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P R E S E RVATI O NOF TH E FROZEN TOMBS OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NSP R E S E RVATI O N

OF TH E FROZEN TOMBS OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NSP R E S E RVATI O N





OF TH E FROZEN TOMBS OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NSP R E S E RVATI O NOF TH E FROZEN TOMBS OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NSP R E S E RVATI O N

OF TH E FROZEN TOMBS OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NS

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The views expressed in the articles contained inthis publication are those of the authors and notnecessarily those of UNESCO.

Staff Head in the Formof Large Gryphon’s Headwith a Deer’s Head in itsBeak. Wood and leather;carved. H. 35 cm PazyrykCulture. 5th century bc.Inv. no. 1684/170.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

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Table of ContentsForeword Koïchiro Matsuura 9

Introduction J. Han 11

Maps and Chronology 16 –17

C H A P T E R I SCYTH IANS I N TH E EURASIAN STEPPE AN D TH E PLACE OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NS I N IT

The Scythians: Nomadic Horsemen of the Eurasian Steppe H. Parzinger 19

The Frozen Scythian Burial Complexes of the Altai Mountains: Conservation and Survey Issues V.I. Molodin 25

Culture and Landscape in the High Altai E. Jacobson-Tepfer 31

Ancient Altai Culture and its Relationship to Historical Asian Civilizations H. P. Francfort 35

The Silk Roads and the Road of the Steppes: Eurasia and the Scythian World P. Cambon 41

C H A PT E R I I UN ESCO PROJECT PRESERVATION OF FROZEN TOMBS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS

Background to UNESCO Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains Project and Perspectives for Transboundary Protection through the World Heritage Convention J. Han 49

UNESCO-Sponsored Field Campaigns in the Russian and Kazakh Altai J. Bourgeois and W. Gheyle 55

Climate Change and its Impact on the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains S. Marchenko 61

CHAPTER I I I CHALLENGE FOR CONSERVATION AN D DEVELOPMENT

The Altai: Heartland of Asia Y.P. Badenkov 65

Excavation and Sampling Techniques in the Frozen Tombs of Kazakhstan J. Vasquez 67

Recommendations of the Gorno-Altaisk UNESCO Workshop, March 2006. 73

Afterword Ivan Belekov 77

Acknowledgements 79

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ForewordKoïchiro Matsuura

Director-General of UNESCO

The safeguarding and protection of the world’s cultural heritage has long been considered oneof UNESCO’s foremost achievements. Since its creation some 60 years ago, the Organization has

responded to numerous threats confronting heritage, whether they result from armed conflicts, natural disasters, uncontrolled modernization, touristic development or other factors. In recent years,a new threat has emerged as the focus of great international concern, namely climate change. In keep-ing with its mission to safeguard the world’s cultural diversity, UNESCO has consistently sought to riseto all of these challenges over the past six decades.

In this context, the project presented in this booklet – the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of theAltai Mountains – is especially timely. Undertaken by UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre in collabora-tion with a distinguished international team of partners, this initiative is among the first of its kind,addressing, as it does, urgent cultural issues related to the environment and climate change. As statedin its title, the project’s principal aim is to ensure the preservation and conservation of the remarkablefrozen tombs that lie scattered across the Altai Mountains, which spread over China, Kazakhstan,Mongolia and the Russian Federation. These ancient tombs, or kurgans, contain unique relics of thevast Scythian civilization that once flourished on the Eurasian steppe and have been preserved intactin the permafrost, or frozen ground for over 2,500 years. The tombs contain the remains of mummifiedhuman bodies and sacrificed horses, as well as a range of everyday artefacts including saddles, furni-ture and textiles.

However, these precious objects are now under threat from various factors, most notably globalwarming, which is precipitating the meltdown of the permafrost that has guaranteed their preser-vation over millennia. To meet such new challenges, the World Heritage Committee requested theWorld Heritage Centre to develop a number of innovative strategies to assist States Parties to moreeffectively deal with the consequences of climate change on cultural and natural sites. The outcomesof the project on the frozen tombs of the Altai Mountains have been very useful in the process of elab-orating such strategies.

It is my hope that the project for the preservation of the Frozen Tombs will inspire those countrieswith territory in the Altai Mountain range to strengthen their efforts to safeguard the region’simmense heritage. We are pleased to note that the Russian portion of the Altai Mountains wasinscribed as a natural site on the World Heritage List in 1998. UNESCO heartily encourages all of thecountries concerned to work together to ensure that the natural and the cultural value of the entireAltai Mountain region is recognized internationally and protected accordingly.

Thus far, this project has served to focus wider international attention on the larger problems confronting other natural and cultural heritage sites affected by global warming and climate change.Indeed, this project has already enriched the international debate on this issue. I am confident thatthis booklet, with its insightful articles on the Altai region by several eminent specialists, will stimulatefurther reflection on matters related to conservation, sustainable development and climate change tothe benefit of heritage in other regions of the world.

I would like to express my gratitude to the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust for its generous contribution to this landmark project and to the publication of this booklet. My sincere thanks also goto all of the contributing authors and institutions, which have graciously lent their time and expertiseto ensuring the quality of this booklet.

Koïchiro Matsuura

Swan. Felt; applique.H. 30 cm PazyrykCulture. 5th - 4th

century bc.Inv. no. 1687/262.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

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The publication of this booklet marks theend of the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of

the Altai Mountains project, which was launchedin 2005 and carried out by the UNESCO WorldHeritage Centre with financial support from theUNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust (Fig. 1).

Until quite recently, issues surrounding thefrozen tombs of the Altai Mountains were knownabout by only a limited number of specialists, dueto difficulties of international access to regions ofthe former Soviet Union. The frozen tombs andmaterial contained in them constitute invaluableresearch material to shed light on the nomadicpeoples that inhabited the Eurasian Steppe in the first millennium bce, as well as on theirneighbouring civilizations, such as the PersianAchemaenid Empire.

Excavations carried out on the Scythian bar-rows lying between the Ural and Altai mountainranges in the 17th and 18th centuries ce, whichformed the basis of the collection put together by Peter the Great that is now in the StateHermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (Fig. 2),already yielded considerable information on theScythians and on the other nomadic tribes thatonce inhabited this region. However, certain cus-toms and cultural aspects of these peoples couldnot have been confirmed had it not been for exca-vations carried out in the frozen tombs of theAltai Mountains themselves. For this reason,these frozen tombs are invaluable for the light

their contents shed over what is still a little-known period in the history of the peoples thathave occupied the Eurasian steppe.

Over the last three years, the UNESCO proj-ect that this publication records has been successfully raising awareness of the importanceof frozen tombs of the Altai Mountains at interna-tional level. The aim of the present publication isboth to record this project and to shed furtherlight not only on the uniqueness of the tombs asresearch material, but also on the mountain land-scape, which shows how the nomadic peoples ofthis region have interacted with their naturalenvironment over the millennia.

The first section of this booklet deals withsome of these issues, looking at historical, anthro-pological, archaeological and art-historicalaspects of the Altai Mountains. The first article,“The Scythians: Nomadic Horsemen of theEurasian Steppe,” introduces the Scythians andwhat is known about them, taking readers fromthe coasts of the Black Sea to Tuva (the Republicof Tuva in the Russian Federation) on the south-ern edges of Siberia. It was in this region that theso-called “Scytho-Siberian style” of art is nowbelieved to have originated, thanks to the recentresearch carried out on the kurgan, or burialmound, Arzhan-2 in Tuva by a joint German andRussian team (H. Parzinger, Deutsches Archäo-logisches Institut (DAI) and K. Cugunov, StateHermitage Museum) (Fig. 3 and 4). By describing

Introduction Junhi Han

World Heritage Centre, Culture, UNESCO

Fig. 2 Comb with aScythians in Battle.Gold; cast and chased.12.6 x 10.2 cm Scythianculture. Late 5th - early4th century bc SolokhaBarrow.Inv. no. Dn-1913.1/1© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

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the position of the Altai in the broad context ofEurasia as a whole, the article serves as an intro-duction to those that follow dealing with specificthemes.

The second article, “The Frozen ScythianBurial Complexes of the Altai Mountains:Conservation and Survey Issues,” introduces twoof the most important valleys in the AltaiMountains, the Bashadar and Ukok Valleys,which are parts of the UNESCO World HeritageSite, and suggests future challenges in carryingout research on the frozen tombs that are locatedin them.

The third article, “Culture and Landscape inthe High Altai,” concerns the cultural landscape

of the Altai, providing readers with a chronologi-cal profile of the region. When travelling in theAltai, it is easy to appreciate the many humancivilizations that have flourished there over themillennia: Bronze and Iron Age structures arescattered across the landscape in the form of petroglyphs and deer-stones, as well as in theshape of the burial mounds themselves. LaterTurkic Period (ca. 500 to 900 ce) culture is repre-sented by the presence of beautiful anthropomor-phic standing stones, or balbals (Fig. 5, 6 and 7).The article describes how the combination ofarchaeological remains in the Altai from differentperiods in the last three millennia has given riseto a unique cultural landscape. This is, in part, a

Fig. 1 Archaeologicalremains in the GoldenMountains of Altai:burial mounds(kurgans), Bronze-Agestelae and stonecircles.© Gary Tepfer.

Fig. 3 and 4 Hair Pinsfrom the Arzhan-2kurgan, Tuva Republic,Russian Federation.© DeutschesArchäologischesInstitut, DAI, Berlin.

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landscape that is human-made, created over mil-lennia by people who had a profound knowledgeof the mountains. The objects that they have leftbehind convey their builders’ sensitivity to thecolours of nature and the textures of the stonesand other natural materials, shaping these tobecome the expressions of human culture.

Research carried out in the Altai Mountainsand in neighbouring areas has indicated thekinds of interaction and mutual influence thatonce existed between the Altai and neighbouringregions. It has also been suggested thattrade routes existed across the regionlong before the famous “SilkRoads” came to life that oncejoined East and West acrossEurasia. It is this aspect that the fourth article,“Ancient Altai Cultureand its Relationship toHistorical Asian Civili-zations,” concentrateson, providing a compar-ative analysis of objectsfrom the Altai, from the Xinjiang and Gansuregions of China, and fromthe ancient Persian Achae-menid Empire.

The last article in this sec-tion traces the influence of thePazyryk culture of the Altai

peoples on those further to the east and beyondsouthern Siberia. Objects (Fig. 8) found in thekobuns, or burial mounds, belonging to the earlyperiod of the Shilla Kingdom (ca. 57 bce to 668ce) in ancient Korea show striking similaritieswith those found in the frozen tombs of the AltaiMountains, as well as with objects discovered in the Central Asia, for example at Tillia Tepe inwhat is today’s northern Afghanistan. Magnif-icent treasures from this site were recently shownto the public for the first time at an exhibition

organized by the Musée Guimet in Paris(Afghanistan, Rediscovered Treasures:

Objects from the National Museumof Kabul) (Fig. 9). Objects

yielded from the Shillakobuns, consists of t he

items of weaponry, horse equipment and gold, formindeed the “Scythiantriad” found in the east-ernmost parts of theEurasian continent. This

raises the question ofwhether such similarcultural phenomenacould have coexistedwithout there at thesame time havingbeen connect ionsbetween Central and

Far East Asia.

Fig. 5 A balbal.© Gary Tepfer.

Fig. 6 Stone balbals:often found near theburial mounds, thesestanding stones, orbalbals, vary in shapefrom rough,unpolished stonesteles to skilfullycarvedanthropomorphicstone figures. They arethought to bememorial monuments(Turkic period,ca. 500-900 ce).© Gary Tepfer.

Fig. 7 A balbal, Gorno-Altaisk Museum,Republic of Altai.© UNESCO, J. Han.

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By searching for the “missing links” that onceconnected Central Asia to the Korean peninsular,the author of this article attempts to show that a“Route of the Steppes” could have existed acrossthis part of Asia in ancient times, joining CentralAsia with Far East Asia along the southern edgesof Siberia and through the Altai Mountains.Further study should now be carried out to fill inthis missing chapter in the history of the Eurasiancontinent, and this will have profound implica-tions for our understanding of the interactionsand extension of nomadic culture across theEurasian continent.

The booklet’s second section deals with thebackground and various technical aspects of theUNESCO project, along with future challengesfor research and conservation, including how tosafeguard the research material contained in thefrozen tombs. The project has helped produce adetailed inventory and map of the frozen tombsin certain parts of the Altai by using the mostmodern mapping techniques developed with theaid of satellite images. Such geophysical tech-niques have also been used to monitor the perma-frost in the Altai, and these are described in thearticles in section two.

The third section of the booklet describes var-ious challenges facing the Altai and the frozentombs. The first article, “The Altai: Heartland ofAsia,” examines how the sustainable develop-ment of the region might be pursued by incorpo-

rating insights from existing international pro-grammes, such as UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere(MAB) and World Heritage programmes, as wellas from other programmes linked to sustainabledevelopment. The challenge here is to arrive atan appropriate balance between the conservationof the Altai Mountains and their existing eco-system and rich archaeological heritage, and the development process, taking into account the social and economic needs of the local popu-lation. Finally, as a result of research on thefrozen materials found in the tombs, a relativelynew issue has emerged: how to conserve theorganic material that the tombs contain, includ-ing human bodies. The last article, “Excavationand Sampling Techniques in the Frozen Tombs ofKazakhstan,” deals with this subject.

Despite the wealth of information con-tributed by the authors of these articles, thisbooklet is nevertheless all too limited in scopeand detail when compared to the complexity ofthe issues facing the frozen tombs and the AltaiMountains as a whole and the challenge of pro-tecting them from various threats, including cli-mate change. However, it is our hope that it maycontribute to raising awareness of the fragileenvironment in which the tombs are found andthe natural and man-made threats currently con-fronting them, as well as of the need not only toprotect these sites at an international level, butalso to recognize their great cultural value. In thelight of this, the larger objective of the booklet isto draw the international community’s attentionto these crucial issues, in order that it may reflecton them and mobilize international resources forwhatever future actions are deemed necessary.

In closing, I should like to express my grati-tude to the Flanders Government of Belgium, notonly for its funding for the project, but also forthe support it has provided throughout. I alsoshould like to extend my gratitude to the Ministryof Information and Culture and to the NationalMuseum of Kabul (Islamic Republic ofAfghanistan), to the Musée Guimet (France), tothe Museum for Pre- and Early History, StaatlichMuseen zu Berlin, and to Bordon Art Design(Germany), and to the State Hermitage Museum(Russian Federation), for their cooperation in thepublication of the booklet. Finally, I would like toexpress my personal thanks to all the authors ofthe articles, who kindly accepted to contribute tothis publication in spite of their tight schedules.

Fig. 8 Shilla GoldenCrown from Kyungju,Shilla Kingdom,5th-6th century ce. GiltBronze, H: 59.5 cm;D. at base: 17 cm,MA 1642.National Museum ofKorea © Thierry Ollivier /Musée Guimet.

Fig. 9 Golden crown,Afghanistan, TilliaTepe, Tomb VI,1st century ce.Gold, 45.0 x 13.0 cm.MK 04.40.50.National Museum ofAfghanistan © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.

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P R E S E R VAT I O N O F T H E F R O Z E N T O M B S O F T H E A LTA I M O U N TA I N S

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Ca. 750: Arzhan 1 Ca. 600: Arzhan 2

Eurasian Steppe

P E R I O D O F F I R S

- 1 0 0 0 - 9 0 0 - 8 0 0 -7 0 0 - 6 0 0 - 5

B R O N Z E A G E

Chronology

Eurasian Steppe

Chronology

© BORDON / SMB

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Ca. 440-400: Tuekta 1 Ca. 314-311: Ulandryk 4Ca. 300-282: Pazyryk 2

Ca. 299: Pazyryk 3Ca. 295: Pazyryk 1

Ca. 294-293: Berel’ 11Ca. 274: Ak-AlakhaCa. 264: Pazyryk 4Ca. 250: Pazyryk 5

The Altai Mountains

F I R S T N O M A D S

- 5 0 0 - 4 0 0 - 3 0 0 - 2 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 A D

The Altai Mountains© BORDON / SMB

Locations of famous kurgans

From various recent publications.


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SCYTH IANS I N TH E EURASIAN STEPPEAN D TH E PLACE OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NS I N IT

CHAPTER 1SCYTH IANS I N TH E EURASIAN STEPPEAN D TH E PLACE OF TH E ALTAI MOUNTAI NS I N IT

C H A P T E R I • S C Y T H I A N S I N T H E E U R A S I A N S T E P P E A N D T H E P L A C E O F T H E A LTA I M O U N TA I N S I N I T

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O ver the past 300 years, kurgans from theScythian age have been discovered between

the Yenisei River in the east and the middleDanube in the west, drawing attention to themonumental burial mounds and highly deco-rated golden objects of the Eurasian nomadichorsemen that built them during the 1st millen-nium bce. Originating in southern Siberia in thelate 9th and early 8th centuries bce, and extendingduring the 7th century to Kazakhstan, the south-ern Urals, Russia and through the Ukrainiansteppe to the Carpathian Basin, the Scythiansand related horse-dependent nomadic peoples(the Sauromatae and Saka, etc.) were replacedby other peoples (the Xiongnu, Wusun andSarmatians) around 200 bce before finally disap-pearing from history.

The Ancient Greeks wrote about the extra-ordinary customs of the Scythians, and the his-torical tradition stated by Herodotus places theirorigins in Central Asia, southern Siberia and thenorthern borders of China and in areas whereour knowledge of them depends on archaeologi-cal sources.

Scythian life on the steppe depended onmobility since pastures had to be periodicallyrelocated to support the herds that representedwealth and prosperity, and therefore oftenneeded to be defended from other nomadicgroups. This led to the stratification and milita-rization of nomadic society, which furtherincreased the importance of the warrior horse-men. However, the many Scythian forts to thenorth of the Black Sea indicate settlement, craftsmanship and even agriculture. The town ofGelonus (probably today’s Belsk), for example,described as a large fortress by Herodotus, wasbuilt completely out of wood and surrounded bya 5km-long wall. While there is a need for furtherresearch on Scythian settlements, much more isknown about these people’s burial customs.These had a special meaning for the Scythians,

particularly for members of the ruling class,called basileis, or “kings”, by Herodotus. Severalof these large kurgans, or burial mounds, havebeen excavated since the 19th century, and theygive an impression of the grandeur of theScythian ruling class.

The kurgan mounds of Certomlyk, Solokha,Kozel, Kul’-Oba, Oguz, Tatjanina Mogila,Ryzanovka and Tolstaja Mogila, among others,have yielded bodies wearing grave-clothes deco-rated with sheets of gold. These ornaments aremade of thin gold foil, and they often showScythian-style animal figures, as well as motifs of Greek origin. The same applies to the goldused to make the quivers, dagger-handles andscabbards, the decorative plates of buckles, sceptre-handles, and so on, all found in thetombs. Torcs, pectoral decorations and braceletsare also made of solid gold. All these objects havesymbolic meaning, since they signify the status ofthe buried person. Plates made of precious metals, bronze cauldrons, Greek chalices and

The Scythians: Nomadic Horsemenof the Eurasian Steppe

Hermann ParzingerPresident, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Germany

Fig. 1 Gilded figures of stags from theFilippovka princelygrave in the SouthUrals.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

Left The highestpeaks of the AltaiMountains: TavanBogd in theMongolian section of the Altai.© Gary Tepfer.

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wine-amphoras complete the inventory of objectsfound in such tombs.

While Herodotus describes the Scythians’burial rituals in detail, he barely mentions thewealth of gold in the graves. Instead, he providesa great deal of other material that helps us tounderstand the archaeological discoveries thathave been made in the Scythian zone to the northof the Black Sea, as well as in those territorieslocated further to the east. Herodotus explainsthat when a Scythian king died he was buried in alarge, square tomb. The body’s intestines wereremoved before it was filled with scented herbsand embalmed in wax. The preserved Scythianmummies found in the kurgans of the permafrostzone of the Altai Mountains prove Herodotus’saccount of Scythian burial customs. He adds thatthe Scythian king’s wife, cupbearer, servants,horsemen and messengers would follow theirmaster to the tomb, along with horses and some-

times even cattle. All these were strangled orkilled. Archaeological excavations carried out inmany parts of the Eurasian steppe have borne outHerodotus’s descriptions.

Monumental kurgans for the use of the rulingclass were also built by the eastern neighbours of the Scythians, for example by the Matiani inthe Kuban area of the north-western Caucasus. In Kostromskaja and Kelermes (7th c. bce), the central grave pit of the kurgan was topped by aconstruction in the form of a wooden hut. The dead bodies of horses, still wearing their bridles, were arranged in the grave. In the hills of Uljap, the kurgans (4th c. bce) contain woodenstructures that house the graves, these contain-ing gold, silver and bronze plates and Greekceramics, but no traces of the dead body. Perhaps these were “symbolic graves” (ceno-taphs), built for Scythian-Matiani chiefs who had been killed fighting elsewhere.

