nicholas c. romano, jr. is research an international perspective 21 maggio 2010 università degli...

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr.IS Research an International Perspective

21 Maggio 2010Università degli Studi di Verona

IS Research Development an International Perspective

Nicholas C. Romano, Jr.

SDA BocconiInformation Systems Division

Università Commerciale Luigi [email protected]

Spears School of BusinessManagement Science and Information Systems

Oklahoma State University – [email protected]

Università degli Studi di VeronaFacoltà di Economia



Talk Outline1. Personal Introduction

2. Business and IS Research

3. Research Defined and Ways of Knowing

4. Scientific Method and Theory

5. Research Process

6. Research Paradigms

7. Theory Construction

8. IS Research Methods



1. Personal Introduction

• Nicholas C. Romano, Jr., Ph.D.– Associate Professor, MSIS Spears School OSU– Ph.D. from University of Arizona in MIS (1998)– Family Man, Husband and Father

• Wife Rosalina, 2 Daughters Isabella (8) Gabriela (6) 1 Son Nico (3)• Dog Osa

– AIS Council Member (Americas Representative – 2007-2009)• Very Active in AIS and the AMCIS and HICSS Conferences

– 20 years’ work experience, much of it in group support for teamwork and projects

– Former IBMer (Dad, Brother, Sister, Brother in law, Great Uncle, Second cousin, others I am sure)

– Occasional, but Terrible Golfer ( FORE!!!) – want to do it more..

3



What is Business Research?

• the “systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analyzing data for aid in making business decisions” (Zikmund, Business Research Methods, 2002, p. 6)

• Systematic and Objective Distinguish Business Research

• Important tool for managers and decision-makers in corporate and non-corporate organizations



When is Business Research Used?

Business research methods used in situations of uncertainty, when decision-makers face two or more courses of action and seek to select the best possible alternative under the circumstances

Aims to improve the quality of decision-making which, in turn, benefits the organization and helps ensure its continuity and efficiency



Typical Users of Business Research Methods

• Businesses and Corporations

• Public-Sector Agencies

• Consulting Firms

• Research Institutes

• Non-Governmental Organizations

• Non-Profit Organizations

• Independent Researchers and Consultants



General Business Conditions andCorporate Research

• Short- & Long-Range Forecasting, • Business and Industry Trends• Global Environments • Inflation and Pricing • Plant and Warehouse Location • Acquisitions

Financial and Accounting Research

• Forecasts of financial interest rate trends, • Stock,bond and commodity value

predictions • capital formation alternatives• mergers and acquisitions • risk-return trade-offs • portfolio analysis • impact of taxes • research on financial institutions • expected rate of return • capital asset pricing models • credit risk • cost analysis

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used – (1)

Management and OrganizationalBehaviour Research

• Total Quality Management• Morale and Job Satisfaction• Leadership Style• Employee Productivity• Organizational Effectiveness• Structural ssues• Absenteeism and turnover• Organizational Climate



Information Systems Research

• Knowledge and information needs assessment• Computer information system use and

evaluation• Technical suppot satisfaction• Database analysis• Data mining• Enterprise resource planning systems• Customer relationship management systems

Corporate Responsibility Research

• Ecological Impact• Legal Constraints on advertising and

promotion• Sex, age and racial discrimination / worker

equity• Social values and ethics

Sales and Marketing Research

• Market Potentials• Market Share• Market segmentation• Market characteristics• Sales Analysis• Establishment of sales quotas• Distribution channels• New product concepts• Test markets• Advertising research• Buyer behaviour• Customer satisfaction• Website visitation rates

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used – (2)



The Value of Business Research for Managers – (1)

Uncertainty Reduction and improved decision-making quality with several consequent advantages (e.g. strategic, operational) and benefits for Firms

Business Research Methods can be employed in 4 stages:

(1)Identification of problems and/or opportunitiesUseful for strategy planning, analysis of internal and external organizational environment




(2) Diagnosis and Assessment of problems and/or opportunitiesGain insight into underlying reasons and causes for the situation. If there is a problem, it asks what happened and why? If there is an opportunity, it seeks to explore, clarify and refine the nature of the opportunity and, in the case of multiple opportunities, seeks to set priorities

(3) Selection and Implementation of Courses of ActionAfter alternative courses of action have been determined, selection of the best possible course.




An important consideration is the quality of forecasting which is an essential tool of research

(4) Evaluation of Courses of Action

Business Research Methods are used after a course of action has been implemented in order to determine whether activities have been properly implemented and have accomplished what they intended to do




Evaluation Research

Formal objective measurement and evaluation of the extent which an activity, project or program has achieved its goal, and the factors which influence performance (e.g. audits).

Formal objective measurement and evaluation of the extent to which on-going activities, projects or programs are meeting their goals (performance-monitoring research)



Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

NO

NO

NO

NO

When Should Business Research be Undertaken?

Is sufficient timeavailable?

Is information inadequate?

High importance of decision?

Research benefits greater than costs?

Do Undertake Business Research

Do notundertake

Business Research



Value and Costs of Undertaking Business Research



Research Building Blocks

Measurements of phenomena (e.g. sales statistics of a department store)

DATA

Determination of relationship amongst data with a view to facilitating understanding of the phenomena,

their relationships and decision-making(e.g. past and predicted future sales trends)

INFORMATION

KNOWLEDGE

Blend of information, experience and in-sights that provides a framework that can be thoughtfully evaluated

when assessing new information or evaluating relevant situations

WISDOMBlend of Knowledge information, experience and in-sights that

provides a framework that can be thoughtfully evaluated when assessing new information or evaluating

relevant situations



Research Introduction

Definition

Ways of Knowing

The Scientific Method



Origin of the Word “Research”From French word “recherche”

to travel through or survey.



What is Research? “If research is to make the contribution to practice

that is now possible, we must start with an adequate concept of the nature of research.”

“Research is an unusually stubborn and persisting effort to think straight which involves the gathering and the intelligent use of relevant data”

Hamlin, H. M. (1966) What is Research? American Vocational Journal, September 14-16. See: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee578/hamlin.html

http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee578/hamlin.html

http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee578/hamlin.html



Pendulum of Scholarship in Business Management Schools

Professional Learning

Community

ManagementConsulting

Disciplinary Science

Social System of Practice

-Practitioners-Managers-Businesses-Trade Associations-Management Societies

Social Systemof Science

-Scientists-Graduate Schools-Research Institutes-Scholarly Societies

Adapted From Van de Ven, Engaged Scholarship



Elements of Research Not Frequently Discussed

• Research is not a linear process• It is just written up like it is. One study leads to others

• Research is a social process• Not because research is social but because results

must enter into a social “learned” society (be read and cited)

• Research value (impact) more a question of importance than volume• But volume is a wonderful, simple measure of productivity• But, one good published idea is worth more than 100 articles

• How do you know value? CITES!!!Citation Tools [isi web of science; Google Scholar, Citeseer, SSRN, Libra, Publish or Perish]

http://isi6.isiknowledge.com/portal.cgi?DestApp=WOS&Func=Frame

http://isi6.isiknowledge.com/portal.cgi?DestApp=WOS&Func=Frame



Little Discussed Elements (II)• Research is for posterity

– i.e., it has a different time scale than consulting• Refereed archival journals versus the Internet

• Research builds upon the past– …by tearing it down (theory building), – or by supporting it (replication studies; theory extension)

• Research not published is virtually worthless• The importance is more to be read than to read!

• Research demands special form of writing and language



Some Myths About Research

• Purpose of research is to “Prove” or “Confirm” a theory

• Research findings are presented as “Complete” and “Conclusive” answers

• Research Scientists come to “Consensus” or “Agreements” on how things work (i.e. Global Warming; Pluto a planet)

• There is a hierarchy of research methodologies that places true “experimental” research at the top.

• NONE OF THESE ARE TRUE!



Key Terms

Philosophy Epistemology

The Love of Knowledge

Distinguishing True (Real) Knowledge fromFalse (Pseudo) Knowledge



Different Ways of “Knowing”• Authority

– Because someone you respected told you so

• Tenacity– Because it has withstood the test of time

• Serendipity– discovery by accident

• Logic / Reason– Because you figured it out with your mind

• Science (Research)– We’ll get to that shortly…



Authority

• How do we know that the Earth is flat?

• Right, but how do I know?

• But how do you know?

• Because Claudius Ptolemy said so.

• Because The Pope said so. (Pope Paul V)

• Because I’m in charge and I amputting you (Galileo)in prison!

http://www.paulluvera.com/.shared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/ptolemy.jpg



Galileo Galilei (15641642) First to use telescope to study skyDiscovered Solar spots and Jupiter’s satellites (Galilean moons)Believed Earth moves around Sun

In 1632 he was convicted of heresy.In 1992 it was officially stated by the Pope that Galileo was right.

(360 years later)Authority is SLOW to change



Tenacity

• Grandpa, how do I know that I should drink 8 cups of water per day?

