Sociology Paper 1 (November 2005)

Section A: Research Methods 1. Sources of information that the sociologist has not collected for him/herself are known as secondary sources. The UK Census– a national survey of the population conducted every ten years by the government – is an example of a secondary source. This, along with regular studies such as the National Household Survey, keep the government (and sociologists) up to date with changing social trends in Britain and allow social policy to be planned. However, sociologists take care not to use government statistics uncritically.

Other secondary sources include, for example, newspaper reports, letters, diaries and autobiographies produced by individuals. The secondary sources used by sociologists may be contemporary or historical, and the data available from them may be primarily quantitative or qualitative. When sociologists refer to existing sociological studies by other writers in their own research, these become secondary sources.

Sociologists find secondary sources very useful but they have to be treated with great caution. Their reliability and validity are open to question, and often they do not provide the exact information required by a sociologist for their research.

(a) What is meant by the following terms

i. Social trends [2]

A notable pattern of change displayed by a social indicator or indexA persistent change in social relations and social structure over time.

ii. Quantitative data [2]

Information that is expressed in numerical or statistical form. Information that can be counted in some way.

iii. Validity? [2]

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Information or research is valid if it is true to life. It measures what happens accurately and reflects reality in some way.

(b) Suggest two advantages for a sociologist of using data from a government census. [4]

Advantages include:

cheap source of data – researchers may have limited resources so if the preliminary research has been done for you with larger samples it will cost less money

national coverage so representative and statistically significant – have access to much larger samples so can make useful comparisons over time – ‘before and after studies’

reliable data so probably high in validity – government surveys are usually well planned and organised and meet the high standards sociologists require

readily accessible – it is very easy to gain access to the information – government offices/libraries/internet

(c) Give three reasons why sociologists are careful not to use government statistics uncritically. [6]

Reasons include:

government statistics are collected for non- sociological purposes – they have been collected by civil servants not sociologists and they may not be in the form that is required

they may contain bias – the results may have been manipulated for political reasons eg crime statistics may be distorted so that the outcome suits the purposes of say the government

they are socially constructed -as in the case of suicide/poverty/crime statistics -

they may be out of date – trends change very quickly and what is reliable in one year may not be in the next

The research may be unreliable – statistics often give a misleading impression eg the sharp rise in divorce after 1970 when a new law made it easier does not mean there were more people unhappy with their marriage than before

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(d) Suggest three reasons why newspaper reports may contain bias.

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Reasons for bias include:

poor journalism – may be badly written and contain information that is not true or accurate

need to sell papers leading to sensationalism and distortion – tabloid newspapers especially depend on lurid photos and emotive articles

editorial direction and/or values of the owners – they may only look at things from one political viewpoint

government censorship - articles may have to be altered to fit in with government guidelines or laws

lack of access to relevant sources of information – journalists may not have access to the internet or libraries to help them with their research

(e) Suggest two advantages and two limitations of using historical documents as a secondary source in sociological research. [8]

Advantages include:

access to events in the past – May support or give other evidence on past events. For example, statistics on disease in the early part of the century may be supported by personal documents from physicians (doctor’s) of the time.

cheap and can be easily accessible – May be found quite easily in personal collections, published form, government archives, libraries or museums or the internet

useful for drawing historical comparisons - can look at data such as diaries, letters, personal accounts which all focus on the same event and compare them

helpful in identifying social changes – sources of information about a particular society, event, etc. can give insight into what was happening and how society has changed

they can give a picture of how people felt and lived at a particular time - Can give insight to a particular situation or period in time and what was going on.

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limitations include:

content may reflect the bias of the writer – Personal accounts only say what the person wanted others to know – they do not tell us what is missed out.

the authenticity may be difficult to establish - if the person is no longer alive, then there is no way of checking his/her account. For example, the case of the ‘Hitler diaries’ that proved to be a hoax.

not always available or appropriate for a particular study - some documents are in private collections so it may be difficult to get permission to use them in research. This may also be the case with government documents that may be subject to laws regarding confidentiality and time lapses before disclosure.

quantitative sources may be based on unreliable methods – there is no way of checking how the data was collected so it is difficult to know how accurate the data is

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Section B: Culture and Socialisation 2. People who are not socialised into the norms and values of society are almost unrecognisable as humans in their behaviour.

