nceis research paper vol1no3 hassim

7/29/2019 NCEIS Research Paper Vol1No3 Hassim

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NCEISResearchPaperNo.3

HassimonQuranicVersesinBakathirsLiterature

NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudiesNCEIS

Research

Papers

Volume1,No.3

TheSignificanceofQuranicVersesintheLiteratureofAliAhmadBakathirCasestudiesofalSilsilawaalGhufranandalDukturHazimEeqbalHassimNCEISTheUniversityofMelbourne

2009NCEISAustralia


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2

2009NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudies,Australia

Disclaimer:

Thecontentsofthearticlespublishedareoftheauthorssoleresponsibility.They

donotnecessarily represent the views of theNationalCentreof Excellence for

IslamicStudiesoritsstaff.Comments,questions,andpermissiontociteshouldbe

directedtotheauthor.

ISSN:1836 5442

AboutNCEISResearchPapersThis is apeerreviewedonlinepublication.NCEISResearchPapers are aimed at

promotingoriginalandscholarlyresearchonIslam.Therangeoftopicscoveredis

diverse and represents the breadth of research excellence in the field. NCEIS

ResearchPapers isamultidisciplinarypublication.Submissions for consideration

maybe

sent

to

nceis

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SeriesEditor:A/ProfShahramAkbarzadeh

NationalCentreofExcellenceforIslamicStudies

SidneyMyerAsiaCentre

UniversityofMelbourne,VIC

Australia3010


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3

Eeqbal Hassim is aLecturer at the NCEIS, and aResearchFellowattheAsianLawCentre,Melbourne

LawSchool.Eeqbalhastaught IslamicStudiesat the

University of Melbourne for over 3 years, and has

been instrumental in course developmentat

theNCEIS

since

its

inception.

He

lectures

on

the

QuranandHadith,theirassociatedtexts,Islamiclaw

and Islamic education, at both undergraduate and

postgraduatelevels.

Eeqbal's current research interests include:the

history, theory and practice of Islamic education;

IslamiclawinSoutheastAsia;Islamiclegaltheory;the

historyofIslam inSoutheastAsia;andinterpretation

oftheQur'anandHadith.Eeqbal isanativespeaker

of

Malay

and

English,

is

fluent

in

Indonesian

and

Arabic,andreadsFrenchaswell.

Email: [email protected]


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NCEISResearchPaperVol.1,No.3


1

TheSignificanceofQuranicVersesintheLiteratureofAliAhmadBakathirCasestudiesofalSilsilawaalGhufranandal

DukturHazim

EeqbalHassim

NCEIS

TheUniversity

of

Melbourne

AliAhmadBakathirwasaprolificArabplaywright,novelistandpoetofthe20thCenturywho

contributed immenselyto thedevelopmentofArabicand Islamic literature.Butdespitehis

contributions, Bakathir has received considerably less scholarly attention than more

celebrated figures suchasTahaHusayn,TawfiqalHakimandNaguibMahfouz,both in the

ArabIslamicworldandintheWest.BakathirwasacommittedMuslimwhostrovetoportray

and champion Islamic ideals throughhisworks.Hedesired to illustrate the importanceof

followingIslamasacompletewayoflifeasameansofreformingtheselfandthesociety.He

wrotehis

works

during

along

period

of

ideological

conflict

in

the

Arab

world,

when

Islamic,

Communist,Marxist, LiberalistandSecular ideologieswereat loggerheads. In lightof this,

Bakathir endeavoured to show the ArabMuslims of his time first and foremost that

followingtheQuranfaithfullywastheonlymeanstoachievingamoralsociety.

ThispaperattemptstoexplorethesignificanceandimpactofQuranicversesontheliterary

works of Bakathir, especially theplot and the protagonists. It does so by studying two of

Bakathirs prosal plays, alSilsila wa alGhufran (The Chain of Sin and Forgiveness), an

allegoricalplay,andalDukturHazim(Dr.Hazim),which isoneoftenofBakathirsplaysthat

dealtwithcontemporarysocial issues.Basedonthefindingsofthesetwocasestudies,this

paperalsodiscussestheroleofQuranicversesinBakathirsothernovelsandplays.

Inthis

paper,

Iargue

that

Quranic

verses

play

amajor

role

in

the

novels

and

plays

of

Bakathir.

The verses, handpicked carefully by Bakathir himself, often form the basis for the whole

storyline,includingtheplot,thecharactersandBakathirsintendedmessagetohisaudience

and the wider society. Bakathir always tries to convey an Islamic message via his highly

Islamicisedworks, and theseworks arebut a reflectionofhis strong religious ideals and

Quranicmindsetthroughwhichheevaluatessociety.Theydepictazealouscommitmentto

workforIslamandtheArabs,aswellastheidealthatremainingfaithfultoIslamistheonly

meanstoattainingsuccessinthisworldandtheHereafter.


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2

IntroductionAliAhmadBakathir (191069)wasaprolificArabplaywright,novelistandpoetwho

contributedsignificantly

to

the

field

and

development

of

Arabic

and

Islamic

literature

inthe20th

century.However,incontrasttothelikesofTahaHusayn,TawfiqalHakim

andNaguibMahfouz,whohaveattractedconsiderableattention inWesternstudies

onArabicand Islamic literature,Bakathirsnametendstopassrelativelyunnoticed;

this is ironic in itself,consideringthatBakathir isregardedasthepioneerofIslamic

literatureinArabicliterarycircles.

Bakathirdisplayedstrong Islamic idealsandusedhis literarytalents inorder

tofurtherthecauseofIslaminsociety,politics,educationandeconomics.Hesought

to instil an awareness of the teachings of Islam amongst Muslims through his

literature, often informing his audience of their religious obligations and drawing

inspirationfrom

the

annals

of

Islamic

history.

In

essence,

Bakathir

sought

to

establish

aQuranicmindsetviahisworks,usingQuranicversesand teachingsasabasis for

hisplots,therationaleandmotivationforhiswritings,aswellasthemainthrustfor

his ideas.However, to thisend, therehasbeenno specific studydedicated to the

importanceofQuranicversesinBakathirsworks.

Assuch, thispaperseeks toexplore thesignificanceand impactofQuranic

verses on Bakathirs literary works, in particular, the plot and the protagonists.

Among its other key objectives are to: 1) add to the relatively small corpus of

academic study on Bakathir and his works whilst providing further avenues for

research;2) reignite interest to studyhis literature; 3)evaluate the strong Islamic

influences

and

tendencies

in

his

works;

4)

appreciate

his

contribution

to

modern

Arabicliterature;and5)understandhisstatusasanIslamicliterarist.

In this paper,particular attention is given to twoofBakathirsprosalplays

namely,alSilsilawaalGhufran (TheChainofSinandForgiveness) andalDuktur

Hazim(Dr.Hazim).StudiesonthesetwoplaysappearminimalatthisstageandIhave

selected them as case examples due to their relevance to the topic of discussion.

Notwithstanding,Bakathirwasalsoaversedramatist,novelistandpoet,withnotable

works in all three genres. Butwhilst some of his other works are also discussed

wheneverappropriate, Ihavechosennotto includehispoetryduetothefollowing

reasons. Firstly, the Quranic verses occur predominantly in his plays and novels.

Secondly,poetryisofaverydifferentstyleandstructure,whilstplaysandnovelsare

cognate genres the onlymain differences are that plays are restricted by time,

placeandtheme.

Excludingthisintroduction,thispaperisdividedintothreesections.Firstly,to

help contextualise the research, I present a brief overview of Bakathirs life,

background,contextualsetting,maininfluences,works,significanceandcontribution

toArabicliterature.Next,IanalysetheliteraryimpactoftheQuranicversesBakathir

citesinthetwochosenplaysontheplotandthecharacters.However,asIhavealso

discussed some of his other plays and novels, the conclusions of this paper are

generally representativeofallofhisworks inboth thesegenres.Finally, Iend this

paperwithasummaryofitsmostimportantfindings.


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3

AliAhmadBakathir:Hislife,backgroundandinfluencesAliAhmadBakathirwasborn in1910, inSurabaya, Indonesia,toArabparentsfrom

Hadramawt,Yemen.

At

the

age

of

eight,

or

ten

1

,his

father

sent

him

to

Saywun,

in

Hadramawt, where he grew up studying Arabic and traditional Islamic disciplines

fromthelocalteachersatMadrasaalNahdaalIlmiyya(lit.TheSchoolofIntellectual

Uprising), the firstschool tobeestablished inSaywun.Consequently, this led toa

strong attachment to his blood, heritage and religion. Bakathir began his literary

careerattheageofthirteenbywritingpoetry, immediatelycatchingtheeyeofhis

teachers.Fromayoungage,hetookaparticularlikingtotheworksofAbualTayyib

alMutanabbi,thefamousArabpoet.2

Bakathirmarried young inHadramawt.After the death of hiswife, he felt

estranged andmigrated to Eden, in 1932.After spending a fewmonths there, he

movedto

Somalia

and

Ethiopia.

He

arrived

in

Hijaz

later

the

same

year

and

spent

ayear there. In Eden, hemet a number of its scholars andwriters, such as Shaykh

MuhammadSalimalBihaniandthepoet,MuhammadAliLuqman,whomhestayed

with.BakathirwroteanumberofodesinEdenandwasalsoamemberoftheIslamic

ReformClub there. InHijaz, he visitedMecca andMedina andmet the localArab

writerswhoused toholdgatherings inTaif,where theywould recitepoetry,study

eachothersworksandbecomeacquaintedwithnewsofotherArabwriters.Bakathir

cameacrosstheplaysofAhmadShawqi3 (18681932) inHijazandwas immediately

attracted to his arrangement of poetry. Itwas Shawqis influence that led him to

writehisfirstversedrama,Humam(Gallant),alsoknownasFiBiladalAhqaf(Inthe

Land

of

the

Dunes).

Other

writers

who

have

significantly

influenced

Bakathir

include

thefamouspoets,HafizIbrahimandKhalilMutran.

UponhisarrivalinEgyptin1934,BakathirinitiallywantedtofurtherhisArabic

and IslamicstudiesatalAzharUniversity,buthavingheardof the legacyofEnglish

literature(especiallyShakespeare),hebegantostudyEnglishlanguageandliterature

atwhat isnowknownasCairoUniversity,graduating in1939.Whilststillastudent,

heattemptedatranslationofRomeoandJuliet intoanexperimentaltypeofArabic

verse, alshir almursal (blank verse), ametrical formwhich became the principal

styleof modernistArabicverseaftertheSecondWorldWar.4Healsoarguedwith

1Thisappears thestrongeropinion (although theother ismorewellknown)basedon the

recorded date of his arrival inHadramawt (4thApril 1920). SeeAbd alHakim alZubaydi,

BakathirfiSutur,available19March2004,http://bakatheer.com/sotor.htm.2SeealZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur.3IntheopinionofM.M.Badawi,ShawqiranksasthebestArabversedramatist.SeeM.M.