• But how did he know?

• But how did he know?

• But how did THEY KNOW?!

• Because that’s what my father did.

• Because that’s what his father did.

• Because that’s what his father did!

•Well you’re alive, aren’t you?



Serendipity

Columbus is the archetype ofsurprising discoveries In 1492 Columbus sailed theocean blue In quest of a passage throughThe Indies and the orient too He discovered America,Serendipitous through andthrough.



SerendipityIsaac Newton's famed apple falling from a tree, led to his musings about the nature of gravitation.

“In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition.“John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the royal mint

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation



Serendipity

The Post-it note was invented in 1968 by Dr Spencer Silver, a 3M scientist who stumbled upon a glue (Acrylate-copolymer microspheres [adhesive formula] ) that was not sticky enough.

• In 1968, Silver developed a high-quality but "low-tack" adhesive, made of tiny, indestructible acrylic spheres that would stick only where they were tangent to a given surface, rather than flat up against it. As a result, the adhesive's grip was strong enough to hold papers together, but weak enough to allow the papers to be pulled apart again without being torn. More importantly, the adhesive could be used again and again.

• Silver wanted to market the adhesive as a spray, or as a surface for bulletin boards on which temporary notices could be easily posted and then removed. Over the next five years, Silver tried to interest his colleagues at 3M, informally and in presentations. A marketable form of the product proved elusive however, until Arthur Fry attended one of Silver's seminars.

• Fry sang in his church choir. He was frustrated the paper bookmarks he used to mark the songs in his hymnal would not stay put. In a moment of insight, Fry realized that Silver's reusable adhesive would provide precisely what he needed.

• Fry wrote up his idea for a reusable bookmark and presented it to his supervisors. Initially, management was skeptical, but the staff could not get enough of the samples Fry was passing around. Soon, 3M gave the invention its full support. It took another five years to perfect and design machines to manufacture the product, but in 1980, Post-it® Notes were introduced nationwide. Within two years, the product became a necessity in the office, schools, labs, libraries, and even in homes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Silver

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glue

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PostIt.PNG



Logic and Reasoning• Understanding phenomena by analyzing with

our minds what we observe with our senses.

• Syllogism– A logical argument consisting of two premises and a

conclusion.– Example: Persons who smoke cigarettes have a high

rate of lung cancer. Persons who do not smoke cigarettes have a low rate of lung cancer. Therefore, smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer.



– Persons who smoke cigarettes have a high rate of lung cancer and yellow teeth.

– Persons who do not smoke cigarettes have a low rate of lung cancer and yellow teeth.

– Therefore, smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer and yellow teeth.

Syllogism



Well that sounds pretty good, I’ll just use logic and reasoning for my research!

• Problems with limiting our knowledge to what we can discover with logic and reason:– Subjectivity (Bias)

• We do not observe “the whole picture”• We have no external “check” on our logical thought

processes– Example: I observe that all stars follow a regular pattern

of motion in the sky in relation to the Earth. Therefore the Earth is stationary and at the center of the universe.



Why not just rely on pure observation?

What one observes: • May not be Quantifiable• May Change over time• May not be Reality• Can be based on Misinformation or Bias



Why not just rely on pure observation?Count the Black Dots….How many do you see?



Why not just rely on pure observation?Are the Horizontal lines parallel or do they slope?



Actual building in Melbourne, Australia



How many legs does this elephant have?Why not just rely on pure observation?



Are the two boys the same or different?Why not just rely on pure observation?



Count the menWhy not just rely on pure observation?

Count the men AgainCount the men one last time



Is the wine glass on or off the tray?Is the water glass standing or laying down



Are the three purple Shapes Squares?Are their sides parallel?

Are they moving or still?



The Ames RoomPeople seem to change size as they move around



How the Ames Room works


21 Maggio 2010Università degli Studi di VeronaNicholas C. Romano, Jr.

Oklahoma State UniversityDoctoral Seminar – MSIS 6333 Wednesday August 21st, 2009

Actual Position of Person A

ApparentPosition of Person A

Actual and ApparentPosition of Person A

ApparentRoom shape Viewing Hole

How the Ames Room works



Why not just rely on pure observation?

• Subjectivity (Bias)– “group A is nicer than group B”

• Recall (forgetfulness – selective memory)– What did you say to me last week about topic X?

• Interpretations or conclusions that lack convincing support– “most kids don’t care what their parents say”



Even reason, when applied with bias,leads to irrationality and incorrect conclusions.



Logical Fallacies• Fallacies occur when we reach wrong conclusions

based on real observations or facts.• Examples:

– Cum hoc ergo propter hoc (with this, therefore because of this) – Attributing causality based on correlation

– Converse accident – Generalizing to a group based on an individual (or a small set of individuals)

– Accident – Specifying to an individual based on a group– Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of this) –

Attributing causality based on temporality– See a list of 40 Fallacies at:

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/fallacies.html

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/fallacies.html



We all know that Penguins cannot fly.

Logic, one more thing that Penguins are not good at.

Penguins are Blank and White.

Old TV shows are Blank and White.

Therefore some Penguins are Old TV Shows.



So I should just accept that ignorance is bliss and that I don’t know anything?

• Maybe if you want to sit on your porch all day doing nothing, but …….

– Authority isn’t Always Inaccurate• We need to rely on knowledge our parents, teachers, government tells us

– Tradition is Important• We all need a starting point and roots

– Logic and Reason are Powerful Tools• Our brains are like supercomputers

• We couldn’t survive without Thinking

• Each way of knowing can only lead us so far

• We need a method to correct for weaknesses of other approaches



Scientific Method(or methods)



How one discoversKnowledge

Extent to whichknowledge changesthrough time

Extent to whichFuture changes inKnowledge areexpected by user

From ancient texts orrevelations of inspiredindividuals.

Little.

None.

Unchangeable except byreinterpretation byauthorities, or by newinspired revelations, or bydivergence of mavericks.

Outrageousstereotype of user

Bible-thumpingfundamentalistor robe-draped monk; fondof Sunday-morning radio.

Crystal-hugging wearerOf tie-dyed T-shirts;listens to new-agemusic.

From personal insight,Or insight of others

May be considerable.

Can be expected, to thedegree that the userExpects personalDevelopment

As user changes or asUser encounters ideasof others

Geek with pocket protectorAnd calculator; watchesDiscovery Channel often.

Considerable.

Considerable.

By new observations orexperiments, and/or byreinterpretation of existing data.

From evidence generated byobservation of nature or byexperimentation.

Science and other kinds of knowledge

How knowledgechanges throughtime

Religious Knowledge Artistic/Mystic Knowledge Scientific Knowledge



Science and other kinds of knowledge (continued)Religious Knowledge Artistic/Mystic

Knowledge Scientific Knowledge

Certaintyof the user

High, given sufficient faith;Can be complete. High

Dependent on quality andExtent of evidence; should

never be complete.

AssumptionsAncient texts or Inspired

revelation havemeaning to modern or

future conditions.

personal feelingsAnd insights reflect

nature.

Nature has discernible,predictable, and

explainablepatterns of behavior.

Where users putTheir Faith

In the supernatural beingsThat they worship or in theauthorities who interpret

Texts and events.

In their ownperceptions.

In the honesty of peoplereporting scientific data (theincomes of whom dependon generation of that data),and in the human ability to

Understand nature.

Sources of Contradiction

Between different religions;between different texts

and/or authorities withinone religion; within

individual texts (as in thetwo accounts of human

origin in the JudeoChristian Genesis).

Between users, whoEach draw on their own

Personal Insights

Across time, asunderstanding changes;between fields, which

use different approachesand materials; and between

individuals, who usedifferent approaches and

materials.



Religion and Science

Science is based on skepticism and experimentReligion is based on faith

HoweverMany scientists are religious Also many leaders of religion have been great scientists

(Mendel – father of experimental Genetics - Monk)

Science and Religion are simply different parts of our livesScience cannot disprove the idea of GodReligion cannot prove that Science is wrong



Scientific Inquiry as a way of Knowing

• Science is a disciplined, systematic way to understand the nature of the universe.

• Science uses empirical data to test falsifiable theories via a deductive method.

• WHAT THE HECK DOES THAT MEAN???



Science = order, explanation, rational methods, logic

• The main purpose of science is to trace, within the chaos and flux of phenomena, a consistent structure with order and meaning.

• This is called the philosophy of rationalism, rational as in conforming with reason.

• And the purpose of scientific understanding is to coordinate our experiences and bring them into a logical system.



Science is also a Dialogue between Humankind and Nature.

• Science is far from a perfect instrument of knowledge, but it provides something that other philosophies fail to, concrete results.

• Science is a “candle in the dark'' to illuminate irrational beliefs or superstitions



Six General Goals of Science

1. Organize & categorize things (typologies and ontologies)

2. Explain Past Events3. Predict Future Events4. Control Future Events5. Provide a Sense of Understanding6. Generalize Results

Adapted from: Reynolds, P. D. (1971). A primer in theoryconstruction. Indianapolis, The Bobbs-Merrill Company.



