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Neoclassical Art in France

• Understand the formal elements of classical art and their revival in 19th century.

• Examine the adaptation of classical and mythological subject matter.

2Figure 26-24 ANGELICA KAUFFMANN, Cornelia Presenting Her Children as Her Treasures, or Mother of the Gracchi, ca.

1785. Oil on canvas, 3’ 4” x 4’ 2”. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond (the Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund).

26-23A ANTON RAPHAEL MENGS, Parnassus, painting on the ceiling in the Villa Albani, Rome, Italy, 1761. Fresco, 10’ X 20’.3

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Figure 26-25 JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID, Oath of the Horatii, 1784. Oil on canvas, approx. 10’ 10” x 13’ 11”.

Louvre, Paris.

18th Century – Neo-ClassicismNapoleon in his Study1812Paris, FranceArtist: DavidSurrounded by objects

to celebrate his accomplishments Napoleon attempted to portray himself as a Roman Emperor

Jacques-Louis DavidDeath of SocratesParis, France1787

Classical objects were inspired by those found in Pompeii

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Figure 26-26 JACQUES-

LOUIS DAVID, The Death of Marat, 1793.

Oil on canvas,. 5’ 5”

x 4’ 2 1/2”. Musées

Royaux des Beaux-Arts de

Belgique, Brussels.

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Neoclassical Architecture and Sculpture

• Examine classical revival in architecture and how it was used in Western Europe and the United States (Federal style).

• Observe the influence of Palladio on Neoclassical architecture.

• Recall the significance of the discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum on Neoclassical art

• Analyze Neoclassical sculpture for its classical references and stylistic qualities

Figure 26-27 JACQUES-GERMAIN SOUFFLOT, Pantheon (Sainte-

Genevieve), Paris, France, 1755-1792.

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Figure 26-28 RICHARD BOYLE and WILLIAM KENT, Chiswick House, near

London, England, begun 1725.

26-27A HORACE WALPOLE and others, Strawberry Hill,

Twickenham, England, 1749–1777. 13

Figure 26-28A James Stuart, Doric portico, Hagley Park,

Worchestershire, England, 1758.

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26-29 HENRY FLITCROFT and HENRY HOARE, the park at Stourhead, England, 1743–1765.

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Figure 26-23 ROBERT ADAM, Etruscan Room, Osterley Park House, Middlesex, England, begun 1761. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Jean-Antoine HoudonVoltaireParis, France1778marble18 7/8 in. highVoltaire was a master of Enlightenment philosophy – here he is seen in old age

Figure 26-32 JEAN-ANTOINE HOUDON, George Washington, 1788-1792. Marble, 6’ 2” high. State

Capitol, Richmond.

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Figure 26-33 HORATIO GREENOUGH, George Washington, 1840. Marble, 11’ 4” high.

Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.

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The Neoclassical in the United Statesa.k.a. Federal Style

• Examine Neoclassical or Federal Style as the national style of architecture in the United States in the early 19th century.

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Figure 26-30 THOMAS JEFFERSON, Monticello, Charlottesville, United States, 1770–1806.

Figure 26-31 THOMAS JEFFERSON, Rotunda and Lawn, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1819-1826.22

Jacques-Germain SoufflotThe Panthéon (Sainte-Geneviève)Paris, France1755-1792Originally a church turned into a Temple of Reason under Napoleon – now a mausoleum

Karl Gotthard LanghansBrandenburg GateBerlin, Germany1788-91Similar to triumphal arch and temple facade

Washington D.C. and Neo-Classical Art and Architecture

Capitol Building

Capitol Rotunda

Capital Rotunda Fresco

Another View

Closeup of Washington as God

Washington as Zeus

Washington Momument

Statue of Freedom on Capitol

White House

Supreme Court

Jefferson Memorial

Lincoln Memorial

Scottish Rite House of the Temple

Library of Congress – Great Hall

Library of Congress – Reading Room

Religious Freedom/SeparationThe most advanced affirmations of religious liberty at the

time of the founding of the republic, Thomas Jefferson’s Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom (submitted to the Virginia legislature in 1779 and enacted 1786) and James Madison’s Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessment (1785), were not widely known until our century.