Badawi,EarlyArabicDrama,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988,p.140.Although

Shawqiwasnot thepioneerofArabversedrama, it canbe said thatheperfected itand,

alongwithTawfiqalHakim,establisheditasarespectablegenrewithinArabicliterature.For

moreinformation,seeM.M.Badawi,ModernArabicDramainEgypt,Cambridge:Cambridge

University Press, 1987, pp. 20715; andM.M. Badawi,A Critical Introduction to Modern

ArabicPoetry,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1975,pp.2942.4Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.112.


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4

hisEnglishprofessor in classwhoaccused theArabic languageofbeing inflexible.5

Afterobtainingateachingdiplomain1940,BakathirmarriedanEgyptianwidowand

workedasanEnglish teacheruntil1955.Hewas lateremployedby theMinistryof

Culture

and

the

Ministry

of

National

Guidance,

where

he

continued

to

work

until

his

death in 1969. A year before his death in Egypt, Bakathir visited his beloved

Hadramawtforthelasttimeafterwhichherejectedofferstorunculturalcentresin

Kuwait and Lebanon. Apart from Arabic and English, Bakathir was also adept in

FrenchandMalay.6

Bakathir lived in a time of ideological conflicts between the traditional and

modernistreformistschoolsintheArabIslamicworld.Thereformistschoolcalledfor

anend to theallegedstagnationanddecline inscholarly thought thathadafflicted

the Muslims since the 11th century CE due to the abandonment of ijtihad

(independentscholarlyendeavour),andastiltedandrestrictiveapproachtothefour

major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).7 The Islahiyya (reformist)

movementwasestablishedanddevelopedinEgyptbyJamalalDinalAfghani8(1839

1897), who spread his ideas at alAzhar University, and his contemporary (and

student),MuhammadAbduh(18491905).9Bakathirwasintroducedtotheirideasby

twooftheirmostprolificstudents,MuhammadRashidRida(d.1935)10

andMuhibb

alDinalKhatib.Heimmediatelydevelopedalikingforthereformistswhocalledfora

return to the spiritof Islamand the implementationof its teachings in the faceof

5 Ali Ahmad Bakathir, Fann alMasrahiyyamin Khilal Tajaribi alShakhsiyya, Cairo:Dar al

Maarif,

1964,

pp.

7

8.

6AlZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur.7 There is adebate as to the socalled closureof the gatesof ijtihad.Quite anumberof

Muslimscholarsnowarguethatthegateswereneverclosedandadecline inthought isan

erroneous proposition. See, for instance,Wael Hallaq, Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?,

InternationalJournal ofMiddle East Studies, vol. 16,no. 1, 1984,pp. 341; Shaista P.Ali

KaramaliandFionaDunne,TheIjtihadControversy,ArabLawQuarterly,vol.9,no.3,1994,

pp.238578AlAfghanimayhaveactuallybeenanIranianShiite,althoughitiscommonlyallegedthathe

isAfghaniandaSunni.SeeHazimMuhyialDin, TayyaralIslahalDini fiMisrMadrasaal

Shaykh Muhammad Abduh, translated chapter of a book by G. Delonoue, LEgypte

Daujourd

hui:

Permanences

et

Changements

1805

1976,

available

19

May

2004,

http://www.almultaka.net/web/m00p8.htm.9 Their essentially modernistic ideas sought to combineWestern philosophywith Islamic

thoughtandelevatethehumanmindtoalevelequaltoDivinerevelation.Theintentionsof

alAfghanilaterbecamesuspectduetohisinvolvementwiththeMasonicmovementseeking

toestablishnewbranches in theMiddleEast.SeeArthur J.Arberry,Religion in theMiddle

East,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981, vol.2,pp.1289.For amoredetailed

discussion, refer toMuhammadHamidNasir,alAsraniyyun,Riyadh:Maktabat alKawthar,

1996.10

ReflectingamoreorthodoxSalafisttrend,RashidRidawasnotasextremeashismentors

in his modernist thinking though he was still influenced by them to a large extent. His

exegesisoftheQuran,TafsiralManar,isapopularandrigorouswork;itsmodernisttrends

areevident inparts.SeeAbuAmmaarYasirQaadhi,An Introduction to theSciencesof the

Quraan,Birmingham:AlHidaayah,1999,p.338.


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5

modernity.11

He based his Islamic thought on the anticolonial alUrwa alWuthqa

(The Firm Handhold), an international Islamic organisation and periodical

establishedbyalAfghaniandAbduhinParis,in1883.12

Furthermore,themagazines

al

Manar

(The

Beacon),

by

Rashid

Rida

and

al

Fath

(The

Opening),

by

al

Khatib

had

reachedhiminHadramawt.Heevenpublishedanumberofodes(qasaid)inalFath

andwasalreadyknowninEgyptbeforehiseventualarrival.Infact,itwasRashidRida

whoencouragedhimtomigratetoEgyptandarrangedforhiseventualarrivalthere.

Asaresult,Bakathirsmodernisttendenciesledhimtoclashwithseveraltraditional

scholarsofhistime.13

Inaddition,Bakathirsreligious ideologymaynothavebeenrestrictedtothe

reformist school. In fact, he lived through one of the most dynamic periods for

IslamicmovementsinEgypt.ThemostnotableofthesemovementswastheMuslim

Brotherhood (IkhwanalMuslimin), thebrainchildofHasan alBanna (d.1949) and

infamouslysupportedbySayyidQutb(d.1966).Themainideologyofthismovement

wasMuslimsolidarityunderthecommongoaltoestablishthelawsofGodonearth.

Although it is not known to what extent Bakathir was influenced by the Muslim

Brotherhood,onemaypostulatethathemayhaveatleastsympathisedwithitsideas

since the reformist movement was one of the main catalysts behind the

Brotherhoodsformation.Infact,basedoncircumstantialevidence,thereisreasonto

believe that Bakathirwas even a supporter of thismovement; a collection of his

politicaldramatisations,laterpublishedunderthetitleMasrahalSiyasa(TheDrama

ofPolitics),firstappearedinthealIkhwanalMuslimun(TheMuslimBrotherhood)

andalDawa (TheCall)magazines, in the1940sand1950s.14

Bothmagazinesare

closelyassociatedwiththeMuslimBrotherhood.Finally,duetohisstaunchreligious

mindset,Bakathir

constantly

found

himself

at

odds

with

Marxist

and

Liberalist

Arab

rulers,intellectualsandsupporters.15

BakathirsworksandcontextualsettingSomenotableobservationsfromBakathirsworksarethattheydisplay:1)thestyles

and influencesof thewritersheadmired;2)a selfprofessedcommitment to Islam

11SeeAbdullaBasibrin, RaidalAdabalIslamiAliBakathirWajibalAdibalArabiTabsiral

UmmabialAkhtarallatiTatahaddaduha,AlAyyam,28June2003,p.8.12

MuhyialDin,TayyaralIslahalDini.Only18oftheperiodicalswereeverpublished.13

MuhammadAbuBakrHamid, RiyadaBakathir lialAdabalIslamiwaTatbiqatihi, Islamic

Literature World League lecture, transcribed by Muhammad Uqda. Hamid mentions that

Bakathir was affected by the Salafi school of thought. Salafism advocates a return to

understandingandpractisingIslamaccordingtotheQuranandwayoftheProphet(Sunna),

as understood by the early generations of Muslims. He seems to consider the reformist

movementofalAfghaniandMuhammadAbduhasSalafi.However,thisisapointofdebate

amongstthescholarsofIslam.Therefore,Ihavechosentousethetermreformist,whichis

moreneutral,instead.14

Seehttp://bakatheer.com/collect.htm,available5May2004.15

Basibrin,RaidalAdabalIslami,p.8.


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6

andtheArabs;and3)someofthecommonmindsetsofEgyptianwritersduringhis

time.16

AlthoughEgyptwasanoncombatantduringtheSecondWorldWar,theWar

didhaveadeepsocial,politicalandeconomicimpactonthecountry.Egyptiansociety

was

changing

at

a

rapid

rate

Naguib

Mahfouz

described

it

as

a

social,

political

and

economic state of flux so naturally, many writers (including Bakathir himself)

decidedtorecordthesymptomsofthisprocess.17

ThedevelopmentofmodernArabic literature inEgypt,sincetheappearance

of Husayn Haykals acclaimed novel,Zaynab (Zaynab), in 1912,18

can roughly be

dividedintofourphases,namely:(1)priortotheSecondWorldWar;(2)betweenthe

Warandthecoupdetatof23July1952;(3)theearlyyearsafterthe1952revolution;

and (4) the late1950sand thereafter,witheachphasedisplayingunique thematic

and stylistic characteristics.19

As a testament to his prolific writing as well as his

penchantforaddressingpertinentandcontextualsocietal issues,Bakathirproduced

worksinallthesephases.Literaturefromphaseoneisgenerallycharacterisedbyan

attempt to address Egyptian life, its people, surroundings, customs andmanners.

There are also some romantic trends as well as criticisms of Egyptian culture via

director indirect (comicalandsatirical)means.20

Phase twoworksdealmainlywith

socialjustice, including sociopolitical andpsychological issues,21

whilephase three

worksfocusonpatriotism,populism,visionsforabrighterfuture,aswellasreligious

andnationalist commitment.22

Finally, literature fromphase fourdisplaybothpre

modernistandpostmodernisttrendswhichincludeelementsofexistentialism,revolt

andabsurdity. Inthisphase,ArabwritersemployednewtechniquesfromtheWest,

suchas pointofview technique, freeversepoetry (alshiralhurr),plotsequence

rearrangement,narrativevariationandstructuralcomplexityandobscurity.23

Bakathirwrote

atotal

of

six

novels,

six

verse

dramas,

around

45

prosal

plays,

anda largenumberofodesandpoems (reachinga thousandpages inmanuscript

form).24

Theseworkswereneverpublished in a complete collectionduringhis life

andsomewerepublishedafterhisdeath.Uptoelevenplaysremainunpublished.25

16Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.112.