More Specific Goals of Science

• Create Causal Models for phenomena of interest (Theory)

• Test the usefulness of our models (Experiments and other methods)

• Use those models to increase the likelihood people will survive and thrive. (Applications)



Science – a DefinitionScience, ... organized systematic enterprise that gathers knowledge about the world and condenses the knowledge into testable laws and principles.

Diagnostic features of science that distinguish it from pseudoscience are:

1. Repeatability: The same phenomenon is sought again, preferably by Independent investigation, and the interpretation given to it is confirmed or discarded by means of novel analysis and experimentation.

2. Economy: Scientists attempt to abstract the information into the form that is both simplest and aesthetically most pleasing the combination Called Elegance while yielding the largest amount of information with the least amount of effort.

3. Mensuration: If some thing can be properly measured, using Universally accepted scales, generalizations about it are rendered unambiguous.

4. Heuristics: The best science stimulates further discovery, often in unpredictable New directions; and the new knowledge provides an additional test of the original principles that led to its discovery.

5. Consilience: The explanations of different phenomena most likely to survive are those that can be connected and proved consistent with one another.

Edward O. Wilson (1998) American Scientist, 86(1) Jan/Feb P.6.



The Research Process

1. Pick a research topic.

2. Formulate an appropriate research question related to that topic.

How do you do this?

Pick an outcome you think is interesting and ask, “What do think caused that outcome? and Why?”




3. Refine the research question by hypothesizing relationship(s) between the variables




4. Operationalize the variables

The conversion of abstract concept into concrete terms.

Measurement -- how do we know anything happened?



The Research Process5. Select an appropriate research technique

Examples: 1. Experiments2. Quasi-experiments3. Surveys4. Interviews5. Unobtrusive Data Collection6. Content Analysis7. Case Studies8. Action Research9. Design Science10. Simulation



The Research Process6. Collect data – Measure attributes of the real world.

Classifying things that actually happen in the world with your operational scheme and then recording that data.

Things to consider:1. Quantitative vs. Qualitative2. Primary vs. Secondary3. Sample vs. Population4. Selection of Cases5. Validity




7. Analyze Data

Look for systematic differences

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

CONTENT ANALYSIS

HERMENUETICS



The Research Process8. Interpretation of the results

What did you find?

How do your findings relate to other findings?

What are the theoretical implications, how will this impact other IS research?

What are the Practical implications, how will this impact IS practice?



Definition of the Scope of Lit. Rev.

Review of Selected Literature

Identification of initial findings- “Gap”

Gap Definition

Initial Research Objective

Taking the gap further ..

Development of:

The Value

Matrix The 3rd. Dimension VM

Hard & Soft Value

Footprints

Gap Asses. Tool

Research Questions

Value Matrix Value cube Footprints

Identification of:

Contributions to Knowledge and Theory

Contributions to Practice

Limitations of Framework/ Footprint

Validation of Frameworks

Answer to RQ

Review of: Scientific Paradigm Research strategies Techniques among others

Understanding of research methods

Definition of Phenomenological

Research Approach

Controls Criteria to evaluate results and the whole research

Research tools

8 Case Studies

Counting M.

Feedback : consultants &conferences

Application of R. Methods

Evolution of Frameworks

Acceptability of Frameworks

Development of:

Workshop

Exploratory Research

Initial Literature Review “Value Creation”

RESEARCH

OUT COMES

Why study Value? Answer

Weaknesses of current solutions Unsolved issues

PHASEPre-understanding

Study of Research Methods

Theory Building

Theory Testing

Evaluation of the research

Point of

Departure



“Thus, the task is not so much to see what no one has yet seen, but to think what no one has yet thought about that which everybody sees.”Arthur Schopenhauer



Science tests all hypotheses, but some scientists summarily dismiss opposing views:

Science has proven itself to be an infallible tool for unlocking certain areas of knowledge, but it's not logical to conclude from this that all thinking by scientists is infallible.

Science can be used to discover many things, yet some scientists wrongly presume that all things can be discovered through it.



What is Science?

Science =

A set of facts and the theories that explain the facts.

Whatever’s being done by institutions carrying on “scientific” activity.

A particular approach, the scientific method



Data• Data are concrete facts, records or collections of

information we gather about phenomena of interest.– Usually expressed in numerical terms

• Data may express facts of individuals (blood pressure, disease status, response to survey questions) or geopolitical areas (crime rate, death rate, per capita income)



Empiricism

• An empirical (observational) approach to research is one that strives to be objective.

• It expresses concepts in concrete, tangible ways.

– Not fuzzy or abstract ways…

• Empiricism tests relationships between these concepts.

• Empiricism is closely tied to the type of data that you use.



Limitations of Empirical Data

• Our research cannot attempt to make value judgments– Cannot answer questions such as, “What is morally right?”

or “Which drug is better?”– Can analyze people’s opinions about such things

• Some concepts are difficult to measure with numbers– If we wanted to know if “happier people” lived longer,

how could we measure happiness?

• Sometimes we just can’t get the data



Popular Fictions

• The goal of science is to accumulate facts• Science distorts reality and can’t do justice to

the fullness of human experience.• Scientific knowledge is truth.• Science is concerned primarily with solving

practical and social problems.



“Science is neither a philosophy nor a belief system. It is a combination of mental operations that has become increasingly the habit of educated peoples, a culture of illuminations hit upon by a fortunate turn of history that yielded the most effective way of learning about the real world ever conceived.”

Edward O. WilsonConsilience: The Unity of Knowledge

So then, what is Science?



The Heart of the Matter

Why do we see what we do and not see something else?

Paradigm, Ontology, Epistemology, Axiology



Paradigm



Some Fundamental Paradigms

• Positivist Research• Interpretivist Research• Criticalist Research• Design Research• Action Research



Research Taxonomies

It is important to

understand where you fit

in regards to research



Ontology Epistemology Methodology Methods Sources

What’s outthere to know?

What and how can we know about it?

How can we go about acquiring that knowledge? Which precise

procedures canwe use to acquireit?

Which data canwe collect?

The interrelationship between the building blocks of research (Grix 2004: 66)



Study of how we evaluate our investigations.

Strategy or plan of action; Research Design – shapes our choice of methods and links that choice to the research outcomes.

Study of values: what values does an individual or group hold and why?

Study that explores the nature of knowledge: for example, on what does knowledge depend and how can we be certain of what we know?

Study that describes the nature of reality: for example, what is real and what is not,what is fundamental and what is derivative?

Philosophical Assumptions

Ontology

Basic Belief

Epistemology

Methodology

Axiology

Research PerspectivesPositivist Interpretivist Design

Single Reality; Knowable, Probabilistic

Multiple Realities; Socially Constructed

Multiple Contextually Situated alternative World States; Socio-technologically enabled

Objective; Dispassionate. Detached observer of truth

Subjective, i.e. values and knowledge emerge from the researcher-participant interaction

Knowing through making: Objectively constrained construction within a context. Iterative circumscription reveals meaning

Observational; Quantitative; Statistical

Participative; Qualitative; Hermeneutical; Dialectical.

Developmental; Measure artifactual impacts one the composite system

Truth: Universal and Beautiful; Predictive.

Understanding: Situated and Descriptive

Control; Creation; Progress (i.e. improvement) Understanding

CriteriologyInternal validity; construct validity; external validity and reliability.

Credibility: triangulation multiple data sourcesConfirmability

Expected Functionality and performanceUseful and easy to useSolves Problem at hand



Behavioral vs. Design Science (Hevner, et al. 2004)

Behavioural Science Research (BSR) Design Science Research (DSR)

Origin Natural Science Engineering, Sciences of the Artificial

Paradigm Problem understanding paradigm Problem solving paradigm

Objective

develop and justify theories which explain or predict organizational human phenomena surrounding the analysis, design, implementation, management, and use of information Systems

create innovations that define ideas, practices, technical capabilities, and product through the analysis, design, implementation, management, and use of information systems

Object human-computer-interaction IT artefact design



IS Research CycleBehavioral Science Research

DesignScience Research

Understanding,Truth

Design,IS Artifacts

Utility,Usage in Practice

Theory Building,Hypotheses

Build

Evaluate/ApplyTheorize

Justify



Reassembling the Dimensions• A given research project is a point in multidimensional space.• Some regions of this space are popular:

These often go together as Quantitative research.

These often go together as Qualitative research.

Observational Interventionist

Biophysical Psychosocial

Sample Case(s)

Quantitative Qualitative

Objective Subjective

Neutral Partisan

topic

scope

method

mode

ideology

politics

• This pigeonholing doesn’t apply to the novelty, technology and utility dimensions.