Fig. 2 Reconstructionby D. Pozdnjakov ofthe male body foundin princely grave 5 ofthe Arzhan-2 kurgan.

Fig. 3 Reconstructionby D. Pozdnjakov ofthe female bodyfound in princelygrave 5 of the Arzhan-2 kurgan.

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There are also complexes of this kind in theSarmatian region of the lower Volga Valley and inthe southern Urals. While these are mostlyempty, gold artifacts have been found in themthat exhibit remarkable artistry. The princelygrave of Filippovka (4th c. bce), close to themouth of the Ilek River in the Urals, might bementioned, for example. Here, a long dromos, ornarrow entrance passageway, leads into a tent-like wooden construction that forms the gravechamber, this containing gold weapons, gold andsilver plates and other prestige objects made ofprecious metals. (Fig. 1)

Although substantial differences exist in thedetails of the construction of the kurgans and inthe configuration of the grave chamber, theyrepeat the same basic principles, connecting themto the monumental burial mounds of the northPontic steppe. Beneath the monumental stonebarrow, built with enormous effort, the under-ground grave construction is found, and this sym-bolizes the status of the deceased through themany prestige objects made of gold and otherprecious metals found in it, as well as the numer-ous valuable imported items it contains.

However, our information about the peoplesof the Central Asian steppe and their customs isnot as reliable as that about the north PonticScythians. According to Herodotus, the Argippaeipeople are to be found at the foot of high moun-tains after crossing a vast area of steppe north ofthe Caspian and Aral Seas. These people, hewrites, are typically bald from birth and havesnub noses and long chins, which could be seen as evidence of a predominantly Mongolian-typepopulation in the region. While their costume,consisting of hooded-and-belted sleeved shirts,long trousers and boots, was like that of theScythians, the latter were not able to communi-cate with the Argippaei without an interpreter,leading to the conclusion that they belonged to adifferent language group. (Fig. 2 and 3)

Herodotus also says (Book IV, 27) that griffinsguarding gold are to be found further east. If bythis he actually means a human tribe, then theterm “griffin” could be understood as being atribal symbol, because the griffin plays a promi-nent role in Scythian-Siberian animal style. It issurely no coincidence that Herodotus indicatesthe presence of griffins guarding gold in an areathat seems to correspond to the Upper Ob and the Altai Mountains. This region is rich in gold

deposits, and mineral wealth of this sort mighthave led to Greek, Persian and Scythian interestin the region.

However, the history of this region during the 1st millennium bce is unknown, due to a lackof written evidence. As a result, archaeologicaldiscoveries have an important role to play inreconstructing the history of the ancient nomadichorsemen of southern Siberia. Many of the characteristics of the Scythian culture of thenorthern Black Sea area can also be found here,including the horse-based nomadic economy andlifestyle, the use of animal style in artifacts andthe construction of monumental kurgans, whichexpress the social structure of a society with awarrior elite.

As is the case in the north Pontic region, theSiberian-Kazakh kurgans have in many casesbeen looted. East of the Ural Mountains, only one golden hoard has been found, namely thatdiscovered during the excavation of an undis-turbed grave in the Issyk kurgan in south-eastKazakhstan (5th c. bce). Here, the head-dress,clothes and weaponry of the so-called “GoldenMan of Issyk” have been found, decorated withinnumerable sheets of gold, together with silver plates and other items. This region was inthe south of the original steppe belt and in the

Fig. 4 Arzhan-1 kurgan excavated byM. P. Grjaznov.


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settlement area of the Central Asian Saka people,who ruled large parts of Central Asia from theAral Sea in the west to the foot of the Tien Shanin the east and whose contacts reached intoneighbouring parts of north-west China and thePersian Achaemenid Empire.

The excavated princely graves in southernSiberia are similar to the Pazyryk Culture kurgansin the Altai Mountains (Pazyryk, Tuekta andBashadar). Seepage and condensed water collectsin the tombs beneath the massive burial mound,this then freezing to form ice that not only freezesthe embalmed body in the tomb, but also all theother organic materials, such as clothing, shoes,carpets, ceremonial wagons, wooden carvings,

horses and their saddle blankets, head-dressesand decorative straps, etc. As a result, it has beenpossible to ascertain that the preserved bodieswere tattooed with animal motifs. These bodieshad also undergone a special embalming proce-dure in which the intestines, brain, muscles andother soft tissues were removed, the body stuffedwith organic material and then sewn up withhorsehair.

Many more of these so-called frozen kurganshave been found on the Ukok Plateau (Ak-Alakha,Verkh-Kaldzhin and Ulandryk), as well as in theKazakh (Berel’) and Mongolian parts of the AltaiMountains (Olon-Kurin-Gol). These demonstratethe lively mental world and complexity of theearly nomadic horsemen, owing to their extra-ordinary state of preservation.

Other monumental Scythian burial moundsin southern Siberia show that these originallycontained golden hoards in the same way as didnorth Pontic catacomb graves. Tuva, a region inthe heart of Asia between the western Sayan andthe Tannu Mountains, has a special significancehere, since along the banks of the Uyuk, a tribu-tary of the Yenisei River, the princely necropolisof Arzhan is located. This huge cemetery, con-taining hundreds of kurgans, offers a rare con-centration of monumental burial mounds. TheArzhan-1 kurgan was excavated by M. P. Grjaznovin the 1970s, laying bare a complex wooden con-struction that features a unique wheel-like burialchamber covered by a flat stone platform (Fig. 4).A doubled beam chamber in the centre contained

Fig. 5 Steppe nearSalbyk in Khakassia insouthern Siberia.

Fig. 6 Tagar Culturekurgan near Salbyk inKhakassia in southernSiberia.

Photos: © DAI, Berlin.

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the looted burial goods that originally belongedto a princely couple. The many small gold objectsleft behind by the grave-robbers show the wealththat existed at the time, these graves containingweapons, ornaments, jewels and horse harnessesdating back to the late 9th and 8th century bce.

The Arzhan necropolis in Tuva has thus farprovided the oldest discoveries of Scythian-typeremains. However, a few other materials foundnearby (in the Minusinsk Basin and the Altairegion) can be considered along with these dis-coveries, these additional items providing thecontext and real significance of the discoveriesmade at Arzhan, since researchers now agree thatthe origins of the nomadic horsemen and their

related Scythian-type culture, in which animalstyle plays a central role, should be looked for inthese areas of Siberia. (Fig. 5 and 6)

The Arzhan-2 kurgan, a princely grave datingfrom the very late 7th century bce and excavatedat the beginning of the present century, containsover 5,600 golden objects and is the first undis-turbed hoard of its kind found in Siberia. It is alittle later in date than the Arzhan-1 kurgan,belonging to a later period of the early Scythianage (7th-6th c. bce). Numerous masterpieces in theshape of artifacts employing animal style werefound in it, together with other items of a qualitythat had previously not been found in southernSiberia. As a result, the discovery of this kurgan

Fig. 8 Princely grave 5in the Arzhan-2kurgan.

Fig. 9 Finds and maleskeleton from princelygrave 5 of the Arzhan-2 kurgan.

Fig. 7 Arzhan-2 kurganduring excavation.

Photos: © DAI, Berlin.


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changed ideas about the death rituals employedby the elite of the Scythian nomadic horsemen inthe region. It is not only great wealth andgrandeur that distinguish this double grave of aman and his wife, but also the way in which thecouple’s burial seems to have been staged,employing rituals that were strictly performedfor members of the elite. (Fig. 7-8-9-10)

We are now sure that the Arzhan-2 kurgan isnot just an isolated example, but that on the

contrary it represents just the tip of an iceberg.The discovery tells us that we should expect thediscovery of further princely burials beyond theUrals that contain hoards of gold, this realizationonly coming after some 300 years of archaeolog-ical activity in Siberia. However, this, after all, isone of the most significant and most fascinatingcharacteristics of archaeology as a scientific pursuit: the fact that archaeology is still yielding substantial, and at the same time unexpected,discoveries that not only add to or help to clarifyviews of bygone periods of human history, butalso help to change them profoundly and overthe long term.

It was also lucky that the princely grave of theArzhan-2 kurgan came to light at the beginning ofthe 21st century, since modern archaeology is better equipped than it was decades or centuriesago. Such new archaeological techniques andfacilities need to be employed in order to allow usfurther insights into the lives of the Scythiannomadic horsemen, whose remains are found inthe permafrost of the Altai Mountains and in theunique frozen kurgans of Eurasia.

Translated from German by David Tresilian

Cugunov, K. V., Parzinger, H. and A. Nagler. Der Goldschatz von Arzan. EinFürstengrab der Skythenzeit in dersüdsibirischen Steppe (München, 2006).

Grakov, B. N. Die Skythen (Berlin, 1980).

Grjaznov, M. P. Der Großkurgan von Arzanin Tuva, Südsibirien. Materialien zurAllgemeinen und VergleichendenArchäologie 23 (München, 1984).

Jettmar, K. Die frühen Steppenvölker(Baden-Baden, 1964).

Kossack, G.“Von den Anfängen des skytho-iranischen Tierstils.” Skythika. BayerischeAkademie der Wissenschaften,Philosophisch-Historische Klasse,Abhandlungen Neue Folge 98 (München,1987): 24-86.

Lebedynsky, I. Les Saces. “Les Skythes” d’Asie,VIIIe siècle av. J.-C. – IVe siècle apr. J.-C. (Paris,2006).

Meliukova, A. I. The Steppes of theEuropean Part of the USSR in Scythian andSarmatian Times (Moscow, 1989).

Moshkova, M. G. The Steppes of the AsianPart of USSR in Scythian and SarmatianTimes (Moscow, 1992).

Parzinger, H. Die Skythen (München, 2004).

Parzinger, H. Die frühen Völker Eurasiens.Vom Neolithikum bis zum Mittelalter(München, 2006).

Polosmak, N. V. Ukok Horsemen(Novosibirsk, 2001).

Rudenko, C. I. The Culture of the Populationof the Altai Mountains in Scythian Times(Moscow & Leningrad, 1953).

Rudenko, C. I. The Culture of the Populationof the Central Altai in Scythian Times(Moscow & Leningrad, 1960).

Wiesner, J. Die Kulturen der frühenReiternomaden. Studienausgabe zurKulturgeschichte (Frankfurt a. M., 1973).

Fig. 10 Gold animalfigures from thehead-dress of theman’s body found inprincely grave 5 of theArzhan-2 kurgan.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

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R E F E R E N C E S

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The Altai Mountains are extremely rich inarchaeological sites, among the oldest of

which are the sites of Karama and Ulalinka that bear witness to a human presence on this ter-ritory 800,000 years ago.1 Remains dating backto the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and IronAges and the Early and High Middle Ages havebeen discovered and surveyed in the Altai,2

(Fig. 1) among the most important of them beingthe Scythian frozen burial complexes of the so-called Pazyryk Culture.

As a result of a unique set of circumstances –the severe climatic conditions in the high moun-tains on the one hand, and the specific architec-ture of the burial sites on the other – these tombshave been preserved in ice lenses, thanks towhich unique objects made of various organicmaterials have been conserved, including itemsmade of wood, textiles, thick felt, horn andleather. Some of these objects are masterpieces ofarts and crafts (Fig. 2). In some cases, the icelenses have also preserved mummified humanbodies with intact tattoos and hair-dresses(Fig. 3). All these findings have led to a compre-hensive understanding of the burial practices ofthis culture, as well as of the clothes, weaponsand horse trappings that existed two-and-a-halfthousand years ago, allowing for study at analmost ethnographic level.

The elevated artistic style of almost all theeveryday objects found, as well as that of thoseused in warfare, is testimony to the high level ofculture among the populations concerned, andconsequently also of the high level of their spiri-tual world. This allows the Pazyryk Culture to beranked among the outstanding cultures ofScythian Eurasia. There is also no doubt that thisculture was closely linked at an ethnic and cul-tural level to the leading centres of civilization

at the time in China, India and Achaemenid Iran.This makes the study of the Scythian remains ofthe greatest interest in the context of the Eurasiansubcontinent in general. For this reason, too, thisculture is interesting not only for the scientificcommunity, but also for anyone interested in thehistory of humanity as a whole.

The frozen burial complexes of the AltaiMountains were first discovered in Berel andKatanda by the Russian academician V.V. Radloffin 1865. Further studies were undertaken by M. P. Gryaznov (kurgan 1 of the Pazyryk necro-polis) and S. I. Rudenko (kurgans 2-5 of thePazyryk necropolis, Bashadar), as well as by V. D. Kubarev (Yustyd, Ulandryk, the Sailugemburial complexes), N.V. Polosmak and V. I.Molodin (Ukok Plateau), Z. Samashev and H.-P. Francfort (Berel necropolis), V. I. Molodin,H. Parzinger, D. Tseveendorj (the Olon-Kurin-Gol6 and 10 necropolis).3 Considering that more thana thousand burial complexes of the PazyrykCulture have been studied,4 the above-mentionedsample represents only a small number of them.

The Frozen Scythian Burial Complexes of the Altai Mountains:Conservation and Survey Issues

Vyacheslav I. MolodinFirst Vice-Chairman of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Russian Federation

Fig. 1 Tavan-Bogda Ullapeak in the central partof the Altai Mountains.© V. Molodin.

However, compared to other known archaeologi-cal complexes, these ones are incredibly rich interms of information, and they contain a uniquevariety of objects and remains of burial practices.The scientific and cultural value of these com-plexes has clearly enriched the world’s knowl-edge, bringing new understanding of the peoplesand cultures of this Asian region during the 6th –3rd c. bce (Fig. 4).

The study of the Pazyryk sources of the UkokPlateau has been conducted in a multi-discipli-nary way.5 As a result of investigations that haveinvolved specialists in the domains of physics,chemistry, biology, anthropology, genetics,paleo-zoology, paleo-botany and geology, new

information has been obtained, allowing for asignificantly higher level of interpretation of thesources to be attained.6 Among the most signifi-cant recent findings is the fact that the popula-tions of the Pazyryk Culture were very closelyrelated to today’s Samodi populations (Selkups)in Western Siberia, as well as to the Kazakhs andUigurs, which was discovered through evolution-ary and genetic analysis. Through a techniqueinvolving calculations of genetic distance, aphilological-genetic tree was drawn up showinglinkages in the mitochondrial gene pool of differ-ent ethnic groups in North Asia.7 A model of theethnogenesis of the Pazyryk populations wasdeveloped, and this showed them to be of syn-cretic, Iranian-Samodi origin.8

The comprehensive examination of Ukokmummies has also been undertaken,9 with databeing collected concerning the preparation ofbodies for burial and the particular use of mer-cury compounds.10 Study of the mummies’ hairthrough carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysisand synchrotron radiation has led to conclusionsabout diet, which included fish as an importantcomponent,11 and about possible causes of death,for example through poisoning as a result ofinhaling copper vapour.12 Such studies have alsoproved that gold was locally available and thatthe Pazyryk populations had the means to makegold foil or amalgam.13

One of the most important objectives ofarchaeology is the dating of archaeological sites.The fact that wood has been well preserved in the frozen complexes means that dendro-chrono-logical dating techniques can be used, whichoffer major possibilities for the relative andabsolute dating of sites, being as precise as theexact year. Based on the materials from thePazyryk sources of the Altai, a number of “float-ing” or relative dendro-chronological scales havebeen developed, the longest of which covers aperiod of 415 years.14 The main results of multidis-ciplinary studies have been reflected in a numberof monographs and dozens of articles.15

Today, the critical issue is the conservationand study of the frozen tombs within the burialcomplexes of the Pazyryk Culture in the AltaiMountains, there being two main threats to theirconservation. First, there is global warming,which is leading to the melting of the area’s gla-ciers and of the ice lenses in the tombs. The thor-ough analysis of meteorological data collected


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Fig. 2 Pazyryk Culturehair decoration in theform of a carvedwooden reindeer.Upper-Kaldjin-IInecropolis, excavatedby V. I. Molodin.© V. Molodin.

by the Kosh-Agach meteorological station for the 40-year period between 1958 and 1998 has showna clear tendency towards the warming of the climate, this being particularly evident during the winters. This warming has multiple conse-quences, including the thawing of the perma-frost.16 This causes damage to the frozen archaeo-logical complexes, as has been demonstrated atthe Pazyryk kurgan of Upper Kaldjin-1.17

The second threat is anthropogenic. Activehuman influence on the environment and on cultural-heritage sites is linked to economic activities, and these sometimes lead to the irre-placeable loss of archaeological properties. In order to mitigate this, a new law concerning cultural-heritage properties in the RussianFederation now regulates the study of archaeo-logical sites situated in economic-developmentzones. Article 40 of this law stipulates that “underexceptional circumstances, the terms of conser-vation of archaeological properties includesemergency field archaeological activities under-taken within the procedures determined inArticle 45 of the present Federal Law”.18 This lawand other measures aim to facilitate the study ofendangered sites that are deteriorating becauseof anthropogenic and natural factors, includingthe frozen sites on the Ukok Plateau and in otherlocations in the Altai Mountains.

High-quality field surveys of the archaeologi-cal complexes are also necessary, as is a multidis-ciplinary approach to the objects of such surveys.Of course, each archaeological property is unique,and each can in theory give exceptionally valuable

scientific and cultural information. This is partic-ularly important to bear in mind when focusingon the preservation and study of the frozen sites,which are probably under the greatest threatbecause of the above-mentioned factors.

Thanks to the long history of surveys of theScythian archaeological sites in the AltaiMountains, it has been possible to determine thezones where the most-valuable sites of thePazyryk Culture, including the frozen kurgans,are concentrated. Two large areas of concentra-tion can be pointed to.

First, there is the Karakol River Valley situ-ated in the central part of the Russian AltaiMountains in the part of the mountains that ismost convenient for human habitation. At theadministrative level, this area is located in theOngudaï province of the Altai Republic (RussianFederation). The Valley is approximately 40km

Fig. 3 Pazyryk Culturemale mummy withpreserved hair andshoulder tattoos.Upper-Kaldjin-IInecropolis, excavatedby V. L. Molodin.

Fig. 4 Detail of femalemummy in situ.Ak-Alakha-3necropolis, excavatedby N. V. Polosmak.

Photos: © V. Molodin.


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long from the Karakol river-head to its conflu-ence with the Ursul River. The entire left bank ofthe river features Pazyryk Culture burial sitesfrom the village of Boochi to Kulada, and theValley contains a concentration of complexescomposed of huge kurgans made of piled stonesseveral dozen metres in diameter. Kurgans ofsuch dimensions can be found in other Altaiareas, but only as rare and isolated specimens.Their dimensions are comparable to those of thewidely known Pazyryk burial complex studied byS. I. Rudenko and M. P. Gryaznov.19

These burial complexes most certainlybelonged to the highest rank of Pazyryk society(chiefs or kings). This assumption is confirmed bythe results of excavations at two large kurgans ofthe Bashadar necropolis (Fig. 5) situated in theValley near the village of Kudala and studied inthe past by Professor S. I. Rudenko.20 All thesekurgans have traces of looting from ancient times,but it is certain that some of them contain icelenses, which have preserved a variety of objects.This, at least, is what happened at the Bashadarand Pazyryk kurgans. In addition, it is importantto note that all the large kurgans of the PazyrykCulture that probably belonged to the highestrank of Pazyryk society (including the kurgans ofthe Pazyryk and Bashadar complexes) were sur-veyed in the first half of the last century accordingto field methods that were accurate at the timebut that have now become outdated. The use ofgeophysical methods, as well as a comprehensivestudy of the over-burial monuments, would cer-tainly provide further very valuable scientificinformation.

There is a need to document and map thesesites, as well as to delimit them physically fromeconomic activities and to monitor them geo-physically, in order to determine anomalies in the

permafrost. The methodology of such surveyswas developed by Russian geophysicists duringstudies of Pazyryk Culture complexes in theMongolian Altai.21 After conducting surveys ofthis sort, it should be possible to consider excava-tions at one or two sites and the subsequent conservation of any finds in museums. However,in order to meet present scientific and method-ological standards, costly activities of this sortcan only be carried out by large academic expe-ditions. It is also important to note that any such surveys should be preceded by awareness-raising activities among the local Altai people.