17 See FatmaMoussaMahmoud, TheNovel as aRecordof SocialChange, in TheArabic

NovelinEgypt(19141970),Cairo:GeneralEgyptianBookOrganisation,1973.18

According to Hamdi Sakkut, Zaynab is the first Egyptian novel that may be judged

according

to

the

accepted

criteria

for

novel

writing

no

earlier

work

can

be

counted

as

a

novel. Hamdi Sakkut, The Egyptian Novel and its Main Trendsfrom 1913 to 1952, PhD

dissertation,UniversityofCambridge,Cairo:TheAmericanUniversityPress,1971,p.vii.19

AliB.Jad,FormandTechniqueintheEgyptianNovel19121971,London:IthacaPress(for

TheMiddleEastCentre,StAnthonysCollege,OxfordUniversity),1983,pp.1718.Modern

Arabicliteratureactuallystarteddevelopingfromthelaterhalfofthe19thcenturybutitonly

attainedliterarymeritafterZaynab.SeeJad,FormandTechnique,pp.1,17.20

Jad,FormandTechnique,p.26.Exceptionstothisobservationinclude,forinstance,Tawfiq

alHakimsfirstplay,AhlalKahf,whichwasbasedonmyth,notEgyptiansociallife.21

Jad,FormandTechnique,pp.14751.22

Jad,FormandTechnique,p.211.23

Jad,FormandTechnique,pp.xiixiii,260,293.24

Hamid,RiyadaBakathir;andAlZubaydi,BakathirfiSutur.25

Hamid,RiyadaBakathir.


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7

Bakathirbeganwritingodesandpoetry

before producing novels and plays. His odes

writtenbeforehisdeparture fromHadramawt

were

entitled

Azhar

al

Rubba

fi

Ashar

al

Sibba

(FlowersoftheHillsinthePoemsofCaptivity),

thosewritteninEdenweresuitablyentitledal

Adniyyat(ThoseofEden),whilstthosewritten

inHijazwere likewiseaptlycalledalHijaziyyat

(ThoseofHijaz).Healsocontinued towritea

large number of odes and poems while in

Egypt.Other thanhisversedramas,Bakathirs

poemswere not published during his lifetime

withtheexceptionofDhikraMuhammad(The

MemoryofMuhammad),alsoknownasNizam

alBurda (TheArrangementof theMantle),

whichwaswrittenduringhisstay inHijazand

laterpublisheduponhisarrivalinEgypt.26

Bakathir wrote three verse dramas before attempting his first novel and

prosalplay in1944.Hisfirstversedrama,Humam,published in1934,dealtwiththe

situation in underdeveloped and undereducated Hadramawt. His largest work,

spanning 19 volumes, andmost famous prosal play is alMalhama alIslamiyya al

KubraUmar(TheGreatIslamicEpic:Umar),aplaybasedonearlyIslamichistoryin

thetimeofthesecondCaliph,Umarb.alKhattab.Amonghismostfamousnovelsare

Wa Islamah (Oh Islam!) and alThair alAhmar (TheRedRevolutionary) and his

mostfamous

verse

drama

is

Ikhnatun

wa

Nafirtiti

(Akhenaton

and

Nefertiti).

Although IkhnatunwaNafirtiti,which ispartofancientEgyptianhistory, seems to

havenothing todowith Islamand theArabs,Bakathirargued that thehistoryofa

region inhabitedbytheArabsinthepresentdayshouldberegardedaspartofArab

history.27

UnlikeHusaynHaykalandTahaHusayn,forinstance,whowereinfluencedby

EuropeancritiquesofArabcultureand religion,Bakathirsworksclearlymanifesta

strong tendency and commitment towards Islam and his people. Therefore, any

controversy he causedwas due to thismindset and not out of external European

influences.Forexample,duetotheirstrongreligiousovertones,WaIslamahandal

Thairal

Ahmar

caused

hatred

amongst

Egyptian

communists

who

wrote

numerous

articles criticising him. Bakathir also portrayed the idea of panArabism and

emphasisedthePalestiniancauseinmanyworks;hisstanceontheArabIsraeliissue

wasoftencriticaloftheArabstatesandantiZionist.28

26 See http://bakatheer.com/diwan.htm, available 24 May 2004.AlBurda, or Qasidat al

Burda(OdeoftheMantle),isanodeofpraisefromProphetMuhammadcomposedbythe

greatSufifigure,ImamHasanalBasri(12121296).Theactualtitleoftheode isalKawakib

alDurriyyafiMadhKhayralBariyya(CelestialLightsinPraiseoftheBestofCreation).27

Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.67.28

Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.129.

Bakathir constantly implies

the inadequacy of all

ideologiesin

comparison

to

the principles of Islam, and

that the solution to the

problems of the Arab and

Islamic world lies only in the

return to Islamic principles.

Somewhat idealistically, he

saw Islam not only as a

religion, but a means to

building

a

complete

civilisation.


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8

In his plays and novels, Bakathir constantly implies the inadequacy of all

ideologies in comparison to the principles of Islam, and that the solution to the

problemsof theAraband Islamicworld liesonly in thereturn to Islamicprinciples.

Somewhat

idealistically,

he

saw

Islam

not

only

as

a

religion,

but

a

means

to

building

a

completecivilisation.29

Todemonstratethis,heusesthegrandeuroftheArabIslamic

past(incontrasttoitsshortcomings)sothathisintendedaudiencemaytakelessons

fromit.Bakathirsworksarealsoparticularlyaudienceoriented,whichcouldexplain

his greater affinity towards the production of plays. Furthermore, he probably

realisedthegreatereffectivenessandappealofthisgenreasavehicleforhisideas.

HissignificanceandcontributiontoArabicliteratureAlong

with

Mahmud

Taymur

and

Fathi

Radwan,

Bakathir

is

considered

by

some

as

one of the successors of Tawfiq alHakim,30

one of the best known and most

important figures in the history and development of Arabic drama due to his

ingenuity and output.31

Bakathir is essentially an Islamic playwright, novelist and

poet,andisevenconsideredasoneofthepioneersofIslamicliterature,Arabicfree

and blank verse, political drama, historical novels, and an innovator of several

styles.32

Inadditiontohisnumerousworks,healsoreceivedanumberofprizesand

medals including, theStatePrizeofEgypt in literature forHarutwaMarut (Harut

andMarut), in1962,andanexclusivemedal fromGamalAbdelNasser in1967.33

Bakathirwas also a member of The Publication Committee for Academics, which

includedsuch

famous

names

as

Naguib

Mahfouz,

Adil

Kamil

and

Abd

al

Hamid

Juda.34

Despitetheabove,Bakathirneverseemstogarnerasmuchattentionasother

prolific writers of Arabic literature. There are several possible reasons for this,

including:

1) Due toan idealistic Islamicmindset,Bakathirsworksparticularlyattract theattentionofthosewithasimilarideology.Thus,attimes,hisworkshavelittle

appeal to people of different faiths and ideologies. This occurs despite his

contributionsandstatureinmodernArabicandIslamicliterature.

2) Ignorance concerning his works may be unintentional and partly due toBakathirs

nature

to

avoid

the

spotlight.

35

29UsamaalAlfi,DawaliIadaQiraaAmalMubaddiKabirwaNashrTurathihiBakathirmin

Ruwwad alShir alHurr wa alMasrah alSiyasi wa alRiwayat alTarikhiyya,AlAhram, 2

December2003.30

Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.88.31

Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,p.88;Badawi,EarlyArabicDrama,p.140.32

Basibrin, RaidalAdabalIslami,p.8;alAlfi, Dawa.Thishasbeenverifiedby several

scholarssuchasDr.AbdullaalGhadhdhami,Dr.AhmadalSadani,Dr.AbuBakralBabakiri

andDr.IsamBahi.33

Forafulllist,refertohttp://bakatheer.com/prizes.htm.34

AlAlfi,Dawa.35

AlAlfi,Dawa.


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9

3) ThereisadichotomyofopinionsontheworksofBakathiramongstscholarsofArabic literature. The first group, due to their Islamic inclinations, are

favourable towards his works. Their analyses tend to revolve around the

Islamic

ideology

of

Bakathir

and

the

effectiveness

of

his

works

as

a

vehicle

for

instructingandadmonishingMuslims.Thesecondgroup,comingpurelyfrom

a critical literary approach, are less favourable. They regard Bakathirs

idealistic Islamic worldview as a form of tunnelvision that significantly

inhibitsallaspectsofhiswork,causingpredictability,bluntingsensitivityand

limitingcreativity.36

Academicsofthistypeprefertheideologicalfreedomthat

is virtuallynonexistent inBakathirsworks. Yet, at the same time, they do

acknowledgesomeoftheoutstandingworksofBakathirintermsofingenuity

and style. Naturally, biases are witnessed from both groups and both

approaches form an integral part of literary analysis. Nonetheless, it is an

essentialpartofliteraryanalysistobeabletoappreciatethewriterscontext,

background,ideology,intentionsandimplications.

At any rate, due to his acclaimed contributions towardsArabic and Islamic

literature,Bakathircertainlydeservesmorereadershipandacademicstudy,at least

by his intended Muslim audience. Currently, there are very few published books

devotedentirely toBakathirandvariousaspectsofhiswork. Itappears thatallof

thesehavebeenwrittenbyacademicswith Islamic inclinations,suchasAbdullaal

Tantawi and Abu Bakr Hamid. As to the small number of recorded postgraduate

research on Bakathirs works, almost all of these were conducted at Islamic

universitiessuchasAlAzhar,the International IslamicUniversitiesof Islamabadand

Malaysia,Imam

Muhammad

b.

Saud

University,

and

anumber

of

other

Middle

Eastern institutions.37

AbuBakrHamidsdissertationcompletedattheUniversityof

Illinois,in1988,however,isanexception.38

AlSilsilawaalGhufranandalDukturHazimascasestudiesBefore proceeding any further, I shall clarify the reasons behind giving particular

attention to the plays alSilsilawa alGhufran and alDukturHazim. First of all, as

mentionedpreviously,thedifferencesbetweenplaysandnovelsarerelativelyminor

ina literarysense.Hence, focusingon twoplays, insteadofaplayandanovel, for

instance,hashadnosignificantsideeffectsonthefindingsofthisstudy.Secondly,al

Silsila wa alGhufran ranks as one of Bakathirs most stark portrayals of devout

religiosityatapersonal levelasacorecomponenttoeffectingsocialchange. Italso

displays theArabIslamic historical elements that are not uncommon inBakathirs

works. Finally, alDuktur Hazim was one of ten of Bakathirs plays dealing with


37Seehttp://bakatheer.com/univ.htm,available19April2004.