Before AfterTheory



Diagnosing your research paradigmH&H p.73 (A if you agree/D if you disagree)

1. Quantitative data is more scientific than qualitative data2. It is important to state the hypotheses before data

collection3. Surveys are probably the best way to investigate business

issues4. Unless a phenomenon can be measured reliably, it cannot

be investigated5. A good knowledge of statistics is essential for all

approaches to business research



Diagnosing your Research Paradigm H&H p.73

6. Case studies should only be used as a pilot project before the main research is conducted

7. Using participant observation to collect data is of little value in business research

8. Laboratory experiments should be used more widely in business research

9. It is impossible to generate theories during the course of research into business issues

10. Researchers must remain objective and independent from the phenomena they are studying



Diagnosing your Research ParadigmH&H p.73

To score, count the number of As and Ds:• More As than Ds – Positivist• More Ds than As –

phenomenological/Interpretivist/Subjectivist• Equal – flexible (Post-Positivist)



Science and Scientific Method

Science “the methodological and systematic approach to acquisition of new knowledge” (Geoffrey Marcyzk, David DeMatteo, David Festinger, Essentials of Research

Design and Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, 2005, p. 4)

Scientific method, evolved since 13th century, concerns set of tools, techniques and procedures used by researchers to analyze and understand phenomena and support or discard prior conceptions



Essence of the Scientific Method

Characteristics of the Scientific Method

ObjectivitySystematic Analysis

Logical Interpretation of Results

Elements of the Scientific Method

Empirical ApproachObservations

QuestionsHypotheses

ExperimentsAnalysis

ConclusionReplication

Basic Research

Applied Research

Scie

ntif

icM

etho

d

Information or Ideas for alternative

Courses of action

General Laws



4 Scientific Argument Types

1. Deduction: Conclusion is drawn from a set of propositions (pure logic)

2. Induction: One draws general conclusions from particular facts that appear to serve as evidence

3. Probability: Passes from frequencies within a known domain to conclusions of stated likelihood,

4. Statistical: On the average, a certain percentage of a set of entities will satisfy the stated conditions.



MathematicsComputer

Simulations

Logical/RationalThought

Laws of Nature

Deductive

4 Scientific Arguments types

Temporal DataSpectral Data

Images

Correlations/Patterns

Rules of Nature

InductiveTemporal Data

Likelihood

Generalities of Nature

ProbabilisticSets of Data

Trends

Predictions of Nature

Statistical

The fact that scientific reasoning is so often successful is a remarkable property of the Universe, the dependability of Nature.



Inductivisim vs. Deductivism

• Exploratory• Starts by observing,

ends with a theory• May be necessary to

uncover relationships when little is known about a phenomena (i.e., AIDS in 1980’s)

• Confirmatory• Starts with a theory,

ends with test results• Is considered the gold

standard for conducting scientific research



Adapted from, Kuhn, Thomas (1961) "The Function of Measurement in Modern Physical Science." in The Essential Tension. (1977) Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp. 178-224.

Theories

Results

Theory Experiment

1.414 1.418

1.732 1.725

2.236 2.237

ManipulationLogic and Math

(X) f1 (X)

(X) f2 (X)

…………

(X) fn (X)

Quantitative

Confirmation

“Deductive”

Qualitative

Exploration

“Inductive”

Reasonable Agreement

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Observations



Deductive Reasoning

Theory

Hypotheses

Observation

Confirmationand finally check to see if

the data confirms (supports) our hypotheses and theory or not

(Is our theory valid or not?)

Deductive reasoning starts with a Given Theory

as the basis for which we develop Hypotheses

and then acquire Specific Data through Observation or Experimentation



Inductive Reasoning

Observation

Pattern

Tentative Hypothesis

Theory As foundationfor a Theory

Inductive reasoning starts with a Specific Observation

as the basis for which we develop a General Pattern

and Tentative Hypothesis



Flow of Research:Top to Bottom Approach

Source: http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/strucres.htm

http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/strucres.htm

http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/strucres.htm



• To support these methods, a scientist also uses a large amount of skepticism to search for any fallacies in hypothesis or scientific arguments.

• Note that there is an emphasis on falsification, not verification.

• If a theory passes any test then our confidence in the theory is reinforced, but it is never proven correct in a mathematical sense.

• Thus, a powerful hypothesis is one that is highly vulnerable to falsification and that can be tested in many ways.



Falsification• For a theory to be scientific, its hypotheses must be

falsifiable– The possibility must exist for the data to prove you wrong

• When collecting data one must not collect data simply to support one’s hypothesis– This is essentially what an inductive approach does, as the

hypothesis is based on the data

• Difference between science and philosophy / religion



Pluto…a planet or not?

In a move that's already generating controversy and will force textbooks to be rewritten, Pluto will now be dubbed a dwarf planet. But it's no longer part of an exclusive club, since there are more than 40 of these dwarfs

A clear majority of researchers voted for the new definition at a meeting of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Prague, in the Czech Republic. The IAU decides the official names of all celestial bodies. The tough decision comes after a multiyear search for a scientific definition of the word "planet." The term never had an official meaning before.

What Is a Planet Today? According to the new definition, a full-fledged planet is an object that orbits the sun and is large enough to have become round due to the force of its own gravity. In addition, a planet has to dominate the neighborhood around its orbit. Pluto has been demoted because it does not dominate its neighborhood. Charon, its large "moon," is only about half the size of Pluto, while all the true planets are far larger than their moons.



Tying it all Together

• Use theory to develop research questions• Formulate specific, empirical hypotheses

that are falsifiable• Select variables based on theory that are

empirically measurable• Try to prove your hypothesis wrong

– Test the falsification (null) hypothesis

• State the limitations of your research



Theory and Research

What is Theory?

“…the language that allows us to move from observation to observation and to make sense of similarities and differences.”

Rudestam & Newton, 2001, p. 10.



Theory and Research

Relationship between theory and research

Consider the Research Process Wheel as proposed by Rudestam & Newton in Surviving Your Dissertation (2001).



Deduction

Induction

Nomothetic

Idiographic

Hypothesis Testing

Empirical Generalization

TheoreticalGeneral/Abstract

Specific/Concrete Empirical

VerifyConfirm

EvaluateFalsify

Generalized Wheel of Science



Information Systems Research & Practice

Theory:ideas

Practice:use of ideas

Leads to

Leads to

after Checkland & Holwell (1998)



REALLY What is a Theory? (1)

Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general

propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the

apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona”

Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory

development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a

class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have been

given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of the

level of abstraction THEY ARE PART OF THEORY

Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation



What is a Theory? (2)

A Proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of abstraction than concepts. THEY ARE PART OF THEORY

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They are usually concerned with the relationships between variables. THEY ARE NOT PART OF A THEORY.

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production



Theory Construction

• Baconian Inductivism (Interpretivist)– Start with what we observe (data)– Look for patterns among data– Create theory based on observed patterns– Empirically test predictions of the theory

• Problems– Not all phenomena can be observed– Depends on large number of observations



Theory Construction, continued

• Hypothetico – Deductivism (Positivist)– Propose theory

• Either a pre-existing theory or one that logically makes sense

– Generate testable hypothesis– Collect empirical data– Test hypothesis, interpret results

• Problems– As theories become outdated, knowledge derived from this

method may become meaningless



Abstraction Ladder

Observations of Objects, Events and Occurrences (Reality)

Concepts / Constructs

Propositions

Theory

Leve

ls o

f Abs

trac

tion

Empirical Level

Abstract Level



Theory and Research

Theory functions three ways in research:1. Theories prevent our being taken in by flukes.2. Theories make sense of observed patterns in ways

that can suggest other possibilities. 3. Theories can direct research efforts, pointing toward

likely discoveries through empirical observation.



Theory as Explanation

• Research questions call for explanations

• Answers or Explanations come from theorie



Vocabulary

Concept:

“a word or a symbol to represent an idea”



Vocabulary

Theory:

“concepts and their interrelationships”



Vocabulary

Model:

“imitation of an existing object”



Logics

{Good, Fair, Poor}

Approximation Denotation

{True, False}(supported or not)

World Model Theory



Vocabulary

Hypothesis:

“testable statement based on theory”

Prediction about what Patterns we will see in the world if our theory is correct



Vocabulary

Operational Definition: (variable)

“concept at a level that is testable”

(measurable)



concept

concept concept

concept

conceptconcept

conceptconcept

concept

THEORY

Hypotheses

Operational Definition(variables)



TheoryBased on well established facts, testable hypotheses are formed.

The process of testing "leads scientists to accord a special dignity to those hypotheses that accumulate substantial observational or experimental support."

This "special dignity" is denoted by the granting of the title "theory," which, when it "explains a large and diverse body of facts" is considered "robust" and if it "consistently predicts new phenomena that are subsequently observed," it is "reliable."



What Theory is NOT

1. References are not theory.

2. Data are not theory

3. Lists of Variables or Constructs are Not Theory

4. Diagrams are Not Theory

5. Hypothesis (or predictions) are not theory

6. Theory is not something one "adds" to data, or something that one transforms from weaker to stronger by means of graphics or references, or can be feigned by flashy conceptual performance.