The second area of concentration of archaeo-logical sites in general, and of Pazyryk sites inparticular, is the Ukok Plateau situated in thesouth of the Russian Altai Mountains at the junc-ture of Russia, Mongolia, China and Kazakhstan(Fig. 6). In the early 1990s, the Institute ofArchaeology and Ethnography of the SiberianBranch of the Russian Academy of Science exe-cuted large-scale surveys in this region, resultingin the mapping of more than 400 archaeologicalsites situated on the Plateau.22 Two groups ofarchaeologists, led by Prof. N. Polosmak and aca-demician V. I. Molodin, surveyed 22 complexes ofthe Pazyryk Culture, including seven monumentswith permafrost (Fig. 7).23 Unlike the central partof the Altai Mountains, this section represents theperiphery of the Pazyryk Culture, and findingsmade in it do not include burial complexes of theelite of Pazyryk society. The largest kurgans, exca-vated by N.V. Polosmak (first, the Kuturguntaskurgan),24 belonged to the middle level ofPazyryk society at best.

However, thanks to the specific situation ofthe Plateau, including its difficulty of access andsevere weather conditions, a significant numberof the archaeological sites have remained in theirprimordial state. It is also more likely that the icelenses they contain will survive global warming,given the severe climatic conditions on thePlateau. It should also be noted that pilot activi-ties have been undertaken on the Ukok Plateau,with the aim of developing methods of geophysi-cal monitoring for the identification of frozenzones in the Pazyryk kurgans.25 These methodswere subsequently successfully applied in the survey carried out under the Russia-Germany-Mongolia project, which aimed to identify andexcavate frozen tombs in the Mongolian Altai.26

These considerations all go to show that the

Fig. 6 The UkokPlateau beyond theAk-Alakha River.© V. Molodin.

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Plateau is a very promising area for carrying outmultidisciplinary surveys of frozen burial com-plexes. Thanks to improvements in geophysicalmethods, it is possible that monitoring of thePlateau could help identify complexes with frozenareas, as well as determine the level of threat theyare exposed to, with a view to conducting salvageexcavations of these unique monuments.

However, a major issue in the conservation ofthe archaeological heritage is the lack of aninventory of the archaeological monuments ofthe Altai Mountains in the Russian Federation, aswell as of those in Kazakhstan, Mongolia andChina. In fact, surveys have only been undertakenin some selected areas. Data are scatteredthrough various, often difficult-to-access publi-cations, and they remain partial, often collectedwithout topographical references or reliable linksto a coordinates system.

A good example of a modern archaeologicalmap of the region is the inventory of the archaeo-logical monuments of the Ukok Plateau preparedby scholars at the Institute of Archaeology andEthnography of the Siberian Branch of theRussian Academy of Science.27 This map includesmore than 400 properties from various times andcultures, linked on a reliable topographic basisand accompanied by an account of the culturaland historical processes that have taken place inthis region of Asia, from the early human popula-tions in the region (in the Upper Palaeolithic) tothe ethnographic situation that exists today.

A second good example of surveys aiming toproduce an archaeological map of a large regionare the activities undertaken within the UNESCO

project with the expertise of the University of Ghent in Belgium and the Gorno-AltaiskUniversity (Russian Federation) in the Kosh-Agach region of the Altai Republic. A significantportion of the results of these activities has beenpublished and put into scientific circulation.28

Evidently, the creation of an archaeologicalmap of the Altai Mountains should be the mainaim of the authorities responsible for the preser-vation of the cultural heritage, as well as of thescientific communities of all the countries havingterritory in this mountainous region. When thiswork has been done, other issues can be consid-ered in a practical rather than in a theoreticalspirit, such as documenting and preserving theextremely rich scientific and cultural heritageconcentrated in this region. This includes thefrozen burial complexes of the Pazyryk Culturethat are situated on the territories of differentstates, as well as the larger variety of other scien-tific and cultural-heritage sites that equallyrequire studying and preservation.

Translated from Russian by Lise Sellem

Fig. 5 A giant PazyrykCulture kurgan in theKarakol Valley.

Fig. 7 Excavation ofthe Pazyryk CultureUpper-Kaldjin-IInecropolis.

Photos: © V. Molodin.


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1. Derevianko, A. P., et al. The Karama Early Palaeolithic Site in the Altai.(Novosibirsk, 2005), pp. 69-70.

2. History of the Altai Republic.(Gorno-Altaisk, 2002), p. 360.

3. Molodin, V. I. Surveys of the FrozenKurgans of the Altai Mountains:Historical Notes. (Moscow, 2005),pp. 5-27; Molodin, V. I., et al.“Multidisciplinary Surveys of theRussian-German-Mongolian Expeditionin the Mongolian Altai.” Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk), Vol. 12, 2006,Part 1, pp. 428-433.

4. Tishkin, A. A. and P. K. Dashkovskiy. TheSocial Structure and World ConceptionSystem of the Populations of the Altai inScythian Times. (Barnaul, 2003), p. 10.

5. Molodin, V. I. “Archaeology: The Resultsand Future of MultidisciplinaryStudies.” Bulletin of the RussianAcademy of Science (Moscow), Vol. 71,2001, No. 9, pp. 788-796.

6. Molodin, V. I. “Siberian Archaeology inthe Palaeo-Metal Age: the Results andFuture of Multidisciplinary Studies.”Historical Sciences on the Eve of the 21st

Century. (Novosibirsk, 2001), pp. 84-102.

7. Molodin, V. I., et al. “MultidisciplinaryAnalysis of Pazyryk Culture Populations(Archaeology, Anthropology andGenetics).” Scythians and Sarmats fromthe 7th to 3rd Centuries bce: Palaeo-Ecology, Anthropology and Archaeology.(Moscow, 2000), pp. 59-66.

8. Molodin, V. I. “Ethnogenesis, EthnicHistory and Historical Destiny of thePazyryk Culture Populations in the AltaiMountains.” Projects of the SiberianBranch of the Russian Academy ofScience (Novosibirsk), Vol. 1, 2003,pp. 148-178.

9. The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 200-212.

10. Polosmak N.V.“Mummification andEmbalming by the Pazyryk.” ThePhenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 120-124.

11. O’Connell, T. “Determination of thePazyryk’s Diet through Carbon andNitrogen Isotope Analysis.” ThePhenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 234-236.

12. Polosmak, N.V. and V. D. Trunova. “Hairfrom the Pazyryk Tombs (X-RayFluorescence Analysis includingSynchrotron Radiation,” Archaeology,Ethnology and Anthropology of EurasiaNo.1, 2004, pp. 73-80.

13. Scherbakov, Y. G. and N. V. Rosliakova.“Composition of Gold and BronzeObjects: Sources and Metal Work.”The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 179-187.

14. Sliusarenko, I.Y. “Dendro-chronologicalAnalysis of Wood from Pazyryk CultureSites in the Altai Mountains.”Archaeology, Ethnology andAnthropology of Eurasia No.4, 2000,pp. 122-130.

15. The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000); Polosmak, N.V.The Ukok Horsemen. (Novosibirsk, 2001),p. 336; Molodin, V. I. et al. ArchaeologicalSites on the Ukok Plateau (AltaiMountains). (Novosibirsk, 2004).

16. Yas’kov, M. I. “Linkages betweenObserved Tendencies to ClimaticWarming in the Chuya Basin andIncreases in Desertification Processes.”Mountains and Mountain People of theAltai and of Other Countries in CentralEurasia. (Gorno-Altaisk, 2000), pp. 41-43.

17. Molodin, V. I. “Frozen Burial Complexesin Siberia and Global Warming: PossibleConsequences.” Ancient Cultures ofCentral Asia. (St. Petersburg, 1998),pp. 156-158.

18. Russian Federation Federal Law on“Cultural Heritage Properties (Historicaland Cultural Monuments) of thePeoples of the Russian Federation.”Rossiyskaia Gazeta No. 116-117,June 2002.

19. Rudenko, S. I. The Culture of thePopulation of the Altai Mountains inScythian Times. (Moscow & Leningrad,1953), p. 403; Gryaznov, M. P. The FirstPazyryk Kurgan. (Leningrad, 1950), p. 90.

20. Rudenko, S. I. The Culture of thePopulation of the Central Altai inScythian Times. (Moscow & Leningrad,1960), p. 359.

21. Epov, M. I. et al. “A Geophysical Survey ofthe Archaeological Sites in North-WestMongolia in 2005.” Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk), Vol. 11, 2005,Part 1, pp. 503-506.

22. Molodin V. I. et al. Archaeological Siteson the Ukok Plateau (Altai Mountains).(Novosibirsk, 2004), p. 255.

23. Polosmak, N.V. and V. I. Molodin.“Pazyryk Cultural Sites on the UkokPlateau.” Archaeology, Ethnology andAnthropology of Eurasia No. 4, 2000,pp. 66-87.

24. Polosmak, N.V. Vultures: Guardians ofGold (the Ak-Alahin Kurgans).(Novosibirsk, 1994), p. 125.

25. Epov, M. I. et al. “In Quest of Ice (Resultsof Geophysical Surveys of the KurganNecropolises on the Ukok Plateau).”Issues of Archaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk), Vol. 9, 2003, Part 1,pp. 528-534.

26. Epov, M. I. et al. “Electrical SurveyMapping of the ‘Frozen’ PazyrykKurgans of the Altai.” Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk), Vol. 12, 2006,Part 1, pp. 510-515.

27. Molodin, V. I. et al. Archaeological Siteson the Ukok Plateau. (Novosibirsk,2004).

28. Bourgeois, J. et al. The Ancient Nomadsof the Altai Mountains. (Brussels, 2000);Gheyle, W. et al. “L’Utilisation del’exemple de l’Altai.” Paper originallygiven at the conference AerialPhotography and Archaeology 2003.University of Ghent, Belgium,8-12 December, 2003.

R E F E R E N C E S

Culture and Landscape in the High Altai Esther Jacobson-Tepfer

University of Oregon, USA

The glaciated peaks known as Tavan Bogd(the Five Masters) punctuate the juncture of

Mongolia, Russia and China. They also define thespatial centre of a rich cultural tradition goingback at least to the upper Paleolithic period andmarked, at least in part, by a striking intercon-nection between archaeological monuments and the larger landscape. This tradition is bestknown through the burials preserved in the highmountainous areas of Tuva, the Russian Altai,eastern Kazakhstan and western Mongolia andassociated with an emerging nomadic traditionwithin the Altai-Sayan uplands during the firstmillennium (9th – 3rd c.) bce.

Yet despite the fame surrounding their cul-tural remains, the early Altai-Sayan nomadsshould be understood as only one segment of along cultural chain centred in the high Altai butextending east, north, west and south from thehigh river valleys and ridges into surroundingmountain steppe. An examination of that longertradition, extending over thousands of years,allows us to understand the particular intercon-nection of archaeology and landscape within theAltai mountain region.

At present, the landscape centred on TavanBogd is marked by high, rocky ridges crested bysnowfields and glaciers. Valleys are deep andtheir sidewalls precipitous. These features reflectthe ancient advance and retreat of glaciers thatleft behind scraped and polished bedrock alongupper slopes and high plains strewn with boul-ders. The rocky aspect of the Altai is most pro-nounced within Mongolia. In that part of the Altaiuplift, rivers flowing down from the snow andglacier-draped mountains create ribbons of greenmeandering through an otherwise harshly dryenvironment. Only along the border between theMongolian and Chinese Altai does one find larchforests and occasional lush mountain meadows(Fig. 1).

By contrast, the Russian, Chinese and KazakhAltai receive more moisture than falls on theMongolian side of the Altai ridge. These regions

are consequently more heavily forested and thesteppe regions greener. What we now find is not,however, what has always existed: the presentenvironmental character of the Altai region, withits variations on all international sides of theridge, has existed for approximately 3,000 years.Earlier, during the middle Holocene, much of this region was covered with forests of pine,larch, and spruce, but by the Bronze Age (2nd mil-lennium bce), forests were retreating in theMongolian Altai and in the Russian Altai’s KoshAgach region abutting Mongolia on the northwest.

Within the present mountainous steppe andforest steppe zone, agriculture other than thatinvolving the gathering of wild grasses has prob-ably never existed on a measurable scale.Hunting, fishing and gathering must have sup-ported human communities down through themiddle Holocene. With the onset of the lateHolocene (c. 4000 cal. yrs bp), characterized by adrier and cooler environment and by the gradualreplacement of forests by grassland, herdingbegan to supplement these economic activities.By the end of the 3rd millennium bce – that periodcoinciding with the emergence of the BronzeAge – climate change had resulted in an environ-ment far more hospitable to semi-nomadic,horse-dependent pastoralism.

Fig. 1 Turkic burial andlarch forests in theValley of Elt Gol,Bayan Ölgiy aimag,Mongolia.© Gary Tepfer.


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These conditions and economic way of lifehave persisted up to the near present. Within theRussian Altai, economic development during theSoviet period significantly altered the traditionalpastoral way of life; until recently, the effects ofmodernization were far less apparent within themore remote Mongolian Altai. Now, however,global climate change is causing a rapid meltingof the Altai glaciers, permafrost, and snowfieldsand a radical loss of surface water. These changestogether with stresses created by the ramifica-tions of our global economy threaten the tradi-tional way of life and the steppe environment that

has supported it. This is particularly evident inthe Mongolian Altai.

There are no recognized surface monumentsfrom the late Paleolithic period, but a few concen-trations of rock-pecked images offer glimpses intothe culture of Stone Age peoples. The concentra-tion of such rock art at Aral Tolgoi and the com-plex of Tsagaan Salaa / Baga Oigor – both withinthe Mongolian Altai – reflect a concern with largeanimals such as mammoth, aurochs (wild cattle)and horses represented in a static, profile style(Fig. 2).

These images are echoed in the small Kalgutsite on the Ukok Plateau – close, as the crow flies,to the Mongolian complexes. In these complexes,in that of the Upper Tsagaan Gol under the eastern slopes of Tavan Bogd, and scatteredthroughout other sites in the high MongolianAltai, rock-pecked imagery of the late Stone Age(early-middle Holocene) continued to reflect thecultural and economic significance of large gameanimals (elk, aurochs, horses, and bear) and ageneral lack of interest in the representation ofhuman activities. This changed, however, duringthe Bronze Age (2nd millennium bce). Imageryfrom that period, recorded in the Mongolian andRussian Altai, suggests an increasing density ofhuman communities based on animal husbandryand a growing interest in self-representation.Hunting remained an important theme in BronzeAge rock art (Fig. 3), but it was supplemented byscenes of the herding of large animals, peopledriving wheeled vehicles, families caravanning(Fig. 4), and even by scenes of raids and conflict.“Hero hunters” and hunters facing off large ani-mals suggest the emergence of an heroic epic tra-dition. Similarly expressive of cultural texture isthe sheer variety of distinctive and expressivestyles of representation.

The wealth of cultural expression reflected inBronze Age rock art is evident, also, in surfacemonuments tentatively assigned to that period.Massive standing stones aligned within stoneframes from north to south are among the moststriking of these monuments (Fig. 5). No lessimpressive are the so-called khirigsuur (“kherek-sur”) characterized by stone mounds surroundedby circular or squared “walls” embellished byradii to the north, south, east and west, and bysmall stone circles (Fig. 6).

These structures and a great variety of othersenlarging on the themes of circle, mound and

Fig. 2 Petroglyphshowing elk andaurochs. LatePleistocene or EarlyHolocene, Aral Tolgoi,Bayan Ölgiy aimag,Mongolia.

Fig. 3 Petroglyphhunting scene. BronzeAge, Tsagaan Salaa I,Bayan Ölgiy aimag,Mongolia.

Fig. 4 Petroglyphcaravan scene. LateBronze Age, UpperTsagaan Gol complex,Bayan Ölgiy aimag,Mongolia.

Photos: © Gary Tepfer.

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vertical axis indicate the development of a richritual life within the Bronze Age. It is still uncer-tain whether any or all of the mounded structureswere intended as burials, or whether they wereerected first for ritual purposes but later becamede facto burial sites. Another surface structurethat vividly picks out the shape and internal divisions of an actual dwelling points in the direc-tion of virtual burials – that is, of structures thatcommemorated a person’s death and “gave” thatperson a dwelling in the next world. The actualplacement of the bodies for which thosedwellings were intended remains a mystery.

Surface structures from the Bronze Agereflect a keen awareness of the surrounding land-scape, of directionality and of aspect. The power-ful forms of standing stones and their placementat passes, against cliffs, overlooking the flow ofrivers or at the opening of small valleys into largeones suggest a preoccupation with the integrationof the cardinal directions and particular places in the landscape. Within the Mongolian Altai, onerepeatedly finds that the placement of khirigsuurmay correspond to impressive views out to east-flowing rivers, to snow-crested ridges (Fig. 6), orto distant mountains considered to be sacred. Atthe same time, the khirigsuur reaffirm the expan-sive openness of high plains and their radii and“entrances” reflect a concern for directionality.

The khirigsuur become, in effect, diagramsrelating cosmos and quadrant, not unlike man-dala. A particular form of massive mound, some-times with a marked collar or rim, appears regu-larly on terraces facing out to rivers or to highmountains. “Dwellings” are characterized by“entrances” on the west marked by low stones;the greater significance of the east is indicated bylarger standing stones of an unusual texture orcolouration. Indeed, in all cases one senses ameticulous sensibility to the colour and texture of

stone. Obviously, local builders of these monu-ments would have wished to use the stones closeat hand; but in many cases it is no less certain thatthey deliberately imported stones contrasting incolouration and marked by unusual textures: forexample, to crown a khirigsuur, or to mark the“entrances” into the khirigsuur or its four corners.Although we look at these surface structures interms of the typologies of archaeology, a morecareful consideration would indicate that theyalso convey a keen sense of style and the beautyof material; that they are, in other words, indica-tive of an expressive culture.

When we come down to the age of the earlynomads represented so vividly by finds fromArzhan, Pazyryk, Ukok, Berel and the upperOigor drainage in Mongolia, we find that imagesand structures present variations on earlierthemes. The rock art of that period is still organ-ized primarily around hunts and individual ani-mals, but the execution is frequently more styl-ized (Fig. 7) and conventionalized than one findsin the Bronze Age. The women and horse-drawncarts seen regularly within earlier rock art virtu-ally disappear while riders appear more often.

Fig. 5 Massive BronzeAge standing stones.Valley of Khovd Gol,Bayan Ölgiy aimag,Mongolia.

Fig. 6 Bronze Agekhirigsuur seen fromnorth-northwest.Khara Zharyk, BayanÖlgiy aimag,Mongolia.

Fig. 7 Late Bronze-Early Iron Age hunterand wild goats. BagaOigor IV, Bayan Ölgiyaimag, Mongolia.



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In the case of surface structures, we continue tofind new variations on old typological themes, aswell as a ritual preoccupation with the cardinaldirections. Burial mounds are organized in linesrunning roughly from north to south, while smallstanding stones (balbal) are often set in straightlines running out from the east side of themounds. In many cases, the eastmost of thesestones are marked by two specific elements:unusual colouration and texture and a carvingthat suggests a human form facing to the east.

This shaped aspect recalls the particular kindof stone known as “deer stone,” which appearedin a number of forms across north Mongolia,Tuva, the Altai Republic and into northern China during the late Bronze and early Iron Ages.Within the Mongolian Altai, there are at least five “deer stones” embellished with a human face and one known case in the Chuya steppe. Like thesimple standing stones, the shaped “deer stones”,and the balbal, these stones with human facesreaffirm the significance of the direction east.This and the general concern for directionalitycoincide with all the indications of the actualearly nomadic burial ritual.

Monuments of the Hunnu (Xiongnu) period(late first millennium bce – 5th c. ce) have beenonly occasionally attested in the high Altairegion, and we are not certain which rock art, if any, may be associated with that period of nomadic culture. Materials relating to theTurkic period (c. early 6th – late 8th c. ce and later)

are much clearer. They indicate that the ritualpreoccupations that seem to have shaped themore ancient archaeology of the Altai reachedtheir final expressive form with the archaeologyof the Turks. Rock-pecked or engraved imagesindicate a preoccupation with riding, huntingand combat, as well as a great delight in theapparel and weaponry of the mounted rider.

In addition to a burial ritual remarkably similar to that of the Early Iron Age nomads, theTurks built framed memorial enclosures alignedto the cardinal directions and displaying, also, anacute interest in contrasts of stone colourationand texture. In some cases these enclosures wouldinclude within their frames or on their east sidetall stones of a vaguely anthropomorphic reference. That these simple stones were intendedto refer to human figures is indicated by the manyTurkic figures that take their place on the east sideof the commemoration structure. Within theRussian Altai, most of these figures have beenremoved from their original settings. Within theMongolian Altai, however, most can still be foundin situ and obeying a specific formula: the figuresalways appear to be male warriors, and with theirright hand they hold a cup or vessel before theirchest, while with their left hand they grasp a beltor a hanging sword. Embellished by earrings,small beards and fine mustaches, these figureslook steadfastly to the east. In almost all casestheir view was once extended to the east by a longrow of small standing stones (balbal) (Fig. 8).