38SeeMohamedAbuBakrHamid, TwoPlaysbythe IslamicDramatist,AliAhmadBakathir,

TranslatedintoEnglishwithCriticalCommentary,dissertation,UniversityofIllinois,1988.


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10

contemporary social issues.39

Thus, it gives an important insight into a possible

applicationofBakathirsreligiousidealswithinhiscontextualsetting.

Thesignificanceand impactofQuranicverses inalSilsilawaalGhufran

BakathirwrotealSilsilawaalGhufranin1949forwhichhereceivedanawardfrom

theEgyptianMinistryofEducationtheverysameyear.40

However,theplaywasonly

printed in1951.41

It is regardedasa sociohistoricalplay,42

and though it is set in

medieval Egypt, during the reign ofAhmad b. Tulun (d. 884CE),43

it dealswith a

universal Islamic theme unrestricted by time and place, i.e. the need to seek

forgiveness,repentandperformrighteousdeeds inordertobreakthechainofevil

deedssparked

by

asingle

immoral

act.

Thus,

unlike

al

Duktur

Hazim,

the

social

elements of this play are not necessarily restricted to the contemporary social

problemsexistentinBakathirstime.

Atfirstglance,thehistoricalsettingofalSilsilawaalGhufranappearstohave

littlesignificanceandisrarelyreferredto.However,uponcloserinspection,thereare

severalpossible reasonsbehindBakathirs choiceofcontext.Firstly,heoftenused

notable Islamicpersonalities and occurrences fromArabic and Islamic history as a

meanstorelivethegrandeurofIslam.Indoingso,heattemptedtofosterapositive

reaction from the audience to seek to reestablish Islams supremacy in human

society.Inthisregard,Badawicomments:

Bakathirhadadistinctpreferenceforsubjectsdrawnfromhistory,mythandlegend

aswellasfolklore,apreferenceforwhichhetriedtofindanaestheticjustification.

Evenwhenhewishedtomakeacommentonthemodernworld,heoftenfound it

39Outofthetenplaysdealingwithcontemporarysocialissues,two,Shalabya(Shalabiya,or

Gorgeous)andArayiswaIrsan(BridesandGrooms),remainunpublishedtodate.Theeight

publishedones inchronologicalorderareHumam(1934),alDukturHazim(1946),alDunya

Fawda(TheChaoticWorld,1952),AghlaminalHubb(DearerthanLove)published inAl

Gamhuryanewspaperin1954andasabookin2006),QitatwaFiran(CatsandMice,1962),

Gulfadan

Hanim

(Lady

Gulfadan,

1962),

Habl

al

Ghasil

(The

Washing

Line,

1965)

and

QadiyyatAhlalRabia(TheCaseofthePeopleofRabia,1990).40

AbdalHakimalZubaydi,AlDawailaalTawbawaFadailalAmalfiMasrahiyyaalSilsila

wa alGhufran, available 19 March 2004,

http://bakatheer.com/zubaidi/assilsilahwalghufran.htm.41


Seehttp://bakatheer.com/silsila.htm,available1May2004.43

Hewas a Turkish soldier sent to Egypt as adeputy governor in 868.Within a year,he

establishedhisownmilitaryandafinancialfootholdintheprovince.Thisledhimtoestablish

thefirstlocaldynasty,theTulunidsofEgypt(868905CE),andlaterjointlyofEgypt,Palestine

andSyria.Hehadapowerfularmyandnavy,anddevelopeda strongeconomy.SeeH.U.

Rahman,AChronologyof IslamicHistory5701000CE,London:TaHaPublishers,1995,pp.

19798;ImadalDinIbnKathir,AlBidayawaalNihaya,Beirut:DaralMarifa,1998,vol.14,

pp.535.


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11

easiertousethepastasametaphorforthepresent.Hispassionatecommitmentto

IslammadehimturnnaturallytoIslamicandArabhistory44

Secondly,andmore specifically,Ahmadb.Tulunwasknownasa successful

andprosperousEgyptianrulerwhowasextremelygeneroustohispeople.Heusedto

invitebothdignitaries aswell themasses tohisdailybanquet,andused to givea

thousanddinarsofmonthlycharityfromhisownwealth.Inaddition,hewasamongst

thebestinpreservingtheQuranandrecitingitinabeautifulmanner.45

Throughthis

example,Bakathirclearly impliesthatasuccessfulrulership lies inbeingjustand in

observingtheIslamicinjunctions.Inessence,thiswasanimplicitcriticismofthestate

of politics in the ArabIslamic world during his time. Thirdly, by framing the plot

within a real sociohistorical context, Bakathir appears to try to avoid the

hypothetical,givingasenseofrealismtoanotherwiseidealisticstoryline.

Plot

AlSilsilawaalGhufran is a playdivided into three parts and comprises a totalof

sevenscenes.Asanepigraphtotheplay,BakathirusesthefollowingQuranicverses:

Hurry towards your Lords forgiveness and aGarden aswide as the heavens and

earthprepared for the righteous,who give,both inprosperityand adversity,who

restraintheirangerandpardonpeopleGodlovesthosewhodogoodthosewho

rememberGodandimploreforgivenessfortheirsinsiftheydosomethingshameful

or wrong themselves who forgives sins but God? and who never knowingly

persistindoingwrong.46

Inthe firstpartoftheplay,weare introducedto theprotagonist,amanby

thenameofAbdalTawwab,whocaresforthewelfareofhiswidowedsister,Asiya,

and her daughters. Likewise, he helps his miserly brother, Abd alJawwad, who

constantly demands that a similar treatment be given to him and his children.

AlthoughAbdalJawwadworks andobtainsmore than sufficientwealth,henever

ceasestodemandsupportfromAbdalTawwab,who,inturn,alwaysrespondswith

kindness.

Shortlyafter,

we

realise

that

Abd

al

Tawwab

had

earlier

committed

adultery

withthewife(Ghayda)ofhisbestfriend,Qasim,whilethelatterwasservingaprison

sentenceonaccountofhisdebts.Qasimsmother inlaw,UmmMastur,hadearlier

appealed toAbd alTawwab to settle her sons debts and help him out of prison.

Whilstattemptingtodoso,AbdalTawwabbecameacquaintedwithGhayda.Hehas

anaffairwithherandshefallspregnant.Tokeepthematterdiscreet,UmmMastur

gives her daughter some medicine aimed at an abortion. During this abortion

attempt,Ghaydadiesofahaemorrhage.


45IbnKathir,alBidayawaalNihaya,p.55.

46Quran,3:13335.IhaveusedAbdelHaleemsQurantranslationthroughoutthispaper.


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12

With thedeathofGhayda,the innerconscienceofAbdalTawwabawakens

causinghimtothoroughlyregrethisimmoralactions.Hisremorseandsenseofguilt

leadshimtosincererepentanceandbringsaboutastrikingchange incharacter.He

spends

his

wealth

in

an

effort

to

release

Qasim

from

prison

and

continues

to

act

kindlytowardsUmmMastur.UponQasimsrelease,AbdalTawwabhandshimsome

jewellerytosellforprofit.ThisenablesQasimtofurtherhisbusinessexploitsinSham

with the laterjoininghim in apartnership. In the third sceneofpartone,Abdal

TawwabmarriesKawthar,ayoungwomanwhohasbeenpamperedbyher father,

Ismail.Thispreventsher fromperformingherdutiesasawife, spendingherdays

eithersleepingorvisitingher father.Thisoccurs to theextent thatAbdalTawwab

doesnothaveanysexual relationswithher.Nevertheless,AbdalTawwabremains

patientandhopesforachangeinhercharacter.Attheendofpartone,hetravelsto

Shamupontherequestofhisbusinesspartner;theirbusinesshasexpandedandAbd

alTawwabisrequiredtohelpout.

In thesecondpartof theplay,AbdalTawwabreturns toEgyptafterayear

andhalfandimmediatelyfindshiswifeillinherfamilyshouse.Whenherequeststo

movehertohisresidence fortreatment,herfamilyrefuses. Inaddition,theyreject

hissuggestiontobringadoctortoexamineheronthepretextthatitisforbiddenfor

a male doctor to see her. They provide other excuses and dismiss the illness as

somethingnormal.AbdalTawwabbeginstohavedoubtsandsuspectsthathiswife

is pregnant. Eventually, Umm Mastur informs him that his wife had committed

adulterywithherson,Mastur.ThemaliceofUmmMasturbecomesevidentasshe

rejoices at Abd alTawwabs demise and it becomes clear that she deliberately

encouragedtheaffairasapaybackforwhathedidtoherdaughter,Ghayda.Abdal

Tawwabaccepts

this

and

returns

to

the

family

of

Kawthar.

He

requests

to

move

her

tohisresidenceyetagainsothatshemaygivebirththere.Heassuresthemthathe

willnotexposehersin. Ismailandhiswife,Maymuna,aregratefulandcanhardly

believeAbdalTawwabs forgivingattitude. In thesamepart,MasturwedsQasims

sister.Afteronly twoweeksofmarriage,he iscalled tojoin thearmyofAhmadb.

TulunadvancingtowardsAleppo.

Sevenyears later,AbdalTawwab is seen leadingapeacefulandhappy life

withKawtharand theirchildren,UsamaandShafia.ButwhilstUsama isKawthars

illegitimate child,Abd alTawwab andhis sister loveboth children and treat them

equally. Infact,theyappeartopamperUsamamoresincehisownmotherneglects

himand

treats

him

harshly

as

he

reminds

her

of

her

sin.

In

scene

two,

Mastur

kills

his

wifeuponhisreturnthinkingthatshe ispregnantafterhavinganaffair.Asaresult,

heiscapturedandimprisoned.Lamentingthefateofbothherchildren,UmmMastur

beginstoact irrationallyandthreatenstoexposeAbdalTawwabssecrettoQasim.

AbdalTawwabbegshernot todo so for the sakeofher latedaughteraswellas

Qasim,whoremainsemotionallyaffectedbyherdeathandcontinuestodogoodto

UmmMastur.Instead,UmmMasturthreatenstoexposeKawtharssecret.However,

AbdalJawwad succeeds indiscouragingher fromdoingsoby threatening tobring

thematter to the Sultan. Thiswould have resulted in certain punishment for she

would have been found guilty in procuring the affair. Instead, Abd alJawwad

promisesto

plead

to

the

Sultan

to

reduce

her

sons

punishment

on

the

grounds

that

shehasnobodytolookafterher.