Even the hallowed phrase that the First Amendment built "a wall of separation between church and state" saw the light of day not in a court ruling or piece of legislation, but in a letter from President Jefferson to the Danbury, Connecticut, Baptist Association in 1802.

It was in 1878 in the Mormon polygamy decision that the Supreme Court accorded this principle legal recognition.

Religious Freedom/Separation During the 19th century, evangelical Protestants saw separation as a

cornerstone of American freedom -- but interpreted it in the light of their own pre-eminent position in society.

It kept the Catholics away from public education, so the evangelicals used it to keep religions “unlike theirs” out of government.

But as pluralism increased and evangelical predominance eroded, a broader understanding of the limits of religious freedom became necessary.

Accordingly, more and more evangelicals have reacted against the doctrine, and some now completely reject it. For instance, Christian television talk show host Pat Robertson angrily declared on the "700 Club" in October 1981 that the wall of separation between church and state was a concept recently created by the federal courts, not the Founding Fathers, and that it was "a deliberate attempt to bring the United States into line with the Constitution, not of the U.S., but of the U.S.S.R."

Religious Freedom/SeparationThere are a number of ways in which evangelicals are

whittling away at the doctrine of separation, and in effect are "standing the founding fathers on their heads.“

However, they are all based upon the myth that ‘America is a Christian nation” and that the Founding Fathers were all Christian.

However, these statements are patently false as shown by the following quotes, art works and ideals put forth in the founding times of our nation

Roger Williams“No civil state or

country can be truly called Christian, although the Christians be in it.”

Roger Williams, founder of Rhode Island Colony, 1648

Robert IngersollThe hands that help are

better far than lips that pray.

Nothing could be more idiotic and absurd than the doctrine of the trinity.

Robert Ingersoll, American Civil War Veteran, Politician 1868

Thomas Jefferson "Believing with you that religion is a

matter which lies solely between man and his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legislative powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between church and State."

-Thomas Jefferson, letter to Danbury Baptist Association, CT., Jan. 1, 1802

Thomas Jefferson "And the day will come when the mystical generation of Jesus, by the

supreme being as his father in the womb of a virgin will be classed with the fable of the generation of Minerve in the brain of Jupiter."

-Thomas Jefferson, Letter to John Adams, April 11, 1823 It is between fifty and sixty years since I read the Apocalypse, and I then

considered it merely the ravings of a maniac, no more worthy, nor capable of explanation than the incoherences of our own nightly dreams.... what has no meaning admits no explanation.-- Thomas Jefferson, to Alexander Smyth, January 17, 1825

"Shake off all the fears of servile prejudices, under which weak minds are servilely crouched. Fix reason firmly in her seat, and call on her tribunal for every fact, every opinion. Question with boldness even the existence of a God; because, if there be one, he must more approve of the homage of reason than that of blindfolded fear."

Thomas Jefferson"I have examined all the known superstitions of the

world and I do not find in our particular superstition of Christianity one redeeming feature. They are all alike founded on fables and mythology. Millions of innocent men, women, and children, since the introduction of Christianity, have been burnt, tortured, fined, and imprisoned. What has been the effect of this coercion? To make one half the world fools and the other half hypocrites; to support roguery and error all over the earth."

Thomas Jefferson –Separation of Church and State

"Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church and State." --Letter to the Danbury (Conn.) Baptist Association, January 1, 1802

Religions and Taxes - Jefferson "[T]o compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation

of opinions which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical; that even the forcing of him to support this or that teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable liberty of giving his contributions to the particular pastor whose morals he would make his pattern, and whose powers he feels most persuasive to righteousness....Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly, That no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain their opinions in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities." --Excerpts from Jefferson's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, 1786

Government Sponsored Prayer - Jefferson

"I do not believe it is for the interest of religion to invite the civil magistrate to direct its exercises, its discipline, or its doctrines; nor of the religious societies, that the General Government should be invested with the power of effecting any uniformity of time or matter among them. Fasting and prayer are religious exercises; the enjoining them an act of discipline. Every religious society has a right to determine for itself the times for these exercises, and the objects proper for them, according to their own particular tenets; and the right can never be safer than in their hands, where the Constitution has deposited it." --Letter to Samuel Miller, January 23, 1808

George Washington Washington said that every man "ought

to be protected in worshipping the Deity according to the dictates of his own conscience."