In effect, the great period of Altai archaeol-ogy ends with the Turkic period. Even with that,however, the cultures that left vivid traces acrossthe high Altai region created a steady traditionlasting many thousands of years. Stone monu-ments and rock-pecked and engraved imagescover the high Altai like a fine cultural web. Yet,despite its solidity, that stone is vulnerable toimpacts brought into the Altai region by climatechange and a globalized economy. With the melt-ing of the permafrost, burials are sinking andtheir preserved contents are deteriorating.Standing stones and Turkic images are literallydisappearing into the earth. The influx of touristsinto the high mountain regions has also resultedin the degradation and theft of unguarded mate-rials. In these several respects, the integrity ofthe Altai’s ancient cultural heritage is now seri-ously threatened.

Fig. 8 Turkic periodmemorial enclosure,image stone andbalbal seen from thewest. Valley of theSogoo Gol, BayanÖlgiy aimag,Mongolia.© Gary Tepfer.

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The Altai is located within the very largeand high mountains of the Eurasian conti-

nent. However, the Altai never functioned as acomplete barrier, and it was never either a no-man’s land or a totally inhospitable environment.The ancient Altai cultures began during the glacial and post-glacial age, as has been demon-strated by discoveries of archaeological remainsand examples of rock art in the region. However,the focus here is on the period of the Iron Age,called the Age of the Ancient Nomads. This latterperiod, dating from c. 1,000 to 200 bce, is namedthe “Pazyryk Culture” after its most brilliantphase that extended from c. 450 to 250 bceaccording to the latest research, and it is thisshort but extremely important period that will bediscussed.

The Pazyryk Culture was contemporary withthe fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 329 bce,conquered by the Greeks up to Bactria, and it wascontemporary, too, with many important eventsthen taking place in China with the advent of theWarring States period. Discovered as a result ofthe excavations of kurgans since the 1920s, thePazyryk Culture was characterized by the replace-ment of the old hunting mode of subsistence bymounted pastoral nomadism. Pastoralists inhab-ited the wide meadows and valleys of the Altaiduring late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, andthey have lived in the Altai ever since. Pastoralnomadism is a way of life that permits largedemographic expansion in a landscape whereagriculture is not possible and where predation –hunting and gathering – is not very productive.

However, one must also take into considera-tion the important fact that all ancient nomadicsocieties in the Old World were in contact withagricultural sedentary societies, kingdoms andempires, and this is precisely what occurred dur-ing the Age of the Ancient Nomads. The splendiddiscoveries made in the frozen tombs of the Altai

show connections with the steppe cultures to thenorth and west, as well as with north-westernand central China and, in the west, with Persiaand Greece. The exceptional function of the Altai,working as a kind of cultural hub, would haveremained completely unknown had it not beenfor the finds made in the frozen burial sites.

On the steppe side, the ancient Altai nomadsshared many aspects of their way of life andmaterial culture with their neighbours, as isrevealed through their burial customs. It is clearthat ordinary people were not interred, or at leastwere not interred in large burial sites. Membersof the elite, on the other hand, were buried inlarge mounds, or kurgans, along with theirbelongings, horses and sometimes attendants.This practice, along with other elements, is com-mon to kurgans found from the Yellow River tothe Black Sea, and it can be seen, for instance, inthe so-called “Scythian triad” of weaponry,horsemanship and steppe art. Common items ofdress include tunics, trousers and high pointed

Ancient Altai Culture and its Relationshipto Historical Asian Civilizations

Henri-Paul FrancfortDirecteur de recherche

Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), France

Fig. 1 Reconstructionof a steppe-stylehorned horse’s headdiscovered duringexcavation of theBerel’ 11 kurgan.© MissionArchéologique Françaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRS-MAE) H.-P. Francfort.

hoods, these also being depicted in Achaemenidreliefs and in finds made in Ak-Alakha and at theIssyk burial site in Kazakhstan.

The climatic conditions of the Altai havecaused the freezing of organic materials in thelarge and deep burials of the tombs, thereby preserving a rich and colourful picture ofScythian life and of the Scythians’ long-distancerelationships. The nomadic steppe tradition ofAltai art can be seen in the wooden, leather andtextile artifacts found in the tombs, as well as inthe mummies themselves and in their dress,headgear and tattoos. Four iconographic motifsparticularly illustrate this tradition and the specific character of Altai artistic expression.These four motifs are the horned horse, the flying“beaked” deer, the crested griffin and the elkwith lobed antlers.

The horned horse is an ancient, compositeimage consisting of a horse with horns or antlers,and it is found among ancient rock-art imagesdating from the late Bronze Age, including thosefound in the Altai. The bodies of real horses werefound in the Scythian burial sites, these wearingmasks with elaborate deer or elk antlers or ibexhorns (Fig.1). The motif of the flying “beaked”deer is also an ancient image of the steppe, origi-nating in rock-art and stele engravings, the beak-like feature being meant either as the beak of abird or as a sharp stylization of the animal’s muzzle. Curiously, this motif is not used on arti-facts, but is found used in the tattoos on the bod-ies of some Pazyryk individuals, where it featureswhat is clearly the beak of a bird of prey. Another

typical motif of the Pazyryk Culture is the crestedgriffin, which originates in the images of birds of prey that are so numerous in all steppe art(Fig. 2). The elk with lobed antlers is another typ-ical image, this one also being adopted by othercultures in north-western China (Fig. 3). Theseobservations confirm how deeply rooted Altainomadic culture was in common steppe tradition,even as it developed its own individuality.

Steppe art is a local tradition, and the discov-eries made at Arzhan-1 and Arzhan-2 (Tuva),together with the recent Chilikty finds fromKazakhstan, confirm that during its early phasefrom the early 1st millennium bce (the Arzhan-Maiemir phase, according to Gryaznov) to the 6th to 5th centuries this was a purely local art concentrated in the Altai. However, during the 5th and 4th centuries bce changes took place thatled to enhanced exchanges with other culturaland artistic traditions. These exchanges seem tohave increased further over subsequent centuriesowing to Achaemenid, Greek and Chinese expan-sion in the steppes, as well as to the mobility ofthe nomads themselves.

Nomadic cultures developed during the sameperiod on the Chinese side of the Altai and innorth-western China, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghaiand Inner Mongolia. It seems clear that icono-graphic motifs found among such cultures wereinspired by the art of the Altai nomads. The elkhead with lobed antlers, for example, found inNingxia, was definitely derived from the Altai, aswas the typical association of a palmetto with twoflanking raptor heads, though, as we shall see,

Fig. 2 Bronze nail fromthe sarcophagus lid ofthe Berel’ 11 kurganshowing steppe-stylecrested griffin.

Fig. 3 Typical steppe-style gilded woodenhorse pendant in theshape of an elk withlobed antlers from the Berel’ 11 kurgan,a motif transmittedas far as China.

Photos: © MissionArchéologique Françaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRS-MAE) H.-P. Francfort.

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the latter feature ultimately originates inAchaemenid art. Other, more specific motifsinclude the one termed the “cloud” in China,which has been found at Jiaohe and Goubei inXinjiang, along with the motif of a bird’s scalyfeathers. Both motifs first appeared at Tuekta-1(400-440 bce) in the Altai during an early phaseof the Pazyryk Culture.

A further typically Altai motif, the “reversedhindquarters” of animals (Fig. 4), was alsoadopted by Chinese artists. This has been foundfrom Xinjiang (at Alagou, 3rd – 2nd c. bce) toXigoupan in Inner Mongolia (2nd century bce), but its most ancient occurrence is in tattoos of the Pazyryk Culture (c. 300 bce). This motif wasused in otherwise purely Chinese pieces, such as in a toilet box belonging to Princess Dou Wan(d. 113 – 104 bce) from Macheng (Hebei) and inthe painted coffin of the Marquise of Dai (dated to shortly after 168 bce) from Mawangdui,Changsha (Hunan). The motif disappears fromChinese art during the 1st century bce. More gen-erally, it has also been observed that the steppecultures transmitted other artistic elements toChinese tradition, such as conventions for land-scape representation and the image of a chariot inprofile. In many cases, such transmission involvesboth the transmission of the ancient steppe tradi-tion and that of motifs from the Middle East (as isdiscussed below).

Chinese crafts were also appreciated by mem-bers of the Altai elite, with Chou and Mashansilks having been found in Pazyryk-5 (c. 250 bce),together with a bronze mirror. Chinese Chou silk

featuring phoenix-type embroidery used by the Pazyryk Culture has been found in Alagou inthe Tian Shan, this also dating from the early 3rd century bce.

On the Middle Eastern side, the adoption andtransformation of Achaemenid and Greek motifsby the Pazyryk Culture is striking. Main findscome from the Pazyryk-1 and 2 (295-300 bce),Berel’ 11 (293-294 bce), Ak-Alakha-3 kurgan 1(274 bce) and Pazyryk-5 (250 bce) kurgans.Whether or not related to the conquest of Asia byAlexander the Great, this reflects the fact that the main Achaemenid influence occurred afterthe fall of the Persian Empire to Greek forces in329 bce. However, Greek influence is not alwayseasy to trace, and it is not certain whether it camevia the Empire’s eastern provinces (Bactria) orvia the steppes from the Graeco-Scythianprovinces of the Black Sea.

Achaemenid influence appears in the non-figurative ornaments used on horse trappings,such as the rosette, palmettos, lotus, scroll band,waves, egg or tongue band. A few of these pat-terns first appeared in trappings found atBashadar-2 and Tuekta-1, where local steppe dec-orative ornamental shapes (dot-comma or eye-beak, beads) largely dominate. However, fromthe time of the Pazyryk-1, Berel’ and Ukok kurgansto that of Pazyryk-5, a selection of patterns wasmade by the Altai artists that did not changemuch over time, and the bead-and-reel motif, forexample, was never widely adopted. Palmetto orlotus patterns can be seen on the bridles of sixhorses from Pazyryk-1, along with one from

Fig. 4 Wooden beltplaque from the Berel’ 11 kurganshowing a tigerattacking a deer andtypical steppe-stylereversed hind-quarters, a motiftransmitted as far as China.

Fig. 5 Wooden horsependant in the shapeof an Achaemenianlotus bud from theBerel’ 11 kurgan.

Fig. 6 Gilded woodenhorse pendant fromthe Berel’ 11 kurganin the shape of anAchaemenian hairylion, here transformedinto a mouflon in thebeak of a griffin.



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Pazyryk-5, one from Pazyryk-2 and one from Ak-Alakha-1 kurgan 1. The bridles of four horses fromAk-Alakha-3 kurgan 1 and two from Berel’-11 alsofeature this motif. Achaemenid-looking patternsalso appear on various items of furniture, dressand ornaments.

At the time of the Pazyryk-1 and 2 kurgans,horse trappings and felt decorations begin to display Persian-inspired figurative motifs,whether natural or mythical. These include ani-mal elements, such as geese or swans with their

heads turned back, lion heads with hairy manes(Fig. 5), or the heads of wild sheep with chevronson their horns (Fig. 6), as well as the faces ofbearded men (the so-called Bes Mask).

Possibly imported belt plaques depict lion and ibex in Pazyryk-2. From the same kurgan, animage of a horned lion is used to decorate awooden torque. In the fifth kurgan, imported textiles and a famous carpet come from thePersian Empire, all possibly manufactured inBactria. It should also be noted that the lotusmotif was used in Bactria in the Hellenistic(3rd – 2nd c. bce) temple of Aï Khanoum in Afghan-istan. Some of the motifs found in these kurgansseem to be of Greek or Greco-Persian origin,including basic compositions like a satyr headwith a palmetto-looking hair-dress (kurgan 1), the scalloped mane of a griffin (kurgan 1) and along-necked acanthus with a griffin (kurgan 1).The joint excavation of the Berel’-11 kurgan inKazakhstan (Fig. 7) by the Margulan Institute inKazakhstan, the CNRS in France, and the CentroStudi Ricerche Ligabue(CRSL) in Italy has addednew elements to this picture in the shape of aPersepolitan griffin, a horned lion, a palmettoand bird, a head en face and body in profile, aswell as images of lions and of a sphinx.

If we look at a typical Achaemenid Persepoli-tan wooden griffin with leather horns and wings,used to decorate the head of a horse (Fig. 8), itwill be seen that this has been inspired by Persia,including its mane, ears, open beak and protrud-ing eyes. The intermediary find was not found inBactria, but instead was found at Chorasmia inthe shape of the Persepolitan griffin head mouldfrom Kalaly-Gyr.

A second example is the horned lion (Fig. 9).Here, we can trace the animal back to a Persepolisbas relief, where it is shown in a fight with thehero king, and from there to many representa-tions on vessels such as rhytons, the handles ofamphorae and on an Oxus Treasury aigrette. Theanimal’s mane, horns, paws and scorpion tail arerecognizably the same, and it appears in variousforms in Pazyryk Culture, recalling the torque inthe Siberian collection in the Hermitage Museumand a gigantic torque from Xinjiang. This image ofa horned lion can be traced as far as Xinjiang,where it was used to decorate the legs of Scythianbronze cauldrons or offering tables. In Berel’,however, the image is used in reduced form onwooden horse pendants, shown, on some pieces,

Fig. 7 The Berel’ 11kurgan.

Fig. 11 Wooden coffinornament from theBerel’ 11 kurgan in theshape of anAchaemenian sphinxtransformed in steppestyle.


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as recumbent on a four-petal lyre-palmettobetween the heads of long-necked birds of prey.

This palmetto and bird motif probably alsooriginates in the Persian Empire, as can be seenfrom its use on a silver bowl from Armenia and on a Persepolis stone tray. However, here again it can be traced to China, being used in the Sino-Siberian art of the C. T. Loo Collection.Excavations of a burial at Chenyangchuan inNingxia have also brought to light a similarbronze ornament.

Such patterns were selected out of thePersian ornamentation used in monumental orminor arts, such as textiles, court tableware andseals, and introduced into local material sup-ports, artistic schemes and original compositions.Sometimes the patterns were reconstructed following the rules of local stylistic conventions,and their meaning was therefore more or lessornamental, rather than symbolic as it had beenin the original use of such patterns in the NearEastern arts.

One good example of this decomposition andre-composition of Achaemenid art in the PazyrykCulture is found in the predation theme, where abeast of prey attacks an herbivorous animal withthe head en face and body in profile. Recently, atattoo was found on the hands of the female bodyfound in Pazyryk-5, depicting two tigers and aleopard attacking a deer and an elk. In this imagethe rendering of the big cats by the artist puts the

heads en face and the bodies in profile. Scholarswho have studied the scene have drawn parallelswith the art of north-west China in theAluchaideng plaque tigers. However, if we simplylook at the Persepolis Apadana relief, or at theTreasury of the Siphnians in Delphi in Greece,lions with heads en face and bodies in profileattacking a bull or a Greek hoplite can also befound. These date from the 6th – 5th centuries bceand are therefore definitely earlier than the Altaiand Chinese pieces.

Wooden horse pendants decorated withimages of horned lions heads en face and bodiesin profile have also been found in Pazyryk-5, andthese show clearly visible horns and scorpiontails. A similar stylistic transformation occurredat Berel’-11, where images of horned lions re-stylized in the manner of steppe art have beenfound both en face and in profile. The paws,horns, eyebrows, and muffle with a typicalPersian drop pattern (Fig. 10) are clearly recog-nizable. The heads of such compositions aresometimes selected for ornaments, and lionheads of this sort, sometimes transformed intogeneric feline heads, are widespread in Asia.

A tattoo recently found on the chest of theburied man in the same Pazyryk-5 barrow hasbeen thought to show an image of a tiger. Yet, theabsence of stripes on the body of the animal andthe contrast with the enormous mass of the mane

Fig. 9 Wooden horsependant from theBerel’ 11 kurgan in the shape ofAchaemenian hornedlions transformed insteppe style, a motiftransmitted as far asChina.

Fig. 8 Wooden horse-head ornament in theshape of a Persepolis-style Achaemeniangriffin from the Berel’ 11 kurgan.



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and the eye depicted in profile in Near Easternmanner suggests instead that this is an image of alion. Here, the adaptation of an Achaemenidmotif into steppe art can again be seen, this timein the form of the body art practiced by the Altaipeoples. In the Berel’-11 kurgan, the image of aPersian lion with head and eye in profile and acurling hairy mane, known from Iran andPazyryk, has been transformed into a composi-tion in which a bird of prey grasps the head of awild sheep in its beak. Nevertheless, the composi-tion retains the canonical proportions of theAchaemenid original, as well as a row of beadsand curling mane. A transformed form of theAchaemenid sphinx was also found in Berel’-11(Fig.11).

Achaemenid-looking artifacts, whetherimported or by inspiration, only appear in eliteburials (except for one piece from kurgan 22 of

Justyd XII), and are seen on the dresses, artifactsand furniture, as well as on the trappings of thehorses discovered in the burial pits near thefunerary chambers. Most Achaemenid art in theAltai came from a process of selection of themes,motifs or stylistic elements by the ruling class andartists. The source of this process lay in the use ofthe objects (not monumental and courtly art, buthorse trappings for a nomadic way of life), in thematerials and techniques at hand (metal, wood,gold and tin worked by cutting, casting, hammer-ing, etc.), and in the meaning of the images(ornamental of mythological).

The Achaemenid elements are very oftenreworked or reshaped according to the stylisticrequirements of the local nomadic taste of thesteppe, following old artistic traditions. However,the importance of Achaemenid art far into thesteppes and late into the 3rd century until 250 bceshould not be underestimated. It appears at the end of the 4th century, having been almost

completely absent from Central Asiabefore this date, as can be seenfrom artifacts found in Arzhan-

2 (c. 600 bce), Tuekta-1 (c. 440)and Chilikty. Simi-larly, the main

period of exchange with the Chinesecultural area came after the 5th century.

The role of the Altai as a cultural hub inspite of its apparent isolation was determined

by the prosperity of its pastoral population andpossibly also by that population’s control of mineral resources like gold and tin. The mobilityand speed of its nomadic population during the ancient Iron Age, and its contacts with theexpanding agrarian empires, created very origi-nal circumstances. But without the knowledgeacquired from studying the modest non-eliteburials, and from the preserved finds made inthe aristocratic frozen burials, nothing of this history would have come down to us. This is whythe conservation and study of this unique expres-sion of the world’s cultural heritage is such a vitaltask for the international community of scholarsand for UNESCO and why it is a vital task, aboveall, for the governments and populations of theregion, particularly now that this heritage isendangered by global warming and the thawingof the permafrost.

Fig. 10 Wooden horsependant from theBerel’ 11 kurgan in theshape of anAchaemenian hornedlion transformed insteppe style.© Mission ArchéologiqueFrançaise en AsieCentrale (CNRS-MAE)H.-P. Francfort.

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F ollowing the major foreign archaeologicalexpeditions – Russian, British, German,

French and Japanese – that took place in ChineseTukestan (today’s Xinjiang) between 1900 and1914 against a background of imperial rivalries,the idea of the Silk Roads as one of the majorroutes of exchange between the western world,whether Indian or Iranian, Roman or Mediter-ranean, and the Far East or North East Asia, towhich China appeared to be the gateway,appeared. This idea culminated in the Silk Roadsprogramme launched by UNESCO in the 1990sand in the “Sérinde” exhibition held at the GrandPalais in Paris in 1995.

Avoiding the Taklamakan depression, twomain routes joined Kashgar in the West withDunhuang in the borderlands of China in theEast. The older of these routes and the furthestsouth passed through Khotan and ran souththrough the foothills of the Himalayas, while theyounger went through Aksou, the Quca oasis andthe Turfan oasis before reaching China. This wasabove all a caravan route of the type evoked byIbn Battuta in his travels, and is was also theroute followed by Chinese pilgrims traveling toIndia in search of religious texts. It was this latterroute that led to the expansion of Buddhism,which spread alongside the merchants and thefirst translators coming from Central Asia, Swat,or Afghanistan and that pivotal region that AurelStein called “Serindia” to produce a uniqueBuddhist form of art in the oases, whose style,codes and iconography influenced traditionalChinese Asia.

This region was conquered during the Hanperiod by Chinese armies, lost during the periodof the Six Dynasties and re-conquered under theTang. It gave rise in the years that followed to thegrowth of ephemeral empires such as that of theWestern Turks before the period of the Mongolinvasions that overwhelmed China and the

Iranian world during the 12th century ce underGenghis Khan and his successors, which realizedbeyond his wildest dreams Alexander the Great’sambition of uniting East and West within a singleempire.

Yet, if the “Silk Roads” in the sense in whichthis term is often understood today meansChinese Tukestan or contemporary Xinjiang, inother words, a frontier zone on the edge ofempires, it nevertheless also denotes a sedentaryworld that has its own history. The world of theoases and the caravans is not that of the steppesand the nomads, the latter being left out of writtenhistory. For many centuries, only indirect echoesof this latter world reached us in the accounts leftby ancient Greek authors or in Chinese annals, aswell as in the later works of Arab travelers.