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13

In the final scene, we witness Abd al

Tawwab on his death bed. As a result of Abd al

Jawwadspestering,hecallsuponareligiousscholar

and

seeks

a

verdict

concerning

Usamas

right

to

inherit from him.47

The scholar informs him that

Usama is like his own son and therefore has the

legal right to inherit.AbdalTawwab thencalls for

UmmMasturand seeks forgiveness fromher. She

pardonshimandheinformsherthathewasalways

aware of her vengeful attitude towards him.

Similarly, Abd alTawwab informs Qasim of his

previous affair with Ghayda and seeks his

forgiveness.Aftersayingafinalsupplication,Abdal

Tawwabdiespeacefullyattheendoftheplay.

Basedontheabove,thesignificanceand impactoftheQuranicversescited

intheepigraphisthoroughlyevident.Infact,thewholeplotseemstobebuiltupon

theseverses; from the fact thatadultery ischosenas themajorsin thatconstantly

repeats itself, to thecentral themeof forgivenessandrighteousdeedsasthecure.

Theversessignificantlyenhance theplotandarecentral toall itsevents.Even the

titleof theplay isdirectlyrelated to theseverses.The termalsilsila (lit.chain),as

clarified in the play, refers to the chain of sin committed byman that cannot be

brokenexceptthroughtheseekingofforgiveness(ghufran).48

However, from another angle, this aspect of the play is seen as its main

shortcoming. Some critics consider the whole construct of the play as being too

mechanicalas

aresult.

They

argue

that

there

are

too

many

improbable

parallelisms

and coincidences, and the point which the author wishes to make is far too

obtrusive.49

Thiscriticism is,ofcourse,solelybasedonthecritical literaryapproach

mentionedearlier. It is, inessence,aquestionofhermeneutics.Assuch,adifferent

audience,suchasthedogmaticallyreligious,wouldmostlikelyappreciatewhatthey

wouldconsiderapoignantstoryline.

In theplaysopening scene,AbdalTawwab recites severalQuranicverses,

which also have a significant bearing on the play. The following verses shall be

discussedinthesubsequentsubsections:

People,be

mindful

of

your

Lord,

for

the

earthquake

of

the

Last

Hour

will

be

amighty

thing:on theDayyousee it,everynursingmotherwill thinknomoreofherbaby,

47AbdalJawwadwanted to inheritAbdalTawwabswealth. IfAbdalTawwabhadnoson

and only daughters, his brother could inherit from him. Abd alJawwad thought that he

wouldinheritasUsamawasonlyanadoptedsonofAbdalTawwab.Outofhisignorance,he

convincesAbd alTawwab to callon a religious scholar.But asUsama isAbd alTawwabs

legalson,thescholaraffirmedthathehadtherighttoinherit.48

AliAhmadBakathir,AlSilsilawaalGhufran,alFallaja:DarMasirlialTibaa,n.d.,pp.104,

111.49


The silsila referred to by

Bakathir is the chain of sin

committedbyman; it ispart

of

his

nature

to

be

susceptible to it. Thus, it is

hisduty to takeheedof the

verses and repent. As a

direct consequence of

sincere repentance, man is

forgivenandthechainofsin

isbroken.


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14

everypregnantfemalewillmiscarry,youwillthinkpeoplearedrunkwhentheyare

not,soseverewillbeGodstorment.50

Attheendoftheplay, inAbdalTawwabsfinalsupplication,wherehesays:Ishall

meetyoumyLordwithatranquilsoul,IshallreturntoyoumyLordwellpleasedand

wellpleasing (unto You),51

several verses of the Quran are explicitly alluded to,

whichalsohaveanimportantrole.Theseversesare:[But]you,soulatpeace:return

toyourLordwellpleasedandwellpleasing;go inamongMyservants;and intoMy

Garden.52

Protagonistsandcharacters

The

protagonist,

Abd

al

Tawwab,

is

nothing

short

of

a

glaring

representation

of

the

Quranicverses found in theplay, to theextent that thecardinalsinhecommits is

adultery. From one angle, his character never seems to develop throughout the

wholeplay,especially sincehis sinfulpast isonlymentioned in thepresent and is

neverreenacted.However,fromanotherperspective,hischaracterevolvesaccording

tothestagesmentioned intheverses:repentance,spending inbothprosperityand

adversity,restraininganger,forgivenessandperformingrighteousdeeds.Abd alTawwab is the nearperfect personification of the concepts of

forgiveness, repentance, charity, repression of anger, pardon and performing

righteousdeeds found intheversecited intheplaysepigraph.Evenwhenhiswife

considers herself unworthy of him after committing adultery, he forgives her and

embracesher.HeembodiestheconceptofpatienceinIslam,i.e.patienceinobeying

God, patience in avoiding the disobedience of God and patience in the face of

adversity. His enduring piety and Godfearing character is aptly reflected by his

emotional response to the verses he recites during the opening scene; he

immediately sheds tears and imploresGod for forgiveness. This attitude bears an

unmistakableresemblancetothefollowingverses:

Truebelievers are thosewhosehearts tremblewith awewhenGod ismentioned,

whosefaithincreaseswhenHisrevelationsarerecitedtothem,whoputtheirtrustin

theirLord.53

In addition, Abd alTawwabs constant invocations and advice to do good

renderhimasapersonoftaqwa,withtaqwadefinedasobeyingAllahsothatHeis

neverdisobeyed,rememberingHimsothatHeisneverforgottenandbeingthankful

toHimsothatHeisneverdisbelieved.54

Oneoftheversesintheepigraphmentions

themuttaqun(thosewhoposssesstaqwa).

50Quran,22:12.

51Bakathir,alSilsilawaalGhufran,p.132.

52Quran,89:278.

53Quran,8:2.

54Qaadhi,SciencesoftheQuraanp.13.


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15

Abd alTawwabs intentions to obediently follow the laws of Islam are

witnessed even on his death bed when he calls for a religious scholar to seek a

verdict concerning the rules of inheritance forUsama, his adopted child.One can

only

conclude

that

Bakathirs

use

of

a

Prophetic

narration

as

evidence

for

the

final

rulingdisplays the strong religious idealsmentioned in the verses.Weoftengeta

sense thathe is thoroughlyatpeacewithhimself,despitehisearliermisdeeds;his

finalwordsareaclearreflectionofthisandcompletetheportrayalofanidealIslamic

characterandanidealrepentance.

Toensure continuingparallelsbetween theprotagonist and the conceptof

repentancementioned in the relevantQuranic verses,Bakathir purposefully gives

him thenameofAbdalTawwab (servantof theOnewhoaccepts repentance). In

fact, the term tawwab itself (without the abd,meaning servant)wouldbemost

appropriateindescribingtheprotagonist,which,whenusedforhumanbeings,refers

totheirsincereandconstantrepentance.Withanalmostflawlesshero,albeitafter

hisrepentance,onemaybe led intothinkingthatsomeoftheminorcharactersare

simplydesignedtofillinthegapsandaresomewhatsuperfluous.However,thisisnot

thecase;for instance,UmmMasturplaysan importantrole intheconsequencesof

events and Abd alJawwad is the epitome of a greedy person who exploits his

brothers generosity. And, to Bakathirs credit, the characters are sufficiently

distinguished fromoneanother;no two characters thinkalike, theyare Islamically

flawed,andhaveconflictswithoneanother.Asaresult, thiscreatesan interesting

socialsettingdesignedtoenhancethestrengthoftheprotagonistsIslamiccharacter;

heistheonlyonewhodoesnotsuccumbtoconflictorhatredbutfindstheabilityto

forgiveinstead.

Styleandintendedmeaning

According to IsamBahi,alSilsilawaalGhufran is the firstallegoricalplay inArabic

literature; behind an obvious storyline, the play carries anothermeaningwith the

purposeofinstructingoradmonishing.55

Atfirstglance,themainprinciplebehindthe

play appears to be do unto otherswhat others have done unto you.One critic,

Mutawalli Salah, opposes this bymentioning that the play implies that fate shall

eventuallydo

justice

to

the

evildoer.

The

one

who

commits

wrong

shall

ultimately

be

wrongedagainst.56

However,thiswasnotBakathirsintention;rather,theunderlying

theme stemsdirectly from theepigraph; it iscalling thepeople tohasten towards

repentance, todesist from thedisobedienceofAllah,and toperformgooddeeds.

ThesilsilareferredtobyBakathir isthechainofsincommittedbyman; it ispartof

hisnaturetobesusceptibleto it.Thus, it ishisdutytotakeheedoftheversesand

repent.Asadirectconsequenceofsincererepentance,manisforgivenandthechain

ofsin isbroken.Thecommonconditionsforrepentance inIslamare:(1) immediate

abandonmentofthesin;(2)feelingremorse;and(3)makingaresolvenottorepeat

55AlZubaydi,alDawailaalTawba.

56CitedinalZubaydi,alDawailaalTawba.


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16

it.However,ifthesininvolvesanotherpartysuchasisthecasewithadulteryone

mustseektheotherpartyspardonandreconcile.Ifthisisnotdone,thechainofsin

willcontinueandtheoppositionwillharbouravengefulattitude,asdemonstratedby

Umm

Masturs

feelings

towards

Abd

al

Tawwab.

AlSilsilawaalGhufranishenceanallegoryforthecontinuoussinningwithin

society and its distant relationship with God. Bakathir implies that if individuals

withinsocietyweretohastentowardsrepentanceandforgivenessaftereveryactof

disobedience,theywouldeventuallybefreedfromthechainofsinandbemercifulto

oneanother,asdemonstratedbyAbdalTawwabsseekingofforgivenessfromUmm

MasturandQasim.Althoughidealistic,Bakathirsintentionswithhisportrayalofthe

protagonist are clearly dictated by the epigraph. Furthermore, revenge is

discouraged,withUmmMasturasthemetaphorforthevengefulattitudesthatoften

plaguesociety.

Evidently,Bakathirhasingeniouslyusedanallegoricalplaytorevealtheneed

to implement the teachingsof theQuranic verseshe cites in theepigraph to the

play. In addressing societys inevitable problem of constant sinning, Bakathir uses

repeated occurrences of adultery as a metaphor. However, his seemingly lenient

attitudetowardsadulteryintheplaywhereitoccursoftenyetnooneistrialledor

sentencedtodeathseemstoimplythatsincanneverreallybeavoided.Rather,itis

anindividualsattitudeinthefaceofsinthatmatterssincethedoorforforgiveness,

repentance and righteous deeds is always open in Islam. One may conclude, yet

again,thattheverseswerethesourceofinspirationforBakathirsviews.Theverses

donotmentionpunishmentbutencouragerepentancefromthesinnerinstead.

