nicole fortin department of economics, ubc and social interactions, identity and well-being program...

Gender Role Attitudes andWomen’s Labour Market Outcomes

Nicole Fortin

Department of Economics, UBC

and

Social Interactions, Identity and Well-Being Program

Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR)

Fortin - Toronto - November 20082

The Slowdown in the Economic Progress of Women ◦ Despite progress in women’s preparation for the labour

market◦ Despite progress in gender equality policies

Is the Persistence of Traditional Attitudes about Women’s Roles at Play? 1) Evidence from differences across OECD countries using

data from the World Value Surveys (1990,1995, 1999)

2) Evidence the evolution of these attitudes over the past 30 years in these attitudes in the United States

What about Women’s Subjective Well-Being?

Plan of the Presentation

Because women’s preparation for the labour market has seen a stupendous improvement, many expected that the gender pay gap would have closed by now

Broad Motivation

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Enrolments Degree Granted

Percentage of Women in University Enrolment and Degree Granted

Source: Statistics Canada

Among young adults, the proportion of women with a university degree has increased substantially

Source: Frenette and Coulombe (2007)

Women have also come a long way in terms of work ambition

Percentage of young adults who indicated that “Being successful at work” was ``very important" to them in life

1974 (20) 1982 (20) 1984 (20) 1992 (18)65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

U.S. Women U.S. Men

Year(Age)

But women’s have not closed the gap in terms of the importance of money

Percentage of young adults who indicated that “Having lots of money” was “very important" to them in life

1974 (20) 1982 (20) 1984 (20) 1992 (18)0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

U.S. Women U.S. Men

Year(Age)

Percentage of young adults (age 20 in 1974) who indicated that the following values were “very important" in selecting a career

But other aspects of a job more important to women, such opportunities to be helpful and useful

helpful to others or useful to so-

ciety

work with people rather than things

chance to be a leader

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

U.S. Women U.S. Men

Percentage who mention that “Good hours” an important aspect of a job”

Or good hours

Source: World Value Surveys

1990 1990 1995 1999 1999U.S. Canada U.S. U.S. Canada

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Women Men

Starting in the mid-1990s, the gender convergence in pay began to slow down

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

0.50

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00 one year job tenure age 16-64

one year job tenure age 25-54

FTFY age 16-64

FTFY age 25-54

Female/Male Median Hourly Wage Ratio

Source: Fortin and Schirle (2006)

The gender convergence in pay has continue to slow down in the early 2000s

19761978

19801982

19841986

19881990

19921994

19961998

20002002

20042006

0.50

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

All Age Groups 25 to 34 years

Gender equality policies, such as Ontario and Quebec pay equity policies, may have provided modest improvements, but not long-lasting results…

19761978

19801982

19841986

19881990

19921994

19961998

20002002

20042006

0.50

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

Quebec Ontario British Columbia

Female-Male Earnings Ratio - Full-Time Workers

Source: Statistics Canada

Fortin - Toronto-13

The relatively meager efficacy of pay equity policies is not surprising to economists.◦ They have noted serious implementation issues

with a complex legislation (Baker and Fortin, 2004)

The policy tackles legitimate fairness issues only in the◦ “what you do” aspect of the gender pay gap, it

leaves untouched the effects of the other sources of the gender pay gap

Is it: Who you are, what you do, or where you work?

Fortin - Toronto-14

“where you work”: woman are more likely to work for small firms and for non-profit organizations

“who you are”: not only a woman, but also a “supportive wife”, a “soccer or hockey mom”, a “caregiver” to your elders

Is it: Who you are, what you do, or where you work?

Fortin - Toronto- November 200815

Economists have long argued that gender differences in labour market experience accounted for a large part of the gender pay gap.

For example, O’Neill and O’Neill (2005) find that half of the gender pay gap (in the U.S. circa 2000) can be traced back to life-time differences in labour market experience.◦ They find no significant gender pay gap among

childless women who never married…

Women’s Double Shift

Fortin - Toronto-16

Because of the double shift of home and workplace responsibilities, women may be less able or willing to put in the extra-effort at work that earn their male counterparts some extra money.◦ In fact, about two times more women than men

work part-time

Alternatively, employers anticipating this effect may practice some statistical discrimination and provide women with lower level of training for promotions.

Women’s Double Shift


The debate now focuses on family-friendly policies both employer-provided and government supported◦ such as extended maternity leaves◦ subsidized child-care vs. child tax credit

At the center of that debate is the role or identity of women ◦ as childless career women ◦ as part-time/full-time “working (for pay) moms”◦ as stay-at-home moms, “volunteering moms”

More recently, family-friendly policies have being emphasized in the public debate

The gender convergence in labour force participation has also slowed down

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

50%

55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

Canadian Men Canadian Women American Men American Women

Labour Force Participation Rate 25 to 44 Year Olds

Source: Statistics Canada, LFS and U.S. BLS, March CPS

Fortin – Toronto- November 200819

In the United States, the leveling-off or slight retreat of women’s labour force participation has been described as “Opting Out” in the popular press and among sociologists

◦ The “Opting Out" phenomena is conceived as the labour market withdrawal of college-educated women when they have children,

◦ perhaps out of concern for the welfare of their offspring, and/or

◦ perhaps because of the stresses of living in two-earner families or succeeding in the labor market.