This world of movement recedes before usand is often compared to the sea or to an oceanwhose boundaries are f luid and changing.Alexander the Great stopped at the boundaries ofthe sedentary world in Afghanistan and did notseek to push beyond the Oxus, following theAchaemenid example in this respect. However,

The Silk Roads and the Road of the Steppes:Eurasia and the Scythian World

Pierre CambonConservateur en chef

Musée Guimet, France

Fig. 1 Pendants knownas “The King and theDragons”,Afghanistan, Tilliatepe, Tomb II, 1st cent.Gold, turquoise,garnet and lapis-lazuli, 12.5 x 6.5 cm,MK 04.40.109.National Museum ofAfghanistan © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.

the Scythians challenged him to come after them,and Quintus Curtius reports the threats that theScythian ambassador contemptuously directedtowards the young “Greek” conqueror.1 Wouldyou like to have us as your friends or your enemies? If the former, our neutrality can bedepended upon. If the latter, you run a consider-able risk because our territory runs from the Oxusto the Bosphorus and borders ancient Macedonia.“Bear in mind that we hold the keys to Asia and toEurope, and we can act as sentrymen guarding bothempires.” The text is clear, and it shows that theauthor was perfectly aware that beside the seden-tary world there existed the world of the steppesand the nomads, which had its own coherence, itsown routes and its own forms of communicationand circulation.

Russian expansionism from the 18th centuryonwards had also suggested the existence of thisworld, and the Greco-Scythian art of the borders ofthe Black Sea and the Cheronnese was displayedin the collection of Peter the Great, now in theHermitage Museum in St. Petersburg.2 This collec-tion was put together during the push eastwardscarried out by the Russian Empire beyond theCaucasus, and it was enriched by finds discoveredduring the first excavations of the kurgans carriedout in Ukraine and in southern Russia.3 It bore wit-ness to a hitherto unsuspected art in which goldseemed to be omnipresent and where the workwas done with an extraordinary finesse, allying ananimal style, often drawing on realism, with Greekinfluence from the banks of the Bosphorus.

While more oriental pieces from the Russian“Far East” in the same collection seemed moreconceptual and obviously abstract in form, theCheronnese pieces showed a perfect symbiosis ofnaturalism, dynamically handled themes, and theinfluence of Hellenic models. When compared topieces from the Ordos and from Mongolia, whichhave more rigid, deliberately stylized lines, theScythian art from the kurgans of southern Russiaappears to be characterized by an overflowing ofscenes and motifs in which animal art is mixedwith elements from everyday life, fantasy and leg-endary creatures, and in which the outline of thething seen is mixed with lines that play withcurves and movement. This art uses an abun-dance of vivid colours, and it is characterized by a“barbarian” luxury in which semi-preciousstones, turquoise from eastern Iran and garnetsfrom Rajasthan are brought into play together.

Fig. 5 The Tree of Life,Afghanistan, Tillia-Tepe. MK 04.40.400.National Museum ofAfghanistan © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.

Fig. 2 Golden crown,Afghanistan, Tillia-Tepe, Tomb VI, Bactria,NorthernAfghanistan,1st century ce.Gold, 45 x 13 cm.MK 04.40.50.National Museum ofAfghanistan © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.

Fig. 3 Graphic of the Shilla goldencrown from Kyungju,Shilla Kingdom,5th-6th century ce,Gilt Bronze,H: 59.5 cm;D. at base: 17 cm.MA 1642.National Museum ofKorea © Thierry Ollivier /Musée Guimet.

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This symphony of colours is displayed in thegroup of six tombs of Tillia Tepe, not far fromShebergan and the Afghan frontier. Finds made inthese tombs show the same type of decoration inwhich realism blends with a decorative system offorms and lines. Yet, this “Scythian Gold”, foundon Bactrian territory, displays local influences inthe materials used (lapis-lazuli from Badakhshan,for example), and it also displays a blending ofrealism with a system of motifs: the generalatmosphere is one in which Hellenism is mixedwith Asian motifs, such as the lord of the animalsdominating the dragons (Fig. 1). There is a wide-spread use of a motif in the form of a heart thatdates from the 3rd millennium bce onwards andthat has been found in excavations carried out atGonur in what today is Turkmenistan. TheScythians controlled the routes used to transportgold, and this gold came from the Altai.4 It washere, according to Herodotus, that this preciousmetal was mined under the symbolic protectionof griffins – fantastic creatures of the Iranian-Greek world whose hybrid form distantly evokesthat of dragons.

Tillia Tepe contained a golden crown whoseextremely stylized floral form suggests a tree onwhich two birds are represented perched on thehighest branches, their heads raised and turnedupwards towards the sky. This motif is repeated inidentical fashion on the four palmettes, with theexception of the middle one, whose swirling dec-oration seems to refer to the theme of the wheel.While Victor Sarianidi has sought analogues forthis in the West (the Issyk kurgan in Kazakhstannear the Kargalinka River),5 he could not help butfind a link with the Korean crowns of the ThreeKingdoms period (1st to 7th c. ce), echoes of whichcan be found beyond the straits on the island ofKyushu, leading him to suggest a Bactrian influ-ence on the crowns found in Korea. “Their rela-tionship to [the crown] of Tillia Tepe is so obvious,”he writes, “that it demonstrates the strong influ-ence that Bactria must have had towards the East.”6

(Fig. 2 and 3) Since Sarianidi’s discovery, this comparison

has been drawn in Japan as well, and from therein Korea itself,7 even if it is one that seems to poseinsoluble difficulties, first in terms of the differenttime periods – Tillia Tepe is conventionally datedto the 1st century on the basis of coinage fromTiberias, while the Shilla tombs are dated inphases from the 4th to 6th centuries ce8 – and then

in terms of geography. Distance seems to presenta logical difficulty, all the more so since the Shillakingdom was the most technically backward andthe most restricted to the south-east of the ThreeKingdoms that divided the Korean Peninsula atthe time, as well as the one that was most firmlyclosed to Chinese inf luence for the longestperiod. It was not converted to Buddhism until524, in other words nearly two centuries after thePaekche and the Koguryo, and only a few yearsbefore the Japanese archipelago.

For Li Ogg, the relationship cannot be ration-ally proven, and resemblance is not proof. For thisauthor, in order to prove Korean influence thecorrect path does not lead through Central Asiabut rather through Siberia, and this should beexplored instead of looking for a hypotheticalScythian route via the Silk Roads. “It seems impos-sible,” he writes, “to trace a route of transmissiongoing from Central Asia to Korea.”9 Drawing uponGerman studies that for the first time connectedthe Korean crowns with their Chaman equivalentsfound in Siberia in the work of Hentze carried outin 1933,10 Ogg emphasizes the importance of the

Fig. 4 Shilla GoldenDiadem, ShillaKingdom,5th century ce.National Museum ofKorea © Thierry Ollivier /Musée Guimet.


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Nordic route rather than a connection towardsthe West. This is confirmed by research in thesame direction that draws attention to parallelbeliefs and themes, such as those of the bird as themessenger of the soul, or the stag and the tree oflife, which the Shilla crowns seem directly to echoin stylized form. “The Shilla crowns display astrongly shamanistic character,” Kim Won-yong

writes, “and the striking similarity in basic idea tothe Shaman diadems of the Yenisei region of Siberiamust be emphasized.”11

Nevertheless, the debate is still open, all themore so as the Shilla tombs have been linked withthose of the Altai in their design, configurationand the techniques used for burials, and PakYoung-sook emphasizes the unsettling connec-tions between Shilla jewelry and that of theScythian world.12 Differences certainly exist – thewooden coffin is placed on the floor in Koreaunder a pile of stones covered by an earth mound,for example, while in Pazyryk the coffin lies in apit that is dug out – but the general atmosphere ofa nomadic people and a world of horsemen is thesame. The same themes are found from TilliaTepe to Kyongiu, with the tree and the bird motifand the form of the crowns being similar, as is thegeneral use of motifs often based on floral forms.The same techniques are also used, including theuse of leaves of very fine gold with openwork dec-oration and round spangles that move with everymovement (Fig. 4 and 5), as well as the use ofgranulation that enhances the design of pearlsand motifs and a way of using inset stones or glassthat creates lively contrasts (Fig. 6 and 7). Thisconstitutes a whole world of forms that are sel-dom found in China and that are linked tonomadic migrations.

The fact that the Korean Peninsula was awareof the atmosphere of the steppe is eloquentlyshown by the use of dragon decoration on a beltbuckle from Lolang, its granulation techniquebeing specific to the steppe even if the piece isthought to have come from a Chinese garrisonset up by the Han on Korean territory, at least if“classical” historiography is to be believed. (This,however, has been questioned by Pyongyangarchaeologists, who consider it to be part of oneof the first Korean kingdoms before the emer-gence of Koguryo.) It is curious that an identicalbuckle has also been found at Karashahr inChinese Tukestan (Fig. 8 and 9).

In fact, the debate has for a long time beenunconsciously biased since naturally Chinaseemed to be a necessary route towards north-east Asia, and the Scythians were largely per-ceived as being a western people, something thatis probably due to the ancient historians, withoutof course forgetting the discoveries made on thecoasts of the Black Sea. Perspectives changed alittle when recent research carried out in Siberia

Fig. 6 GoldenNecklace,Afghanistan,Tillia Tepe, Tomb II,1st century ce. Gold,ivory colored in black,pearls diameter 1.8,2.0, 2.4 cm.MK 04.40.111.National Museum ofAfghanistan © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.

Fig. 7 Golden earringsfrom Pubuch-ong,Pomun-dong,Kyongju,Shilla Kingdom,5th-6th century ce,Length 9.7 cm.National Museum ofKorea © Thierry Ollivier /Musée Guimet.

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revealed typically Scythian tombs from a date alot earlier than had previously been imaginedonly a few kilometres from the Chinese frontierand Mongolia. Soon after the fall of the BerlinWall, archaeological digs were stepped up in theAltai, being multiplied and internationalized withthe opening up of Russia to joint research. WhileJapanese history begins in the Kobun period andthe history of Korea remains shrouded in mysterybefore the beginning of the present era, German-Russian excavations have discovered Arzhan 2 inthe Tuva Republic, which is a tomb near westSaian that has remained intact and has been precisely dated to the 7th century bce.13

This discovery, overturning what had previ-ously been thought, emphasizes the existence of a world of the steppe that was much more organ-ized than had previously been supposed. This was a world that had its own codes and wasautonomous with regard to China and was muchmore fluid than might have been expected. Itscentre of gravity was in Asia. Arzhan 2 is locatedfar to the north, and its easterly situation, halfway between Afghanistan and Korea, suggests aroute of the steppes that went round China to thenorth, bearing out Baltrusaïtis’s ideas regardingexchanges that took place in the medieval periodacross Eurasia during the nomadic migrations.While the Turkic and Mongol worlds mixedtogether at the edges of the empires in ChineseTurkestan, the Scythians moved further to thenorth, and probably further to the east, thanmight have been thought from an early periodonwards. A connection with north Asia is there-fore not so absurd, above all if one remembersthat Korean is considered to be an Uralo-Altaiclanguage, in other words one that comes fromthe region between the Urals and the Altai.

Other worlds exist beyond that of theScythians, and the echo of these is to be found inthe legendary traditions referred to by the ancientauthors: “beyond the Issedones,” reportsHerodotus, “live the one-eyed people, theArimaspians. Beyond the Arimaspians are griffinsthat stand guard over gold, and beyond them arethe Hyperboreans who extend all the way to thesea.”14 While Scythia extended from theBosphorus to the Altai, further to the north andeast it was also in contact with mysteriousregions, domains of cold and night, situated atthe edges of the world. This idea was developedin almost identical fashion by Damastes in his

work “On the Peoples”: “beyond the Scythians livethe Issedones; and beyond these are theArimaspians; beyond the Arimaspians are theRhipean Mountains on which the Borean windblows (the north wind) and on which snow neverfalls, and beyond these mountains live theHyperboreans who extend to the other sea.”15

Fig. 8 and 9 GoldenBuckle from Seogan-ri, Tomb IX, SouthPyongan Province, 1st-2nd century ce, length9.4 cm.National Museumof Korea © ThierryOllivier / Musée Guimet.


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To return to the subject more generally, nothing should be excluded in advance: since theScythians occupied a territory that extended fromthe Danube to the Yenisei River, and since, goingin the opposite direction, the origins of Korea liein Siberia, it would be logical to imagine that contacts existed on the Altai side, and Pak Young-sook rightly raises this issue. Can it not be imag-ined that a branch of these nomadic peoples that once occupied Eurasia could have pushed its migratory movements further to the east andto the Korean Peninsula? Before the ThreeKingdoms period, three ethnic groups existed innorthern Korea in the 3rd century bce, the Ye, theMaek and the Choson.16 The first two of thesegroups are thought of as having come from Baikalthrough China or Mongolia, while the last is stillof unknown origin, even if it was the first group tohave used iron and created the first state attestedto in Korean history, Ko-Choson, before disap-pearing as a result first of Chinese pressure andlater of that of the Yemaek.

Nothing is known, on the other hand, of whattook place in the south before the emergence of the Shilla kingdom around 57 bce.17 But, asKwon Young-pil has remarked,18 the flying horsepainted on the saddle of Ch’onmach’ong fromKyongju is not unlike the stylistic treatment givento animal art found among the Scythians, with itsdecoration of crescents or stylized blades thatrecall semi-precious stones set into a backgroundof gold. This is a distant echo, perhaps, of popula-tion movements the epicentre of which seems tohave been in the Altai, which itself served as theheart of the continent. It is as if Korea had beenthe ultimate destination of the route of the steppeand the final destination of this nomadic worldthat once occupied Eurasia.19

“Would it be too far-fetched,” asks Pak Young-sook, “to assume that these nomads and horse-rid-ers dwelling in the vast Eurasian steppes did moveeastwards, settling in various places, and finallyreached the Korean peninsula, at the far end of thesteppes?”

Translated from French by David Tresilian

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1. Quintus Curtius. Life of Alexander.Book VII, Chapter VIII.

2. L’Or des Scythes. Galeries Nationales duGrand Palais. (Paris, 1975).

3. Schiltz, Véronique. Histoires dekourganes, la redécouverte de l’or desScythes. (Paris, 1991).

4. Lombard, M. Monnaie et Histoire,d’Alexandre à Mahomet. (Paris, 1971).

5. The Grand Exhibition of Silk RoadCivilizations: The Oasis and SteppeRoutes. (Nara, 1988), Fig. 134, p. 126.

6. Sarianidi, Victor. L’Or de la Bactriane.(Leningrad, 1985), p. 49.

7. Kang Duk Hee. “Gold Crowns ofShibarghan in Afghanistan and of theThree Kingdoms Period of Korea.” KoreaJournal, Vol. 23, No. 6, June 1983.

8. “Shilla tombs,” writes Kim Won-yong,“do not produce dated objects and thedating of them is also difficult like thedating of the two neighbouring states.For the dating of Shilla tombs we mustrely on typological analyses of burial

goods and comparative studies withChinese objects.” (Art and Archaeologyof Ancient Korea (Seoul, 1986), p. 175).

9. Hentze, Carl. “Schamanenkronen zurHan-Zeit in Korea.” OstasiatischeZeitschrift N. F. 9, Berlin & Leipzig, 1933,pp. 156-163.

10. Li Ogg. La mythologie coréenne et sonexpression artistique. (Paris, 1995), p. 85.

11. Kim Won-yong. Art and Archaeology ofAncient Korea. (Seoul, 1986), p. 350.

12. Pak Young-sook. “The Origins of SillaMetalwork.” Orientations, Vol. 19, No. 9,September 1988.

13. Chugunov, K, Parzinger, H & A.Nagler. “Arzhan 2 : La tombe d’un prince scythe en Sibérie du Sud,Rapport préliminaire des fouilles russo-allemandes de 2000-2002.”Arts Asiatiques, Vol. 59, Paris, 2004.

14. Herodotus. Histories. Book IV, Chapter 13.

15. Cited by G. M. Bongard-Levin and E. A.Grantovskij. De la Scythie à l’Inde.(Paris, 1981), p. 32.

16. Li Ogg. La Corée, des origines à nos jours.(Paris, 1988).

17. See the pages describing the kingdomin the catalogue of the NationalMuseum in Seoul, National Museum of Korea (Seoul, 2005), pp. 67-75. Theparallel with the traditions of the Northand Siberia and particularly with thoseof the Altai is explicitly emphasized.

18. Kwon Young-pil. The Art of the SilkRoad, from Central Asia to Korea. (Seoul,1997).

19. The contacts and routes are attested to in concrete fashion by the goldendagger incrusted with agate and jadethat was found near the tomb of KingMich’u in Kyongju and dates to the 6th century. This appears to be a replicaof the daggers produced in Kazakhstan.See also the Roman-type glass found in the Kyongju tombs.

20. Pak Young-sook, op. cit., p. 47.

R E F E R E N C E S

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A Glimpse at the Projectoutput 1: Thorough inventory of the frozen tombs and other archaeological remainsoutput 2: Production of topographical and morphological maps of the frozen tombs

Field campaign 2005: the Dzhazator Valley, Altai Republic, Russian FederationField campaign 2006: Bukhtarma Valley and Berel’, KazakhstanUse of CORONA satellite images to pinpoint the tombs

output 3: Establishment of an international network and sharing of knowledge and experienceUNESCO Workshop Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains: Strategies andPerspectives, 28-31 March 2006, Gorno-Altaisk, Altai Republic, Russian FederationInternational Conference on Scythian Archaeology and the Archaeology of the Altai Mountains,4-6 December 2006, Ghent, Belgium

output 4: Capacity building for Russia and Kazakhstan through trainingTraining in mapping technique trough satellite images, 19 February-25 March 2007,Ghent University, Belgium

output 5: Raising awareness on endangered frozen tombs and global climate changeExhibition The Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains, December 2006, Ghent University,BelgiumThe Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains, Catalogue of the Ghent exhibition, UNESCO WorldHeritage Centre and University of Ghent. (Ghent, 2006).Exhibition Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains, April 2008, UNESCO, Paris,France.Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountain, Promotional brochure of the project,UNESCO Publications. (Paris, 2008).Various articles in the World Heritage Review and other periodic journals

Left Group picturetaken at the GhentConference,4-6 December 2006,Belgium.© UNESCO / GhentUniversity.

Top Conference inGorno-Altaisk,members onexcursion in theKarakol Valley visitingthe Bashadar kurgan,March 2006.© UNESCO / GASU.

Bottom Conference inGorno-Altaisk, March2006.© UNESCO / GASU.


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UN ESCO PROJECT PRESERVATIONOF FROZEN TOMBS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS

CHAPTER 2UN ESCO PROJECT PRESERVATIONOF FROZEN TOMBS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS

C H A P T E R I I • U N E S C O P R O J E C T P R E S E R VAT I O N O F F R O Z E N TO M B S O F T H E A LTA I M O U N TA I N S

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Background to UNESCO Preservation of theFrozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains Project

The towering, jagged Altai Mountains stretchsome 2,100 km across China, Mongolia, Russiaand Kazakhstan, the Russian section of thismountain range having been inscribed as a natural site on the World Heritage List in 1998.The area inscribed includes Altaisky Zapovednikand a buffer zone around Lake Teletskoye, as well as Katunsky Zapovednik and a buffer zonearound Mount Belukha. It also includes the UkokQuiet Zone on the Ukok Plateau.

The region represents the most completesequence of altitudinal vegetation zones in centralSiberia, ranging from steppe to forest-steppe andmixed forest and sub-alpine vegetation to alpinevegetation. It is also an important habitat forendangered animal species, such as the snow leop-ard. However, although the Altai Mountains wereinscribed for their outstanding natural value onthe World Heritage List, their cultural value shouldalso by no means be underestimated (Fig. 1).

This is so because the Altai Mountains bearunique witness to the ancient Scythian culturethat flourished in the Eurasian steppe during the1st millennium bce. The Scythians and other contemporary tribes in the Eurasian Steppedeveloped a distinct nomadic way of life that was homogenous throughout the Eurasiansteppe from the Black Sea area to the Mongolianplains, and they interacted with neighbouringcivilizations in China, India, Iran, Mesopotamiaand Greece.

As the Scythians left little built heritagebehind them and no written records, there areonly two sources of information that can provideus with information about this nomadic civiliza-

tion today. The first is the description left by theAncient Greek historian Herodotus, who devotedthe fourth book of his Histories to the Scythians.The second is the archaeological sites, namelythe Scythian burial mounds, or kurgans, that stilldot the landscape and the artefacts that thesecontain (Fig. 2).