(a) What is meant by the term norms? [2]

Norms are socially expected patterns of behaviour.

(b) Describe two examples of how people learn the norms and values of society [4]

Norms are the unspoken an unwritten rules of behaviour in everyday life. We learn them through socialisation.

Examples might include:

Primary Socialisation - children learn from their parents what they should or shouldn’t do in a particular situation – for example how to behave at the table or in other social situations

Secondary Socialisation - we continue learning throughout life- for example at school or work there are expectations and people learn the basic attitudes and skills necessary to mix socially with others

(c) Explain why the values that people hold may vary from one group to another. [6]

Values describe a shared moral system where most people believe in certain ideas

sub-cultures:

Even if there is an overall shared culture, within it there are clearly distinguishable sets of values and behaviour that form a subculture

Within these subcultures clear variations exist in the values 5

that people hold and the pattern of behaviour that they engage in

Within any cultures there are subcultures they are linked to ethnic social class and age divisions in society

People in these subcultures may be socialised differently and learn different values according to social class; ethnic group; age group;

Reasons they might vary:

the influence of social class – the values of the working class are different from those of the middle class although the extent of those differences is a matter of debate. Research has suggested that working class children are brought up in a more rigid way by their parents and there is less stress on academic success. Working class children do not receive as much help with reading and writing as middle class children. All this has consequences for their future success at school and their future employment

the influence of ethnicity – People from different ethnic groups may bring up their children to have specific values that may differ from the ‘mainstream values’ of British society. For example the children of Indian immigrants to Britain will most likely follow the Hindu or Muslim religions. They may have different views about the role of family and the correct behaviour for females especially in terms of marriage which may be arranged.

the influence of age – a typical example would be a youth subculture, these subcultures emerge for each generation. In each generation there is a variety of styles of dress; types of music; special language and attitudes that distinguish youth from older people and from children. These values make youth distinct or different from the rest of society but rarely do they represent a complete rejection of the overall culture

(d) To what extent is socialisation more important than instinct in shaping human behaviour? [8]

Biologists have argued that genetic influence can explain social behaviour.  For example, some have argued that aggression or male and female behaviour are inherited.

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If we use the term instinct we mean that behaviour is passed on through the genes from parents to children.

When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the social behaviour we learn through the socialisation process. 

This means the things we do are a result of what we have learned. 

This means that our experiences and our environment play a large part in shaping our behaviour. 

Our social behaviour comes from the expectations and guidelines found within each society or culture. 

Recent research into genetics has made a strong case for the nature argument.

However, there are huge variations in social behaviour between different cultures that cannot be explained by genetic inheritance

Each society/culture does things in different ways. This is because we are socialised into accepting and

demonstrating the behaviour that is seen as important and normal in our society.

To support your arguments that socialisation is more important than instinct talk about ‘unsocialised children’ who have been found.

Well-documented cases suggest that children who do not grow up with other humans cannot make up for this later.

One way to test the influence of nature or nurture would be to study the ways in which people develop without human/social contact.

There are some case studies of wild children, these are children who, for one reason or another, have been deprived of normal human contact

Talk briefly about one of them for example:

The wild boy of Aveyron  

In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the South of France.  He did not appear to have any parents

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and was taken to an orphanage.  He was then put into the care of a doctor who wanted to study his progress.

When he was first found he could not speak.  He did make strange noises and would howl in the dark.  He hated wearing clothes, was not toilet trained and he appeared not to feel cold or heat.  He was observed to go out and play in the snow with no clothes and apparently he did not suffer from this – in fact, he seemed to enjoy it.

He lived until he was about forty years old.  During this time he did learn some words.  He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and dress himself.  However, he never developed fully.

‘Nature’ When sociologists talk about nature they are referring to what a person inherits through their genes.  This is the genetic inheritance of a person.  Each individual inherits 50% of their genes from their mother and 50% from their father.  Genes determine such things as what sex you will be and the colour of your eyes. 

However, biologists have argued that genetic influence can also explain social behaviour and characteristics.  For example, some have argued that aggression, personality and intelligence are all inherited.  If we use the term, instinct, this means that behaviour is programmed in the genes. 