Sutton, R. I. and Staw, B. M. (1995) What theory is not. ASQ 40:371-384.Weick, Karl, E. What Theory is Not, Theorizing Is, ASQ, 1995, 40:385-390.



TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW

Myth 1: Hypotheses Become Theories Which Become Laws

Myth 2: A Hypothesis is an Educated Guess

Myth 3: A General and Universal Scientific Method Exists

Myth 4: Evidence Accumulated Carefully Will Result in Sure Knowledge

Myth 5: Science and its Methods Provide Absolute Proof

Myth 6: Science Is Procedural More Than Creative

Myth 7: Science and its Methods Can Answer All Questions

Myth 8. Scientists are Particularly Objective

Myth 9: Experiments are the Principle Route to Scientific Knowledge

Myth 10: All Work in Science is Reviewed to Keep the Process Honest.

See: http://amasci.com/miscon/myths10.html



“I grant you evolution was a theory to begin with… but it evolved into a fact a long time ago!“



Theory

Observations

Develop HypothesisTo Explain Observations

Test Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Test Theory

LawTheory

Fail

FailPass

Pass

Pass Many Tests

Pass Many Tests

Fail

Hypotheses; Theories;Laws



Theory

Hypotheses

Phenomenon of Interest?

Small dots representobservations

Large dots representExperimental Results

Scientific Theories are relatively large, general concepts.Scientific Laws are smaller, mathematically precise concepts.

ScientificLaw

ScientificLaw

ScientificLaw

Collections of Data Observations by other scientists

Inductive Reasoning applied(Specific to General) to developGeneral hypotheses

Experiments designed Through deductive reasoning(General to Specific)

Controlled experiments providenew data that is tested statisticallyfor significance and falsification

Results of statistical tests on new dataAdd evidence to support, modify or falsifythe theory (or more rarely the scientific law)



Theory C

ScientificLaw

ScientificLaw

Theory B

Theory A



Theory

• A Causal Model of the phenomenon-of-interest• Drives all subsequent Scientific Activity

• Hypotheses• Experimental/Research Design• Measures• Analysis• Conclusions• Interpretations• Limitations



Anything Missing?

TruthTruth



Positivist Perspective

Science = Useful

Science <> True



A

Useful Model

is often

Better Than Truth



• No scientific inquiry is ever complete, and no scientific theory is ever “final”

• Nor need it be to be useful– A scientific theory in its current state can be very

useful in the present even though it may later be or improved upon or even superceded



Connecting outputs to outcomes is a challenge

“I think you should be more explicit here in

Step Two.”My Theory



Useful Is Better Than True

Useful Is Better Than True



Name the PhenomenonName the Phenomenon

NickeziteBlock



Describe the PhenomenonDescribe the Phenomenon

NickeziteBlock

A

B



Explore the PhenomenonExplore the Phenomenon

BobeziteBlock

A

B



Explore the PhenomenonA

B



NickeziteBlock

A

Describe Phenomenon DynamicsDescribe Phenomenon Dynamics

B



A Useful TheoryA Useful TheoryOne Gear



Truth(Reality)Truth

(Reality)

Many GearsBelts and pulleys



The model becomes usefulwhen you want to do something new

The model becomes usefulwhen you want to do something new



Therefore

For matters of cause-and-effect

A useful model (Theory)

Is/Can Be better

than Truth (Reality)



What is a Theory?“A set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and

propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among constructs, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena.”

Kerlinger, F. N. (1979) Behavioral Research: A conceptual Approach. New York, NY, USA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

To this add “Theoretical Rationale” “Specifying how and why the constructs and

relational statement are interrelated.”Labovitz and Hagedorn (1971) Introduction to Social Research. New York, NY, USA.

McGraw-Hill.



A Good Theory

• Should explain existing data• Explain a range of related observations• Allow statements to be made about the world• Allow predictions about the future• Have meaningful implications

Taken from Davey et al. (2004)



What is a Theory?

• Causal Model• Internally Consistent • Explains and/or predicts• Proposes mechanisms of causation• Testable



Structure of a Theory

• Axioms (Assumptions)• Propositions (Causes and Effects)



Substruction• A strategy to help you understand the theory and

methods (operational system) in a research study• Applies to empirical, quantitative research studies• There is no word, Substruction, in the dictionary.

It has an inductive meaning, constructing and a deductive meaning, deconstructing

• Heuristic



SubstructionTheory(Theoretical system)

Construct

Concept

Deductive

(Qualitative)

Methods(Operational System)

Measures

Scaling/Data

analysis

(Quantitative)

Inductive



Substruction: Building Blocks or Statements of Relationships

Construct Pain

Axiom ConstructQuality of Life

ConceptIntensity

Proposition ConceptFunctional status

Measure10 cm scale

Hypothesis Measuremobility scale

Theoretical Model

Measurement Model



Statements of RelationshipsConstruct:

Postulate:Statement of relationship between a construct and concepts

Pain consists of three concepts

Concepts:IntensityLocationDuration



Basic Concepts• Hypothesis

– States a relationship between two, or more, concepts and suggests that one has an impact on the other (Grix 2004:42)

– An Hypothesis is a provisional idea whose merit is to be evaluated.

A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In the hypothetico-deductive method, a hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that it is possible that it be shown false, usually by observation.

Note that, if confirmed, the hypothesis is not necessarily proven, but remains provisional.

(Wikipedia)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation



Propositions

• Functional Statements of cause-and-effect that must be logically true if the axioms are true

• Examples– P1: Effort toward group goal is a function of

goal congruence– P2. Group Productivity is an inverse function

of distraction

Basic Concepts



Propositions must be...

• Causal• Composed of Constructs• Without empirical content• Logically derivable from axioms



Propositions of Direct Causation

Proposition 1: Productivity is a function of effort

Proposition 2: Effort is a function of goal congruence

Proposition 3: Effort is an inverse function of distraction

ProductivityEffort

Distraction

Goal Congruence

+

-

+12

3



Theory Explication

• Example: What determines musical Taste?



Important Terms• Theory• Concept• Variable

– Independent– Dependent– Antecedent– Intervening– Mediating



Independent Concept (Construct)

Dependent Concept (Construct)

The Simplest Diagram of a Theory

Relationship



A Simple Theory

Peer GroupMusical Taste

Influences



Adding an Antecedent Construct

Socioeconomic status

Affects

Peer GroupMusical TasteInfluences




Affects

Peer GroupMusical Taste

Influences

Adding a Mediating Construct

Gender

Impacts



Adding an Intervening Construct

Influences

Self image

Leads to


Affects

Peer Group Musical Taste

Gender

Impacts



Peer group Musical taste

A Third Construct Explanation

Parental influence

X



Deriving Theory and Hypotheses

Derived in part from Bacharach (1989).

Constructs Constructs

Variables

Axioms and Postulates

Variables

LogicalFoundation forPropositions

Propositions

Hypotheses

Theory

Empirical test of Theory



TeamAutonomy

culture

IndividualUsage

Axiom 1 (-)

Degree ofFreedom

Independence

Discretion

Usage Intensity

Usage Scope

P1 (-)

P2 (-)

P4 (-)

P3(-)

P5 (-)

P6 (-)

Frequency of use

Duration of use

Percentage of system features used regularly

Proportion of use

“Eight-item scale adapted from Langfred” Score

H1a (-)H1b (-)

H1c (-)

H1d (-)

TheoreticalModel

Measurement Model(Empirical test of Theory)



SharedCognition

HeedfulInterrelating

Group Awareness P1 (+)

P2 (+) P4 (+)

P3(+/-)

Implicit Coordination Theory (ICT) Causal Process Model

TaskPerformance

(-)

Parallelism ResponseBias

P6(+)

A4(+)

A1(+)

A3(+)

A2(+)

P7(+)

Measurement Model : Independent Variables

False Alarm Rate(Non-Errors identified as errors/Total Non-Errors)

Experimental Control : Dependent Variable

Discriminability(Sensitivity)

Response Criterion

ImplicitCoordination

Hit Rate(Detected Errors/Total Errors)

Theoretical AssumptionsSupported Constructs, Postulates and Axioms

Theoretical ProposalsProposed Constructs and Propositions

SharedInterface

Self-ScribingAbility

H1(+); H5(+)

H2(-); H6(-)

H3(+); H7(+)

H4(+); H8a(+)

SDTGivens

FormalizedGroupMemory

P5 (+)

(-)

166



Qualities of a Good Theory

• Parsimony ( simple, small )• Explanatory/Predictive• Bounded



“If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well enough.”

Albert Einstein



Pragmatic Theory• Usually start with propositions and

work backward to axioms

• Usually start poorly and get better

• Use someone else’s theory whenever you can

• Technology has No Place in your theory(if you tie technology to your theory, what will happen when technology changes?)