Intendedaudience

Due to its strong Islamicovertones, there is littledoubt thatBakathir intendedal

Silsila wa alGhufran for a Muslim audience. The fact that he customarily uses

Quranic verses as epigraphs for all his plays and novels lends support to this

observation.AlthoughdevoutMuslimswithsimilarmindsetswouldbemostaffected

byaplaybasedheavilyonQuranicprinciples,Bakathirclearly intendswidespread

change amongst all Muslims, i.e. the devout are reminded of Quranic teachings

through theplaywhileallMuslims ingeneralareadmonishedabout their religious

duty.

Theplayseemstobeapracticalexplanationoftheversesintheepigraphthat

societycaneasilyrelateto.Aseveryindividualsinsandneedstorepentaccordingto

Muslimbelief,Bakathirattempted topromote changewithin individuals in lightof

theversessothattheymayultimatelyeffectchangewithinthewidersociety. Inan

attempttoachievethataim,Bakathirseemstohaveemployedthemethodoftarghib

(arousalofdesiretowardsrighteousness)andtarhib(intimidationthroughthethreat

ofpunishment)inhisselectionofversesfortheplay.Theversesintheepigraphand

thosealluded to in the finalwordsof theprotagonistcorrespond to targhib,while

thoseincludedintheopeningsequencecorrespondtotarhib.Targhibandtarhibare


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17

consideredeffectivemeans formotivation amongstMuslims; it features in Islamic

religiousworksandisamethodoftenemployedintheQuran.57

The significance and impact of Quranic verses in alDukturHazimBakathirwrotealDukturHazimin1946andpublisheditinthesameyear.Itranksas

onlyBakathirs fourthattemptatwritingaplay inprose form.LikealSilsilawaal

Ghufran, it is regarded as a social play butwith comical and satirical elements.58

BeingoneoftenBakathirworksdealingwithcontemporarysocietalissues,thereare

nothemesfromhistory,mythorlegend,unlikemanyofhisotherdramasandnovels.

Therefore,alDukturHazimoccupiesanicheamongBakathirsnumerousworksand

demonstratesan

application

of

Bakathirs

Islamic

ideals

in

acontemporary

setting.

AlDukturHazimisadomesticdramainsevenscenes.AccordingtoBadawi,it

addresses thedisastrous resultsof theundue influenceofparentsandparentsin

lawontheirchildrenandtheirinterferenceintheirchildrenslivesandmarriages.59

But, ifoneuses theQuranic versesBakathir citesas anepigraph to theplayasa

guide, it isclearthatwhilstthis is likelyasubtheme, itwascertainlynotBakathirs

primaryintention.Rather,theversesstate:

We have commanded people to be good to their parents. Theirmothers carried

them,withstrainuponstrain,and ittakestwoyearstoweanthem.Givethanksto

Me

and

to

your

parents

all

will

return

to

me.

But

if

they

strive

with

you

to

make

youjoininworshipwithMeothersthatofwhichyouhavenoknowledge,thenobey

themnot,butbehavewiththemintheworldkindly60

Hence,itappearsthatthemainlessonoftheplayisthatchildrenshouldbedutifulto

theirparentsregardlessoftheirshortcomings,which,inthecaseofalDukturHazim,

theparentsandinlawshaveinterferedtoomuchintheirchildrenslivessuchthatit

leads to tensions within families. However, obedience to parents is not

unconditional,asalsoimpliedbytheverses;butsolongasparentsdonotcalltothe

disobedienceofGod,theyshouldbetreatedwithrespect.

Plot

The play begins with the protagonist, Dr. Hazim, engaged in a conversation with

Buyumi, the chief clerkofhis father, SharifBik. The conversation revolves around

57 See alHusayn JarnuMahmud Jallu,AsalibalTashwiqwa alTazizfialQuranalKarim,

MEddissertation,UniversityofKuwait,Beirut:MuassasatalRisala;Damascus:DaralUlum

alInsaniyya,1994.58

Seehttp://bakatheer.com/hazm.htm,available23April2004.59


Quran,31:1415.


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18

Hazimssalaryandhowhisfatherhasdemandeditfromhim.Whenhisfatherarrives,

thetwoengageinalongargument.HisfatherarguesthatHazimssalaryisneededto

help out with household expenses.On the other hand, Hazim intends to buy his

fiance,

Nahid,

a

gift

for

Eid

61

as

well

as

some

new

clothing

for

himself.

Hazim

argues

onthegroundsofunfairtreatmentashis lowlifehalfbrother,Abbas,alwaysseems

togethiswaywhilehe isordered tocontributehismonthly income,aswellashis

clinicsrevenuetowardshouseholdexpenses.

Hazimsstepmother,HikmatHanim,alsomothertohishalfsistersIhsanand

Layla,usesherpositionasSharifswifetoexploitHazimshardearnedwealth.Both

sheandherhusbandareparsimoniousandwastefulat the same time; theynever

seemtobeabletomakeendsmeet.Asaresult,Hazimsincomeisconstantlytaken

away fromhimand thispreventshim frommarryingNahid.Nahidsparents,Sabri

Afandi and AminaHanim grow increasingly impatient although they are aware of

Hazimspredicament.Finally,Sabrispatiencerunsoutanddespitedesperatepleas

fromHazimformoretime,heseversHazimsengagementwithNahid.AlthoughSabri

recognisesHazimsintegrity,hearguesthathisdaughterwillneverbeabletoachieve

happiness as Hazimswife as long as Hazim relinquishes control of his life to his

parents.Asaresult,bothHazimandNahidareheartbroken.

Later,Hazim isseen inabarwithBuyumiwherehedrownshissorrowsand

disappointment.Hisclose friend,Ahmad,aswellashisfatherand Ihsanattemptto

persuadehimtoreturntohisjobandhishome.Sharif informshimthatHikmathas

changedherwaysandwantshimtoreturn.Likewise,Sabrihaschangedhismindand

wants tomarry his daughter to Hazim. With renewed hope, Hazim abandons his

sinfulwaysandreturnstohisclinic.However,hestillrefusestoreturnhomedespite

hisfathers

financial

strife.

His

whole

family

begs

for

him

to

return,

including

Hikmat,

whonoticeablyregretsherpasttreatmentofHazimandhaskickedAbbasoutofthe

house.Butevenwhentheyensurehimthathewillbegivencompletecontrolofthe

household,he isremindedofthepastandrefusestoyield.Evenhisfather inlaw is

notabletoconvincehim.Lateron,toaddafurthertwisttotheplot,Hazimsfather,

Sharif,developsamildformofparalysis.

Inthepenultimatesceneoftheplay,HazimishappilymarriedtoNahid.Inhis

fathershousehold,thingshavechangedforthebetter;Hikmathaschangedherways

and thehouseholdno longersuffers fromdebt;Abbashas turnedoveranew leaf;

and,meanwhile,Layla ismarriedtoAhmad.Everythingappears inorderandHazim

hasresumed

supporting

his

fathers

household

with

devotion.

However, Amina, Nahidsmother, is not pleasedwith the fact that Hazim

continuestosimplymakeendsmeetand isthusunabletohaveahouseorachild.

Shedoesnot like the fact thatHazimsdevotion isstillsplit into two.Thiscausesa

heatedargumentbetweenAminaandHikmat.Aminaendsup clashingwithHazim

whotellshernotto interfere inhishouseholdaffairssince it ishisresponsibilityto

61Culturally,therearetwomainEids(festivals)inIslam,theIdalFitr,whichoccursafterthe

fasting month of Ramadan, and the Id alAdha, which occurs during the month of Hajj

(pilgrimage).Linguistically,EidcomesfromtheArabicverbada,meaningtoreturn.Hence,

Eidissomethingthatreturns(annually).


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19

look after two households. Amina is hurt by Hazim; she leaves and orders her

daughtertodolikewise.Nahid,whoishurtbyHazimswords,leavesaswell.

Inthefinalscene,SabritellsNahidtoreturntoHazimandblameshiswifefor

interfering

in

Hazims

family

affairs.

Amina

starts

debating

with

her

husband

but

he

argues thathechoseHazimasason inlawon thebasisofhisstature,dignityand

character,nothiswealth.HementionsthatHazimstreatmentofhisfamilyisasign

of his integrity and that Nahid has to obey her husband. Amina yields to this

argumentbutquestionsHazimsrefusaltobringNahidhome.Sabrirefutesbysaying

thatNahid should return to her husband as shewas the onewho left him.Upon

realisingherwillingnesstoreturntoherhusband,SabriinitiatesaplantobringHazim

tohishouse.HecallsHazimandinformshimthatNahidissick.WhenHazimarrives,

he realises that Nahid is not sick and that it was all a plan to bring them back

together. In a lighthearted section,Hazimpretends toexaminehiswife and then

takesherhome.ThesceneendswithSabriplayingajokeonhiswife.

Basedon theabove, theverses in theepigraph

clearlyhaveadirectrelationshipwiththeplot.Despite

earlyproblems,Hazimendsuplookingafterhisfather,

his stepmother and her children despite financial

difficulties. He sees it as his duty to his own father,

whohasgrownoldandweakandcannotaffordtolook

afterthehousehold.Likewise,Nahidalwaysobeysher

parents and never neglects them. This occurs to the

extent that she obeys her mother when ordered to

leaveHazimsresidencealthoughthisact isatonedby

herreturning

to

her

husbands

house

in

the

final

scene.Throughthis,Bakathirseemstoimplythatonce

awoman ismarried,herprimaryduty is towardsher

husbandandnotherparentsanymore.

Two additional verses are alsoquotedwithin theplay. The first, husbands

shall take full care of theirwives,62

has a considerablebearingon the characters,

style,intendedmeaningandintendedaudience.Thesecond,[some]saythesleepers

werethree,andtheirdogmadefour,63

wasforcomicalpurposeswithanimportant

implicationaimedatinstillingaQuranicmindset.

Protagonistsandcharacters

UnlikeAbd alTawwab,who,despitepreviouswrongdoings, appears almost saintly

throughouttheplay,Hazimscharacterhassomeinitialflaws.Forexample,heargues

withhis father,appears todisobeyhim,drinksandgambles.Obviously, these un

Islamictraitshavenodirectrelationshipwiththeverses in theepigraph.However,

afterregainingnewhope,Hazimapplieshimselfdiligentlytotheserviceofhisfather

bycontinuingtolookafterthehouseholdevenafterstartinghisownfamilyandthis

62Quran,4:34.