‘Nurture’ When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the behaviours we learn through the socialisation process.  The things we do are a result of what we have learned.  This means that our experiences and our environment play a large part in shaping our behaviour.  Our social behaviours come from the expectations and guidelines found within each society and culture.

Importance of the socialisation process 

Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep social order. 

Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to find a way to live together without constant fighting.  Also, large societies cannot rely on the forces of law and order to keep the peace and make sure people obey the rules.

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The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society and to see what happens if these rules are broken. 

All sociologists see socialisation as very important.  They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or whether it gives some groups more advantages than others

3. In most societies, there are certain types of behaviour that are regarded as appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for the other.

(a) What is meant by the term gender? [2]

Gender refers to the social expectations (or roles) associated with males and females respectively.

(b) Describe two examples of appropriate gender behaviour in your society [4]

Likely answers may focus on:

Girls are encouraged to be more nurturing and play a more passive role. Mothers may encourage their daughters to pay more attention to their appearance and take an interest in household activities like cooking

Boys are encouraged to be more active and aggressive Fathers may encourage their sons to take a more active interest in sports and outdoor pursuits like camping and fishing

(c) Explain how gender roles are learned. [6]

Parents treat boys and girls in different ways

Anne Oakley suggests that in the early years of life there are four ways in which gender socialisation takes place

Manipulation

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Parents encourage behaviour which they deem as suitable for their child’s sex and discourage behaviour which is associated with the other sex so girls may be encouraged to pay more attention to their appearance than boys

CanalisationChildren are often ‘channeled’ by their parents to do activities or to play with toys which they think are appropriate for their sexGirls may be encouraged to play with dolls or household items like irons or play kitchens – these encourage an interest in doing housework and being a mother Boys may be given cars/trains/sports equipment and are often encouraged in active outdoor play

Verbal AppellationsThe way that parents talk to their children eg ‘good girl’ ‘naughty boy’ - they then learn from a young age how important gender is

Different ActivitiesGirls and boys are often socialised differently – they are encouraged to play different kinds of games and with different types of toysGirls are expected to play indoors and help their mothersBoys have more freedom to play outdoors and be more active

(d) What pressures encourage people to conform to their gender roles? [8]

People receive messages from agencies of socialisation that often encourage them to conform to their gender roles.

These groups often reinforce gender stereotypes and put pressure on people to conform.

Peer Group Friends of the same age play a big part in establishing gender

roles Children learn from when they are young from their peers

what is appropriate behaviour for their sex The learn that there are consequence if they play to much

with the other sex or behave too much like them This can take the form of ‘name calling’ or bullying It is worse for boys Girls are allowed to be ‘tomboys’ but boys who like more

feminine activities are scorned

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Education Although boys and girls study the same things they learn to

behave differently in the classroom and the playground Teachers may treat them differently and so reinforce gender

roles The way some subjects are taught and the books that are

used may reinforce this Children may learn that some subjects are more appropriate

for boys and some for girls At higher education fewer girls than boys choose to study

science

Media images TV/magazine/books/music all carry representations of gender

according to sociologists Boys will often be portrayed in stories as adventurous heroes

who carry out brave and heroic deeds Girls are portrayed as less active and often helpless heroines

who need the help of boys to save them

Parental reaction Parents have many ways of influencing their children’s

behaviour Children are often ‘rewarded’ for conforming to the

stereotypes that parents have of them Parents act as role models – their example in terms of gender

roles has a very strong impact on the child who tries to emulate them

Section C: Social Stratification 4. Max Weber suggested that there are three factors that divide people in modern societies: power, status and economic factors.

(a) What is meant by the term status? [2]

Status refers to the amount of prestige we give to a person based on such characteristics as occupation, accent, education, etc.

(b) Describe two ways that economic factors may divide people in modern societies. [4]

Divisions based on: 11

Wealth - inheriting a house or land from parents/family – the ownership of personal savings - the ownership of art, jewellery and other valuable items – having these forms of wealth is an important indicator of social class position. The very wealthy do not need to work

Income – it is important because it has consequences for people’s life chances – those with higher incomes will be able to pay for private health care and education

Housing - Type of house – detached/terrace/semi; bought or rented. Also often certain neighbourhoods or even parts of the country where people buy/rent their houses are associated with certain social classes. Those with a low income may find themselves without a choice and suffer from housing which is damp or overcrowded

Position in the division of labour/occupation – the type of job that you have gives you status. For example a doctor will have a higher status than a nurse.

