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    A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building. There is no official definition or height

    above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper. Most cities define the

    termempirically; even a building of 80 m (260 ft) may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes above

    its built environment and changes the overallskyline.

    The word "skyscraper" originally was a nautical termreferring to a small triangular sail setabove the skysail on a sailing ship. The term was first applied to buildings of steel framed constructionof at least 10 storeys in the late 19th century, a result of public amazement at the tall buildings beingbuilt in major cities likeChicago,New York City,Detroit, andSt. Louis. The first steel frame skyscraperwas the Home Insurance Building built in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Some point to New York's sevenfloor Equitable Life Assurance Building, built in 1870, as an early skyscraper for its innovative use of akind of skeletal frame, but such designation depends largely on what factors are chosen. Even thescholars making the argument find it to be purely academic.

    The structural definition of the word skyscraperwas refined later by architectural historians,based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multi-storeybuildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton-as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building. Thesteel frame developed in stages of increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in Chicago andNew York advancing the technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today,however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built almost entirely with reinforced concrete.Pumpsand

    storage tanks maintain water pressure at the top of skyscrapers.

    History

    Modern skyscrapers are built with materials such as steel,glass,reinforcedconcreteand granite, and routinely utilize mechanical equipment such aswater pumps andelevators.Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs toclimb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply runningwater above 50 m (164 ft).The tallest building in ancient times was theGreat Pyramid of Giza inancient Egypt, which was146 metres (479 ft) tall and was built in the 26th century BC. Its height was not surpassed forthousands of years, possibly until the 14th century AD with the construction ofLincolnCathedral (though its height is disputed), which in turn was not surpassed in height untiltheWashington Monument in 1884. However, being uninhabited buildings, none of these buildings

    actually complies with the definition of a skyscraper.

    High-rise apartment buildings already flourished inclassical antiquity:ancient RomaninsulaeinRome and otherimperialcities reached up to 10 and more stories. Severalemperors, beginningwith Augustus (r. 30 BC-14 AD), attempted to establish limits of 2025 m for multi-storey buildings, butmet with only limited success. The lower floors were typically occupied by either shops or wealthyfamilies, while the upper stories were rented out to the lower classes. Surviving OxyrhynchusPapyriindicate that seven-storey buildings even existed inprovincial towns, such as in 3rd centuryAD Hermopolisin Roman Egypt. The skylines of many important medievalcities had large numbers ofhigh-rise urban towers. Wealthy families built these towers for defensive purposes and as statussymbols. The residentialTowers of Bologna in the 12th century, for example, numbered between 80 to100 at a time, the largest of which (known as the "Two Towers") rise to 97.2 metres (319 ft).In Florence, a law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings should be reduced to a height of less than26 m, the regulation immediately put into effect. Even medium-sized towns at the time such asSanGimignano are known to have featured 72 towers up to 51 m height.

    Themedieval Egyptian city ofFustathoused many high-rise residential buildings, which Al-Muqaddasi in the 10th century described as resemblingminarets.Nasir Khusraw in the early 11thcentury described some of them rising up to 14 stories, withroof gardens on the top floor completewith ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them. Cairo in the 16th century had high-rise apartmentbuildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiplestories above them were rented out to tenants. An early example of a city consisting entirely of high-rise housing is the 16th-century city ofShibaminYemen. Shibam was made up of over 500 towerhouses, each one rising 5 to 11 storeyshigh, with each floor being an apartment occupied by a single

    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    family. The city was built in this way in order to protect it from Bedouin attacks. Shibam still has thetallest mudbrick buildings in the world, with many of them over 30 m (98 ft) high.

    An early modern example of high-rise housing was in 17th-centuryEdinburgh, Scotland, wherea defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available fordevelopment, the houses increased in height instead. Buildings of 11 stories were common, and thereare records of buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the stone-built structures can still be seen today

    in the old town of Edinburgh. The oldest iron framed building in the world, although only partially ironframed, isThe Flaxmill (also locally known as the "Maltings"), in Shrewsbury, England. Built in 1797, itis seen as the "grandfather of skyscrapers, since its fireproof combination of cast iron columns andcast iron beams developed into the modern steel frame that made modern skyscrapers possible.Unfortunately, it lies derelict and needs much investment to keep it standing.