63Quran,18:22.

As every individual sins

and needs to repent

according to Muslim

belief, Bakathir

attempted to promote

changewithin individuals

in light of the verses so

that

they

may

ultimately

effect change within the

widersociety.


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20

relatesdirectly to theQuranic verses in theepigraph. Even his name,Hazim, is a

reflectionofhisdetermination and strongwill to servehis fatherdespitepersonal

difficulties.Throughouttheplay,onesensesthatHazimcanneverreallyneglecthis

father

despite

their

previous

problems.

He

simply

goes

through

a

stage

of

denial

from

whichheemergesasadutifulson.

The play is set essentially in a domestic setting.Of the twelve characters,

threeof themwere initiallyoutsiders.ButafterAhmadmarries Layla, thenumber

reducestotwo,BuyumiandChristo,thebarowner.ToenhanceHazimsstrengthof

characterandtheeffectoftheverses,Bakathirportrayshimastheonlyonewitha

differentmother. Thus, although he has no specific obligation toHikmat and her

children,heendsup lookingaftertheentirehouseholdonthebasisofbeingdutiful

andobedienttohisfather.

Additionally,theQuranicversesintheepigraphseemtoformthebasisofthe

parentchild relationships within the play. Nahid is a good example of obedience

throughout the play. Despite being heartbroken after her father severed her

engagement toHazim, thisdidnot leadher to rebel.Althoughmistaken, sheeven

obeyshermotherwhenordered to leaveHazimshouse.Theversesmentionboth

parents but place an emphasis on the mother. This is somewhat highlighted in

Nahidshastydecisionto leaveonthebasisofobedience.Similarly,Laylaand Ihsan

are dutiful and respectful children. More significantly, although Abbas is largely

portrayed asmanipulative and of bad character prior to turning over a new leaf,

there are no distinct signs of disobedience to parents on his part. His bad traits

mostlyoccuroutsidethehouseholdandarenotactuallyportrayedwithintheplay.

Theverse,husbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives(alrijalqawwamunala

alnisa),

has

an

entirely

different

effect

on

the

characters.

Based

on

his

understanding of the verse, Bakathir appears to render the female characters as

subordinatetoallthemen,areflectionofthesocioreligiousperceptionsofgender

roles in Egyptian society during his time. Although the women also voice their

opinions, theymakevery few, ifany,vitaldecisionsand themenareseenas their

protectorsandmaintainers.Anydecisionsthefemalecharactersmakeareportrayed

asabrupt,hastyandirrational.

Ontheotherhand,Bakathirportraysthemalecharactersinamixedfashion.

ThestrongestcharactersareHazim,SabriandAhmad,althoughHazimdidhavehis

personalproblems in theplay.Sharif is theauthoritative typewhomellowsas the

playprogresses

due

to

illness

and

old

age.

Abbas

eventually

changes

his

ways

and

Buyumi is the loyalservant.Hikmat,Hazimsstepmotheralsochanges;sheregrets

her previous misdeeds and persuades Hazim to return home to look after the

household.64

Thefirstfourdisplaythekindofauthoritythatmaybeunderstoodfrom

the verse. The final scene is a glaringexample of how themen (Sabri andHazim)

easilyoutfoxthewomen(AminaandNahid).Sincethis istheconcludingscene,and

thescene inwhich theverse isquoted,Bakathirs intentionsarequiteclear, i.e.he

wishestojustifyaparticularinterpretationoftheverseinquestion.65

64Bakathir,alDukturHazim,p.87.

65SeeAliAhmadBakathir,alDukturHazim,Egypt:DaralKutubalArabi,n.d.,p.139.


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21

Finally,AminaisBakathirsepitomeofthe20th

centurywomanwhofightsfor

her rights to the extent that she disagrees with Hazims devotion to his fathers

household.Shebelievesthatamanshouldbefullydevotedtohiswife.Inthissense,

she

appears

to

be

a

minor

antithesis

to

the

verses

in

the

epigraph.

Bakathirs

satire

towardssuchcharacterswhomayexist inreal life isevidentwhenHikmatrefersto

herasa 20th

century lawyer.66

Thisalsoappears tobeasarcasticremark towards

what Bakathir considered to be modern values that oppose important religious

principles.Atanyrate,thiswasbasedonaparticularinterpretationoftheversethat

seemstohavebeeninfluencedbythesocietalcontext.

Styleandintendedmeaning

Unlikeal

Silsila

wa

al

Ghufran,

which

is

apioneering

allegorical

play,

Bakathir

employs amuchmore direct approach for alDukturHazim.Asmentioned earlier,

Badawibelievesthatthemainthemeoftheplay isthedisastrousaffectsofparents

interferingwiththeirchildrens lives.Heseemstohavemissed themainpoint.The

playhas tobeunderstood in the lightof the verses in theepigraphand the verse

whichstatesthathusbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives.Takingeverything into

consideration, thatplayappearstoaddress two importantaspectsofdomestic life:

(1) the requirement to be dutiful to parents and obey them regardless of their

shortcomings;and(2)thatmen,asheadsofhouseholds,haveaspecificroletolook

afterwomen.Theminor themesof theplay include theone identifiedbyBadawi,

obedience

to

the

husband,

the

need

to

be

strong

willed

and

determined

in

the

face

oflifeschallenges,theneedtorepentandtheneedtochooseaspouseonthebasis

ofreligion,integrityandcharacter,notwealth.

Clearly, this play attempts to address all the primary relationships in a

domesticsettingnamely,betweenparentandchild,spouseandspouse,siblingand

siblingandrelationswithinlaws.Bakathirwashimselfawarethathehadattempted

to tackle toomany issuesand that,asa result, theplaymaybeperceived to lack

unityandeffect.67

ThisisdespitethefactthatBakathirhimselftriedtofocusontwo

keyissues,namely:1)whoshouldtakeresponsibilityforthehouseholdifthefatheris

weakand irrationalwhiletheson isotherwise;and2)whetheramotherinlawhas

therighttointerfereinhersoninlawsaffairs.68

Indeed,thethemesandcharacters

changeincessantlythroughouttheplay,butsincethiswasBakathirsfirstattemptto

writeoncontemporarysocial issues, itappears tobeacaseofsimply trying tosay

toomuchthefirsttime.Theotherthreeofhisworksonsuchissues,alDunyaFawda

(TheChaoticWorld,1952),Qitatwa Firan (Cats andMice, 1962) andGulfadan

Hanim (LadyGulfadan, 1962),werewrittenmuch later.Nevertheless, the play is

sufficiently held together by the verses and the playwrights intentions are still

conveyedasaresult(providedthatoneunderstandsthesignificanceoftheversesin

thefirstplace).


67Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3134.

68Bakathir,FannalMasrahiyya,pp.3334.


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22

Bakathir seems to be addressing the social problem of children neglecting

theirparentswhomayhavewronged them in certainways. Through theQuranic

versesandtheplay,heattemptstoconvincehisaudiencethattheyshallalwayshave

a

religious

obligation

to

their

parents

no

matter

what;

a

duty

that

is

often

coupled

with theworshipofGod in theQuran.69

Evenafterone ismarried, thisobligation

continuesaseventhecharacterAmina,reluctantlyacknowledges.70

Theelementsof

repentance, commitment and strong will the main themes of alSilsila wa al

GhufransimplyreflectthereligiositypresentinallofBakathirsworks.Theissueof

choosingarighteoushusbandislinkeddirectlytomenwhoknowtheirresponsibility

towardstheirparents.Hikmatsaysthatifgivenachoice,betweenamanwholooks

afterhisfatherandhisfamilyandonewhodoesnot,shewillchoosetheformerfor

herdaughter.71

Bakathir portrayal ofwomen asweak and requiring the protection ofmen

maybe seenasa little farfetchedat times.Hisstaunchopposition to thegrowing

influenceoffeminismaswellasapatriarchalreadingofhusbandsshalltakefullcare

oftheirwivesappearstohavebeenthecause.InthefinalsceneofalDukturHazim,

thewomenappeargullible, irrational,manipulatedandmocked.Forexample,Sabri

admiresthefactthatHazimdoesnotallowwomentoplayaroundwithhisaffairs.72

Whenhequotestheverse,afteroutfoxinghiswifeanddaughter,hesays:Allpraise

isduetoGod,wearevictorious.AllpraisesbelongtoGod,Hehasspokenthetruth.

[Indeed,thatiswhy]husbandsshalltakefullcareoftheirwives.

Theaboveelementofcomedyisnotentirelyinnocentandcouldhaveworked

againstBakathir.Essentially,heisbeingcriticalofthemodernwomanandseemsto

imply thatawomanwillalwaysbeawoman,that is,herrole isdifferenttothatof

men.She

should

not

seek

to

change

her

role

in

society.

However,

that

being

said,

it

was not Bakathirs intention to mock women; rather, he was attempting to

emphasisethedifferentrolesmenandwomenplayinsociety.Additionally,Bakathir

wasbeingcriticalanddismissiveoffeminism,whichhewouldexpectedlyopposedue

to his Islamicmindset.Next, the relevant versemerely states the responsibilityof

men towardswomen and shouldnotbeexploited.Rather,men should realise the

extentoftheirresponsibilitytowardswomen.Infact,Bakathirseemstoimplythatif

menhavethe upperhand inthismatter,thenwomen,asevident intheverseshe

citesintheepigraph,haveagreaterrightasamother.Atanyrate,Bakathirsoverall

concernforthestatusandroleofwomenwashighlightedinhisfirstplay,Humam,as

mentionedpreviously.

Intendedaudience

AlDukturHazimplaywasdirectedatcontemporaryArabsocietyandsuggests that

the many problems within the society are a direct result of numerous domestic

69See,forinstance,Quran,31:1314.





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23

problems. Thismay explainwhyBakathir attempted to address somany domestic

issues in one play. More specifically, however, Bakathir intended this play for a

Muslimaudience.Theversesdiscussedpreviouslyareusedtooutlinetherightsand

responsibilities

of

key

members

within

an

ideal

Muslim

family.