Control of household finance – Many feminists see society as being patriarchal, that is, dominated by men. Many feminists argue that men have the most power in families and tend to have better jobs in terms of pay and status.

Comsumption patterns - where people shop, the goods they buy, how much they spend etc. We tend to associate certain shops with certain social classes for example ‘Harrods’ is associated with a certain class of people. In modern society buying things is important to us. Many people feel it is important to have a certain lifestyle. Money can buy most things, eg. mobile phone and Play Stations.(c) Explain how the working class differs from the middle class

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Some important points to note about class

Social classes are groups of people who share a similar economic position through occupation, income an ownership of wealth, as well as having similar levels of education, status, lifestyle (i.e. living standards) and power

Class systems are not based on religion or law or race, but on economic factors such as jobs and money

Class societies are open societies in that people can experience downward or upward social mobility i.e. they can move up or down the class structure through jobs, the acquisition of wealth or marriage

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Class systems are meritocratic i.e. people are not born into ascribed roles but are encouraged to better themselves through achievement at school, and at work through working hard and gaining promotion

The working class differs from the middle class in a number of ways

Values – the members of each class share similar values:

Working class values

loyalty to workmates a belief in pursuing goals as a group rather than individually an emphasis on immediate gratification (i.e. enjoy yourself

now) a fatalistic attitude to life believing that life chances depend

on luck a belief in traditional conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and

wives)

Middle class values

individualism a belief in deferred gratification (i.e. planning for the future) an image of society as a place where there are opportunities

for individuals who work hard a belief in joint conjugal roles (i.e. roles of husbands and

wives)

Health – living longer and staying healthy seems to be associated with different social groups

Working class

Working class people experience poorer mortality than the middle class

working class people are more likely to die before retirement of cancer stroke and heart disease than middle class people

working class people are three times more likely to have a serious illness

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Middle class

A professional can expect to live on average seven years longer than an unskilled working man

Visit the doctor more often and tend to have more regular checkups

Have a better diet and take more exercise so have less serious illness than working class people

Education - success seems to be associated with different social groups

Working class

less likely to attend nursery school more likely to start school unable to read more likely to get fewer GCSE’s or to get low grades less likely to get into Year 12 and go to university Less likely get a well paid job because of insufficient

qualifications

Middle class

more affluent people are more successful than poorer people higher levels of education which in turn leads to better careers parents have enough money for their children to stay at school

or go on to universityparents have greater expectations that their children will do

wellWork – economic success seems to be associated with different social groups

Working class

The working class tend to receive lower wages They enjoy less job security They receive fewer fringe benefits than the middle class Have less chances for promotion

Middle class

Are often in professional jobs and so get paid more than the working class

Have good job security

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Get more benefits and perks from their job Have more contacts which may help with promotion or finding

employment

(d) To what extent are class divisions disappearing in modern societies? [8]

Media, politicians and even some sociologists suggest that class is dead or dying.

Class is based on occupation and money people earn from their occupations.

It is said that class today is less important than what occupation you have and how much money you spend

Class is not about workers producing things in factories like before but about buying things

The importance of consumption and the recognition of other aspects of stratification have changed the way we think about class

But there is strong evidence that it remains very important.

The power of the elite within society is based upon;

Income Wealth A network of social connections – sometimes known as the ‘old

boys network’

The least powerful within society still have few opportunities to escape from poverty

Life chances are determined by factors such as: Social class Gender Schooling Ethnicity, etc

differences in life chances still exist and other aspects of inequality such as gender and ethnicity have become as important or more important than class.

For example

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ethnic minorities often face a glass ceiling at work due to discrimination upon racial grounds; which can be either overt (or obvious), or covert (in other words, hidden).