    Early skyscrapersAn early development was Oriel Chambers in Liverpool. Designed by local architect Peter Ellis

    in 1864, the building was the world's first iron-framed, glass curtain-walled office building. It was only 5floors high as the elevator had not yet been invented. Further developments led to the world's firstskyscraper, the ten-storeyHome Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 18841885. While its height isnot considered very impressive today, it was at that time. The architect, MajorWilliam Le BaronJenney, created a load-bearing structural frame. In this building, a steel frame supported the entireweight of the walls, instead of load-bearing walls carrying the weight of the building. This development

    led to the "Chicago skeleton" form of construction.

    Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Buildingin St. Louis, Missouri, 1891, was the first steel-framedbuilding with soaring vertical bands to emphasize the height of the building and is thereforeconsidered by some to be the first true skyscraper.Most early skyscrapers emerged in the land-strapped areas of Chicago, London, and New York toward the end of the 19th century. A land boom inMelbourne, Australia between 18881891 spurred the creation of a significant number of earlyskyscrapers, though none of these were steel reinforced and few remain today. Height limits and firerestrictions were later introduced. London builders soon found building heights limited due to acomplaint from Queen Victoria, rules that continued to exist with few exceptions until the 1950s.Concerns about aesthetics and fire safety had likewise hampered the development of skyscrapersacross continental Europe for the first half of the twentieth century (with the notable exceptions of the1898 Witte Huis(White House) in Rotterdam, 17-storey Kungstornen(Kings' Towers) in Stockholm,Sweden, which were built 192425, probably the first skyscrapers in Europe, the 15-storey Edificio

    Telefnicain Madrid, Spain, built in 1929; the 26-storey Boerentoren in Antwerp, Belgium, built in1932; and the 31-storeyTorre Piacentini in Genoa, Italy, built in 1940). After an early competitionbetween Chicago and New York City for the world's tallest building, New York took the lead by 1895with the completion of the American Surety Building, leaving New York with the title of tallest buildingfor many years. New York City developers competed among themselves, with successively tallerbuildings claiming the title of "world's tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s, culminating with thecompletion of the Chrysler Building in 1930 and theEmpire State Buildingin 1931, the world's tallestbuilding for forty years. The first completed World Trade Center tower became the world's tallestbuilding in 1972. However, it was soon overtaken by the Sears Tower (now Willis Tower) in Chicagowithin two years. The Sears Tower stood as the world's tallest building for 24 years, from 1974 until1998, until it was edged out byPetronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, which held the title for sixyears.

    Modern skyscrapers

    From the 1930s onwards, skyscrapers also began to appear in Latin America (SoPaulo,Santiago, Caracas, Bogot,Mexico City) and in Asia (Tokyo,Shanghai,HongKong,Manila, Singapore,Mumbai,Jakarta, Seoul,Kuala Lumpur,Taipei, Bangkok). ImmediatelyafterWorld War II, theSoviet Unionplanned eight massive skyscrapers dubbed "Stalin Towers" forMoscow; seven of these were eventually built. The rest of Europe also slowly began to permitskyscrapers, starting with Madrid, during the 1950s. Finally, skyscrapers also began to be constructedin cities of Africa, the Middle East and Oceania (mainly Australia) from the late 1950s.

    In the early 1960s structural engineer Fazlur Khan realized that the rigid steel frame structurethat had "dominated tall building design and construction so long was not the only system fitting for

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    tall buildings", marking "the beginning of a new era of skyscraper revolution in terms ofmultiplestructural systems." His central innovation inskyscraper design and construction was the ideaof the "tube" structural system, including the "framed tube", "trussed tube", and "bundled tube".Thesesystems allowed far greater economic efficiency, and also allowed efficient skyscrapers to take onvarious shapes, no longer needing to be box-shaped. Over the next fifteen years, many towers werebuilt by Khan and the "Second Chicago School",including the massive 442-meter (1,451-foot) WillisTower. Chicago is currently undergoing an epic construction boom that will greatly add to the city's

    skyline.Since 2000, at least 40 buildings at a minimum of 50 stories high have been built or

    planned. TheTrump International Hotel and Tower, Waterview Tower, Mandarin Oriental Tower, 2939South LaSalle, Park Michigan, and Aqua are some of the more notable projects currently underway inthe city. Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise known as "the big three," are recognizedin architectural circles as having especially compelling skylines. A landmark skyscraper can inspire aboom of new high-rise projects in its city, as Taipei 101 has done in Taipei since its opening in 2004. In2010, The Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park became the world's first commercial LEEDPlatinum skyscraper.