Often very well conserved, the kurgans foundin the Altai Mountains are of the utmost impor-tance as a source of information on ancientScythian civilization. The local climate, togetherwith the particular way the kurgans were con-structed, created ideal conditions for their preser-vation. When rain seeped into the tombs it frozeand never thawed. As a result, all the materialsburied in the tombs – metal objects, gold and pot-tery, and organic materials such as wood, leather,textiles and even the mummified bodies ofhumans and sacrificed horses along with theirgears such as harness and saddles – have beenpreserved intact over the millennia. To this day,the only frozen tombs discovered anywhere in theworld are those found in the Altai Mountains.

Many 19th-century scholars were sceptical of the description of the Scythians given byHerodotus, in spite of numerous archaeologicaldiscoveries showing that as a witness he was conscientious and trustworthy. Now the organic

Background to UNESCO Preservation of theFrozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains Projectand Perspectives for Transboundary Protectionthrough the World Heritage Convention

Junhi HanWorld Heritage Centre, Culture, UNESCO

Fig. 1. The highestpeaks of the AltaiMountains: TavanBogd in theMongolian section of the Altai.

Fig. 2. Kurgans lyingnorth to south in theMongolian section ofthe Altai.


Left Terminal: GriffinHolding a Stag’s Headin its Beak. Wood andleather; carved.H. 23 cm PazyrykCulture. 5th century bc.Inv.no. 1684/169.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

material yielded by the frozen tombs of the Altaihas confirmed Herodotus’ accounts of Scythianculture. Occupation, dress, weapons, as well ascustoms such as the embalmment of the corpsesof chieftains, burial with a concubine, purifyingafter burial, and scalping of slain enemies areconfirmed by study of the artefacts from thefrozen tombs in the Altai Mountains. This infor-mation could not have been determined by theresearch made on the Scythian kurgans in theBlack Sea region alone.

Artefacts found during the excavation of thefrozen tombs, in particular the organic materials,have shed light not only on the Scythians them-selves, but also on the other civilizations withwhich they were in contact. The ancient Persianand Chinese textiles found in the frozen tombs ofthe Pazyryk period, for example, are older thanany surviving examples of such textiles to befound in Persia or China (Fig. 3 and 4).

Research on the tombs has also revealed pre-viously unknown connections between differentregions during the second half of the 1st millen-nium bce. Clothes discovered during a researchproject led by a Sino-French team (Institut du patrimoine et de l’archéologie du Xinjiang, A. Idrissi/CNRS-Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Debaine-Francfort) in the Taklamakan desert(Djoumboulak-Koum), for example, show strik-ing similarities to those found in frozen tombsfrom the Pazyryk Culture (6th to 3rd centuries bce)in the Altai Mountains, thus showing the connec-tions that already existed between these regions,and between East and West, long before this routebecame better known as the “Silk Roads”.

The first discovery of frozen tombs in theAltai dates back to 1865 by the German-Russianacademician V.V. Radloff in Berel and Katanda.However, modern scientific research on theScythian tombs only started with S. Rudenko’s

Fig. 3. Pile Carpet.Wool; knot technique.183 x 200 cm.Pazyryk Culture.5th-4th century bce.Inv.no.1687/93.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

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excavation of a series of large and small burialmounds, which took place between 1945 and 1949in Pazyryk and Tuekta. The discovery of frozenmaterials in the Pazyryk tombs provided a goodunderstanding of how the ice had formed withinthe tombs, and these early tombs yielded not onlyorganic material such as carpets and woodenobjects, but also perfectly preserved embalmedhuman bodies. Research on the contents of thefrozen funerary chambers considerably broad-ened knowledge of nomadic culture of the Altai,which these mid-century scholars dubbed“Pazyryk Culture” (Fig. 5 and 6).

However, it was only in the 1990s that multi-disciplinary research using modern techniquesbegan. Between 1990 and 1995, the Institute ofArchaeology and Ethnography of the SiberianBranch of the Russian Academy of Science inNovosibirisk carried out excavations of kurgans onthe Ukok Plateau in the Altai Mountains, includingexcavations at kurgan of Ak-Alakha 3 (N.Polosmak) and one of the kurgans in the Verkh-Kaldzhin necropolis (V. Molodin). The former kur-gan, excavated in 1993, was the first barrow foundthat contained solely a woman, a beautifully tat-tooed corpse later known as the “Ice Maiden”. Shewas wearing some of the oldest items of femaleattire ever discovered from a nomadic society. Inparticular, her blouse, made of imported wild silk,provided evidence of long-distance trade ofPazyryk people of the Altai with India.

The French CNRS, led by H.-P. Francfort, and the Margulan Institute of Kazakhstan, led byZ. Samashev, in collaboration with the ItalianLigabue Research Centre, then excavated a richfrozen burial ground known as Berel’ 11 (4th-3rd

centuries bce) between 1998 and 2000. This exca-vation yielded two partially decomposed mummi-fied bodies, along with 13 fully-harnessed horsesthat had apparently been sacrificed, thus provid-ing much material for anthropological and paleo-pathological research as well as for research onDNA. Examination of the organic matter found inthe horses’ stomachs, for example, revealed muchabout the history of the flora of the region, andeven indicated in which season the tombs hadbeen constructed.

The most recent research carried out on theAltai frozen tombs took place between 2004 and 2006 and was jointly conducted by theGerman Archaeological Institute (DAI), led by H. Parzinger, the Institute of Archaeology and

Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of theRussian Academy of Science, led by V. Molodin,and the Institute of Archaeology of the MongolianAcademy of Science, led by D. Zeveendorzh. Thisresearch took place in Bayan Olgy in the southernpart of the Altai Mountains to the northwest ofMongolia. Kurgan Olon Kurin Gol 10 discoveredduring these excavations was of particular scien-tific interest, since it contained an intact burialchamber containing a mummified blond warriorwho was fully dressed and equipped with a complete set of weapons (Fig. 7).

Through dendro-chronological study of thewood used for the burial chamber, the findingswere identified as belonging to the PazyrykCulture (early 3rd century bce). The research thusprovided valuable information regarding theextent of this ancient culture, which up until thenhad only been known in the northern part of theAltai. It also considerably enlarged knowledge of

Fig. 4 Carpet (Detail).Felt; applique.640 x 450 cm.Pazyryk Culture.5th-4th century bce.1687/94.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.


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the relations between the different nomadic peoples that existed at that time, in particularbetween southern Siberia and other regions.

Today, however, the permafrost of the AltaiMountains is endangered by climate change, andthe frozen tombs are particularly threatened.Mountain permafrost, its average temperatureusually remaining within one or two degrees offreezing point, is very sensitive to climate change,and temperature records made over the past 30 years in Mongolian mountain regions haveshown a 0.1 °C per decade rise in permafrost tem-peratures in the Khentei and Khangai regions anda 0.2 °C per decade rise in the Kovsgol region.Research has also shown that the glaciers in theAltai Mountains have been melting for decades.Rough estimates indicating that these glaciershave lost up to 27 % of their mass over the last 100years, with average retreat rates now standing atbetween 9 and 20 m per year. Further degradationof the glaciers is almost certain, and it is closelylinked to the melting of the region’s permafrost.

A significant reduction in the amount of per-mafrost found in the Altai Mountains, or even itsdisappearance, is thus predicted for the middle ofthis century. The most significant impact will benear the lower boundary of the alpine perma-frost, where the frozen ground is very sensitive toclimate change. Many frozen tombs are situatedwithin this area of discontinuous permafrost, andthey are therefore highly vulnerable to thawing.This will lead to the loss of invaluable materialthat could shed light on the important nomadiccultures that flourished in the region during the1st millennium bce.

Perspectives for Transboundary Protectionthrough the World Heritage Convention

Alerted by these developments, archaeologists,climatologists, geographers and geocryologistsdrew UNESCO’s attention to this urgent issue and requested its assistance. Subsequently, a project, the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of theAltai Mountains, was set up under the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust in 2005.

This project proposed the drawing up of aninventory of the kurgans in the Altai Mountainsand the production of accurate maps, made usingadvanced satellite imaging techniques (Fig. 8). A second step would then be to identify andlocate the frozen tombs, and this has now becomepossible thanks to sophisticated geophysical andgeocryological survey techniques, which, whencombined with satellite imagery, can produceaccurate maps of the permafrost zone. A thirdstep would be to monitor the permafrost layer, inorder to determine the rate of thawing of thefrozen tombs. UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre,working under the above-mentioned project, hasinitiated such a monitoring programme to dis-cover how quickly the permafrost zone is thawingin the Russian part of the Altai, and results fromthis programme will be published in the project’sfinal technical report in 2008.

Yet, climate change is a global phenomenon,and it is obvious that efforts to prevent the frozentombs from thawing can only preserve a very lim-ited number of them at best. Further excavationwork therefore also needs to be considered, inorder to save as much of the research material

Fig. 5. Applique:Cockerels. Leather;carved. 12 x 17 cm.Pazyryk Culture.5th century bce.Inv.no.1295/43.

Fig. 6. Applique:Figure of an Elk.Leather; carved.26.5 x 30 cm.Pazyryk Culture.5th century bce.Inv.no.1684/283.

Photos: © The StateHermitage Museum,St. Petersburg.

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still in the tombs as possible. Clearly, any excava-tions should be carried out in such a way as torespect the local populations of the Altai.

The current UNESCO project is at present lim-ited to the first of the steps outlined above, inaddition to the World Heritage Centre’s on-goingpermafrost monitoring programme. It is there-fore hoped that the international academic andscientific community will also take steps to helpensure that the invaluable material contained inthe Altai tombs can be preserved or at least docu-mented for posterity. Cooperation between thefour countries whose territories extend across theAltai – China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and theRussian Federation – is also essential, as is coop-eration among the many scientific research insti-tutes located in Eurasia, in order for this to comeabout and to obtain the most efficient workingmethods and best synergy.

It is also desirable for an archaeological parkto be established in the areas in which frozen kur-gans are concentrated, such as in the Bashadar,Tuekta and Berel’ Valleys to quote only a few, inorder to ensure their proper management andpreservation. Such a park would serve as anopen-air museum for educational purposes,while also contributing to the sustainable devel-opment of the communities in the area. It wouldalso facilitate the monitoring of the frozen tombslocated within the park’s boundaries, helping toprevent the loss of undocumented material. Thefour countries whose territories extend across theAltai could also consider setting up further trans-boundary protection mechanisms for the frozentombs and the other archaeological heritagemaking up the Mountains’ unique landscapethrough inclusion of the sites on the WorldHeritage List.

Indeed, the World Heritage Committee, con-scious that the World Heritage List should be arepresentative list of the heritage of humanity asa whole, requested ICOMOS first in 1994 and thenagain in 2000 to “proceed with an analysis of thesites inscribed on the World Heritage List and theTentative List on a regional and chronological,geographical and thematic basis,” and to draw upan action plan to fill any gaps in it. This requestwas seen as a way of including representatives ofthe diverse cultural heritage of humanity as awhole on the List, and the ICOMOS analysisshowed that certain cultures and civilizationswere either at present not represented on the List,or were seriously under-represented, nomadiccultures among them.

Fig. 7 Overview of a grave, kurgan-1,Olon Kurin Gol 10,early 3rd century bce.© DeutschesArchäologischesInstitut, DAI, Berlin.

Fig. 8. StereoscopicCorona KH-4Bsatellite images ofBerel’, Kazakhstan.© UNESCO / Universityof Ghent.


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Over past millennia, many cultures havespread out over and influenced vast geographicalregions, cutting across boundaries as they did so.Empires such as the Chinese, Persian, andRoman, to cite only some of the best known, haveexerted enormous influence over the rest of theworld and have given common cultural refer-ences to vast areas, even as these common refer-ences were also modified by local cultural fea-tures. Yet, cultures are not the exclusive productof such empires. Indeed, these empires’ distinc-tive cultural patterns, created by elite groups,always existed in contrast with or in parallel topatterns that evolved independently of theempires’ sedentary elites, and these co-existingcultures often stood in symbiotic relationshipwith each other, while sharing common historicaltimelines.

It is clear, for example, that the sedentary civ-ilizations and empires of the past often came into

contact with the nomadic cultures around them,and each evolved by interacting with the other. Asa result, in order to grasp an accurate picture ofsuch sedentary civilizations, it is also important tohave a sense of the nomadic cultures outsidethem. The nomadic culture represented by thefrozen tombs of the Pazyryk Culture in the AltaiMountain, for example, marvellously preservedtraces of Persian civilization even decades afterthe end of the Persian Empire. It is also wellacknowledged that the art of the Western andEastern Zhou dynasties played an important rolein the emergence of the so-called Scytho-Siberiananimal style of art that flourished across EurasiaSteppes during the 1st millennium bce.

Further research on the ancient nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppe should be carriedout both by national and by international aca-demic institutions, and it should be encouragedby the international community. The aim of suchresearch would be not only to shed light on whatis still a little-known period of human history(that of the 1st millennia bce), but also to investi-gate its possible inclusion as World Heritagemixed sites. This would be in line with the WorldHeritage Committee’s Global Strategy of includ-ing non-represented or under-represented cul-tures on the World Heritage List, since nomadiccultures once flourished in the Eurasian Steppeduring the 1st millennium bce have little presenceon the List despite the important roles they haveplayed in the general history of humanity.

Kurgans, MogoitinGol, Mongolian Altai.© Gary Tepfer.

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Cugunov, K., Parzinger, H. and A. Nagler.“The Golden Grave from Arzhan.”Minerva 13 (1), 2001: 39-42.

Cugunov, K., Parzinger, H. and A. Nagler.“Arzhan 2 : la tombe d’un prince scythe enSibérie du Sud. Rapport préliminaire desfouilles russo-allemandes de 2000-2002.”Arts Asiatiques 59, 2004: 5-29.

Francfort, Henri-Paul, and ZainullaSamashev. “Scythian Steeds.” ArchaeologyMay/June, 2002.

Marchenko, Sergei S., Gorbunov, Aldar P.,and Vlad E. Ramanovsky. “Changes inClimate and Permafrost and their Impacton the Frozen Tombs in the Mountains ofCentral Asia.” UNESCO InternationalWorkshop on the Frozen Tombs of the AltaiMountains: Strategies and PerspectivesGorno-Altaisk, Altai Republic, RussianFederation, 2005.

Polosmak, Natalia, and Charles O’ Rear.“A Mummy Unearthed from the Pastures of Heaven.” National Geographic Oct. 1994:pp. 82-103.

Rudenko, Sergei, I. Frozen Tombs of Siberia:the Pazyryk Burials of Iron Age Horsemen.(trans. M.W. Thompson) Berkeley & LosAngeles: University of California Press, 1970.(First published as Kultura Naseleniya,Gornogo Altaya Skifoskoe Vremya. Moscow& Leningrad: Academy of Science, 1953).

UNESCO.“Global Strategy for aRepresentative, Balanced and CredibleWorld Heritage List.” UNESCO doc. WHC-04/28/COM/INF.13A.

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G rave robbers and fortune hunters havebeen the traditional enemies of the frozen

tombs of the Altai, but today a new threat, climatechange, hangs over them. This is causing the per-mafrost in this part of Siberia to thaw, destroyingthe hitherto well-preserved remains found in thefrozen tombs.

The Earth’s climate has changed continuouslythroughout history, from the Ice Ages, when icecovered significant portions of the planet’s sur-face, to the interglacial periods, when the iceretreated to the poles or melted entirely. Duringthe last 2,000 years, the climate has been rela-tively stable, with two minor deviations: the“Medieval Warm Period” (900-1300 ce) and the“Little Ice Age” (1500-1850 ce). Records from landand maritime stations indicate that the Earth’sglobal mean surface temperature warmed bybetween 0.4 and 0.8 ºC during the 20th century,indicating a near level trend in temperatures from1880 to about 1910, a rise to 1945, a slight declineto about 1975, and a rise to the present. Warmingis now occurring over most of the globe and isconsistent with the global retreat of mountainglaciers, the reduction in the extent of snow-cover, the earlier melting of ice on rivers and lakesin spring, and increases in sea-surface tempera-tures and ocean heat content.

The Earth’s surface is currently warming at arate of about 0.17 ºC a decade, or 1.8 ºC a century,and the top 10 warmest years have all occurredsince 1990. Climatic change has also beenreported from many regions of Central Asia. Airtemperature in the Altai Mountains increased at ahigher rate than the global mean during the 20thcentury, for example, and in the westernMongolian sector of the Altai Mountains the risein mean annual air temperature has been 0.3 °Cper decade over the last 50 years. Winter warmingis now strongly pronounced in the high mountainareas and inter-mountain valleys (0.6 °C per

decade) of the Mongolian Altai, while being less detectable on the adjacent plains. Temper-ature data from the Mongolian mountain regionsfor the last 30 years show a rise in permafrost temperatures by 0.1°C per decade in the Khenteiand Khangai and 0.2 ° C per decade in theHovsgol regions.

While the frozen tombs of the Altai are likelyto disappear if global warming continues, itwould be unforgivable not to try to protect theremaining tombs, which constitute the irreplace-able remains of the ancient nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppe. The UNESCO project,Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the AltaiMountains, described in this booklet and carriedout in cooperation with the University of Ghent,Belgium, and financed through the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust, aimed to assist in theconservation of the frozen tombs of the AltaiMountains, particularly by carrying out accuratemapping of two research areas in the Russian andKazakh sections of the Altai, mapping the loca-tions of the tombs and drawing up a thoroughinventory of them.

The first thing that needed to be done inorder to make protection possible was the draw-ing up of a detailed inventory of the burialmounds. Accurate and detailed maps are essen-tial, but they are not at present available. Takinginto account the huge area of the research zone,

UNESCO-Sponsored Field Campaignsin the Russian and Kazakh Altai

Jean Bourgeois and Wouter GheyleDepartment of Archaeology,University of Ghent, Belgium

Fig. 1 3D view on thevalley of Yustyd, basedon the CORONAimage.© University of Ghent.

the high costs of topographic measurements andthe absence of complete coverage by aerial photo-graphs, this part of the work was executed withthe help of satellite images, such as those taken bythe CORONA satellite. This satellite took detailedimages of various areas including the AltaiMountains during the 1960s and 1970s. Over800,000 high-resolution black-and-white nega-tives of the Earth’s surface were taken, and part ofthis formerly secret archive is now available toresearchers. The images are well suited forarchaeological research due to their very high resolution and low price, as well as to the fact thatthey document landscapes as they were 40 yearsago, these having in many cases now been drasti-cally changed or destroyed by urbanization,industry or large-scale agriculture.

However, the greatest advantage of theCORONA images is the fact that the satellite orig-inally took two stereoscopic images. By combin-ing these in the right way, a 3D view of the land-scape can be obtained (Fig. 1). By inserting thegeographical coordinates of certain points(Ground Control Points, or GCPs) into the digi-tized images using the correct software it is even

possible to generate precise orthophotos, heightmodels, contour lines and detailed topographicmaps from them (Fig. 2). Part of the University of Ghent’s fieldwork, therefore, was devoted to gathering useable GCPs. Using a GlobalPositioning System (GPS) receiver, geographersDr. Rudi Goossens and Dr. Alain De Wulf from the Geography Department of the University ofGhent located visible points in the CORONAimages, such as crossroads, old farm houses andsharp outcrops, etc. With the maps made as aresult of this used as background for the archaeo-logical inventory survey, a campaign waslaunched to document the archaeological heritage and to pinpoint the locations of theScythian tombs.

Archaeological sites and structures were firstlocated using GPS receivers accurate to a fewdecimetres. These structures were described on astandard information card, measured and pho-tographed. A tentative date for each structurewas assigned, based on the structure’s morphol-ogy, the relevant literature and comparisons withother sites. A description of the geographical con-text, and especially of indications of permafrost

Fig. 2 Map of themiddle part of theYustyd Valley, showingarchaeological sitesand 10m contourlines, based on theCorona satelliteimages.© University of Ghent.

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occurrence (periglacial phenomena such as pingos and solifluxion, etc.), was recorded. Allthe sites were then added to the Altari Data-base (the Altai Archaeological Inventory), whichis linked to the cartographic material producedthrough a GIS (Geographic Information System).

The first fieldwork season took place in Julyand August 2005 and was carried out jointly bythe University of Ghent and the Gorno-AltaiskState University. The team consisted of 20Russian, Belgian, Dutch and French archaeolo-gists and geographers, among them six studentsand volunteers. The chosen area was theDzhazator High Valley in the southern part of theRussian Altai, just north of the famous UkokPlateau. Over a six-week period, more than 50 km of the Valley was mapped and over 1,600archaeological structures documented. The mainfocus of the campaign was the higher parts of theValley at an altitude of about 2,000 to 2,600 m.Aside from the archaeological research and thenecessary GPS measurements, several soundingswere made in search of permafrost. These sound-ings were taken in order to make temperaturemeasurements of the subsoil, allowing an idea

of the spread of frozen ground in Dzhazator to be gained. A map was then made showing areaswhere permafrost was most likely to be situated(Fig. 3).