Pragmatic Theory

• A good theory will get you to the moon and back safely on the first try

• Good theory will do more to save you from drawing “bone-headed” conclusions than any other discipline of positivism

• Good theory will make you look like a genius



Explanation in ScienceCAUSAL EXPLANATION1. Common variation

The cause X and effect Y should vary together2. Order X precedes Y3. Third Factors The common variation of X and Y

should not be due to a third factor Z4. Empirical Connection

The connection between X and Y is empirical5. Theory The connection between X and Y

should be deduced from a general theory6. Mechanism

The mechanism that connects X to Y should be known



Scientific Method (Deductive)

Phenomenon Observe

Record

Analysis(Previous Theory)

Synthesize(Cause -> Effect)

Peculiar? Hypotheses

Construct Theory

Unify/Simplify

Understand Underlying Domain



TheoryInterest Idea

Conceptualization

Specify the meaningOf the concepts andVariables to be studied

Choice of Research Method

ExperimentsSurveysField StudyContent AnalysisSecondary data analysisComparativeEvaluationDesign

Population and Sampling

Whom do we want to be able to draw conclusions about?Who will be observed for that purpose

Operationalization

How will we actuallymeasure the variablesunder study?

Observations

Collecting data forAnalysis and interpretation

Data Processing

Transforming the datacollected into a formappropriate to manipulation and analysis

Analysis

Analyzing data andDrawing conclusions

Application

Reporting results andassessing theirimplications

Scientific Method(more detail)



Cycle of Research and Theory-Building

People notice phenomena.

They gather information about the phenomena.

They build a theory which explains and predicts it.

They share their theory with other people.

The theory is strengthened.

People use the theory to write hypotheses.

Are the hypotheses supported?

The theory is weakened.

People conduct studies.

The researchers may suggest modifications.

Yes

No



Worldview

Theoretical Framework(Conceptual Scheme, Principles, mode of representation, Template)

Empirical Methods Problem

Theoretical Methods

Bodyof Data

TheoreticalModel

Comparison

Possible Actions:• Revise Model• Reassess data• Redefine Problem• Reconsider Empirical Methods• Review Theoretical Methods• Reconstruct Framework• Rethink Worldview

Cycle of Research and Theory-Building Detailed



An Experiment without a theory is meaningless



Phenomena: Large, Odd-Smelling Boxes



Scientific Instrument: Drill



Collecting Data Without A Theory



Collecting Data With a Theory



A Physicist Uses the ‘Elephant’ Theory

+

=Fission!



A Farmer Uses the ‘Elephant’ Theory

Fertilizer!



There is nothingmore useful

than A Good Theory



So, what is “Science”?

• Theory must be founded on natural laws.• Theory must be falsifiable.• Theory must produce hypotheses that are

corroborated by evidence.• Disconfirmation is “overblown.” Most research

progresses by solving puzzles using the ideas within the hard core of a research program. – Rewards go to those who solve particularly hard puzzles.



Conditions of Science continued

• Predictions of new facts that are then corroborated by evidence is the ideal.

• Scientific revolutions or paradigm shifts are rare. Challenging or amending the hard core is not what science is usually about.

• Changing “how we think about the universe” occurs at several levels, from resolving particularly difficult puzzles to developing a new paradigm.



Lessons for Your Research• Since science is a social enterprise, your work counts

only by how it is received by the scientific community. This reception is partly subjective.

You must argue your case in the face of sometimes conflicting and ambiguous criteria.

• Even though we may agree on the conditions that make a theory “better,” we can still disagree and, therefore, argue over which particular theory best fits those conditions.

• ( and still respect each other’s work and be friends.)



Valid Scientific Arguments• You are solving a genuine and significant

puzzle within the field.• The evidence corroborates your theory and

hypotheses. – This is a question of research design. The better your

research design, the stronger your argument will be.

• Your amendment to the hard core is progressive. Resolving the puzzle uncovers additional implications that are also empirically corroborated.



Scientific Arguments continued• Since multiple theories may exist in the protective

belt or positive heuristic, your theory is more elegant, broader in the range of phenomena its predicts/explains, and supported better by the evidence than its plausible rivals.

• In rare cases, you have sufficiently altered the hard core that you have created a new research program.



AYER - LOGICAL POSITIVISM• Theories confirmed & areas sewn up• New areas investigated• Less to investigate in each generation• End of Science!

020406080

100120

generations

theo

ries

con

firm

ed

Consequences for Information Growth



POPPER - FALSIFICATION• Theories not disproved• All results contingent• Each generation re-investigates results• Exponential growth of science

Consequences for Information Growth

0

20

40

60

80

generations

the

ori

es

co

nfi

rme

d

newretested

Philosophical underpinnings of science drive it forward and predispose it to exponential growth



Merton’s Norms• Merton’s social norms of scientific conduct

– Universalism: new work is assessed by universal impersonal criteria

– Communality: scientific knowledge should be common property– Disinterestedness: prime concern is the advancement of

knowledge– Organized scepticism: knowledge should be continually subjected

to critical scrutiny

• Reflects stated values rather than actual behaviour: what they do is not what they say. See Watson’s The Double Helix, for example



IS Research Methods


21 Maggio 2010Università degli Studi di VeronaNicholas C. Romano, Jr.

Oklahoma State UniversityDoctoral Seminar – MSIS 6333 Wednesday August 21st, 2009

AddressingResearch Questions(explanationor understanding)

PositivismFocus ongeneralizeability and Causal Explanation

InterpretativmFocus onrelativism and understanding

Survey

Experiment

Questionnaire

StructuredObservation

Quantitative Analysis

Case Study Discourse analysis Life History Ethnography

phenomenology

Participant Observation

FocusGroup

Interviewing

Grounded theory

ActionResearch

Hypothesis Testing(Aiming to establish, explain, Predict causal linksBetween key variables

Hermeneutic Inquiry(‘Thick description’And in-depthUnderstanding)

EpistemologicalParadigms

Methodologies/ResearchStrategies

Methods(data collectionAnd analysis)

Methodological field



The Research Process Onion

SamplingSecondary dataObservationInterviewsQuestionnaires

ResearchPhilosophy

Positivism

Realis

m

interpretivism

ResearchApproaches

Deductive

Inductive

ResearchStrategies

Experiment Survey

Casestudy

Groun

ded

theo

ryEthnography

Action research TimeHorizons

Cross sectionalLongitudinal

Data CollectionMethods



Alternative Motivations for Research

• ‘Pure Research'‘because it’s there’contribute to abstract, theoretical understanding

• ‘Applied Research'‘I have hammer, so find a nail’

• Instrumentalist Research‘I see a problem, so find a solution’



Basic (pure) AppliedPurpose

Context

Methods

• Expand Knowledge

• Academic Setting• Single Researcher• Less Time/Cost Pressure

• Internal Validity• Cause• Single Level of Analysis• Single Method• Experimental• Direct Observations

• Understand Specific Problem

• Real-World Setting• Multiple Researchers• More Time/Cost Pressure

• External Validity• Effect• Multiple Levels of Analysis• Multiple Methods• Quasi-Experimental• Indirect Observations

ResearchType



Nature of Research Outcomes

• DescriptiveDepiction of a behavior or a domain

• ExplanatorySystemic explanation of how behaviors ariseascription of causes to occurrences in the domain

• PredictiveStatement of: what behavior will arise, and how;what occurrences will arise within the domain;what effect will particular interventions have

• NormativeDeclaration of interventions to a desired outcome



Three Types of Research

• Descriptive research –finding out (What, Where, When)

• Explanatory research – explaining ; identifying causality; theory/model; prediction (HOW/WHY)

• Evaluative research – evaluation of strategies, policies, programs, practices (Value)



Types of Research Spectrum

To become familiar with phenomena; to gain new insights; to formulate a more specific research problem or research hypothesis.

To portray accurately the incidence, distribution, and characteristics of a group or situation. (Usually not begun with specific hypothesis.)

To investigate relationships between variables. (Begins with specific hypotheses.)

To test hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. (Begins with specific hypotheses.)

Descriptive Research

Survey Research

Independent variables (X) not controlled by investigator

Independent Variables

Correlational/Ex Post Facto

(Explore) (Describe) (Explain - Predict) (Control)

Independent Var. (X) controlled by investigator

Exp./Quasi-Exp.