Are women ‘Opting Out’ of the labour force?

The differences across provinces in family-friendly policies may make a difference, but it does not seem to be the full story

Source: Statistics Canada, LFS

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

50.0%

55.0%

60.0%

65.0%

70.0%

75.0%

80.0%

85.0%

90.0%

95.0%

100.0%

Quebec Ontario British Columbia

Labour Force Participation Rates - Women 25 to 44 Year Olds


While we might hope the more family-friendly Canadian policies may be at play in explaining the Canada-U.S. differences in the leveling-off of FLP, more conservative views among our southern neighbours may be part of the explanation

In Quebec, concerns about different views regarding gender equality have been on the agenda at the recent commission on the accommodation of minorities.

Is the persistence of traditional attitudes about women’s roles at play?


I have studied the relationship between gender role attitudes and women’s labour market outcomes

1) Comparing differences in attitudes, both of women and of men, across OECD countries and over time (Fortin, 2005) using data from the World Value Surveys (1990,1995, 1999)

2) Following the evolution over the past 30 years in these attitudes in the United States using data from General Social Surveys (1977-2006)

Is the persistence of traditional attitudes about women’s roles at play?


Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

◦ “When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women”

Do you agree strongly, agree, disagree, or disagree strongly?

◦ “A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work”

◦ “Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay”

WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions about gender role attitudes

Percentage who agree with the statement

“Scarce jobs should go to men first”



0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Women Men

Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men First”

TK

ES

BEIE ITNL FRCH ATJPDEW

CAPT

UKUSIS

HU PLDKFINO

SECZDE

SK

TK

ES

PL

FI DE JPDEWUS AS CH

SENO

TK

ES

IE PTBE JPFR IT

HUUKNL CA PLGR

ATFI USSKCZIS

DKSE

.25

.5.7

51

Wo

me

n's

Em

plo

yme

nt

Ra

te

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men First

1990 1995

1999 Fitted values

Source: WVS

Percentage who strongly agree or agree with the statement

“A working mother can be a good mother”



0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Women Men

Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “A working mother can be a good mother”

TK

ES

BEIEITNLFR

AT JPDEW

CAPT

UK USIS

HU DKFINO

SECZDE

SK

TK

ES

PL

FIDE JPDEWUSAS

SENO

TK

ES

PTBE JPFRIT

HUUKNLCAPL GR

FIUSSKCZ IS

DK SE

.25

.5.7

51

Wom

en's

Em

ploy

men

t Rat

e

.5 .6 .7 .8 .9Working Mom OK

1990 19951999 Fitted values

Source: WVS

Percentage who strongly agree or agree with the statement

“Being a housewife as fulfilling as working for pay”



0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Women Men

Women’s Employment Rates across Countries and Women’s Agreement with the Statement that “Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay”

TK

ES

BE IEIT NL FRAT JP

DEWCAPT UK US

ISHUDK

FI NOSE

CZDESK

TK

ES

PL

FIDE JPDEW USAS

SENO

TK

ES

PTBE JPFRIT

HU UKNL CAPLGR

FI USSK CZIS

DKSE

.25

.5.7

51

Wom

en's

Em

ploy

men

t Rat

e

.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9Being a Housewife Fulfilling

1990 19951999 Fitted values

Source: WVS


Accounting for a complete host of factors, that include women’s education, volunteering activities, competitiveness, public expenditures on child care, the following effects stand out:

“Scarce jobs should to the men first” is the attitude that more robustly negatively associated with women’s employment rates ◦ It is stronger using lagged values◦ Men’s attitudes still very significant

These views are however softening among recent cohorts.

Do gender roles attitudes help account for differences in women’s employment rates across countries?


The enduring perceptions of women’s main role as homemakers could also be implicated in the recent slowdown of the gender convergence in pay.

Finally, the unavoidable clash between family values and equalitarian views, that takes the form of an inner conflict for many women─ the so-called mother’s guilt─, is another obstacle in the path towards greater gender equality in the labour market.

Do gender roles attitudes help account for differences in women’s employment rates across countries?

Can the evolution of gender role attitudes over time help explain the evolution of women’s labour force participation?

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

50%

55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

100%

American Women

Labour Force Participation Rate 25 to 44 Year Olds

Source: U.S. BLS, March CPS

Average agreement with the statement :“It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.”

1977

1978

1980

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1993

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

American Women 18-65 year oldsSource: US-GSS

Average agreement with the statement :“It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family.”

1977

1978

1980

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1993

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Baby-boomers Generation X

Source: US-GSS

Average agreement with the statement :“A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work.”

1977

1978

1980

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1993

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

American Women 18-65 year olds

Source: US-GSS

Average agreement with the statement :“A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work.”

1977

1978

1980

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1993

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Baby-Boomers Generation X

Source: US-GSS


How have these changes in labour market outcomes affected women’s well-being?

Many social scientists, and some economists, attempt to answer these types of questions using subjective measure of well-being, life-satisfaction or happiness.