There is nothing which can better deserve our patronage than the promotion of science and literature. Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of public happiness. George Washington, address to Congress, 8 January, 1790

If they are good workmen, they may be from Asia, Africa or Europe; they may be Mahometans, Jews, Christians of any sect, or they may be Atheists.... George Washington, to Tench Tighman, March 24, 1784

George Washington ...I beg you be persuaded that no one would be more zealous than

myself to establish effectual barriers against the horrors of spiritual tyranny, and every species of religious persecution. George Washington, to United Baptists Churches of Virginia, May, 1789

As the contempt of the religion of a country by ridiculing any of its ceremonies, or affronting its ministers or votaries, has ever been deeply resented, you are to be particularly careful to restrain every officer from such imprudence and folly, and to punish every instance of it. On the other hand, as far as lies in your power, you are to protect and support the free exercise of religion of the country, and the undisturbed enjoyment of the rights of conscience in religious matters, with your utmost influence and authority. George Washington, to Benedict Arnold, September 14, 1775

John Adams "The doctrine of the divinity of Jesus is

made a convenient cover for absurdity."

Adams signed the Treaty of Tripoli. Article 11 states "The Government of the United States is not in any sense founded on the Christian religion."

"Where do we find a precept in the Bible for Creeds, Confessions, Doctrines and Oaths, and whole cartloads of other trumpery that we find religion encumbered with in these days?"

"Twenty times in the course of my late reading, have I been upon the point of breaking out, "this would be the best of all possible worlds, if there were no religion in it."

John Adams in defense of the Constitution

"The United States of America have exhibited, perhaps, the first example of governments erected on the simple principles of nature; and if men are now sufficiently enlightened to disabuse themselves of artifice, imposture, hypocrisy, and superstition, they will consider this event as an era in their history. Although the detail of the formation of the American governments is at present little known or regarded either in Europe or in America, it may hereafter become an object of curiosity. It will never be pretended that any persons employed in that service had interviews with the gods, or were in any degree under the influence of Heaven, more than those at work upon ships or houses, or laboring in merchandise or agriculture; it will forever be acknowledged that these governments were contrived merely by the use of reason and the senses.

Thomas Paine "Among the most detesable villains in

history, you could not find one worse than Moses. Here is an order, attributed to 'God' to butcher the boys, to massacre the mothers, and to debauch and rape the daughters. I would not dare so dishonor my Creator's name by (attaching) it to this filthy book (the Bible)."

"The Christian church has set up a religion of pomp and revenue in pretend imitation of a person (Jesus) who lived a life of poverty."

"It is the duty of every true Diest to vindicate the moral justice of God against the evils of the Bible."

Thomas Paine from Age of Reason

I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish church, by the Roman church, by the Greek church, by the Turkish church, by the Protestant church, nor by any church that I know of...Each of those churches accuse the other of unbelief; and for my own part, I disbelieve them all."

James Madison "What influence in fact have Christian

ecclesiastical establishments had on civil society? In many instances they have been upholding the thrones of political tyrrany. In no instance have they been seen as the guardians of the liberties of the people. Rulers who wished to subvert the public liberty have found in the clergy convenient auxiliaries. A just government, instituted to secure and perpetuate liberty, does not need the clergy."

Madison objected to state-supported chaplains in Congress and to the exemption of churches from taxation. He wrote "Religion and government will both exist in greater purity, the less they are mixed together."

Patrick Henry "It cannot be emphasized too

strongly or too often that this great nation was founded not by religionists but by Christians, not on religion but on the Gospel of Jesus Christ. We shall not fight alone. God presides over the destinies of nations.“

Henry was an anti-federalist, and vigorously opposed the Constitution when Virginia discussed ratification. Quoting Henry to prove things about the constitution is like quoting the chairman of the Republican National Committee to prove things about the platform of the Democratic party.