    History of tallest skyscrapersAt the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was a center for the Beaux-Arts

    architecturalmovement, attracting the talents of such great architects as Stanford White and Carrere

    and Hastings. As better construction and engineering technology became available as the centuryprogressed, New York and Chicago became the focal point of the competition for the tallest building inthe world. Each city's striking skyline has been composed of numerous and varied skyscrapers, manyof which are icons of 20th century architecture:

    TheFlatiron Building, designed by Daniel Hudson Burnham and standing 285 ft (87 m) high,was one of the tallest buildings in the city upon its completion in 1902, made possible by its steelskeleton. It was one of the first buildings designed with a steel framework, and to achieve this heightwith other construction methods of that time would have been very difficult. (The 1889 Tower Building,designed by Bradford Gilbertand considered by some to be New York's first skyscraper, may havebeen the first building to use a skeletal steel frame.)[30] Subsequent buildings such as theSingerBuilding, the Metropolitan Life Tower were higher still.

    TheWoolworth Building, a neo-Gothic "Cathedral of Commerce" overlooking City Hall, wasdesigned by Cass Gilbert. At 792 feet (241 m), it became the world's tallest building upon its

    completion in 1913, an honor it retained until 1930, when it was overtaken by40 Wall Street.Thatsame year, the Chrysler Building took the lead as the tallest building in the world, scraping the skyat 1,046 feet (319 m). Designed by William Van Alen, an Art Deco style masterpiece with an exteriorcrafted of brick, the Chrysler Building continues to be a favorite of New Yorkers to this day.

    TheEmpire State Building, the first building to have more than 100 floors (it has 102), wascompleted the following year. It was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the contemporary ArtDeco style. The tower takes its name from the nickname ofNew York State. Upon its completion in1931 at 1,250 feet (381 m), it took the top spot as tallest building, and towered above all otherbuildings until 1972. The antenna mast added in 1951 brought pinnacle height to 1,472 feet (449 m),lowered in 1984 to 1,454 feet (443 m).

    TheWorld Trade Center officially reached full height in 1972, was completed in 1973, andconsisted of two tall towers and several smaller buildings. For a short time, the first of the two towerswas the world's tallest building. Upon completion, the towers stood for 28 years, until the September

    11 attacksdestroyed the buildings in 2001. Various governmental entities, financial firms, and lawfirms called the towers home.

    TheWillis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) was completed in 1974, one year after the WorldTrade Center, and surpassed it as the world's tallest building. It was the first building to employ the"bundled tube" structural system, designed by Fazlur Khan. The building was not surpassed in heightuntil thePetronas Towers were constructed in 1998, but remained the tallest in some categoriesuntil Burj Khalifa surpassed it in all categories in 2010. It is currently the tallest building in the UnitedStates.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper_design_and_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper_design_and_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_School_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_International_Hotel_and_Tower_(Chicago)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterview_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Oriental,_Chicagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Michiganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Michiganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_(skyscraper)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrere_and_Hastingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrere_and_Hastingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Hudson_Burnhamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Life_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolworth_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolworth_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_Wall_Streethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_Wall_Streethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Van_Alenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Decohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreve,_Lamb_and_Harmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_nicknameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper_design_and_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_School_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_International_Hotel_and_Tower_(Chicago)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterview_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Oriental,_Chicagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Michiganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_(skyscraper)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Whitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrere_and_Hastingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrere_and_Hastingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Hudson_Burnhamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Life_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolworth_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_Wall_Streethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Van_Alenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Decohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreve,_Lamb_and_Harmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_nicknameshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attackshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(structure)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifa
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    Momentum in setting records passed from the United States to other nations with the opening ofthePetronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 1998. The record for world's tallest buildingremained in Asia with the opening ofTaipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004. A number of architecturalrecords, including those of the world's tallest building and tallest free-standing structure, moved to theMiddle East with the opening of the Burj Khalifain Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

    This geographical transition is accompanied by a change in approach to skyscraper design. For

    much of the twentieth century large buildings took the form of simple geometrical shapes. Thisreflected the "international style" or modernistphilosophy shaped by Bauhausarchitects early in thecentury. The last of these, the Willis Tower and World Trade Center towers in New York, erected in the1970s, reflect the philosophy. Tastes shifted in the decade which followed, and new skyscrapers beganto exhibitpostmodernist influences. This approach to design avails itself of historical elements, oftenadapted and re-interpreted, in creating technologically modern structures. The Petronas Twin Towersrecall Asian pagoda architecture and Islamic geometric principles. Taipei 101 likewise reflectsthepagodatradition as it incorporates ancient motifs such as theruyi symbol. The Burj Khalifa drawsinspiration from traditionalIslamic art. Architects in recent years have sought to create structures thatwould not appear equally at home if set in any part of the world, but that reflect the culture thriving inthe spot where they stand.The following list measures height of the roof. The more common gauge is the highest architecturaldetail; such ranking would have included Petronas Towers, built in 1998.