Women also face the same problem. There is also a group of people who don’t do well and have not

benefited from the new affluence in society, they are the underclass

the Underclass Members of the underclass form norms and values that often

differ to the rest of society. They are caught in a poverty trap (or cycle) from which they

find very difficult to escape from. This is despite changes to the welfare and benefits system

designed to get welfare claimants into work.

EmbourgeoisementThis is a term that means ‘becoming bourgeois’ or ‘becoming middle class’.

The term has been used as the basis of a theory that suggests that the manual working class are becoming more like the middle class.

The argument is that all industrial societies have seen an increase in equality and affluence since the end of the Second World War.

For example:

increased salaries greater job security higher disposable income

These changes have eroded (worn away/changed) the distinctive values and lifestyle of the working class.

As the incomes of the working class have increased, so have their capacity to buy consumer goods such as mobile phones, PCs, iPods, cars and their own homes.

Those who put forward the theory of embourgeoisement argue that working class people are also adopting middle-class values and lifestyles to match their incomes.

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So

Even though there are more chances for embourgeoisement we can’t say that class divisions are disappearing in modern societies

the claim that Britain is becoming a meritocrary is questionable. The odds still seem to be stacked in favour of those at the top, there is still not equality of opportunity

Definitions of words that would be usefulmeritocracy = when those with talent and ability, and who put in effort, get the highest positions in society regardless of background or classEmbourgeoisement = assumption of middle-class values: when the affluent working class becomes part of the middle

5. The main difference between caste and class societies is that in a class-based society there is social mobility.

(a) What is meant by the term social mobility? [2]

Social mobility means the movement of people up and down the social scale.

(b) Describe two ways in which a person can achieve a higher social position [4]

Examples:

Job promotion – they can work hard and get a better position in the company that they work in. for example they could start out on the factory floor but end up in a management position if they work hard and have talent.

Entrepreneurial success – they could start their own company and through a combination of luck and hard work could become successful and make a lot of money. They could then achieve a higher social position

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(c) Explain the main features of the caste system. [6]

Features: absence of social mobility – the status of an individual is

determined by his birth (ascribed) and not by selection or by accomplishments (achieved). This is a closed society with little or no chance of upward mobility

rules against marriage outside of one’s caste – the caste system imposes restrictions on marriage - inter-caste marriages are still looked down upon in traditional Indian society.

status hierarchy – certain occupations are very much associated with the caste system. Each caste has its own specific occupations which are almost hereditary. Some occupations are considered superior and sacred while certain others degrading and inferior. There is not much scope for individual talent, aptitude, enterprise or abilities

underpinned by religious beliefs – religion can be seen as a way of keeping control of people.  This is because religion lays down what is right and wrong and what will happen if the rules are broken. People may be afraid to break the rules because they will be rejected by other believers or they may also be afraid they will be punished in the afterlife

the various castes are rigidly separated - Each caste has its own customs, traditions practices and rituals. It has its own informal rules, regulations and procedures.

formally legalised – the caste rules are enforced strictly through fear of religious and political authority - there are caste councils to regulate the conduct of members

(d) Assess how much social mobility there is in modern societies [8]

Social mobility is defined as the ability to be able to move up the hierarchy (embourgeoisement) or down the hierarchy (proletarianisation) from one social group to another.

embourgeoisement, meaning the adoption of the norms and values of the bourgeoisie

proletarianisation, meaning as more work becomes deskilled the workers become proletarian

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Sociologists generally refer to two forms of social mobility: vertical and horizontal.

Vertical mobility describes movement between strata both up and down the stratification system. It can usually be seen as an example of long-range mobility, displaying a change in class status and can be examined through:

- intra-generational, which is mobility that describes movement of an individual over his or her lifetime, for example, as a result of changing career or promotion

- inter-generational, which is mobility that refers to movement between generations. As mentioned earlier, people who grew up in working class areas with working class parents have themselves become middle class through obtaining middle class lifestyles.

Horizontal mobility is a geographical term used to describe movement around the country to new forms of similar employment. This can be seen as short-range mobility, because there is little change in the individual’s class status.

How much social mobility is there?

There are a number of practical problems when conducting research into whether social mobility (and social closure) either exist or are possible within the class structure of the UK.

Samples of the population need to be quite large in order to represent the whole of the UK.