Women’s Subjective Well-Being


While not an ideal measure, the GSS asks:

◦ “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days. Would you say that you are: Very happy, pretty happy or not too happy?”

U.S. General Social Surveys: Question about Subjective Well-Being

Gender Convergence in Happiness among Labor Force Participants

1972

1974

1976

1978

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1993

1996

2000

2004

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Women Very happy Men Very happyWomen Not too happy Men Not too happy

Source: US-GSS

Source: Stevenson and Wolfers, 2008

Fortin - Toronto-November 200843

At the beginning of the 21st century, more than 30 years after the beginning of the 1960’s Women Liberation Movement, the secular decline in traditional gender roles attitudes seems to have bottomed out.

Will the myth of “having it all”, both career and family, turned out to be a generational phenomenon?

Has it actually mostly mesmerized the pioneering boomer generation for whom it was largely an untested experience?

Has the reality of the “double shift” rung closer to home and felt less attractive to recent generations?

Conclusions

Thank you!


Women’s have come a long way in terms in work ambition


Gender Differences in Work Values

Source: Stevenson and Wolfers, 2008


WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions on Gender Role Attitudes

Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? 1990-1997

1999-2001

Agree Neither Disagree DK

V128 V78 When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women

1 2 3 4

V129 When jobs are scarce, people should be forced to retire early

1 2 3 4

V130 V79 When jobs are scarce, employers should give priority to [BRITISH] people over immigrants

1 2 3 4

For each of the following statements I read out, can you tell me how much you agree with each. Do you agree strongly, agree, disagree, or disagree strongly? 1990-1997

1999-2001

Agree strongly

Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

DK

V113 One of my main goals in life has been to make my parents proud

1 2 3 4 9

V114 I make a lot of effort to live up to what my friends expect

1 2 3 4 9

V98 V115 A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a mother who does not work

1 2 3 4 9

V99 V116 Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay

1 2 3 4 9

V100 V117 Both the husband and wife should contribute to household income

1 2 3 4 9

V101 V118 On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do

1 2 3 4 9

V103 V119 A university education is more important for a boy than for a girl

1 2 3 4 9

Fortin - Toronto-49

WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:Questions on Work Values

Here are some more aspects of a job that people say are important. Please look at them and tell me which ones you personally think are important in a job? (CODE ALL MENTIONED)

1990-1997

1999-2001

MENTIONED

NOT MENTIONED

V75 V86 Good pay 1 2 V76 V87 Not too much pressure 1 2 V77 V88 Good job security 1 2 V78 V89 A job respected by people in general 1 2 V79 V90 Good hours 1 2 V80 V91 An opportunity to use initiative 1 2 V81 V92 Generous holidays 1 2 V82 V93 A job in which you feel you can achieve something 1 2 V83 V94 A responsible job 1 2 V84 V95 A job that is interesting 1 2 V85 V96 A job that meets one's abilities 1 2 EVS C024 A useful job to society 1 2 C025 Meeting people 1 2

V128 1990-97 V144 1999-2001

Competition is good. It Competition is harmful. It stimulates people to work hard brings out the worst in people and develop new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 DK=99

Fortin – Toronto- November 200850

Determinants of Women’s Employment Rates Across CountriesSource: Fortin (2005)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Averages by country Women’s Men’s Women’s Women’s Gender role attitudes: Lagged2 Scarce jobs should go -0.764 -0.546 -0.498 -0.909 to men first (-4.17) (-3.25) (-2.41) (-5.86) Being a housewife -0.109 -0.232 -0.042 -0.204 fulfilling (-1.08) (-2.07) (-0.26) (-1.26) Competition is OK 0.493 0.893 0.471 0.304 (1.79) (2.74) (1.98) (0.74) Volunteer in organizations with leader building skills 0.371 0.195 0.347 0.054 (1.85) (1.35) (2.03) (0.21) religious and cultural -0.359 -0.347 -0.320 -0.261 (-1.55) (-1.41) (-1.60) (-1.26) Log of public expenditures 0.115 0.047 on child care1 (7.50) (2.38) Time trend -0.002 -0.006 0.000 0.004 0.000 0.007

(-0.40) (-1.58) (-0.09) (1.22) (0.00) (0.84)

Adjusted-R square 0.221 0.674 0.652 0.675 0.791 0.830

No. observations 50 50 50 42 42 21

No. countries 26 26 26 21 21 16

Notes: Women’s education level are included in all regressions. The women’s

employment rates by country are reported in Table A1. T-values in parentheses are from robust clustering by country.


Fortin, N.M. “The Gender Wage Gap among Young Adults in the United States: The Importance of Money vs. People,” Journal of Human Resources, 43 (Fall 2008): 886-920.

Fortin, N.M. “Gender Role Attitudes and Women’s Labour Market Outcomes Across OECD countries.” Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 21, No. 3 (November 2005): 416-438.

Fortin, N.M. “Gender Role Attitudes and Women’s Labor Market Participation: Opting-Out and The Persistent Appeal of Housewifery,” Working Paper, University of British Columbia, January 2008.

Bibliography

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