Research generates knowledge in order to:

Action Change Within A System

Pave The Way For Change

Build Broader Understanding

Basic Or Pure Research

Action Research Critical / Radical Ethnography

Applied / EvaluativeResearch Participatory/

EmancipatoryTechnical/ Practical

Emancipate Through Action

Expose And Change The Dominate System



Research Approaches

– Two main classes of approaches:• Theory ‘testing’ – apply theory to ‘read’ the

data• Theory ‘emergent’ – look for ‘patterns’,

understanding emerges from the data

(Hirschheim, 2002)



Combining Approaches• Case study/action research

leads to• Research question

leads to• Theory building

leads to• Theory testing with lab. experiments

and• Theory testing with field experiments

leads to• Theory extension and feedback loop to Theory testing



Research Approaches

– Mathematical approaches– Approaches studying reality

• Research stressing what is reality – Conceptual-analytical approaches– approaches for empirical studies

» theory-testing approaches» theory-creating approaches

• Research stressing utility of artifacts– artifact-building approaches– artifacts-evaluating approaches(Järvinen & Järvinen, 1999)



Alternative Research Methods

– Constructivist Methods (“Design”)• conceptual development and technical development

– Nomothetic Methods (“Confirmatory”)• field research, surveys, lab experiments … using the

hypothetico-deductive method

– Idiographic Methods (“Exploratory”)• case studies and action research

(Hirschheim, 2002)



Research Methods

• Non-Empirical Techniques• Scientific Research Techniques• Interpretivist Research Techniques• Research Techniques at the

Scientific/Interpretivist Boundary• Engineering Research Techniques

(Design Fits here as well)



Research Methods Non-empirical Techniques

The following techniques are detached from real-world data. This is not to say that they are necessarily totally remote or irrelevant, but rather that they are once-removed, depending on synthetic data, or on conceptual thinking about abstractions. The primary techniques are:

• Conceptual research. This is based on opinion and speculation, and comprises philosophical or 'armchair' analysis, and argumentative/dialectic analysis;

• theorem proof. This applies formal methods to mathematical abstractions, in order to demonstrate that, within a tightly defined model, a specific relationship exists among elements of that model;

• simulation. This is the study of a simplified, formal model of a complex environment, in order to perform experimentation not possible in a real-world setting;

• futures research, scenario-building, and game- or role-playing. Individuals interact in order to generate new ideas or gather new insights into relationships among variables. A specific instance that is often applied in the information systems discipline is the delphi technique (Delbecq et al., 1975);

• review of existing literature, or 'meta-analysis'. The literature examined in such research may include the opinions and speculations of theorists, the research methods adopted by empirical researchers, the reports of the outcomes of empirical research, and materials prepared for purposes other than research.



Research Methods Scientific Research Techniques

The following are common techniques that can be applied by information systems researchers within the scientific tradition:

• Forecasting. This technique involves the application of regression and time-series techniques, in order to extrapolate trends from past data;

• Field experimentation and quasi-experimental designs. Opportunities are sought in the real-world which enable many factors, which would otherwise confound the results, to be isolated, or controlled for (Cook & Campbell 1979);

• Laboratory experimentation. This involves the creation of an artificial environment, in order to isolate and control for potentially confounding variables (Hersen & Barlow 1976, Jarvenpaa et al. 1984, 1985, Jarvenpaa 1988, Benbasat 1990a, 1990b, DeSanctis 1990).



Research Methods Interpretivist Research Techniques

The following are techniques which are unequivocally interpretivist in their style: • descriptive/interpretive research. In this techniques, empirical observation is

subjected to limited formal rigour. Controls over the researcher's intuition include self-examination of the researcher's own pre-suppositions and biases, cycles of additional data collection and analysis, and peer review;

• focus group research. This involves the gathering of a group of people, commonly members of the public affected by a technology or application, to discuss a topic. Its purpose is to surface aspects, impacts and implications that are of concern. See Stewart & Shamdasani (1990) and Clarke (1999);

• action research. The researcher plays an active role in the object of study, e.g. by acting as a change-agent in relation to the process being researched. See Clark (1972), Susman & Evered (1978), Mansell (1991), Stringer (1996, 1999), Myers (1997a) and Baskerville & Wood-Harper (1998);

• ethnographic research. This technique applies insights from social and cultural anthropology to the direct observation of behaviour. See Harvey & Myers (1995) and Myers (1997a);

• grounded theory. This is a specific technique that it is claimed enables the disciplined extraction of a theory-based description of behaviour, based on empirical observations. See Glaser & Strauss (1967), Strauss & Corbin (1990) and Myers (1997a).

http://www.xamax.com.au/Res/FocusGrps.html

http://www.auckland.ac.nz/msis/isworld/index.html#Qualitative%20Research%20Methods





Research MethodsResearch Techniques at the Scientific/Interpretivist Boundary

Several techniques can be applied within either a scientific or an interpretivist context.

• field study. The object of study is subjected to direct observation by the researcher (Klein & Myers 1999);

• questionnaire-based survey. This involves the collection of written data from interviewees, or the collection of verbal responses to relatively structured questions. See Straub (1989), Kraemer (1991), Kraemer & Dutton (1991), Pinsonneault & Kraemer (1993), and Newsted et al. (1998);

• interview-based survey. This involves the recording of verbal data from interviewees, which arises in relatively unstructured interviews or meetings;

• case study. This involves the collection of considerable detail, from multiple sources, about a particular, contemporary phenomenon within its real-world setting. For guidance on the use of case studies within the scientific tradition, see Yin (1984, 1994), Benbasat et al. (1987) and Lee (1989); and for guidance on their use in an interpretivist manner, see Walsham (1995b) and Myers (1997b);

• secondary research. Rather than producing new data, this technique analyses the contents of existing documents. Commonly, this is data gathered by one or more prior researchers, and it is re-examined in the light of a different theoretical framework from that previously used. The documents may also include materials prepared for purposes other than scientific research.

http://misq.org/discovery/surveys98/surveys.html

http://www.auckland.ac.nz/msis/isworld/case.htm



Research MethodsEngineering Research Techniques

Information systems research conducted within the computer science and engineering context uses two categories of research technique:

• construction. This approach involves the conception, design and creation (or 'prototyping') of an information technology artefact and/or technique (most commonly a computer program, but sometimes a physical device or a method). The new technology is designed to intervene in some setting, or to enable some function to be performed, or some aim to be realised. The design is usually based upon a body of theory, and the technology is usually subjected to some form of testing, in order to establish the extent to which it (and, by implication, the class of technologies to which it belongs) achieves its aims;

• destruction. In this case, new information is generated concerning the characteristics of an existing class of technologies. This is typically achieved through testing the technology, or applying it in new ways. The design is usually based upon a body of theory.



Research Types and MethodsType/ Method Tests,

MeasurementsInterviews Observations Surveys Documents

Experimental P A AQuasi-experimental P A ACausal-comparative P A ACorrelational P A ADescriptive A A P AEvaluation P A A A AEthnographic A P AAction A P ACase study A P A A

P = primary method used; A = additional method that may be used.



Object/Level

of Analysis

TheoremProof

LaboratoryExperiment

FieldExperiment

CaseStudy

SurveyForecasting and Future Research

Simulation and Game/Role

Playing

Subjective/ Argumentative

Descriptive/ Interpretive

ActionResearch

Society

Organization/Group

Individual

Technology

Methodology

TheoryBuilding

TheoryTesting

TheoryExtension

Taxonomy of Research Methods and Appropriate Objects/levels of Analysis

No

No

No

No

No

No

No

NoPossibly (Small Groups)

Yes

Modes for Traditional Empirical Approaches (Observations)

Modes for Newer Approaches (Interpretations)

Yes Yes Yes

YesYes

Yes

Yes

No

PossiblyPossibly Possibly Possibly Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

PossiblyPossibly

PossiblyPossibly

Yes Yes

Yes

Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Possibly

Possibly

Possibly

No

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes YesYes Yes Yes

YesYes Yes

YesYes

PossiblyPossibly

PossiblyPossiblyPossibly

Possibly

Possibly

No No

NoNo No

(Galliers 1990)



International IS Research Methods



Design Science IS Research Framework

• Information Systems (IS) are complex, artificial, and purposefully designed.

• IS are composed of people, structures, technologies, and work systems.

• Two Basic IS Research Paradigms– Behavioral Research – Goal is Knowledge– Design Research – Goal is Utility

Source Al Hevner



IS Research Cycle

Adapted from Hevner

DesignScience

Research

BehavioralScience

Research



Theory BuildingConceptual frameworksMathematical models

Methods

ObservationCase studies

Survey studiesField studies

SystemsDevelopment

PrototypingProduct developmentTechnology transfer

ExperimentationComputer simulations

Field experimentsLab experiments

Adapted from Nunamaker, Chen and PurdenJMIS (1991) 7(3).