The oldest structures recorded date back tothe 3rd millennium bce, 12 sites possibly dating tothis very early period. These are all burial monu-ments, consisting of a round or oval setting oflarge stones with a central grave. They are mostlyrectangular and are generally dated to theAfanassievo period. Only nine other structureswere attributed to the Bronze Age (3rd-2nd millen-nium bce): two kereksurs – large structures thatconsist of a large-ish high central mound enclosedby a circular or quadrangular bank – and sevenlarge stelae, or isolated standing stones. Morethan a thousand structures dating to the Iron Age(roughly 1st millennium bce) were recorded,including burial mounds, balbals, or small stand-ing stones, stone circles and small stone plat-forms. The Scythian kurgans varied from betweenfive and 15 m in diameter, and are characterizedby a central depression due to the collapse of theburial chamber and/or robbing. In almost allcases, the sites are surrounded by balbals and

Fig. 3 Kurgan in theDzhazator Valley inthe Russian Altai.© University of Ghent /UNESCO.


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stone circles in the east, or by small concentra-tions of stones (stone platforms) in the west.

The Turkic period was also well represented,some exceptional monuments from this periodbeing recorded. In total, 112 ogradki, or enclo-sures with accompanying rows of balbals, wererecorded, these having up to 90 standing stonesin a straight line to the east that was sometimes

over 200 m long. In some cases, the ogradkiseemed to be isolated, while in others theyappeared to be arranged in clusters of three tofive. There were also some special types ofogradki in the valley, these featuring rectangularditches and banks, or nicely sculptured standingstones. The stones, statues in the form of humanfigurines, are commemorative monuments.

The second fieldwork season took place inJuly and August 2006 and was carried out by theUniversity of Ghent, the Almaty MargulanInstitute of Archaeology and the Gorno-AltaiskState University. Work this time focussed on theKazakh Altai, and three different valleys weresurveyed, all in the district where the well-known archaeological site of Berel’ is situated. Ateam of about 20 archaeologists and geographersworked in the upper part of the Kara-Kaba Valley,the upper part of the Bukhtarma Valley, and inthe Berel’ area, as well as along the BukhtarmaRiver (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4 Team workingon the 2006excavations in Berel’,Kazakhstan.© University of Ghent /UNESCO.

SKETCH MAP 1: Bukhtarma Valley – Survey 2006

In the Bukhtarma Valley (Fig. 5) several largeburial places were located and documented dating from the Scythian period to more recenttimes. In total, 1,005 archaeological structureswere recorded at 56 sites (this average of 18 mon-uments per site is rather high, distorted by thefact that site KK-102 had 400 individual struc-tures) as shown on sketch maps 1 and 2. TheScythian period was again well represented, with240 individual monuments. 93 monuments weredated to the Turkic period, and 126 to the Hunno-Sarmatian period (Hunno-Sarmatian burials arevery uncommon in the Kazakh part of the AltaiMountains, making this was an interesting find).

The third research area was the Berel’ necro-polis, located on the third terrace of theBukhtarma Valley 1,100 m above sea level. Thissite is well known, due to the recent discoveries of frozen tombs made here by the MargulanInstitute of Archaeology in Almaty. In total, 72structures were recorded on the river terrace, at

Fig. 6 Installation ofdata loggers in theUlandryk Valley in theAltai Republic, RussianFederation.© University of Ghent /UNESCO.


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SKETCH MAP 2: Bukhtarma Valley – Survey 2006

10 different archaeological sites. Most of these, 60 in total, were Scythian. 10 Turkic structureswere also recorded, together with a further two of unknown date.

Research during the fieldwork also focusedon the use of geomorphological and geocryo-logical techniques to study the condition and evo-lution of the permafrost in and around the burialmounds. In 2005, a team of geographers from theUniversity of Ghent made measurements of soiland subsoil temperatures through soundings andtest pits, plotting these against Aster and Landsatsatellite images. The idea behind this fieldworkwas to combine the Aster Digital Elevation Modeland Landsat thermal band to pinpoint areaswhere permafrost was probable. In total, 28investigations were carried out in different geo-graphical contexts spread out over the Tarkhataand Dzhazator Valleys. In 10 cases, permafrostwas discovered at depths of 45 to 215cm. In 2006,S. Marchenko of Alaska University joined the

team to study permafrost conditions in the Yustydarea (Ulandryk Valley), and data loggers wereinstalled at different depths in several places inthe Valley (Fig. 6). As these instruments measuretemperatures throughout the year, they can pro-vide insight into the depth of thawing during thesummer in and around Scythian burial moundslocated at different altitudes and in differentareas of the landscape.

Such research, some completed and muchstill underway, will help to reveal which tombsare the most endangered by climate change andto suggest the technical solutions needed to preserve the frozen ground under the burialmounds.

Fig. 5 The BukhtarmaValley in Kazakhstan,area of the 2006excavations.© University of Ghent /UNESCO.

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P ermafrost has received much attention overrecent years because surface temperatures

are rising in most areas of the Earth where per-mafrost is found, causing widespread thawingand degradation. The thawing of the permafrostthat is already taking place at the lower altitu-dinal limits of the permafrost distribution in themountains of Central Asia could in future giverise to dramatic changes in ecosystems and ininfrastructural performance. Numerous periodsof warming and cooling took place in the moun-tains of Central Asia during the Late Holoceneperiod (approximately the last 3,000 years), and ground temperatures and the extent of thepermafrost in the Altai, Tien Shan and PamirMountains and on the Tibetan Plateau haverepeatedly fluctuated over recent millennia,brought about by planetary changes in the cli-mate. Altitudinal oscillations in the averageannual air temperature 0° C isotherm saw a rangeof about 300 m over this period.1

Traces of former permafrost and the resultsof numerical simulation have shown that perma-frost formation occurred and then completelydisappeared at the altitudinal lower boundary of the alpine permafrost distribution in someregions of Central Asia at least three times overthe last 1,000 years.2 At the altitudinal lower limitof alpine permafrost distribution, ground tem-peratures are now close to 0° C, and at some sitespermafrost degradation has already started. As aresult of deep ground thawing, a residual thawlayer between the seasonally frozen layer and thepermafrost table at different sites has appearedover the last 10-15 years.

Analysis of the measured active layer and ofpermafrost temperatures coupled with numericalthermal modeling (permafrost temperaturereanalysis) has shown that most of the recentlythawed permafrost was formed during the LittleIce Age. Older Siberian permafrost that has con-tinuously existed since the last Late Pleistocene

glaciation (c. 18,000 years BP) is still generallystable. However, in some regions, such as inCentral Siberia, the Tien Shan, the TibetanPlateau and the Altai Mountains, this LatePleistocene permafrost is now only a few tens ofdegrees from thawing.

Air temperatures in the mountains of CentralAsia increased at a higher rate than the globalmean during the 20th century.3 Geothermal obser-vations carried out from 1974 onwards, and from1990 to 2006, indicate that the permafrost hasbeen warming in the Tien Shan Mountains overthe last 30 years. Increases in permafrost tempera-tures in the northern Tien Shan over the period1974-2004 vary from 0.3°C to 0.6°C. Borehole temperature data has shown that the thickness ofthe active layer increased during the last 30 yearsfrom between 3.2 and 3.4 m in the 1970s, to a maximum of 5.2 m in 1992 and 5.0 m in 2001 and2004. The thickness of the average active layer forall measured sites increased by 23% over the thick-ness recorded in the early 1970s. As a result of deepground thawing, a residual thaw layer between 4 and 8 m deep has appeared at different sites.4

Temperature data for the last 30 years fromMongolian mountain regions show a rise in per-mafrost temperatures of 0.1° C per decade in theKhentei and Khangai and 0.2° C per decade in theHovsgol mountain regions.5 Latitudinal perma-frost in north-eastern China is less sensitive torecent climatic changes. At the same time, themountain permafrost and the permafrost on theQinghai-Tibetan Plateau is much more sensitiveto climatic warming.6 Over the last 15 years per-mafrost temperatures 20m deep on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau have increased by 0.2–0.3 °C.7

During the 20th century, significant permafrostdegradation has occurred within most permafrostregions in China.

Changes in the climate and in the cryospherehave had a direct impact on the thermal state ofthe frozen tombs (kurgans) in the Altai and in

Climate Change and its Impact on the FrozenTombs of the Altai Mountains

Sergei MarchenkoUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks, USA

other mountain regions of Central Asia. Bothgeothermal observations and results from per-mafrost modeling have indicated significantchanges in the temperatures and extent of thepermafrost during the 20th century in CentralAsia.8 The most significant impacts on the ther-mal state of the permafrost have been observednear the altitudinal lower boundary of the mountain permafrost distribution, a regionwhere the frozen ground is very sensitive tochanges in surface energy balance.

In the high mountain regions, further near-surface permafrost degradation will probablyaccompany a transformation in environmentalconditions and may lead to slope instability andpermafrost-related hazards such as landslides,thermokarst and mudflows, as well as to the disappearance of the frozen cores of the Scythiantombs. Modeling of alpine permafrost dynamicsshows that the altitudinal lower boundary of the permafrost distribution has shifted upwards

by about 200 m since the end of the Little Ice Age(c. 1850). During the same period, the area ofpermafrost distribution in some mountainregions of Central Asia has decreased by approx-imately 15 %.9

During summer 2006, within the UNESCOproject, a joint team from the University of Ghent(Departments of Archaeology and Geography),the Gorno-Altaisk State University (GASU) andthe University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) installeddata loggers to measure year-round ground tem-peratures in the Ulandryk Valley (Kosh-Agatchregion, Altai Republic, Russian Federation). Thesensors were installed within an altitudinal rangeof 3,300–3,100 m above sea level (asl), and thetemperature data were successfully collected in2007. Figure 1 shows the annual temperatures ata depth of 0.7 m inside the burial mounds andwithin natural coarse debris at different altitudes.

As can be seen from Figure 1, the coldestmean annual ground temperature (magt) at a

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Kurgan-012300 m asl, T = -0,43 °C

Kurgan-022200 m asl, T = -0,22 °C

Kurgan-032300 m asl, T = -0,17 °C

Coarse Debris2100 m asl, T = -4,24 °C

Jul-06

10° C

5° C

0° C

-5° C

-10° C

-15° C

-20° C

Sep-06 Nov-06 Jan-07 Mar-07 May-07 Jul-07

Fig. 1 Temperatures inthe Ulandryk Valley.© S. Marchenko.

depth of 0.7 m (–4.24 °C) was recorded in coarsedebris without fine-grained soils where the freeconvection of air occurs. Ground temperatureinside the Scythian tomb (kurgan-03) at the sameelevation was only –0.17 °C below zero. Both sitesare located at the lower altitudinal limit (2100 masl) of the geothermal investigations carried outin this Valley. The highest site investigated (kur-gan-01: Fig. 1), situated at 2,300 m asl, showed amagt of –0.43 °C, because only conductive heattransfer takes place in blocky material of this sortmixed with fine-grained soils.

The thawing and freezing of the soil isaffected by many factors, with air temperature,vegetation, snow accumulation, soil moistureand ground structure being among the most

significant. The geothermal observations andmodeling carried out indicate that, for the moun-tains of Central Asia, favourable conditions forpermafrost occurrence and preservation exist incoarse blocky material where mean annual tem-peratures are typically 3–5 °C colder than themean annual air temperature (maat) and in sur-rounding fine-grained soils.10 In such deposits,the ice-rich permafrost may still be stable evenwhen the maat exceeds 0° C. Frozen tombslocated near the altitudinal lower boundary ofthe permafrost distribution are most vulnerableto climatic warming, as are tombs with a coarsedebris layer less than 1.5–2 m thick and less than18–22 m in diameter, or if blocky materials aremixed with soil.11


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1. Marchenko, S. and Gorbunov, A. P.“Permafrost Changes in the NorthernTien Shan during the Holocene.”Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 8(1997): 427-435.

2. Marchenko, S. and Gorbunov, A. P.“Permafrost Changes in the NorthernTien Shan during the Holocene.”Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 8(1997): 427-435.

3. McCarthy, J.J. et al. Climate Change2001: Impacts, Adaptation, andVulnerability. (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2001), p. 1032.

4. Marchenko, S., Gorbunov, A. and V. Romanovsky. “Permafrost Warmingin the Tien Shan Mountains, CentralAsia.” Global and Planetary Change 56(2007): 311-327.

5. Sharkhuu, N.“Recent Changes in thePermafrost of Mongolia.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference onPermafrost. (Balkema, Lisse, 2003) 2,1029-1034.

6. Jin, H., Li, S., Cheng, G., Shaoling, W. andLi, X. “Permafrost and Climatic Changein China.”Global and Planetary Change26(4) (2000): 387-404.

7. Cheng, G. D., Huang, X. M. andKang, X. C.“Recent PermafrostDegradation along the Qinghai-Tibet

Highway.” Proceedings of the 6th

International Conference on Permafrost.(South China University of TechnologyPress, 1993) 2, 1010-1013; Jin, H. J., Cheng,G. D. and Zhu, Y. L. “Chinese Geocryologyat the Turn of the Twentieth Century.”Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 11(2000): 23-33.

8. Fukui, K., Fujii, Y., Ageta, Y. and K. Asahi.“Changes in the Lower Limit ofMountain Permafrost between 1973and 2004 in the Khumbu Himal, theNepal Himalayas.” Global and PlanetaryChange 55 (2007): 251-256; Marchenko,S., Gorbunov, A. and V. Romanovsky.“Permafrost Warming in the Tien ShanMountains, Central Asia.” Global andPlanetary Change 56 (2007): 311-327;Sharkhuu, N.“Recent Changes in thePermafrost of Mongolia.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference onPermafrost. (Balkema, Lisse, 2003) 2:1029-1034; Jin, H., Li, S., Cheng, G.,Shaoling, W. and Li, X. “Permafrostand Climatic Change in China.”Globaland Planetary Change 26(4) (4) (2000):387-404.

9. Marchenko, S., Gorbunov, A. and V.Romanovsky. “Permafrost Warming inthe Tien Shan Mountains, Central Asia.”Global and Planetary Change 56 (2007):311-327; Marchenko, S. andRomanovsky, V. “Temporal and Spatial

Changes of Permafrost in the Tien ShanMountains since the Little Ice Age” EosTrans. AGU, 87(52) (2006), Fall Meet.Suppl., C51B-0426.

10. Harris, S. A.“Lower Mean AnnualGround Temperature beneath a BlockStream in the Kunlun Pass, QinghaiProvince, China.” Proceedings of the 5th Chinese Permafrost Conference.Lanzhou (1996): 227-237; Harris, S. A.and Pedersen, D. E. “Thermal Regimesbeneath Coarse Blocky Materials.”Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 9(1998): 107-120; Gorbunov, A. P.,Marchenko, S. and Seversky, E.“The Thermal Environment of BlockyMaterials in the Mountains of CentralAsia.” Permafrost and PeriglacialProcesses 15 (2004): 95–98.

11. Marchenko, S., Gorbunov, A. and V.Romanovsky. “Changes in Climate andPermafrost and Impact on FrozenTombs in the Mountains of CentralAsia.” The Frozen Tombs of the AltaiMountains: Strategies and Perspectives.UNESCO Workshop, Gorno-Altaisk, 28-31March 2006. 283-299.

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CHALLENGE FOR CONSERVATIONAN D DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 3CHALLENGE FOR CONSERVATIONAN D DEVELOPMENT

C H A P T E R I I I • C H A L L E N G E F O R C O N S E R VAT I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

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The outstanding Austrian geologist EdwardSuess (1831-1914) once called the Altai the

“ancient crown of Asia”, but for the modern worldthe Altai’s central part, the Ukok Plateau in partic-ular, is better known as the meeting place of fourstates: the Russian Federation, China, Kazakhstanand Mongolia. These countries’ frontier areas areeconomically underdeveloped and peripheralmountain regions, and they are therefore onlymarginally affected by human activities, havingno large-scale industry or big cities, for example,and the local populations are made up of diverseethnic groups that maintain rural life patterns.

Due to the Altai’s geographical position,mountain relief and severe climatic conditions,the rich biological diversity of the region is stillintact, as are its many diverse landscapes.UNESCO, in recognition of this, has awarded thetitle of World Natural Heritage Site to a group offive sites in the region, and the Altai’s culturalheritage is of no lesser significance. Indeed, thisregion, though small in area, is at the crossroadsof four of the world’s major religions – Buddhism,Shamanism, Islam and Christianity – and this her-itage too must be protected and preserved. Today,the time has come to implement a sustainableregional development agenda for the preserva-tion of this region’s outstanding biological, land-scape and cultural heritage.

Of special relevance here is the Scythian civi-lization that dates back 2,500 years and whoseremains, frozen in permafrost burial mounds, arefound in all four countries having territory in theAltai. Judging by the abundance of these mounds,civilization flourished in this region during theprehistoric period, despite the harsh climatic con-ditions, and archaeological research conductedover several decades has shown that the regionwas never isolated from the rest of Asia.

However, today in the current period of glob-alization and climate change, the cross-borderAltai region is under threat both from humanpressures and from environmental factors.Human pressures include the major infrastructure

development projects that are currently under-way, such as the construction of a transport corri-dor and gas pipeline between China and theRussian Federation across the Ukok Plateau, aswell as increasing tourism in the area thatrequires the development of hotel infrastructureand supporting communications and services.The long-term social, economic and culturaleffects of such developments on the region arenot clear, and, what is more, they have not yetbeen investigated. Even if the effects of thesedevelopments are not yet fully known, the risk ofprofound changes in life patterns and localeconomies is obvious, including geopolitical anddemographic effects.

The second major threat to the Altai is envi-ronmental in the shape of on-going climatechange. Studies have revealed warming trends,the inevitable result of which will be the deterio-ration of the permafrost, with associated impactson construction, changes in environmental condi-tions, including animal habitats, vegetation cycles,etc., and the need for adjustments to industrialand agricultural patterns in the region. Thesethreats constitute major challenges for scientistsand politicians, who have been calling for an eval-uation to be carried out of the scope and nature ofthe risks to the Altai and for preventive actions tobe carried out to ensure the conservation anddevelopment of the region in the face of such nat-ural, economic and geopolitical uncertainties.

Actions that could help to preserve the Altai’snatural and cultural heritage, while also being inline with sustainable development strategies thatadequately respond to the existing risks, includethe framing of an international treaty, first proposed in 1998 and to be called The AltaiConvention, which would guarantee the sustain-able development of the Altai and the conserva-tion of its natural and cultural heritage and wouldbe signed by the Russian Federation, China,Kazakhstan and Mongolia.1 Other activitiesinclude the establishment of a cross-border AltaiBiosphere Reserve on the basis of proposals put

The Altai: Heartland of Asia Yuri P. Badenkov

Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Science, Russian Federation

Left Terminal: Stag ona Ball. Wood andleather; carved.H. 12 cm. PazyrykCulture. 5th century bcInv. no. 1684/153.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

forward at the 1998 Urumchi InternationalConference on Sustainable Development and sub-sequently developed in various publications andproject activities; the inscription of Scythianarchaeological sites in the region as UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites; and the setting up of fieldarchaeological heritage sites in the Altai.

Many of these things have been called forbefore, and some of them were proposed as longas a decade ago at the Urumchi Conferencereferred to above. However, in some cases theyhave not yet moved much beyond declarations.2

Regional cooperation is now both as desirable asever and more realistic, and the time has come forthe implementation of these declarations.

Political and institutional drivers for regionalcooperation include the activities of the Altai: OurCommon Homeland International CoordinationCouncil, which brings together the executive andlegislative authorities of the Altai frontier areas ofthe four countries concerned, and the wealth ofknowledge and experience gained throughnational and international projects in the area of

sustainable regional development and the conservation of the Altai’s natural and culturalheritage. One such project is the UNDP-GEF(Global Environment Facility) sponsored “Biodi-versity Conservation in the Russian Portion of theAltai-Sayan Ecoregion,” which is now underway.3

A further driver has been the launch, in 2006,of a branch of the Russian Federation’s NationalCommission for UNESCO in the Altai Republic, in order to develop UNESCO projects in theregion. UNESCO’s strong interest in, and supportfor, initiatives for heritage development and con-servation in the Altai through the Organization’s“Man and the Biosphere” and “World Heritage”programmes is also very encouraging and has led thus far to the organization of two inter-national workshops, the first in Gorno-Altaisk in 2005 and the second in Ghent in 2006, amongother activities.

Taken together, these strong regional driversand the needs they are designed to meet showthat the time has now come to implementregional cooperation programmes in the Altai.

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1. Badenkov, Y. et al. “The Altai Convention: A Toolfor the Sustainable Development of MountainAreas in Russia, China, Kazakhstan andMongolia.” Strategic Considerations on theDevelopment of Central Asia. Mahesh Banskotaet al (eds.) (Council for the SustainableDevelopment of Central Asia / ICIMOD, 1999),pp. 115-116.