Bakathir

wants

parents,children,husbandsandwivestotakeheedoftheseversesandunderstand

theirrespectiveroles.Likewise,conceptssuchasrepentanceandchoosingtheright

spouseonthebasisofIslamicvaluesappealtoadevoutMuslimaudience.Eventhe

versementionedbyBuyumiinacomicalsettinghasadeeperconnotation;73

firstly,it

clearly reflectsBakathirs strongQuranicmindset to theextent thatheuses it for

lighterelementsofaplayand,secondly,heseemstobedemonstratinghowMuslims

shouldthinkusingtheQuraninallsituations.

Abriefevaluation:The significanceand impactofQuranicverses in the literaryworksofBakathirSincehisfirstplay,Humam,Bakathir invariablyusedQuranicversesasepigraphsto

hisplaysandnovels.Even forstoriesbasedonevents indirectlyrelated to Islamor

thosethatoccurredbeforeIslam,hewouldstilldoso.Bakathiroftendrewinspiration

frommyth, legend, folkloreandArabicand Islamichistory inorder tocommenton

themodernworld.Heusedthepastasametaphorforthepresentandpreferredthis

approachto

dealing

with

contemporary

issues

in

adirect

manner.

Due

to

his

commitment to Islam,BakathirgenerallyavoidedcolloquialArabic inhispublished

works,whichmadehisexpressionsomewhatstiltedandturgid formodernthemes,

lackingtheimmediacyofspokenspeech.74

Bakathirhimselfadmitsthatduetothis

concern,hedidnotfeellikewritingmanyplaysonmodernsocialthemes.75

However,

toaddressthisproblem,Bakathirusedtowritehisplaysoncontemporarylifetwice;

thefirsttimeincolloquialEgyptianArabicandthesecondtimeinclassicalArabicfor

publication. AnexampleofthisisalDunyaFawda.76

For works based on myth, legend or folklore, Bakathir uses verses in the

epigraphtoprovide Islamic interpretationsforhischosenthemes.77

Forexample, in

theplay

Ikhnatun

wa

Nafirtiti

(1938),

he

ends

up

portraying

Akhenaton

(also,

Ikhnaton)asanIslamiccharacterwhocallstotheworshipofOneGod.However,his

main shortcomingwas that he refused to use forcewhen required to defend the




76BakathirmentionedthisinaTVinterviewinApril1969(detailsunavailable).Asaresultof

this interestingapproach,Bakathir left twoplays,ShalabyaandArayiswa Irsan,entirely in

colloquialEgyptianArabicashepassedawaybeforehavingtheopportunitytorewritethem

informalArabicforpublication.77

Otherworks in thisgenre includealFirawnalMawud (ThePromisedPharoah,1945),

MismarJuha(JuhasNail,1951)andSirrShahrazad(TheSecretofShahrazad,1953).


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24

truth.78

This refusal to fight thosewho opposed him led to his eventual downfall.

Therearethreemajorstepstonotehere.Firstly,theversesplayasignificantrolein

Islamising the story for the intended audience (and, possibly, for Bakathir

beforehand)

but

they

may

or

may

not

be

the

basis

of

the

story.

Secondly,

this

then

leadstoacommentontheconditionoftheMuslimsintheArabIslamicworld.Inthe

caseof IkhnatunwaNafirtiti,Bakathir implies that faith is inadequate ifone isnot

goingtofightwhenrequiredtodefendthetruth(similartotheviewsoftheMuslim

Brotherhood). And, finally, the audience is left with Bakathirs intended meaning

(usually a commenton any issue involving theMuslims)which isalwaysbasedon

Islamicteachings.

Theabove isalsothecasewithBakathirsplay,MasaUdib (TheTragedyof

Oedipus,1949),which isbasedontheGreek legendofOedipusbut isconsiderably

adapted foraMuslimaudience.79

Thus,thesignificanceand impactoftheQuranic

verseswithinthisgenrecanroughlybedescribedbytheabovementionedthreestep

process.HamidtermsthisasBakathirsspecialexegesis(altafsiralkhass)ofQuranic

verses.80

Bakathir alsowrote a play,HarutwaMarut (1962), based on aQuranic

story.Yetagain,theQuranicversesmayormaynotbethebasisforstoryline;rather,

the foundation may simply be Bakathirs motivation to address issues of interest

fromanIslamicperspective.

ForworksbasedonArabicandIslamicHistory,suchasWaIslamah(1945),al

ThairalAhmar (1948),SirralHakimbiAmrilla (TheSecretofalHakimbiAmrilla,

1947)81

and alMalhamaalIslamiyyaalKubra (1961), theprocesses and dynamics

involvingQuranicversesaredifferent.82

Forthisgenre,theprocessofIslamisationis

not required; rather, theversesarequoted toenhance the reallifecharactersand

stories.For

example,

in

al

Thair

al

Ahmar,

Bakathir

focuses

on

the

story

of

Hamdan

Qarmat, a communist ideologue, during a time when there were raging conflicts

betweenCapitalist,Communistand Islamist ideologies inKufa.Eventually, through

Abu alBaqa alBaghdadi,who calls for a return to the application ofjust Islamic

principles, Islamprevails in the land.Bakathir paysparticular attention toworking

classdynamicsinthenovel,whichmakesitmoreapplicabletoArabMuslimsociety.83

TheQuranicversesused insuchworksdonotseemtoformthebasisfortheplot.

Instead,throughthesestories,Bakathirintendsto:1)portraytheidealapplicationof

theversesusedinaparticularwork;and2)educatetheintendedaudienceaboutthe

grandeurofIslamichistory, implyingthat ifMuslimsofthepastachievedsuccessby

followingQuranic

injunctions,

so

too

will

Muslims

in

modern

times.

78Hamid,RiyadaBakathir.

79SeeHamid, RiyadaBakathir;Badawi,ModernArabicDrama,pp.1189.Anotherwork in

thisgenreisUziris(Osiris,1959)basedontheOsirismyth.80

Hamid,RiyadaBakathir.81

AlHakim biAmrillawas the common name for alMansurAbuAli (9961021), the first

FatimidImambornonEgyptianSoil.82

OtherworksinincludeDarIbnLuqman(TheHouseoftheSonofLuqman,1960),alFallah

alFasih (The Eloquent Peasant, 1965) and alDuda wa alThuban (The Worm and the

Snake,1967).83

Sakkut,TheEgyptianNovel,p.71.


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25

Finally, forworksbasedoncontemporaryor timeneutral issues,Bakathirs

useofQuranicversesisevenmoresignificant;theversesmayevenbethebasisfor

thestorylineandcharactersasobserved inthetwoplaysanalysed inthisresearch.

This

is

also

the

case

for

works

dealing

with

political

issues

in

the

Arab

world

during

Bakathirs time. In suchworks,Bakathirmainly toucheson theArabIsraeliconflict

andisextremelycriticalofZionism,MarxismandCommunismwhilstemphasisingan

Islamicalternative.84

Bakathirpersonallyargued that literaturewas first and foremost aworkof

art.85

HeadvisedhisfellowIslamicwriterstoensurethattheirzealforIslamdidnot

compromisethisfact.86

However,hemayhavefallenshortinfulfillinghisownadvice

to others; his strong religious commitment and heavy reliance onQuranic verses

havesuchasignificantbearingonhisworks,which iswhereBadawicriticiseshim.87

However, fromanotherperspectiveandcontrarytowhatBakathirwrotehimself,a

pieceof literaturecanbea significant representationofanauthorscommentson

aspects of the individual and the society, especially if s/he strictly abides by a

particular ideology. If manywriters choose to write for a specific audience, then

surelyBakathirhasthelibertytotargetaMuslimaudience.And,itwouldbeunfairto

judge his works from within a different paradigm as Bakathirs literature is best

understoodfromwithintheMuslimexperience,particularlythecontextoftheArab

Islamicworld during his period of authorship. From this perspective, the religious

implicationsinhisworksarepurelyacceptable.

Finally, at times, the verses in the epigraphs provide an immediate

expectationof themoral lessonsand themesbehindeachwork.On theonehand,

theworkbecomespredictable,but from theperspectiveof the intendedaudience,

thiscreates

an

immediate

affection

to

the

story

and

draws

their

attention.

ConclusionIn summary, thispaperhasdemonstrated thegreat importanceand impactof the

Quranicversesfound inmanyofBakathirsnovelsandplays,whichareoftensocial

commentaries. Inmoreglaringcases,suchasalSilsilawaalGhufranandalDuktur

Hazim,theseversesmayevenformthebasisofthewholestory, includingtheplot,

thecharactersand the intendedmessage. Inothercases, the impactof theverses

maybe less,butthere isalwaysanIslamicmessagethatBakathirwishestoconvey,

whichisareflectionofhisstrongreligiousidealsandQuranicmindsetthroughwhich

he evaluates society. The strongQuranic influences in hisworks demonstrate his

84SeeBadawi,ModernArabicDrama,pp.12629.TheseworksincludeShaylukalJadid(The

NewSherlock,1944),ShabullaalMukhtar (GodsChosenPeople,1956), Ilah Israil (The

Lord of Israel, 1959), Imbiraturiyyafi alMazad (Empire for Auction, 1952), alZaim al

Awhad(TheSupremeLeader,1959)andHablalGhasil(1965).85


Hamid,RiyadaBakathir.87



29/30



26

commitment to work for Islam and the Arabs. He wanted them to realise the

importanceofremainingfaithfultoIslamastheonlymeanstoachievesuccess.

Certainly, some literary critics may consider Bakathirs unwavering use of

Quranic

verses

and

his

strong

religious

mindset

as

distracting

and

a

detrimental

limitationtohisworks.But fordevoutMuslims,this is far fromthecase;rather,an

immediate affection is formedwhen a recognisableQuranic verse is cited at key

momentsintheliterature.However,thisverynatureofBakathirsworksmayactually

lend itself to a classic example of converting the already converted. If his main

intention was to criticise, evaluate, comment on and initiate a change in society

through hiswritings, his predictable approach andmindsetmay only appeal to a

certainclassofMuslimswhomayalreadysharehisviews,notthosewhoascribetoa

different ideology. Indeed, his recorded intellectual stoushes with the Marxist,

CommunistandLiberalistArabgroups,forinstance,areaperfectjustificationofthis

point. Nonetheless, such ideological clashes are not surprising considering the

religiouslyandpoliticallymotivatednatureofBakathirsworks

Asan Islamicdramatistandnovelist,Bakathirhas contributedgreatly to its

establishment and development, and he is often viewed as the pioneer of Islamic

literature.HiscontributionstomodernArabicliteraturearemanifestedinthevarious

styleshepioneeredandexperimentedwith.Hisprolificwritingo

nceis research paper vol1no3 hassim

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