It might be that social mobility and social closure have been easier for certain generations depending on the availability of certain types of work or the conditions of the economy.

Women have not been represented in much of the work done on social mobility and social closure, despite their presence in the workforce in small numbers in the past to their present very strong position in the labour market now.

Look at these studies and give an example from one of them

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Sociologists have carried out the following influential studies concerned with questions of social mobility.

The Social Mobility in Britain Study by Glass (1954)

Glass studied inter-generational mobility in the UK of men only. He drew a number of conclusions, including:

While individuals did move up and down the hierarchy, it was generally short-range and within certain types of work only, so that few people broke through from manual work to professional work.

Generally the pattern was of sons taking similar jobs with a similar status to their father.

While it was possible to rise in the system, membership of the middle classes seemed to offer children some protection from dropping back down into lower-status work.

He suggested this was an example of self-recruitment.

As this study only included men and excluded women it is considered to be dated.

The ‘Oxford Mobility Studies’ by Goldthorpe et al. (1972, 1980 and 1986)

Goldthorpe et al. studied only men aged between 20 and 64 years; women were not included. They found that two-thirds of the sons of unskilled or semi-skilled workers were in manual occupations. Four percent of blue-collar workers came from professional backgrounds. Approximately thirty percent of professionals were from working class backgrounds. Downward mobility appeared to be declining, but more men from working class backgrounds were unemployed.

Among the conclusions of these studies were the following:

Long-range social mobility rates had increased in the UK since after World War Two, suggesting that class categories and society had become more open.

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However, it was suggested that this increase could have been due to changes in the occupational structure of the UK; de-industrialisation had led to fewer traditional working class jobs.

Marshall, Rose, Newby and Vogler, Social Class in Modern Britain (referred to as the Essex Study) (1988)

This study looked at both male and female rates of mobility. The findings were based on the class of the respondent (male or female) and the class of the ‘chief childhood supporter’ (male or female). The study found high rates of upward mobility overall, including:

For men, the rates were similar to those found in the Oxford studies.

For women there was evidence of upward and downward mobility into class 3, that is, routine, non-manual work.

The conclusions of this study were that the expansion of white-collar jobs, after de-industrialisation, explained the high rates of upward mobility.

Large numbers of women were working in routine, non-manual occupations, such as clerical, admin and retail.

A.H. Halsey, Change in British Society (1995)

Halsey found that the evidence supported the claim that there was more upward social mobility in British society over the past century with less downward social mobility, although some did exist.

These changes in the class system Halsey likened to a shift from a pyramid to a lemon shape.

The pyramid contained a small number of upper class at the top, a larger number of middle class in the middle and a disproportionate number of working class at the bottom.

The lemon shape contained small numbers of upper and working class at either end with a large middle class in-between.

Social Closure (the ‘old boys network’)

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Another area of discussion when talking about class stratification is social closure.

Social closure is a term which is used to explain how people who share similar life chances as a result of factors such as status and party close ranks to mark themselves out from other groups.

This leads to questions of inclusion and exclusion. For example, entry to certain clubs, schools and occupations

offer mutual support through this social network. This is often referred to as networking or elite self-

recruitment. This can lead to a situation where access to life chances is

better for some than the rest of society and consequently worse for those not included.

Elite self-recruitment

This form of social closure is a process by which, it is claimed, members of wealthy and powerful groups are drawn from children of those who already belong to it and is known as elite self-recruitment.

The suggestion is that social mobility is closed to newcomers from lower social classes as a result of opportunities being restricted to those from within the elite groups themselves.

The following studies indicate a degree of social closure or elite self-recruitment in the UK. Willmott and Young conducted a study in 1970 in the London area and found that 83 percent of managing directors were the sons of professionals and managers. The sample was 174.

A survey by Stanworth and Giddens (1971) found that out of 460 company chairmen studied, only 1 percent had a manual working class background. However, 66 percent came from the upper class, such as industrialists and landowners.

In 1991, Borthwick et al. studied the educational background of Conservative MPs in the general elections of 1979, 1983 and 1987. They found that in 1987 over half of these MPs had been to public (the top private) schools and just under half had graduated from

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either Oxford or Cambridge University. In the general election of 1997, the backgrounds of Labour MPs were more varied.

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