    Today

    Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is expensive, as in thecentres of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area ofland. They are built not just for economy of space; like temples and palaces of the past, skyscrapersare considered symbols of a city's economic power. Not only do they define theskyline, they help todefine the city's identity.

    Supertall towers

    At the time Taipei 101 broke the half-kilometer mark in height, it was already technicallypossible to build structures towering over a kilometer above the ground. Proposals for such structureshave been put forward, including the Mile-High Tower to be built inJeddah, Saudi Arabia[35][36]and Burj

    Mubarak Al Kabir in Kuwait. Kilometer-plus structures present architectural challenges that mayeventually place them in a new architectural category. Future notable skyscrapersThe followingskyscrapers, all contenders for being among the tallest in their city or region, are under constructionand due to be completed in the next few years:

    Construction of the 133-floor, 640 msupertallDigital Media City LandmarkBuilding in Digital Media City,Seoul, South Korea, started in 2009, which will be the second-tallestbuilding in the world when it is completed in 2015, housing the world's tallest observatory and hotels.Being constructed at the fastest speed among major skyscraper projects by South Korea's SamsungC&T (who also builtBurj Khalifa), the supertall is the first skyscraper to contain an entire city inside abuilding, including the world's largest aquarium, a luxury department store, shopping malls, cliniccenter, high-tech offices, first-class apartments, six to eight-star hotels, a concert restaurant, abroadcasting studio and an art center.

    Construction of theShanghai Tower started on 29 November 2008. The tower will be 632 m(2,073 ft) high and have 127 floors. The building will feature a glass curtain wall and nine indoorgardens when it is completed in 2014.Construction of the 151-floor, 610 m supertall 151 Incheon Towerin Songdo InternationalCity,Incheon, South Korea, started in 2008, which will be the tallest twin towers in the world when it iscompleted in 2014.

    TheAbraj Al-Bait Towers, also known as the "Mecca Royal Clock Hotel Tower" is a complexunder construction in Mecca, Saudi Arabia by the Saudi Binladin Group. The complex consists of seventowers, and the tallest tower (Hotel Tower) will have a height of 601 m (1,972 ft). Upon completion in

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mile-High_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burj_Mubarak_Al_Kabir&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burj_Mubarak_Al_Kabir&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_City_Landmark_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_City_Landmark_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_C%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_C%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/151_Incheon_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/151_Incheon_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songdo_International_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songdo_International_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraj_Al-Bait_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraj_Al-Bait_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Binladin_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mile-High_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burj_Mubarak_Al_Kabir&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burj_Mubarak_Al_Kabir&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_City_Landmark_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_City_Landmark_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Media_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_C%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_C%26Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/151_Incheon_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songdo_International_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songdo_International_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraj_Al-Bait_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Binladin_Group
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    2011, the structure will have the largest floor area of any structure in the world, at 1,500,000 squaremetres (16,137,600 sq ft).Construction of the 110-floor, 510 m supertall in Busan Lotte World,Busan, South Korea, started in2009, which will be the third tallest building world when it is completed in 2013.

    1 World Trade Center is now under construction and is the tallest tower comprising theredevelopment of the site of the former World Trade Center.Its pinnacle will reach a height of 541.4 m(1,776 ft), a height (in feet) representing the year of the United States Declaration of Independence.

    India Tower is a 720 m (2,360 ft) tall skyscraper under construction in Mumbai, India. If completed onschedule, it could become the second tallest skyscraper in the world.The 308 m (1,010 ft)Tour Generali in Paris La Dfense, scheduled to be completed in 2013, is anentirely green buildingoffice skyscraper that is set to be the tallest building in Paris and the secondtallest in theEuropean Unionafter the Shard of Glassin London.Construction of London's Shard of Glassstarted in March 2009, and is scheduled to be completed inMay 2012, in time for the London Olympics. At 310 m (1,017 ft), it is set to be the tallest building in theEuropean Union.