Systems Development in Information Systems Research



Arizona SW Engineering Methodology

THEORY

CONCEPT

MODEL

PROTOTYPE

ExperimentationOBSERVATION

FIELD STUDY

Adapted from Nunamaker



Arizona SW Engineering Research Cycle

Theory, Concept, Model

Prototypes

Field and Lab Research

Product




Lab & Field Study Objectives

• Develop new Process and Tool Uses

• Develop Metrics for Process and Tool Use

• Evaluate usefulness of new Processes and Tools

• Identify Process and Tool Improvements

• Confirm Lab Results in the Field

• Gain best Practice from Lab and Field UseSource Nunamaker



Research Road Map Through the Last Research Mile

Identify a Real Problem

1. Proof-of-Concept Prototype

2. Proof-of-Value Prototype

3. Proof of Self-Sustaining Use(Production System)

Travel the Last Mile

Real Problem

1.POC

2.POV

3.POU




Design Science• Design is a Artifact (Noun)

– Constructs– Models– Methods– Instantiations

• Design is a Process (Verb)– Build– Evaluate

• Design is a Wicked Problem– Unstable Requirements and Constraints– Complex Interactions among Subcomponents of Problem and resulting

Subcomponents of Solution– Inherent Flexibility to Change Artifacts and Processes– Dependence on Human Cognitive Abilities - Creativity– Dependence on Human Social Abilities - Teamwork

Source Al Hevner



• Constructs• Models• Methods• Instantiations

Algorithms and Practices that define processes and provide guidance on howto solve problems, that is, how to search thesolution space.

Implemented and Prototype systemsthat show that constructs, models, or methods can be implemented in a working system.They demonstrate feasibility, enabling concrete assessment of an artifact’s suitability to its intended purpose

Vocabulary and Symbols that provide the language in which problems and solutions are defined and communicated.

IS Design theories seek to prescribe effective development practices (methods) and a typeof system solution. (instantiation) for a particular class of user requirements. (models)

Knowledge BaseAbstractions and Representations that use constructs to represent a real world situation-the design problem and its solution space

Foundations• Theories• Frameworks• Instruments• Constructs• Models• Methods• Instantiations

Methodologies• Data Analysis• Techniques• Formalisms• Measures• Validation Criteria

Rigor

Design Science IS Research Framework (Hevner et. al., MISQ, 2004) USA

Develop/Build

IS Research

Justify/Evaluate

Assess Refine

• Theories• Artifacts

• Analytical• Case Study• Experimental• Field Study• Simulation

ApplicableKnowledge

EnvironmentPeople• Roles• Capabilities• Characteristics

Organizations• Strategies• Structure and Culture• Process

Technology• Infrastructure• Applications• Communications Architecture• Development Capabilities

Additions to theKnowledge base

Achieved by appropriately applying existing foundations and methodologies.

BusinessNeeds

RelevanceImplementable, synthesize an existing body of research, [or] stimulate critical thinking. among IS practitioners.

Application in theAppropriate Environment



Three Cycles of DS Research

Environment Knowledge BaseDesign Science

Build Design Artifacts & Processes

Evaluate

Design Cycle

Application Domain

• People

• Organizational Systems

• Technical Systems

• Problems & Opportunities

Relevance Cycle

• Requirements

• Field Testing

Rigor Cycle

• Grounding

• Additions to KB

Foundations

• Scientific Theories & Methods

• Experience & Expertise

• Meta-Artifacts (Design Products & Design Processes)

Adapted from Hevner



SoftwareEngineering

UserInterface

Design

ReferenceModeling

MethodEngineering

….

Consortial Research Method (St Gallen Switzerland)

ResearchOutline: Need

Gap, Goal

ConsortiumAgreement

ResearchPlan

State ofInstantiations

State ofModels &Methods

State ofTheories &Constructs

Domain

Analysis

Design

Evaluation

Diffusion

ScientificPublication

PractitionerPublication

TeachingMaterials

Roll-outPlan

ReviewWorkshop

FunctionTest

Experiment Simulation PilotApplication

Scientific Knowledge• Instantiations• Models• Methods• Theories•Constructs

Practical Knowledge• Business Models• Processes & Structures• Information Systems• Information Technology



Organisational Forms of Knowledge Creation

Knowledge Creation

Internal External

With ExclusiveExploitation Rights

Without ExclusiveExploitation Rights

With ExclusiveExploitation Rights

Without ExclusiveExploitation Rights

IndustrialResearch

1Collaborative Research

2

With Customers

Or Suppliers

2a With NeutralPartners

2bWith

Competitors

2cContractResearch

3

(adapted from Brockhoff 1999)



226



A Research Framework for the Organizational laboratory

Prediction

Change

Adapted from Braa and Vidgen =1997)

The Points representIntended Research Outcomes:

Understanding

Points are Ideal Types; That is Weberian abstractionsThat are not attainable in practice.Research Praxis is represented by the constrained space of the triangle. intervention

Reduction Interpretation

The framework is represented by a triangle

Dotted lines inside the triangle represent research dynamics as movementstowards (and away from) the ideal types.

Prediction is the outcome of positivist modes of enquiry; although a ‘good’ theory does indeed have explanatory power, the more significant outcome of positivist theories is the ability to control and predict.

Understanding is the outcome of Interpretivist modes of enquiry; successful Interpretations bring out insider rationalityand promote understanding.

Change is the outcome of interventionist modes of enquiry; successful interventions lead to improvements in the problem situation.One implication for research praxis is that

all three dynamics (reduction, interpretation, and intervention) are, regardless of the research method adopted, co-present, albeit with differing mixes and emphasis.

As the researcher moves towards the prediction point through a process of formalized reduction there should be greater explanatory and predictive power. The traditional approach to explanation and prediction is experimental method.

Movement toward the understanding point through a process of interpretation is associated with greater richness of insight into the role of IS in organizational settings. Understanding is achieved typically through case studies informed by schools of sociological thought such as phenomenology, hermeneutics and ethnography.

Movement toward the change point isachieved through a process of intervention as typified by action research.

For example: interpretivist research methods involve a reducing of the infinite range of factors that might be considered relevant to a particular inquiry, although such a ‘reduction’ is not rationalized through the application of the systematic procedures of positivism.



Qua

si e

xper

imen

t

Field Experiment

Mapping Research Methods into the Framework

Prediction(Reduction)

Understanding(Interpretation)

Change(Intervention)

Adapted from Braa and Vidgen =1997)

Action Research

Soft CaseHard Case

Action case

An experimental design which does not meet the three criteria of multiple treatments (or one treatment and a control group), randomization, and experimental control; but rather attempts to preserve as many of the properties of true experimentation as possible, given the constraints of the research setting.

These are much more common than ‘True’ experiments.

Action research is a way of building theory and descriptions within the context of practice itself. Theories are tested through intervention in the organizational laboratory, that is, through experiments that bear the double burden of testing hypotheses and effecting some desirable change in the situation. Action research comes in many flavours, ranging from formal approaches through to less formalized, more reflective and personal approaches.

an extension of laboratory experiments into an organizational context. There are lots of factors which the researcher cannot control but which could affect the outcomes.

Field experiments aim at controlling a small number of variables which may then be studied intensively. A major advantage is that the experiment is conducted in a real-life setting. A major problem however is the difficulty of finding organizations prepared to be experimented on.

Experimental control is essential and involves taking appropriate steps to eliminate ‘nuisance’ variables, which are factors other than the independent variables that might be responsible for observed changes in the dependent variable.

‘true’ experimental design which meets the criteria of multiple treatments (or one treatment and a control group), randomization, and experimental control;

Empirical inquiry that ‘investigates a contem porary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident’.

Can be used in three modes: explanatory, descriptive, and exploratory .

Applicable where the research question is of a ‘how’ or ‘why’ nature, where control over behavioural events is not needed, and where there is a focus on contemporary events.

Allow reality to be captured in detail and many variables to be analyzed;

from a positivist stance, problems with case studies include the difficulty of generalization, lack of control over variables, and different interpretations by different stakeholders

A hybrid between interpretation and intervention. A trade-off between being an observer who can make interpretations (understanding) and a researcher involved in creating change in practice. when doing case studies researchers contribute to change by questioning events and applying new concepts. On the other hand, full-scale action research projects are often not appropriate due to organizational constraints or the nature of the topic to be inves tigated. Small scale intervention with a deep contextual understanding is one way of balancing this dilemma.

Interpretivist approach is concerned with gaining understanding; generalization is the movement from a concrete situation to the social totality beyond the individual case.

A soft case study based on ethnographic methods can involve a variety of data collection techniques, such as videotape, and data analy sis might involve, for example, techniques from grounded theory

From an interpretive position, the validity of an extrapolation from an individual case or cases depends not on the representativeness of such cases in a statistical sense, but on the plausibility and cogency of the logical reasoning used in describing the results from the cases, and in drawing conclusions from them.



Adapted from Baskerville and Stage

DIAGNOSINGIdentifying or

Defining a problem

ACTION PLANNINGConsidering alterative

Courses of ActionTo Solve a Problem

ACTION TAKINGSelecting a

Course of Action

EVALUATINGStudying Consequences

Of an Action

SPECIFIC LEARNINGIdentification ofGeneral Findings

Developmentof a Client-

SystemInfrastructure

Cycle Process of Action Research



Questions?

nicholas c. romano, jr. is research an international perspective 21 maggio 2010 università degli...

Documents

research process

research development

research paradigms

value of business research

corporate research short

universit degli studi

business decisions zikmund

verona facolt