Benjamin Franklin ". . . Some books against Deism

fell into my hands. . . It happened that they wrought an effect on my quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a through Deist.”

Lighthouses are more helpful then churches.

"I have found Christian dogma unintelligible. Early in life I absented myself from Christian assemblies."

Abraham Lincoln “The Bible is not my book, and

Christianity is not my religion. I could never give assent to the long, complicated statements of Christian dogma.”

My earlier views of the unsoundness of the Christian scheme of salvation and the human origin of the scriptures, have become clearer and stronger with advancing years and I see no reason for thinking I shall ever change them.

Abraham LincolnWhen the Know-Nothings get control, it [the

Declaration of Independence] will read: "All men are created equal except negroes, foreigners and Catholics." When it comes to this I should prefer emigrating to some country where they make no pretense of loving liberty -- to Russia, for instance, where despotism can be taken pure, and without the base alloy of hypocrisy.

Susan B Anthony“What you should say

to outsiders is that a Christian has neither more nor less rights in our Association than an atheist. When our platform becomes too narrow for people of all creeds and of no creeds, I myself shall not stand upon it.”

Ethan Allen – Officer American Revolution

"I have generally been dominated a Deist, the reality of which I never disputed, being conscious I am no Christian, except mere infant baptism makes me one; and as to being a Deist, I know not strictly speaking, whether I am one or not."

Other early American quotes In a sermon of October 1831, Episcopalian minister Bird Wilson said,

"Among all of our Presidents, from Washington downward, not one was a professor of religion, at least not of more than Unitarianism."

After Washington's death, Dr. Abercrombie, a friend of his, replied to a Dr. Wilson, who had interrogated him about Washington's religion replied, "Sir, Washington was a Deist.“

It should be noted that much of the Washington myth began in 1800 with the Parson Weems biography of Washington using some evangelical spin. This biography, and the stories surrounding it, was disputed after its publication by people like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison as well as many others. Weems was the same author who first wrote of the cherry tree story that he admitted was based on hearsay. Weems had a low standard as a historian and truth-teller even among his own Episcopal clergy. Yet Weems book remained popular well into the 1820’s and beyond.

Other information When John Murray (a universalist who denied the existence of hell) was

invited to become an army chaplain, the other chaplains petitioned Washington for his dismissal. Instead, Washington gave him the appointment. On his deathbed, Washington uttered no words of a religious nature and did not call for a clergyman to be in attendance.

Jefferson went so far as to produce a revised New Testament deleting all references to miracles and portraying Jesus as just a extraordinary man and a powerful moral leader.

The name of Jesus Christ is not mentioned even once in the vast collection of Washington's published letters. He refers to Providence in numerous letters, but he used the term as a synonym for Destiny or Fate. Bishop White, who knew him well for many years, wrote after Washington's death that he had never heard him express an opinion on any religious subject. He added that although Washington was "serious and attentive" in church, he never saw him kneel in prayer.

Other Information1864 – In God We trust added to coins money because

of the fear that the United States would be destroyed and future generations would not know we believed in god

1954 – Under God added to the Pledge of Allegiance with pressure from Knights of Colombus and Senator McCarthy

1956 – In God We trust adopted as US motto during the Cold War to separate us from ‘godless Soviets’

1957 – In God we Trust added to paper money

Religious Freedom/Separation

A whole contingent of evangelicals has arrived on the scene, hoping to bring down the wall of separation between church and state. That their campaign to bring America "back to God" will, if successful, mean the imposition of their deeply felt religious values upon the nation at large goes without saying.

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Discussion Questions

Compare and contrast Rococo and Neoclassical art in terms of subject matter and stylistic features.

Why did European tastes in art change in the mid-18th century? How did this make for a smoother transition toward Neoclassicism?

Why did Neoclassicism appeal to political leaders in the 19th century?

Was the Federal style an appropriate choice for architecture in the fledgling United States?