    Oriel Chambers, Liverpool. The world's first glass curtain walled building. The stone mullions are decorative.

    Built in 1931, TheEmpire State Buildingin New York City is one of the oldest, yet tallest skyscrapers.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busan_Lotte_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Generalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Generalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%A9fensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriel_Chambershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriel_Chambershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Empire_State_Building_from_the_Top_of_the_Rock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Empire_State_Building_from_the_Top_of_the_Rock.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oriel_chambers.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oriel_chambers.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busan_Lotte_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Generalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%A9fensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shard_London_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriel_Chambershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Building
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    Taipei 101, formerly the world's tallest skyscraper, was the first to exceed the half-kilometer mark.

    The iconicWorld Trade Centertwin towers weredestroyed in 2001.

    The Willis Towerin Chicago was the world's tallest building from 1974 to 1998, and remains the tallest in the Western

    Hemisphere

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    The Petronas Twin Towers, the world's tallest twin buildings.

    Tower 2 of theInternational Finance Centrein Hong Kong is one of the 20tallest buildings in the world.

    The Commerzbank Towerin Frankfurt is the tallest completed skyscraper in theEuropean Union.

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    30 St Mary Axe in London is an example of a modern environmentally friendly skyscraper.

    The Shardunder construction in London, will be thetallest building in the EUwhen completed

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    Al-Burj,DUBAI ( 1050m ) India Tower,MUMBAI ( 720m ) Tokyo Sky Tree,TOKYO

    ( 634m ) Abraj Al-Bait,MECCA ( 591m ) One World Trade Center,NEW YORK ( 541m )

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    #1 The Burj Khalifa (formerly Burj Dubai) became the tallest structure in the world in January 2010. Where was it built?

    Malaysia

    United Arab Emirates

    United Kingdom

    Iraq

    #2 Both of the Petronas Twin Towers are 1,483 ft. tall with a skybridge in between them. Where are the towers located?

    Malaysia

    Taiwan

    Canada

    United States of America

    #3 Taipei 101, built in 2003, is about 1,670 ft. tall. Where can you find it?

    Taiwan

    Philippines

    South Korea

    #4 The Empire State Building is 1,454 ft. tall and was the tallest building from 1931 to 1973 until the World Trade Centerwas built. Where is it located?

    United Kingdom

    United States of America

    Australia

    #5 The World Trade Center towers were the tallest buildings from 1972 to 1973. On September 11, 2001, the towers weredestroyed. Where were they found?

    Mongolia

    China

    United States of America

    Canada

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    #6 The CN Tower is 1,815 ft. tall and was built for observation and attraction purposes. Where is it located?

    United States of America

    Canada

    New Zealand

    #7 The Tuntex Sky Tower was completed in 1997 and has a height of 1,240 ft. Where was it built?

    Taiwan

    China

    Mongolia

    South Korea

    #8 The John Hancock Center, built in 1970, is 1,500 ft. tall. Where can you find it?

    Russia

    United States of America

    Mexico

    Madagascar

    #9 The Jin Mao Tower, completed in 1998, is 1,380 ft. tall. Where is it located?

    Vietnam

    Korea

    China

    Singapore

    #10 The Baiyoke Tower II is one of the tallest hotels in the world with a total of 88 floors and 673 guest rooms. Where was

    it built?

    Thailand

    Vietnam

    Singapore

    #11 The Kingdom Centre was completed in 2002 and has a height of 1,020 ft. Where is it located?

    Uzbekistan

    Saudi Arabia

    Pakistan

    Building, city Year Stories

    Height

    Rank m ft

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    1. Burj Khalifa (formerly Burj Dubai), Dubai, The United Arab Emirates 2010 160 828 2,716

    2. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 508 1,667

    3. World Financial Center, Shanghai, China 2008 101 492 1,614

    4. Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483

    5. Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452 1,483

    6. Greenland Financial Center, Nanjing, China 2009 66 450 1,476

    7. Sears Tower, Chicago 1974 110 442 1,451

    8. Guangzhou West Tower, Guangzhou, China 2009 103 438 1,435

    9. Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China 1999 88 421 1,381

    10. Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong 2003 88 415 1,362

    http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0930643http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0909775http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0844218http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0930643http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0909775http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0844218
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    WORD BANK