2. For example, see “The Altai Declaration” inBanskota, Mahesh et al (eds.). StrategicConsiderations on the Development of CentralAsia. (Council for the Sustainable Developmentof Central Asia / ICIMOD, 1999), pp. 127-129.

3. See http://www.altai-sayan.org

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I n 1998 and 1999, the Mission archéologiquefrançaise en Asie centrale (MAFAC), in coopera-

tion with the Kazakh Archaeological Institute andthe Italian Liguabé Foundation, carried out twoexcavations of a so-called “frozen tomb” at thesite of Berel’ in Kazakhstan, and I was invited toparticipate as a specialist restorer by Henri-PaulFrancfort, director of the excavations.

The notion of a “frozen tomb” involves theburying of bodies and various objects in soil thatis permanently frozen – permafrost – thus guar-anteeing the sometimes exceptionally well-preserved organic remains that can be found insuch tombs. This type of soil is characteristic ofpolar regions and of high-altitude zones. Thereare many so-called frozen sites in the mountain-ous region of the Altai in southern Siberia, includ-ing the site of Pazyryk, first excavated in 1929,and that of Ukok, excavated in 1992. Other siteshave also been recently discovered by Germanand by joint French and Mongolian teams.

The conservation of bodies and organic arti-facts is a complex process, and it is one that isclosely linked to the type of grave, the depth ofthe burial, the cycles of thawing and freezing thathave taken place, the sediment type and theamount of water held in the soil. Publicationsavailable on frozen sites of this sort seldomexplain the excavation methods used, restrictingthemselves to explaining that warm water wasused to thaw the materials found. At Berel’,guidelines for excavation and sampling of thearcheological remains were drawn up, in order topreserve the “cold chain”, slow down deteriora-tion and not put future scientific analysis of theobjects found at risk.

The Berel’ necropolis is located in a large,high valley 1,200 metres above sea level in theKazakh part of the Altai Mountains on the borderbetween China and Russia. This valley has longbeen used as a pass between Chinese Turkestan

and southern Siberia, and more than 20 of theburial mounds it contains have been recorded.The Berel’ necropolis is the most southerly of themounds that have been found, and it features assuch on maps of Siberian frozen tombs. All theburial mounds, or kurgans, at Berel’ belong to theeastern Scythian culture (Saka) and to thePazyryk period that lasted some 50 years duringthe 5th century bce (between 420 and 350 bce,according to dendro-chronological analysis). Thefirst and largest kurgan in this necropolis wasexcavated by a Russian specialist in Turkic civi-lization in 1865, and it was excavated again by aSt. Petersburg team in 1958. This kurgan had beenlooted, and nothing now remains of the organicmaterials and fragments of ornaments that it contained. However, notes taken by the archaeol-ogists at the time record the remains of 16 horsesin the tomb, as well as of a funerary chamber.

In 1997, MAFAC decided to excavate thesmaller burial mound No. 11 at the Berel’ site,thinking that it might contain objects similar to

Excavation and Sampling Techniquesin the Frozen Tombs of Kazakhstan

Jorge VasquezRégisseur des expositions

Musée du quai Branly, France

Fig. 1 Two pairs ofwooden horns in theshape of ibex hornsfound duringexcavation of theBerel’ 11 kurgan.

Fig. 2 A refrigeratedlorry used at the siteto store the excavatedremains.

Photos: © MissionArchéologique Françaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRS-MAE) J. Vasquez.

those found in the other kurgans. Surveys carriedout with the assistance of a geo-cryologist indi-cated that temperatures close to 0° C existed at adepth of 1.5 m beneath the kurgan.

Excavation of the mound was carried out intwo phases, the first in autumn 1998 and the sec-ond in spring 1999. Because of the monumentalshape of the burial mound – a massive stonestructure some 23 m in diameter and 2 m highwith traces of a looting shaft on the top – it wasdecided to drive excavation shafts into the moundin order to locate the funerary chamber and reachthe cold layers as quickly as possible and preventthawing from taking place. The burial pit, locatedalmost in the centre of the kurgan, measured 5 mby 5 m and had been filled up with stones that hadfallen into it during previous looting. Excavationof the tomb was delayed because of the mess ofwooden beams the chamber contained, causedby the wrecking of the funerary chamber. Duringour work at the kurgan, the ground, ordinarilyabout 0° C, warmed rapidly, temperatures reach-ing 4 to 5 °C in the afternoons.

The first objects were found around fourmetres below ground level three days before theend of the excavations: two wooden horns in theshape of ibex horns (Fig. 1) covered with goldand silver leaf were found above the heads of thehorses’ bodies found lying on their sides againstthe tomb’s northern wall. The horses were wear-ing all their trappings. On the southern side,clearance of the burial chamber revealed that ithad been covered with alternating pieces of birchbark and branches. The walls were made of broadwooden planks, assembled using mortis joints.Many wooden objects were found in the shaftthat had been driven into the tomb by looters,these being mixed with broken pieces of horse

trappings and organic remains, including bones,pieces of skin and hair. Since winter was drawingon, and a number of outstanding objects hadalready been found, MAFAC decided to continueexcavation of the site during the following spring.The mound was back-filled in order to guaranteelow temperatures during the winter, this helpingto preserve the objects.

Excavations resumed in May-June 1999,when temperatures were around 15° C and thuswarmer than during the fall, average ground tem-peratures now being between 4 and 7° C. Theexcavations continued until the site had beenfully excavated.

The aim of removing samples of artifactsfrom an archaeological site is to be able to guar-antee the proper preservation of the objects andnot to compromise future scientific analysis bythe use of chemical products. A special feature of the Berel’ site was that the remains had beenpreserved by their burial in frozen ground, and,in order that this “cold chain” should not be broken – which would have spoiled the informa-tion the bodies contained (including informationon parasites and skin tattoos) – a refrigeratedlorry was brought to the site to store the recov-ered remains (Fig. 2).

Two methods were used to remove the sam-ples, according to the materials. The bodies ofhuman beings and horses were removed in sec-tions and stored in the refrigerated lorry. Nochemical product was used, in order to avoid con-tamination that could vitiate future biologicalanalysis, such as DNA testing. Other objects wereremoved individually, and then humidified andstored in a cold environment. In order to protectthe organic material from the sun during theexcavation, a light wooden structure covered

Fig. 3 General view ofthe horses foundduring excavation ofthe Berel’11 kurgan.© Mission Archéo-logique Française enAsie Centrale (CNRS-MAE) J. Vasquez.

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with a tarpaulin was erected above the burialmound. Survival blankets were also used to pre-serve the temperature of the organic remains dur-ing excavation.

The bodies of the horses were found on twolevels, each level containing six bodies. Eachhorse was covered by a layer of birch leaves. Theupper bark layer was removed in order to get anoverview of the horses’ position (Fig. 3), reveal-ing that they were in a precarious state of preser-vation. For the first level, the objects placed onthe horses were removed, and the bodies were cut into sections with a chainsaw. An archaeo-zoologist, Sébastien Lepetz of the French Centrenational de la recherche scientifique (CNRS),indicated where the cuts should be made, thesegoing round the horses’ saddles and trappings(Fig. 4). This was difficult work as the horseswere often lying on top of each other, their bodiesbeing tangled up together (Fig. 5).

In order to remove a block of material, anarea or section was first identified and cleared of any other materials around it. It was thenwrapped in cling film and bubble wrap, and gen-tly removed from the soil using Styron supporttrays. Once the block had been separated fromthe soil, it was made more rigid with cling filmand placed in the refrigerated lorry. All cuts madeto the material were recorded with a digital cam-era as the blocks were taken out. Nevertheless,the bodies found on the first level quickly beganto decompose, which meant that the harnesseshad to be left in place.

During the removal of sections of materialfrom the second level on which the remains of thehorses were found, the pieces of bark wereremoved as the work progressed and other objectswere left in place. This way of proceeding helpedto slow down the decomposition of the bodies,though it had the disadvantage of making itimpossible to get an overview of the horses in situ.

In the funerary chamber, the most-lootedpart of the whole, the organic materials werepoorly preserved since the sarcophagus had beenopened by the looters to contact with the air andheat. As a result, the human bodies had beenalmost completely destroyed, and only twohuman bodies in the form of skeletons, togetherwith some organic material, were found. Thesebodies had not been buried at the same time, andthe first had been moved by looters. The man’shead-dress was intact. These corpses were

cleared of the surrounding materials by a geneti-cist- anthropologist, Eric Crubézy, and taken outin sections.

All fabric or wooden objects were excavatedusing Styron support trays. The objects were thensystematically cleaned on site using water vapour,this allowing for greater “readability” of theremains in question, when, that is, they were nottoo damaged (Figs. 6 & 7). After the identifica-tion, recording and measurement of the objects,drawings were made of them and pictures taken.They were then wrapped in cling film and storedin the refrigerated lorry. The wooden architec-tural elements, bark and pieces of stone sarcoph-agus were removed by hand and then humidifiedbefore being wrapped in cling film and stored in

Fig. 4 Cutting theexcavated remainsinto sections.

Fig. 5 Horse trappingswere laid across eachother and tangled uptogether.



69

the refrigerated lorry. All the remains were takento Almaty and stored at -14 °C.

During winter 2000, all the materialsremoved from the site were investigated by amulti-disciplinary laboratory team. This allowedall the objects to be investigated under better con-ditions, leading to a better understanding of theirsubstance and the analysis of the trappings.Investigation of the bodies indicated that theyhad been treated after death, for example bythreads sewn into the skin, and various anatomi-cal, biological and genetic tests were carried out.

The removal of samples of archeologicalremains from the Berel’ necropolis led to therecovery of many organic and composite objectsof every kind. Apart from the decorated horsetrappings, several saddles were also found, as wellas the sarcophagus and the architectural elementsof the tomb. For this kind of site, a so-called“frozen tomb”, the procedure of removing sam-ples of the remains and then cleaning them forreadability in situ allowed the archeological teamto identify the objects as the work progressed andto accumulate a lot of archeological informationat the site, while at the same time ensuring theconservation of the excavated artifacts.

Nevertheless, the organic remains removedfrom the Berel’ site will need freeze-drying treat-ment in order to ensure their long-term preserva-tion. This should only be done in a laboratorythat has the necessary equipment and trainedstaff.

Translated from French by Laura Frank

Fig. 6 & Fig. 7 Horse trappings aftercleaning on site toallow ease ofinterpretation.


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71

Herodotus

[4.71] “… Here, when the king dies, they dig a grave, which is square in shape, and of great

size. When it is ready, they take the king’s corpse, and, having opened the belly, and

cleaned out the inside, fill the cavity with a preparation of chopped cypress, frankincense,

parsley-seed, and anise-seed, after which they sew up the opening, enclose the body in

wax, and, placing it on a waggon, carry it about through all the different tribes. On this

procession each tribe, when it receives the corpse, imitates the example which is first set

by the Royal Scythians; every man chops off a piece of his ear, crops his hair close, and

makes a cut all round his arm, lacerates his forehead and his nose, and thrusts an arrow

through his left hand. Then they who have the care of the corpse carry it with them to

another of the tribes which are under the Scythian rule, followed by those whom they first

visited. On completing the circuit of all the tribes under their sway, they find themselves

in the country of the Gerrhi, who are the most remote of all, and so they come to the

tombs of the kings. There the body of the dead king is laid in the grave prepared for it,

stretched upon a mattress; spears are fixed in the ground on either side of the corpse, and

beams stretched across above it to form a roof, which is covered with a thatching of osier

twigs. In the open space around the body of the king they bury one of his concubines, first

killing her by strangling, and also his cup-bearer, his cook, his groom, his lacquey, his mes-

senger, some of his horses, firstlings of all his other possessions, and some golden cups; for

they use neither silver nor brass. After this they set to work, and raise a vast mound above

the grave, all of them vying with each other and seeking to make it as tall as possible.”

Herodotus (484 - 425 ce) describing the funeral practices of the Scythians in Historiae, Book IV.

RECOMMENDATIONS

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R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

73

recommendations made at the unesco international workshop

“The Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains:Strategies and Perspectives”

Organized by: UNESCO, World Heritage Centre,in technical co-operation with Ghent University

Hosted by: Gorno-Altaisk University, Altai Republic, Russian Federation28–31 March 2006

PreambleParticipants in the International workshop on the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai

Mountains: Strategies and Perspectives”, held in Gorno-Altaisk, 28-31 March 2006, namely

50 archaeologists and geologists, from Belgium, China, France, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Russian

Federation, the United States, and the representatives from UNESCO and UNESCO World

Heritage Centre,

Noting that the Russian part of the Altai, namely Altaisky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around

Lake Teletskoye; Katunsky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around Mount Belukha; and the Ukok

Quiet Zone on the Ukok Plateau, was inscribed on the World Heritage List as a natural site;

Further noting that the Katunsky Zapovednik also figures in the list of the UNESCO Man andBiosphere Reserves;

Recognizing the importance and unique value of the archaeological and cultural remains, includ-

ing the frozen tombs, scattered in the Altai Mountains, which cover a significant contiguous part

of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation, belong to the past shared between

these countries, and in which truly international cultures developed, attested by contacts with

major civilizations of the ancient world, including China, Persia, Greece and others, and which

therefore constitute a common legacy for humanity;

Bearing in mind the fact that the global warming phenomenon is threatening the permafrost

which allowed preservation of the tombs and their relics for several millennia;

Calling attention to the fact that the destruction of the frozen tombs as well as the valuable

relics located inside would lead to a great loss of significant knowledge about one of the once

flourishing civilizations in the history of humanity;

Appreciating the efforts made by UNESCO, in close co-operation with Ghent University, Belgium

and thanks to the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust, to take initiatives to preserve the frozen

tombs;

Left Plaque: PantherCurved Round. Gold;cast, chased.10.9 x 9.3 cm. SakaeCulture. 7th - 6th

century bc.Inv. no. SI -1727.1/88.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

Recommend, in the spirit of the resolution adopted by the workshop “Synergy of Natural and

Cultural Diversity as Basis for Sustainable Development of the Altai Mountainous Region”, held

at UNESCO in Paris, on October 11, 2005, attended by Government of Russian Federation as well

as of the Altai Republic,

that the authorities of the Russian Federation and of the Altai Republic,

take all measures to preserve the World Heritage Value of the Altai Mountains and ensure that

all the activities on the World Heritage Site be undertaken in accordance with the World Heritage

Convention;

start a co-operative process with neighbouring States Parties such as China, Mongolia and

Kazakhstan, to consider a possible transboundary expansion, as recommended by the World

Heritage Committee;

make efforts to submit the request for the inclusion of the Ukok Plateau on the World Heritage List

by extending the nomination of “Golden Mountains of Altai” into a mixed (natural and

cultural) site;

that the other concerned countries, such as China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan;

take necessary steps to submit the site of the Altai Mountains on their respective territories for

inscription on the World Heritage List and to the UNESCO MAB Reserves List for a better preser-

vation of the Altai Mountain in its integrity;

that the concerned authorities, academics, scholars, institutes and universities;

urgently take all the necessary measures to safeguard and preserve the frozen tombs in

the Altai Mountains, endangered by thawing due to global warming. To this end, the following

technical recommendations were made:

the establishment of an accurate map and a thorough inventory of all archaeological monu-

ments, as a first step, accompanied by detailed information related to their location, and

description, since the frozen tombs should be considered as part of the unique cultural

landscape of the Altai Mountains. This will be the basis of long-term efforts for preservation

of the frozen tombs endangered by thawing. It is of utmost importance that surveys focus upon

all archaeological remains present in the area. During the selection of areas and monuments

to be protected, all elements of the cultural and archaeological landscape should be taken

into account;

the identification of a compatible methodology for mapping the Altai Mountains. Integration of

maps is most important, and should take into account the norms and particular circumstances

of each country. A discussion between archaeologists and other specialists should be organised,

as there is a crucial need to determine the most appropriate scale of these maps;

74


the organisation of activities and the initiation of projects in order to develop models to

understand better environmental conditions in the Altai Mountains in the field of geology,

geo-cryology and climatology in the past (paleo-environment) and into the future;

the monitoring of the frozen burial sites. Given their deteriorating condition, all appropriate

technologies should be used. Therefore the participants urge for the organization of a discus-

sion between archaeologists and other specialists to determine the best methods to be used.

carry out all activities related to survey and excavation on the frozen tombs according to the

highest professional and ethical standards, including dialogue with and respect and consideration

for, indigenous people, as well as respect for environmental integrity;

undertake all the activities such as excavation, preservation, conservation and development

in accordance with UNESCO recommendation on “International Principles Applicable to

Archaeological Excavations” and International ICOMOS’s relevant charters;

make efforts to launch a global strategy for preservation of the frozen tombs and cultural

heritage of the Altai Mountains in a long-term perspective;

that UNESCO World Heritage Centre

support the initiative for launching a global strategy for the preservation of cultural heritage

in the Altai Mountains, including the frozen tombs, which constitutes a unique cultural landscape

in the Eurasian continent.

The participants of the workshop wish to express their gratitude to the UNESCO World Heritage

Centre for the organisation of the Workshop and for the support of this initiative.

Plaque with Bulls.Bronze; cast.13 x 6.5 cm.Tagar Culture.2nd - 1st century bc.Inv. no. 1126/212.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

75

AfterwordIvan Belekov

Chairman of the Parliament of the Altai Republic, Russian FederationChairman of the branch of the National Commission

of the Russian Federation for UNESCO in the Altai Republic

The Altai Republic of the Russian Federation was honoured when the Russian part of theGolden Mountains of the Altai was inscribed on the World Heritage List as a natural site in 1998.

The Altai Mountains represent an invaluable expression of the region’s natural and cultural heritage.Recently, however, their preservation has come under threat. The UNESCO project, Preservation ofthe Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains, has led to international awareness being raised of their cultural value as well as of the present threats to them, such as climate change, the thawing of thepermafrost and various related development matters. The approach to the preservation of the cultural heritage employed by the UNESCO project and the technical work carried out under it havehelped to increase public understanding of the value of the Mountains and the need to preserve theunique cultural landscape of the Altai. This is especially important because for many centuries natu-ral and cultural diversity has been considered a single whole by the Altai nation.

I would therefore like both to thank the UNESCO World Heritage Centre for its work and toexpress my renewed support for it. During an international workshop on the Synergy of Natural andCultural Diversity as the Basis for the Sustainable Development of the Altai Mountainous Region, held on11 October 2005 at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris in the presence of the Organization’s AssistantDirector-General for Culture, recommendations were made that stressed the cultural value of theAltai Mountains. They also highlighted the Government of the Altai Republic’s wish that the culturalvalue of the Golden Mountains of the Altai should be recognized by their inscription as a mixed siteon the World Heritage List. Indeed, the kurgans and the artifacts that have been found in them con-stitute invaluable testimony of the cultures and civilizations that once flourished on the Asiansteppe, and they are of the utmost importance not only for understanding the history of this region,but also that of the world as a whole.

It is my fervent hope that UNESCO will continue its invaluable efforts, which are aimed at preserving this rich landscape and protecting both the natural and cultural value of the AltaiMountains for succeeding generations.

Ivan Belekov

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Left Bridle Plaque:Ibex. Wood, leather;carved. 10.4x8.9 cmPazyryk Culture.5th–4th century bc.1685/151.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

78

Front cover Terminal:Stag on a Ball.Leather, wood; carved.H. 11.5 cm. PazyrykCulture. 5th century bc.Inv. no. 1684/154.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

Frontispiece Plaquefrom a Horse Harness,with an Eagle. Wood;carved. 3,6 x 4,6 cm.Pazyryk Culture.6th century bc.Inv. no. 2179/131.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

Title page PazyrykCulture horse-harnessdecoration in the formof a carved woodenvulture. Ak-Alakha-1necropolis, excavatedby N. V. Polosmak.© V. Molodin

Last page PlaqueShaped Like an EagleGold; stamped.1.7 x 2 cm.Pazyryk Culture.6th century bc.Inv. no. 2824/1.© The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

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Acknowledgementsproject officer Junhi Han

concept Junhi Hancoordination Laura Frank

editing David Tresiliantranslation Lise Sellem

David Tresiliangraphic design Jean-Luc Thierry

printed by Ateliers Industria, Paris

maps pp. 16-17 Bordon Art Direction and Design;Museum for Pre- and Early History, The State Museums of Berlin

photos, special thanks to:

The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russian FederationMusée Guimet, FranceThe Ministry of Information and Culture and the Kabul Museum, Islamic Republic of AfghanistanThe Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, GermanyDoris BordonGary Tepfer

This publication was made possible thanks to the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trustfor the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any formwithout the permission of the copyright owners. Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization UNESCO, March 2008.

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