion)Geography (but what about EU expansion)• ‘‘Others’ (but if Turks and Russians come in, Others’ (but if Turks and Russians come in,

where are the traditional enemies?)where are the traditional enemies?)

Pro-European NationsPro-European Nations Certain states embrace integrationist Certain states embrace integrationist

sentiments more than otherssentiments more than others France, Germany and other original members France, Germany and other original members

(especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe (especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe among western European countriesamong western European countries

Much has to do with national identities of Much has to do with national identities of these states as opposed to mere national these states as opposed to mere national interestinterest

Europe also a route to prominence on the Europe also a route to prominence on the world stage for certain nationsworld stage for certain nations

Less well-off nations tend to be pro-Europe for Less well-off nations tend to be pro-Europe for economic reasons (S & E Europe + Ireland)economic reasons (S & E Europe + Ireland)

France: Gaullist pro-France: Gaullist pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism

Seeks to reclaim French cultural Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of 18predominance of 18thth-19-19thth c c

Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of 19of 19thth-20-20thth c c

Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’ De Gaulle positions France at the heart of De Gaulle positions France at the heart of

a Europe that includes Russia and is a Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese EastEast

1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De Gaulle seeks to block UK entryDe Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

German pro-European IdealismGerman pro-European Idealism

Nazi period discredits nationalismNazi period discredits nationalism Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spiritCosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit Desire for influence and self-respect Desire for influence and self-respect

without nationalismwithout nationalism Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII

(witness different attitudes toward English (witness different attitudes toward English as language)as language)

More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-EuropeanismEuropeanism

Smaller Nations: BeneluxSmaller Nations: Benelux

History of neutrality and fear of larger History of neutrality and fear of larger nationsnations

History of pooling sovereignty in alliancesHistory of pooling sovereignty in alliances Only chance of agency is through a larger Only chance of agency is through a larger

unitunit Identity is less significant in absence of Identity is less significant in absence of

larger blockslarger blocks Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear

linguistic or religious markers of linguistic or religious markers of nationhood unlike say Germany or Francenationhood unlike say Germany or France

Do you feel national, Do you feel national, European or Both (2004)?European or Both (2004)?

Views of Unification (1995)Views of Unification (1995)

Euroskepticism – On the Rise?Euroskepticism – On the Rise? Smith: elites identify more easily because Smith: elites identify more easily because

Europeanism may be a proxy of Europeanism may be a proxy of class/educationclass/education

Smith: without European education and Smith: without European education and media, little resonance among masses – media, little resonance among masses – esp less mobileesp less mobile

Evidence shows that Euro-skepticism and Evidence shows that Euro-skepticism and anti-immigration sentiment strongly linked anti-immigration sentiment strongly linked and tied to less well-educated population and tied to less well-educated population segmentssegments

Rise in support for European integration Rise in support for European integration peaks, 1988peaks, 1988

ConclusionConclusion

Idea of Europe is at least 1000 years oldIdea of Europe is at least 1000 years old Many aspects of the European Union Many aspects of the European Union

challenge national sovereigntychallenge national sovereignty But the EU also reinforces national identityBut the EU also reinforces national identity Particular nations tend to favour European Particular nations tend to favour European

unity due to their own historical unity due to their own historical experience and economic interestsexperience and economic interests

Trend towards integration appears to have Trend towards integration appears to have stalled due to expansion and the rise of stalled due to expansion and the rise of Euro-skepticism in western EuropeEuro-skepticism in western Europe