    BURJKHALIFA

    TAIPEI

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    PETRONASTOWERS

    THESEARSTOWER

    WILLISTOWER

    JINMAOTOWER

    TRUMPHOTEL

    CITICPLAZA

    JOHNHANCOCK

    CENTRALPLAZA

    AONCENTER

    SCOTIAPLAZA

    ALKAZIM

    TRIUMPHPALACE

    THEBEEKMAN

    ONELUJIAZUI

    KINGDOMCENTRE

    EUREKATOWER

    HHHRTOWER

    ALMASTOWER

    WELLSFARGO

    A computeris aprogrammablemachine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical

    operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of

    problem.

    Conventionally a computer consists of some form ofmemory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and

    logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is

    stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent

    out.

    A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional

    instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.

    The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room,

    consuming as much power as several hundred modernpersonal computers(PCs).[1]

    Modern computers based onintegrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a

    fraction of the space.[2]Simple computers are small enough to fit intomobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by

    small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are iconsof theInformation Ageand are what most people think of as

    "computers". However, the embedded computersfound in many devices from mp3 playerstofighter aircraftand

    fromtoysto industrial robotsare the most numerous.

    History of computing

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(computers)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(computers)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot
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    The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and

    the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century onwards, the word

    began to take on its more familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out computations.[3]

    Limited-function early computers

    The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologiesautomated calculation and programmabilitybut no

    single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term. A few devices

    are worth mentioning though, like some mechanical aids to computing, which were very successful and survived for centuries until

    the advent of the electronic calculator, like the Sumerianabacus, designed around 2500 BC[4]which descendant won a speed

    competition against a modern desk calculating machine in Japan in 1946,[5] theslide rules, invented in the 1620s, which were

    carried on fiveApollospace missions, including to the moon[6] and arguably theastrolabe and theAntikythera mechanism, an ancient

    astronomical computer built by theGreeks around 80 BC.[7] The Greek mathematicianHero of Alexandria(c. 1070 AD) built a

    mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that

    might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.[8]This is the

    essence of programmability.

    Around the end of the tenth century, the French monkGerbert d'Aurillac brought back from Spain the drawings of a machine

    invented by theMoors that answered Yes or No to the questions it was asked (binary arithmetic).[9]Again in the thirteenth century,

    the monksAlbertus MagnusandRoger Baconbuilt talkingandroids without any further development (Albertus Magnus complained

    that he had wasted forty years of his life whenThomas Aquinas, terrified by his machine, destroyed it).[10]

    In 1642, theRenaissance sawthe invention of themechanical calculator,[11]a device that could perform all four arithmetic operations

    without relying on human intelligence.[12] The mechanical calculator was at the root of the development of computers in two separate

    ways ; initially, it is in trying to develop more powerful and more flexible calculators[13] that the computer was first theorized

    by Charles Babbage[14] [15] and then developed,[16]leading to the development of mainframe computers in the 1960s, but also the

    microprocessor, which started the personal computer revolution, and which is now at the heart of all computer systems regardless of

    size or purpose,[17]was invented serendipitously byIntel[18] duringthe development of anelectronic calculator, a direct descendant to

    the mechanical calculator.[19]

    First general-purpose computers

    In 1801,Joseph Marie Jacquardmade an improvement to the textile loomby introducing a series ofpunched paper cardsas a

    template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the

    development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited,

    form of programmability.

    It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles

    Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer, hisanalytical engine.[22] Limited

    finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed ; nevertheless his

    son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a

    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/Computer#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-Felt-8-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_Magnushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(robot)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal's_calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-Felt-10-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busicomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-21
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    successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to theScience museum in South

    Kensington in 1910.

    In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerithinvented the recording of data on a machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable

    media, above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials withpaper tape, he settled on punched cards ..."[23] To process

    these punched cards he invented thetabulator, and thekeypunchmachines. These three inventions were the foundation of the

    modern information processing industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the1890

    United States Censusby Hollerith's company, which later became the core ofIBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of ideas

    and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to appear: Boolean algebra,

    thevacuum tube(thermionic valve), punched cards and tape, and theteleprinter.

    During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticatedanalog computers,

    which used a direct mechanical orelectricalmodel of the problem as a basis forcomputation. However, these were not

    programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

    Alan Turing is widely regarded to be the father of moderncomputer science. In 1936 Turing provided an influential formalisation of

    the concept of the algorithm and computationwith theTuring machine, providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer.[24] Of

    his role in the creation of the modern computer, Time magazine in naming Turing one of the100 most influentialpeople of the 20th

    century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is

    working on an incarnation of a Turing machine".[24]

    TheAtanasoffBerry Computer(ABC) was among the first electronic digital binary computing devices. Conceived in 1937 by Iowa

    State College physics professorJohn Atanasoff, and built with the assistance of graduate studentClifford Berry,[25]the machine was

    not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did employ parallel computation. A1973

    court ruling in a patent disputefound that the patent for the 1946ENIACcomputer derived from the AtanasoffBerry Computer.

    The inventor of the program-controlled computer wasKonrad Zuse, who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the

    first computer based on magnetic storage.[26]

    George Stibitzis internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November

    1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled

    it), which was the first to usebinarycircuits to performan arithmetic operation. Later models added greater sophistication including

    complex arithmetic and programmability.[27]

    A succession of steadily more powerful and flexiblecomputing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding

    the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented byClaude Shannonin 1937)

    and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic

    computer" is difficult.Shannon 1940Notable achievements include.

    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kipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-DSW-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Atanasoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Berryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-ABC-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer#Patent_disputehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer#Patent_disputehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Stibitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#endnote_shannon1940
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    Konrad Zuse'selectromechanical "Z machines". The Z3(1941) was the first working machine featuringbinaryarithmetic,

    including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to beTuring complete,

    therefore being the world's first operational computer.[28]

    The non-programmable AtanasoffBerry Computer(commenced in 1937, completed in 1941) which used vacuum tube

    basedcomputation, binary numbers, andregenerative capacitor memory. The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be

    much more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results

    could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.

    The secret BritishColossus computers (1943),[29]which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using

    thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used forbreaking German wartime

    codes.

    TheHarvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.[30]

    The U.S. Army'sBallistic Research LaboratoryENIAC(1946), which used decimalarithmetic and is sometimes called the

    first general purposeelectroniccomputer (since Konrad Zuse'sZ3 of 1941 used electromagnetsinstead ofelectronics).

    Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming.

    Stored-program architecture

    Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known

    as the "stored program architecture" orvon Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described byJohn von

    Neumannin the paperFirst Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based

    on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed inGreat Britain. The first

    working prototype to be demonstrated was theManchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine(SSEM or "Baby") in 1948.

    TheElectronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator(EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the

    first practical, non-experimental implementation of the stored program design and was put to use immediately for research work at

    the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paperEDVACwas completed but did not

    see full-time use for an additional two years.

    Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word

    "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-

    purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.

    Beginning in the 1950s, Soviet scientistsSergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsovconducted research onternary computers,

    devices that operated on a base three numbering system of 1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventionalbinary numbering system

    upon which most computers are based. They designed theSetun, a functional ternary computer, atMoscow State University. The

    device was put into limited production in the Soviet Union, but supplanted by the more common binary architecture.

    Semiconductors and microprocessors

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_completenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_completenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_completenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_capacitor_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_capacitor_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Sobolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Sobolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Brusentsovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Brusentsovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_completenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_capacitor_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zusehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Sobolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Brusentsovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University
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    Computers using vacuum tubesas their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had been largely

    replaced bytransistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, required less power, and were more

    reliable. The first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchesterin 1953.[31] In the 1970s, integrated

    circuit technology and the subsequent creation ofmicroprocessors, such as theIntel 4004, further decreased size and cost and

    further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late 1970s, many products such as video recorders contained dedicated

    computers called microcontrollers, and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such

    as washing machines. The 1980s witnessed home computersand the now ubiquitouspersonal computer. With the evolution of

    theInternet, personal computers are becoming as common as the televisionand thetelephonein the household[citation needed].

    Modernsmartphonesare fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of

    such computers in existence

    The Jacquard loom, on display at theMuseum of Science and Industry in Manchester,England, was one of the first

    programmable devices.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-LavingtonP37-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-LavingtonP37-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_in_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-LavingtonP37-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_in_Manchesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England
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    The Most Famous Image in the Early History of Computing [20]

    This portrait of Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839). It was

    only produced to order. Charles Babbageowned one of these portraits ; it inspired him in using perforated cards in

    hisanalytical engine[21]

    The Zuse Z3, 1941, considered the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computing machine.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana