Reporl No. 7389.IJNI

NigeriaPrimary Education Subsector Study

June 30, 1989

Africa Region, Western Africa DepartmentPopulation and Human Resources Operations Division

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Docwnt of the World Bank

This document has a resticted distribution and may be used by recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Bank authorization.

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

Currency Unit - Naira (N)

On September 26, 1986, Nigeria adopted a flexible exchange ratepolicy and introduced a second-tier Foreign Exchange Market (SFEM) comprisingan auction and an interbank market. On July 2. 1987, SFEM and the official(i.e., first-tier) rates were merged. The auction rate was US$1 = N7.36 onJune 16, 1989.

ACRONYMS

FEM Foreign Exchange MarketFME Federal Ministry ot EducationGCE "A" General Certificate of Education - Advanced LevelGCE 'O0 General Certificate of Education - Ordinary LevelIEA International Assessment of EducationJCC Joint Consultative CommitteeJSS Junior Secondary SchoolJSSC Junior Secondary School CertificateLGA Local Government AuthorityNCE National Certificate of Education for TeachersNCE National Council of EducationNEPC National Primary Education CommissionNERDC Nigerian Educational Research and Development CouncilNPEF National Primary Education FundNSSSC National Senior Secondary School CertificateNTEC National Educational Technology CenterNTI National Teachers' InstitutePTA Parent-Teacher AssociationSSS Senior Secondary SchoolTISEP Teacher Inservice Education ProgramTTC Teacher Training CollegeUNESCO United Nations Cultural Scientific and Educational

OrganisationUNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency FundUPE Universal Primary EducationWAEC West African Examination Council

Primary School Year Fiscal Year

January - December January 1 - December 31

NIGERIA

PRIMARY EDUCATICN SUBSECTOR STUDY

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Executive Summary v

Chapter 1: BACKGROUND, ISSUES AND POLICY 1Background 1The Education System 1National Primary Education Policy 2Issues 3

Chapter 2: PRIMARY EDUCATION: QUANTITATIVE ISSUES 5Population 5Primary School Enrollment 5Regional Disparities 8Gender Disparities 9Private Schools 11Infrastructure 11Classes 13Teacher Supply and Demand 13Pupil-Teacher Ratios 14Teacher-Class Ratio 14Teacher Qualifications 14Student Flows 15Enrollment Trends 15

Chapter 3: PRIMARY EDUCATION: QUALITATIVE ISSUES 17Internal Effectiveness or Technical Efficiency 17The Curriculum 18Agricultural Science 19Science and Mathematics 19Textbooks 20

This subsector study was prepared by Eileen Nkwanga (educator and taskmanager), David Berk (principal economist) and Gautam Datta (economist) --

all Bank staff members; Keith Hinchliffe (economist), Anthony Read (bookconsultant), Luiz Secco (UNESCO arch4.tect), Samir Jarrar, Byron Massialasand Maigenets Shifferaw (educators) -- all consultants. Field work tookplace from July 6 to 24, 1987 and November 16 to 27, 1987. The report wasprocessed by Rebekah Kirubaidoss and Andrew Keck. The first mission wasled by Himelda Martinez, educator in the Bank. A follow up mission,comprising Peter Moock (senior economist in the Bank) and Eileen Nkwanga,presented the draft summary, conclusions and recommendations to selectedNigerian groups and individuals from federal and state ministries ofeducation, NERDC, WAEC, and Professor Babs Fafunwa (Chairman of theNational Primary Education Commission, and long standing African educator).The task manager expresses her gratitude to all people involved in theproduction of this report.

- ii -

Page

Factors Affecting Textbook Provision 21

Primary School Libraries 22

Teacher Quality and Competence 23

The Learning Environment 23

Quality Control 24

Pupil Achievement 24

Chapter 4s TEACHERS AND THEIR EDUCATION 25

Pre-service Training for Grade II Teachers 26

The Nigerian Certificate in Education 27In-Service Teacher Education 28

Chapter 5: MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS 29Principal Managerial Issues 29

Management, Policymaking and Planning in Nigeria 29

Federal, State and Local Government Roles 29

Policy Formulation and Planning 30

Planning for Primary Education 30

Inspection and Supervision 31

The Federal Inspectorate 31

The State Inspectorate 31

Local Government Inspectorate 32

Constraints on Supervision and Inspection 32

Chapter 6: RESEARCH, EVALUATION, AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 34

Research 34

Evaluation 35

Educational Technology 37

Chapter 7: FINANCING PRIMARY EDUCATION 38

Introduction 38

Financing Before UPE 39

Financing During the Push for UPE and After 40

Present Financing Patterns 41

Suggestions for Reform 42

Scenarios for Financing Primary Education 45

Chapter 8: MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 49

What is Happening to Enrollments? 50

How Good Are the Primary Schools? 50

Recommendations:Improve Financing 52

Provide Instructional Materials 52

Increase Access 53

Rationalize Management 53

Strengthen Planning 53Strengthen and Reform Supervision 53Facilitate Relevant Research 54

- iii -

TABLES IN THE TEXT Page

2.1 Growth and Decline in Primary School Enrollment (1975-86) 162.2 Key Data for Cr.itical Years in Primary Education 163.1 The Primary School Curriculum - Weekly Subject Period Allocation 185.1 Distribution of Educational Responsibilities among the Three

Tiers of Government 306.1 Transition Rate into Secondary School in Imo State, 1976-87 366.2 Imo State Primary School Leaving Certificate Examination

Results, 1982-86 367.1 Primary Education - Sources of Financing 427.2 Projected Financing Requirements - Scenario A 477.3 Projected Financing Requirements - Scenario B 487.4 Projected Financing Requirements - Scenario C 48

FIGURES IN THE TEXT

2.1 Enrollment by State, 1975176, 1982/83 and 1985/86 62.2 Enrollment Ratios by State, 1975:76, 1982/83 and 1985/86 72.3 Hale and Female Enrollment Ratios and Female Share of

Enrollment, 1975/76, 1982/83 and 1985/86 102.4 Classrooms per Class by State, 1983J84 12

STATISTICAL APPENDIX

Tables

1. Total Population and Primary School Age Population, 1975-1987 552. Total Population and Primary School Age Population, 1985-2000 563. Enrollments by Grade, Sex and State, 1985/86 574. Primary School Age Population, Enrollments and Enrollment

Ratios, 1975176-1987 585. Primary School Age Population, Enrollments and Enrollment

Ratios, 1375/76-1985/86 596. 1987 Preliminary National Primary School Census Statistics

of Teachers and Students, Schools, and LGAs 607. Preliminary National Primary School Census Summary

Statistics by Classes 618. Female Primary School Enrollments, Enrollment Ratios and

Share of Primary School Enrollments Compared to MaleEnrollment Ratios by State, 1975/76-1985/86 62

9. Number of Schools, 1975/76-1985/86, and Classrooms. 1983/84,by State 63

10. Size of Schools by State, 1975/76-1985/86 6411. Class Size, Teachers per Class and Pupils per Teacher,

by State, 1982/83 6512. Number of Teachers by State and Sex, 1975/76-1987 6613. Primary Teacher Training: Grade II Teacher Training Colleges,

1975/76-1985/86 6714. Teachers by Qualifications, 1985186 6815. Teachers: Percentage Qualifiec by State, 1980/81-1985/86 69

- iv

J.6. Progression and Progression Rates, 1979/80-1985/86 7017. Number of Schools, Classes, Total Enrollment, Teachers, and

Ratio in Grade II Teachers Training Colleges, 1985/86 7118. National Teachers' Institute, Kaduna Teachers' Grade II

Certificate Examination Results, 1987 7219. 1980-82 Civil Service Salary Scales in Naira 7320. New Civil Service Salary Scales in Naira 7421. Cost Recovery in Primary Education, 1987 75

Figures

1. Male and Female Enrollment Ratios and Female Share ofEnrollment by State, 1975176 76

2. Male and Female Enrollment Ratios and Female Share ofEnrollment by State, 1985/86 77

3. Enrollment by Grade and Sex, 1985/86 and 1987 784. Pupils per Class by State, 1982/83 79

ANNEXES

I. Comparative Educational Indicators 80II. Paper Cost Components in Selected Primary Titles 81III. Printing Cost Component in Selected Primary Titles 82IV. Paper as a Proportion of Total Raw Materials and

Manufacturers Cost, 1984-87 83V. Management, Policy and Planning of Nigerian Education 84VI. Select Bibliography 98

MAP: IBRD 20709R

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Primary education in Nigeria expanded rapidly durirg the oil boomof the 1970s. As part of a campaign for universal primary education (UPE),enrollment in grades 1 to 6 jumped from 6 million in 1976 (when UPE began)to 12 million in 1980, peaking at 14.5 million in 1982 (nearly two and one-half times 1975 enrollment). A legacy of the oil boom, UPE was also acasualty of the oil slump in the 1980s. In 1981, the federal governmentwithdrew totally from financing primary education. Education as a share oftotal federal expenditures fell from 21X (N781 million) in 1981 to anestimated 13Z in 1988, and primary education has been hardest hit of all.In 1981, 362 of federal education funds were spent on primary education,30.52 on secondary, and 24.52 on higher education. In 1985 unit costs were50 times more in higher education and 10 times more in secondary educationthan in primary education.

2. As a result of underfinancing, enrollment 7-it only stopped growingbut started declining -- not because children were turned away from schoolbut because the quality of schooling declined. The physical infrastructuredeteriorated so there are now far too few and dilapidated school buildingswith iaadequate toilets, roofs, fences, playgrounds, furniture, and storagefacilities. Beginning in 1982, teachers' salaries began falling intoarrears and the system began retrenching on the number of teachers.Parents began withdrawing their children from the schools -- sometimes sothe boys could work, sometimes because of fees the state and localgovernments began charging to cover their costs, sometimes because parentsperceived the educational system as offering less and less. Nationally,females are marginally less likely to be enrolled than males, particularlyin northern government schools, as parents prefer to educate sons or senddaughters to religious schools.

3. Cutbacks in the number of teachers and resignations because of slowand uncertain pay have pushed pupil-teacher ratios as hi- as 80:1 in someurban schools (the national average is 42:1) -- and many schools have hadto double up on space. The proportion of teachers certified as qualifiedhas increased, but many have inadequate academic and professional trainingand poor motivation -- the result of poor teacher education, discouragingworking conditions, and inadequate supervision. Primary school teachersare particularly ill-equipped to teach science and mathematics. Headteachers, whom research has shown to be a key factot in academicachievement, are unprepared to supervise teaching quality and spend most oftheir time in administrative duties. Professional supervision is minimal.The few inspectors in the system do not even have proper transport forvisiting the schools, speud insufficient time supervising instruction andhave little opportunity to organize in-se:vice and pre-service training andother items on their diffuse lists of unfulfilled duties.

4. Curriculum development is thorough, but the curriculum content istoo extensive for 6- to ll-year-olds and sometimes irrelevant to currentnational conditions. Memorization and rote learning of academic subjectsare emphasized at the expense of practical skills and comprehension. Amere 1.5 naira ($0.20) per pupil is allocated for equipment, and theshortage of instructional materials, particularly textbooks and librarybooks, is severe. Contrary to policy, students are usually assessed not

- vi -

continuously thoughout primary school but at the end of the sixth grade, ina primary school leaving examination (and for some through a competitiveentrance examination for secondary school). Although results are notstrictly comparable over time, high failure rates on public examinationsare indicative of falling standards. the introduction of continuousassessment may, if carefully conceived and implemented (for example, withteachers properly trained in evaluation), encourage higher achievement.Some attempts in this direction have already been made.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Increase funding

This is essential to increase enrollment and improve the q1uality ofprimary schooling. Measures government has taken to safeguard teachers'salaries are commendable. Funds for instructional materials should besimilarly raised and protected.

Provide instructional materials

6. More instructional mat-rials, especially textbooks, should be madeavailable. Research indicates m"at even marginal injections ofinstructional aids into resource-starvec classrooms can significantlyimprove learning. Books are not prope.- cared for, so inspectors,headmasters, and teachers should be tra_ned in book conservation practicesand encouraged to train students and parents in same. Textbook productioxicosts must be reduced and cost-recovery measures cautiously introduced toensure the continued supply of needed learning materials.

Increase (and widen) enrollment

7. If the quality of education improves, parents will probably startsending their children to school again. At the same time officials shouldraise public awareness of the importance of primary education through amedia campaign directed mainlv at groups with high dropout rates, includingstudents in certain regions and females. Providing the buildings andteachers to meet both existing and increased demand will be expensive andshould be done gradually.

Strengthen planning

8. Available data are unreliable so planning is imprecise. Thecapacity of federal and state planning units should be upgraded to improvethe education data base and make planning easier.

Strengthen a..d reform supervision

9. To improve quality control, the inspectorate should play more of arole in advising, training, and strengthening organization. Theinspectors, functioning in these areas should be strengthened throughtraining -- residential and distance education courses -- plus betterfunding and equipment. To increase accountability at the sc'hool level,head teachers and senior staff should be trained and equipped to advise

- vii -

teachers on classroom management, teaching methods, and the best use ofmaterials.

Streamline management

10. There is a lack of clear role definition between different levelsof government in relation to their responsibilities for managing primaryeducation. In view of this it is necessary to delineate the functions ofeducation authorities at central, state and local levelc more clearly andto establish a monitoring system. This should improve efficiency throughthe elimination of duplication and the establishment of clearly definedadministrative channels.

Facilitate research on primary education

11. Several problems involving primary education require further studybefore policy is changed, incluu.ag:

- the quality and relevance of curriculum content and materials;

- evaluation and assessment at the primary level;

- teacher training and conditions of service;

- improving community participation in education;

- infrastructure needs;

- the education of special groups, such as nomads, itineratefishermen, and gifted children;

- the efficiency of the system, by state, in terms ofinput/output, i.e., rates of dropouts, push-outs, drop-ins andrepeaters; and

- the efficiency of the management of primary education in thecountry, including issues involving policy-making, planniaig andimplementation, the roles and functions of the three levels ofgovernment (federal, state and local) and of the schoolmanagement boards/directorates, etc.

RECENT GOVERNMENT ACTIONS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

12. In its concern for education as basic to the nation's developmentthe present Federal Government of Nigeria has initiated policy objectivesand actions to improve the quality and coverage of provision. Realizingthat inadequate funding and poor management had hampered past attempts toincrease access and quality, the Federal Government decided to intervene inthe funding and management of primary education. To address severalanomalies in funding and management the Federal Government established aNational Primary Education Fund (NPEF) and created a National PrimaryEducation Commission (NPEC) by Decree No.31 of 1988.

- viii -

13. Each State Government created a Primary School Management Board byedict in conformity with Decree 31. The edicts further pro,rided for legalexistence of Primary School Management Committees at local government,district and village levels. The management of primary educationthrougnout the country was entrusted to NPEC which is empowered to setminimum standards of primary education; advise Federal and StateGovernments on all aspects of the sector; pay teachers' salaries; undertakecapital development; collect statistics; conduct research on primaryeducation; review curriculuw.; and compile a natlinal teachers' register.

14. The NPEC is responsible for administering the NPEF to which theFederal Governme .t contributes 65 percent of calculated p.:imary educationstaff salaries. This is tied to the establishment of a state-located fundto which the states and LGAs must contribute. Under the revenue allocationformula, 80 percent of the NPEF is shared among the 21 states plus Abuja,and 20 percent will be shared among the 12 educationally disadvantagedstates to increase access and improve infrastructure. The savings LGAswill make as a res .t of the Federal Government intervention is to be usedfor improving the quality of primary educa-ion.

15. Eight hundred million naira has been budgetted for the Commissionin 1989. Already 400 million naira has been released. The Commissionstarted functioning in January 1989.

16. In order to fulfil its data gathering and nlanning functions theNPEC is in the process of developing a Research, P,anning and DevelopmentUnit.

17. Recently 40 million naira was voted for primary school textbooks.Mathematics and English books are being selected, procured and distributedto schools throughout the country at the rate of approximately six texts ineach subj.ct per class. Not only will this immediately help to alleviatethe textbook shortage but it will also provide NPEC with valuable lessonsupon which to base the larger supply of books which is planned. Contractsfor the supply of books have just been awarded. The Federal Ministry ofEducation has also been negotiating with publishers and printers to trylower the cost of textbook production. The state Ministries of Educationare expected to play an important role in supplying books to their stateschools.

18. In addition to these significant developments efforts have beenmade by the Federal Government. in collaboration with UNESCO, to improvethe reliability of the primary education data base and to encourageaccurate school-based record keeping. As a consequence the quality ofeducational statistics and of accountability at the local level isimproving.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO THIS REPORT

19. This subsector report has been discussed with the Federal Ministryof Education. Their written comments indicated general agreement on themagnittvde of the problems facing primary education and the level offinancial, human and physical resources needed to resolve them. TheMinistry noted the recommendations and stated they would support any World

- ix -

Bank funding that will aid government's efforts in producing, distributingand encouraging the proper care and use of books and other instructionalmaterials, strengthening the inspectorate division, upgrading the planningunits, and facilitating educational research.

Chapter I

BACKGROUND, POLICY AND ISSUES

Background

1.1 Primary education is central to long-term economic development. Itis generally the most cost effective of the educational subsectors and theone with the greatest ascribed rates of return. More full-time studentsare enrolled at primary level than at any other. They are all at mostimpressionable ages, so primary schools present ideal situatio.s in whichto begin addressing the problems which hamper development -- illiteracy,innumeracy, poverty, hunger, malnutrition, disease, unproductiveness andlack of initiative. In Nigeria primary education is particularly crucialas it may be the only exposure many children, particularly girls, have toformal education. For those fortunate enough to. proceed further, primaryschooling provides the necessary basis for more advanced studies. For allchildren primary education develops the basic cognitive and social skillsand knowledge required for living. A carefully conceived and implementedprimary school system is the starting point for national development andsound economic growth.

1.2 The expansion of primary education during the 1970s was one of themost important accomplishments of the oil boom decade. Under the impetusof the campaign for Universal Primary Education (UPE) and with largerederal subsidies of N3,500 for each classroom constructed and N40 a pupilfor teachers' salaries, state governments undertook a major expansion ofprimary education provision. Enrollment doubled in four years from about 6million in 1976 (when UPE began) to 12 million in 1980, increasing theenrollment ratio from about 46Z to 82Z.

1.3 UPE, one of the main legacies of the oil boom in the 1970s, wasalso one of the first casualties of the oil slump in the 1980s. As oilprices fell, the federal government first reduced the building grants to02,500 par classroom, and soon afterward stopped subsidies altogether,shifting %:he responsibility for primary education entirely to state andlocal governments, which soon began to default on teachers' salaries andallowances. In 1982-84 many states were several months in arrears inteachers' s.laries. Large-scale 'trikes and school closures ensued. Tofill the f' nancing gap, most state governments resorted to such ad hocmeasures as the introduction of fees, levies, and semimandatorycontributions by parents. This produced stagnating or decliningenrollments in some states. By 1984, tuit_.on fees had been ii.troduced infifteen of the nineteen states, while in t}ree others all taxable adultswere required to pay an annual education levy ranging from 110 to N25. Inthe past seven or eight years, successive governments have appointedcommissions to investigate the funding of primary education and torecommend alternative modes of financing.

The Education System

1.4 Primary education consists of six years of schooling for childrentypically aged 6 to 11+, set within the framework of a 6-3-3-4 structure --six years of primary education, three years of junior secondary, three ofsenior secondary and four years of tertiary -- introduced in 1982. Local

governments are mainly responsible for primary education. Entrance intofederal or state secondary schools is determined by a competitiveexamination. About 40Z of primary school leavers proceed to juniorsecondary school (JSS). A further examination, the Junior Secondary SchoolCertificate (JSSC) is used to select for senior secondary school wherestudents study for the National Senior Secondary School CertificateExamination (NSSSCE). Primary schools vary in size from 240 pupils inrural areas to 1,440 in towns with class size being on average 40 pupils --considerably more in heavily populated urban districts. The generalqualification for primpry teachers is a Grade II certificate awarded to JSSleavers who have completed a two-year training course at a teacher trainingcollege (TTC). Correspondence teacher training courses are offered by theNational Teachers' Institute (NTI). Government intends to raise theminimum teacher qualification to the Nigerian Certificate in Education(NCE) -- obtained by post-NSSSCE students cm successful completion of athree-year course. Underqualified teachers have been upgraded throughresidential and aistance education courses through NTI. Primary teachersare employed and remunerated under the Unified Civil Service Regulations.

National Primary Education Policy

1.5 Government policy as stated in the National Policy on Education(1981; section 3) is to provide free (ultimately compulsory) universalprimary education. To achieve this, government is trying to correctregional and gender imbalances in the provision of educational facilities.Policy also prescribes certain curricular activities and delineatesmeasures to improve the quality of primary education.

1.6 The general educational, goals of primary education are:

(a) to inculcate permanent literacy, numeracy, and the ability tocommunicate effectively;

(b) to lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking;(c) to provide citizenship education as a basis for effective

participation in and contribution to the life of so,iety;(d) through moral training, to develop character and sound

attitudes;(e) to help the children develop the ability to adapt to changing

environments;(f) to give children opportunities to develop manipulative skills

that will enable them to function in society as effectively asthey can; and

(g) to give them the basic tools to advance further educationally,whether academically or in preparation for local trades andcrafts.

1.7 Key objectives of Nigeria's primary education policy are to:

(a) provide free, universal education;(b) correct regional and gender enrollment imbalances by

crmpaigning to make parents education-conscious; absorbingsuitable Koranic and Islamiyya schools into the primary schoolsystem; and getting all government and community agencies toencourage parents to send their daughters to school;

- 3 -

(c) introduce measures to reduce dropouts but if they do occur toprovide for them through adult and nonformal education;

(d) encourage voluntary agencies, communities. and privateindividuals to establish and man'ge schools;

(e) plan for an eventual teacher-pup..l ratio of 1:30 but accept aratio of 1:40 during the transition to UPE;

(f) provide for continuous assessment and automatic promotionthrough primary school and junior secondary school byabolishing the primary school leaving examination;

(g) strengthen the curriculum in all subject areas, but especiallyscience and mathematics;

(h) ensure that all schools are properly equipped by providingfunds for school libraries, textbooks, and equipment anddevising a scheme to provide inexpensive textbooks;

(i) set up a national committee to advise on the production ofsuitable textbooks and instructional materials;

(j) ensure that the medium of instruction is initially the mother-tongue or language of the local community and, at a laterstage, English;

(k) provide adequate educational services such as libraries,healthcare, counselling, audio-visual aids, and specialistteachers; and

(1) dnsure that up-to-date innovative teaching/learning methods areused in schools.

Issues

1.8 Unprecedented expansion coupled with declining financial resourcesand accelerating population growth have made it increasingly difficult toreach policy goals. A subsector study was initiated to find out how farthese goals had been achieved and to make recommendations to improve policyimplementation. The study looked into:

(a) how far the major intentions of UPE have been achieved;(b) equity of access to schooling;(c) internal efficiency;(d) the quality of education provided;(e) management and supervision;(f) the efficacy of support systems; and(g) the affordability of the subsector.

1.9 UPE Implementation. How far has UPE been implemented and whatfactors have influenced implementation? To answer this enrollment trendsare analyzed by comparing statistics for the peak enrollment year (1982/83)with figures prior to tPE (1975/76) and the most recent complete dataavailable (1985186). Reasons for these trends are investigated.

1.10 Equity of Aiccess. In implementing UPE has government eliminatedregional and gender imbalances in enrollment? The participation rate in1976 was considerably lower in the northern states than in the south. Sinceone of the objectives of UPE was to increase the north's access tofacilities, progress in this area requires investigation. Women's lowparticipation rates especially in the north, have been cause for concern.The introduction of school fees seems to have hindered female enrollmentnationally. The effect varies between locations and may be severe in some.

Analysis of one sample shows that when fees were introduced the femaleparticipation rate fell about 102. Female participation in primaryeducation is known to affect family size and to improve the education,health and nutritional standards and socialization of future generations.More information is needed to determine more precisely female participationrates in primary education and, if necessary, to help decide how to improvefemale access.

1.11 Efficiency. How efficient is the subsector? Analysis of internalefficiency is difficult because of the dearth of information on studentflows and teacher utilization. A review of statistical reports shows thatdata on school dropouts, pushouts, drop-ins, and repeaters, are notcollected systematically by all states. Statistics of Education in Nigeria1980 - 1984 report enrollment data by grade which indicate that manychildren do not complete six years of schooling. There seem to be annualfluctuations in teacher numbers and few reliable data on actual staffemployed, their qualifications or salary scales.

1.12 Quality. What has happened to quality as primary education hasexpanded? According to many people, increased enrollment has not beenaccompanied by corresponding improvements in the qudlity of education. Onthe contrary. quality may have declined but there are no measures tocompare present levels cf quality with levels in the mid-seventies. Aclose frequently used proxy of quality is the standard of inputs such aslearning aids and teachers. The availability, excellence and use of theseinputs bears investigation.

1.13 Management, Planning and Supervisicn. How efficient aremanagement, planning and supervision? Studies report that the Ministriesof Education, school management boards and local education authorities seemto duplicate functions. This, coupled with overstaffing at federal, stateand local levels, inflates per capita costs. It is partially due to poorplanning which also affects the provision of facilities. The low level ofadministrative and professional supervision impedes quality control.

1.14 Support Services. Is maximum use being made of research,evaluation and educational technology in primary education? To functionproperly a school system needs not only efficient management, planning andsupervision but also ongoing research, evaluation and technological inputs.Nigeria has produced extensive research reports but more information isneeded on the current capacity for research, evaluation and the developmentof technology for primary schools.

1.15 Affordability. Can government afford the recurrent and capitalcosts of maintaining the present system and expanding its capacity? Basedon cost projections made in July 1985 as part of an Education SectorExpenditure Review, to continue implementing current education policy,recurrent expenditures must grow about 6.42 per annum in real terms between1985 and 1990, and primary school expenditures by about 112 in the sameperiod. To realistically plan for the subsector, these projections must berevised and brought in line with estimates of future fiscal resources.That means updating the information on the system's organization andfinancing, on teacher numbers and costs, and on pupil enrollments undervarious assumptions -- as well as government resources and allocations.Then resource gaps can be identified and recommendations made about

reasonable levels of expansion, more efficient allocation of resources, andmore cost-effective practices in primary schools.

Chapter 2

PRIMARY EDUCATION: QUANTITATIVE ISSUES

2.1 The recent evolution of primary education in Nigeria over the pastdecade falls neatly into two periods. First, the drive for universalprimary education (UPE), started in September 1976, financed by boomingpetroleum revenues, expanded rapidly the primary school system during thisperiod. In the period after 1982/83, however, the effect of greatfinancial stringency was to partially reverse that earlier expansion.

Population

2.2 Nigeria has had only one census since 1963, so the present size ofthe population of the country is uncertain. The 1987 Country EconomicMemorandum uses a mid-1986 figure of 103.2 million and quotes a generallybelieved population growth rate of 3.42 a year. Assuming 17.8Z of thepopuiztion to be primary school age (6-11) as the government has done, thepotential primary school age population in Nigeria was 13.3 million in1975, 15.9 million in 1982, and 17.2 million in 1985. Based on differentestimates of Nigeria's population and assuming both higher growth rates anda different age distribution, the Bank estimates the primary schooL agepopulation to have been 13.1 million in 1975, 15.8 million in 1982, and17.3 million in 1985 (Appendix Tables 1 and 2).

Primary School Enrollments

2.3 In 1985186, 12.9 million children were enrolled in Nigerian primaryschools (Appendix Table 3), or about 75Z of the primary school agepopulation. Compa.ed with the 1975/76 enrollment of 6.2 million, or 46Z ofthe estimated school age population, that represents a numerical increaseof approximately 6i.7 million or a 292 increase in the enrollment ratio inone decade. The enrollment rate peaked at 922 in 1982183.

2.4 Ner.ly two million additional primary children were enrolled ineach of the first two years of UPE, greatly exceeding the government'sexpectations and overwhelming its capacity. Enrollments escalated from 6.2million in 1975176 to 12.1 million in 1979/80, peaking at 14.7 million in1982/83 (Appendix Table 4).

2.5 The increase in enrollment was particularly impressive in thenorthern states, where enrollment rates rose from 12-29Z before UPE to44-96Z in 1982183 (Figures 2.1 and 2.2; Appendix Table 5). Increases werealso significant in the central and southern regions of Nigeria, notablyBenue, Kwara, Niger, Plateau, Oyo and Rivers. As the allocation of fundswas related to school enrollments figures may have been inflated in somecases and statistics may not be strictly comparable between the years dueto data collection discrepancies. Even if the 1982/83 data are ignoredthere is no denying that enrollments increased substantially over the ten

- 6 -

Figure 2.1 - ENROLLMENT BY STATE1975176. 1982183 AND 1985186

2 -1.9 1.8 I1.7-1.6-1.5-1.4-1.3 1.2 -

0=1 0.98

hi 0.8 0.7-0.6 Oy0.5 0.4 F0.20.2 N

01 234 6 7 89 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1975/76 M 1 962/83 1 966/86

State Identification Number

1 Anambra2 Bauchi3 Bendel4 Benue5 Bomno6 Cross River (including Akwa-lbom)7 Gongola8 imo9 Kaduna (including Katsina)10 Kano11 Kvara12 Lagos13 Niger14 OgunjS ondo16 Qyo17 Plateau18 Rivers19 Sokoto

Figure 2.2 - ENROLLMENT RATIOS BY STATE1975/76, 1982183 AND 1985/86

j ~~~~~180 -

170 -

160

150 -

140-

120

I~ ~ ~tt Idniicto Numbe

90

so

7060 050 -'l

40

30 1

20

10 o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

011975/76 j~J1982/83 41985/86

State Identification Number

1 Anambra2 Bauchi3 Bendel4 Benue5 Borno6 Cross River (including Akwa-lbom)7 Gongola8 Imo9 Kaduna (including Katsina)10 Kano11 Kwara12 Lagos13 Niger14 Ogun15 Ondo16 Oyo17 Plateau18 Rivers19 Sokoto

- 8 -

year period from 1976 to 1986 and Nigeria almost attained UPE in only sevenyears -- a striking accomplishment which compared favorably with other Sub-Saharan countries (see Annex I).

2.6 When the federal government reduced its financing to primaryeducation, many state governments resorted to such ad hoc fund-raisingmeasures as fees, levies and semi-mandatory lcrPtributions" by parents. Asa result, enrollment held constant or fell. By 1984 tuition fees had beenintroducted in fifteen of the (then) nineteen states. In Bauchi, Kaduna,and Ogun all taxable adults were required to pay an education levy of 110to N25. Later, seven other states introduced levies. As fees increasedenrollments declined acutely in some of the states that had made the mostsignificant numerical gains.

2.7 To improve the statistical base on which planning depends, anannual national school census was introduced in March 1987 and data, basedon about 9nZ returns, processed. Primary school enrollments in Nigeriahave not shown a stable growth pattern over the past decade so they are nota reliable basis for projections. It is toped that the results of theannual census, over a period of time, will reveal a more stable growthpattern.

2.8 A preliminary look at the census results (Appeudix Tables 6 and 7)reveals a decline. The estimated school enrollment of 12 million is a 7Zdecrease (0.9 million pupils) over 1985/86. Five states, mainly in thesouth, which enrolled 3 million students in 1985/86 (approximately 252 ofthe toLal) show a 6.7Z increase. Other states also have stimulatedenrollments. In 1987, for example, Anambra made primary education free andPlateau modestly reduced its education levy. However, statistics from Oyostate, based on field surveys and considered by state education authoritiesas reasonably accurate, indicate a primary enrollment of 1.0 million for1987 down from 1.9 million for the previous year. This discrepancy mayreflect an earlier inflation of figures, which could have implications forother state and national data.

Regional Disparities

2.9 The national average ratio of enrollments compared to primaryschool age population conceals continuing differences in enrollment ratiosby state and between sexes. For purposes of analysis in this report thestates are divided into five northern states (Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Kanoand Sokoto), six middle states (Benue, Gongola, Kwara, Niger, Plateau andFederal Capital Territory Abuja) and nine southern states (Anambra, Bendel,Cross Rivers, Imo, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo Oyo and Rivers). Table 5 in theAppendix is based on government assumptions about enrollments andenrollment ratios. Projections by state are based on the government'sestimated annual growth rate of 41 in Lagos Federal Capital Territory and2.5? elsewhere. As Figure 2.2 illustrates, throLghout the 1976/86 decadeenrollment ratios remained lowest in the northern states -- 41? to 65Z in1985/86 compared with 49Z to 1242 in the middle states and 54? to 1292 inthe southern states. Ratios above 1002 indicate enrollment of underage oroverage children. In Lagos, overage and underage children represented 52of total enrollment in 1985/86.

2.10 Although the drive for UPE particularly improved enrollment in thenorthern states, this region has witnessed widespread (if not universal)dec'ines in enrollment since 1982183. So far evidence of renewed expansioncomes mostly from southern states, so regional gaps may be widening again.

Gender Disparities

2.11 A persistent but moderate disparity in enrollment ratios betweenthe sexes remains (Figure 2.3; Appendix Table 8 and Figures 1 and 2).Assuming equal numbers of school-age boys and girls in the population atlarge, female enrollments increased substantially during the UPE drive --from 2.6 million (or an estimated 40Z of all girls) in 1975/76 to 5.7million (or 72Z) in 1982/83. Male enrollments also increased from 532 to113Z. The female share of total enrollment in this period fell from 43Z to39?, indicating that nationally UPE benefitted boys more than girls. By1985/86, male and female enrollment ratios had fallen to 84Z and 67Zrespectively, and the female share of enrollment rose to 44Z. Although UPEdid not Increase female enrollment and participation rates as much as mightbe expected, the decline in the female enrollment ratio after 1982/83 wasnot great -- but there was a substantial fall in male enrollments duringthe period: 1.8 million or 20Z. Figure 3 in the Appendix shows a tendencyfor boys to drop out more than girls from 1985/86 to 1987, a phenomenonwhich is mentioned frequently in Nigeria. The relative stability of femaleenrollment may be attributed to changes in attitude toward the education ofgirls and the emphasis placed on the importance of women's education duringthe UPE drive. The earlier and continuing decline in male enrollment maybe attributable to the general economic situation, especially the dearth ofpost-primary education employment openings, which led parents to withdrawboys from school to seek early employment or to become apprenticed in atrade.

2.12 Female enrollment ratios increased more in the northern and middlestates than in the southern states. At the same time, the female share ofenrollment increased slightly in the north and middle states but onlymarginally in the south. Despite some progress, girls in the northern andmiddle states remain comparatively more disadvantaged in their educationthan girls in the south where males and females participate almost equally.This is explained by the predominantly Muslim population. As a result ofearly female marriage, the seclusion of women in purdah, the place of womenir. Islamic culture, and the hostile perception some Islamic parents have ofwestern education, coupled with economic factors, more emphasis is put onthe education of boys than of girls. While boys generally attend publicschools, parents seem to prefer to send girls to single-sex or Islamicschools. Islamic schools emphasize religious and Arabic studies, but insome states also teach English, mathematics, and social studies. In anIslamiyya school in Kano the ratio of girls to boys was 4:1, much higherthan in public schools. The Islamic Education Bureau reports that itsupervises about 20,0000 students in Kano state, 60? of whom are female.To encouxage girls' education, K&1una state allows married female studentsone year's maternity leave from school. Most states provided nonformaleducational facilities for women. The 1988 Federal Budget allocated NSmillion for women's education.

- 10 -

Figure 2.3 - M AND FEKALE ENROLLET RATIOSAND EMAL SHAE OF ENROLLIENT,1975176, 1982/83, AND 1985186

110 _

100

90 -

80u

70

60-

50

40

1975/76 1982/83 1985/86

0 Male + Female O Female share

- 11 -

Private Schools

2.13 Private schools do not account for much enrollment at the primarylevel in most of Nigeria -- perhaps 12 in Bendel and almost 22 in Ogun,although there may be states with higher percentages. In northern statesthe Koranic and Islamiyya schools enroll about 400,000 pupils (132 ofprimary enrollments). (Some students attend both government and Islamicschools so only part of this number should be added to public schoolenrollments.) Many Islamiyya Schools have integrated basic public primaryschool subjects into their curriculum. Some receive staffing and financialsupport from government. If these trends continue, Islamic schools couldsubstantially contribute to Nigeria's educational needs.

Infrastructure

2.14 Recent data on physical facilities are sadly deficient. In 1975/76there were 20,924 primary schools in Nigeria. In 1982/83 that number hadrisen to 37,888, reaching a peak the next year of 38,211. Then budget cutsand declining enrollments led to a widespread movement in all zones tomerge and/or close primary schools. By 1985/86 the number of schools haddeclined by 72, to 35,433. Appendix Table 9 shows the number of schools bystate. The largest decline took place in Benue (112), Borno (112), CrossRiver (102), Gongola (212), Plateau '192) and Sokoto (392). Only in a fewstates (Kwara, Niger, Oyo and to a ledser extent Bendel, Kaduna, and Kano)has the number of schools continued to expand. The other states havestabilized.

2.15 In 1983184 there were 289,000 classrooms (excluding Gongola forwhich no data are available) for 380,000 classes indicating a seriousdeficit of classrooms in many states (Figure 2.4). There are also anestimated 20,000 private classrooms, mainly in the northern Islamiyyasc1'ols. FME is not currently compiling classroom statistics because somestates do not provide the data, but it is thought that classroomconstructiou since 19a3/84 has been insufficient to offset the shortage.In Ogun, Oyo and Rivers in 1987 there still were not enough classrooms forclasses. Ogun provided 10,055 classrooms for 12,639 classes or (80Z); Oyo,12,649 rooms for 28,378 classes (83Z); and Rivers, 8,951 rooms for 12,168classes (742). These three states are short 10,530 classrooms or 202 ofrequirements. Assuming these figures are represertative and that theaverage class size is 40, there is a shortage of at least 65,00uclassrooms. Moreover, about 70,000 classrooms need replacing, perhaps 302in the north and 15Z to 20Z elsewhere. This means Nigeria needs 135,000classrooms which at an estimated unit cost of 120,000 would involve acapital expenditure of 13 billion.

2.16 The UPE drive led to the construction of larger primary schools inareas where the school-age population warranted it. The average schoolsize rose from 295 pupils in 1975/76 to 387 pupils in 1982/83. Thesubsequent reduction in the number of schools was accompanied by a declinein enrollments, so the average school size remained virtually unchanged at364 pupils in 1985/86. Schools range in size from about 240 pupils in aschool (with one class or stream at each level) to 1,440 pupils (with sixstreams). The smaller schools are more common in sparsely populated ruralareas and the larger ones in densely populated urban districts. In somestates when there are not enough facilities, up to four "schools" may share

- 12 -

Figure 2.4 - CLASSROOCS PER CLASS BY STATE, 1983184

1.5 -

1.4-

1.3-

1.2-

1.1

0: 0.9

0. 0.8 2 72

0.7 -/

a: 0.4 -

0.3

1 Anambra2 Bauchi3 Bendel4 Benue5 Borno6 Cross River (including Akwa-Ibom)7 Gongola8 Imo9 Kaduna (including Katsina)10 Kiano11 Kvara12 Lagos13 Niger14 Ogun15 Ondo16 Oyo17 Plateau18 Rivers19 Sokoto

- 13 -

the same premises with classrooms used on a shift basis and two 'schools'operating simultaneously. The pressure placed on schools by large schoolage populations is reflected in Appendix Table 10 which shows averageschool size smallest in the northern states (typically with only onestream). larger in the middle states, and larger still in the southernstates where two or three streams are common.

Classes

2.17 Under the strain of rap4d expansion, class size "or Nigeria as awhole averaged 46 in 1980/81; it dropped to 38 by 1982/83. Table 11 andFigure 4 in the Appendix show substantial variation among states in thatyear, from a low 29 in sonme southen. states to a high of 53 in somenorthern ones. Informal sources in FME indicate that class size in largeurban areas is generally 40-45, although 20-30 is common elsewhere.Nigerian investigators (for example, Bajah:l986) report classes of at least50 and 60 pupils in some large towns.

Teacher Supply and Demand

2.18 UPE required and produced a large. rapid increase in the number ofprimary teachers, from 177,221 in 1975/76 to 383,989 in 1982/83 (AppendixTable 12). Thereafter, the shifting of financial responsibili-ties forprimary education to state and local governments, and the withdrawal offederal subsidies, created difficulties and delays in payment of teachers'salaries. As pupil enrollment declined, teacher attrition also slowed downas it became more difficult for teachers to find alternative employment.After a time, states resorted to large scale retrenchment, focusing on themany underqualified and unqualified individuals. They also progrecsivelyreduced admissions into teacher training colleges (TTCs) to avoid*int.nsifying the unemployment problem, which became serious in 1984.

2.19 By 1985/86 at most 303,000 primary teachers were serving, assumingAnambra retained about 34,000 and Oyo about 33,000 as in 1983/84. Thisrepresented a decline of 21Z since l9P2/83, matching the drop in pupilenrollment for the same period. The cutbacks took place almost exclusivelyin 1985/86 which must have produced much hardship. Figures available forsome states for 1987 show little further change: subsequent cutbacks insome states were offset by additional appointments in others.

2.20 The main source of primary teachers has been the state-run TTCs.Before UPE expansion, these colleges had an enrollment of 49,216. Only twoyears later. 250 TTCs enrolled 116,222 student teachers after expandingabout 502 a year (Appendix Table 13). By 1980/81 enrollments reached282,244, and the total stock of primary teachers in schools was 384,000.There was a prospect of rapidly increasing teacher output to match thecontinuing growth in pupil numbers, but instead the number of pupils beganto decline, and education budgets could not support even existing wagebills let alone many new teachers. The states reacted by progressivelyreducing the intake into TTCs and by closing colleges. By 1983/84 therewere 227 TTCs and closures still continued despite the large number ofunqualified teachers in the northern and middle states. By 1985/86 totalTTC enrollments were down 202 from their peak. Even with reduced teachertraining many TTC graduates -- still over 40,000 a year in the early tomid-1980s -- were unable to find jobs as primary teachers, and many are

- 14 -

unemployed today. Oyo education authorities report 10,000 unemployed inthat state alone. The proportion of female teachers in primary schools isincreasing although interstate variations occur. Nationally femalesrepresent 502 of enrollments in TTCs; in the north, only 202. Statisticsfor Nigeria (1975/76) and 14 states (1985/86) indicate that the proportionof female teachers increased from 302 to 462 of the teaching force.Interstate variations from a range of 102 to 30? in the northern states and40t to 7? in the south, largely reflect cultural differences in attitudesabout women's status.

Pupil-Teacher Ratios

2.21 Nationally the pupil-teacher ratio in 1982/83 was 38:1. It variedconsiderably ranging from 68:1 in Oyo to 25:1 in Plateau (Table 11). (Theratio of 19:1 in FCT Abuja may be considered an exception.) Figures for1985/86 show the national rat,o at somewhere between 41:1 anxd 44:1depending on which data are used. Ratios dropped in a few states (Kano,Kwara, Ogun, and Rivers) but the number of pupils per teacher increased inmost states, with substantial increases in Sokoto and Niger.

Teacher-Class Ratio

2.22 At the primary level one teacher is typically assigned to teach allsubjects in one class. Class 1-3 staff have 19 contact hours weekly andclass 4-6 staff 26 hours a week. In the four years from 1980/81 to1983/84, the number of teachers per class declined from 1.24 to 0.95.Since the retrenchment of 1983/84 many Nigerian primary schools areprobably understaffed. Even in 1982/83 six states had teacher-class ratiossignificantly below one, suggesting a serious shortage of teachers. Thesituation is unlikely to have improved since at least four of the sixstates had significantly reduced their teaching forces by 1985/86.

Teacher Qualifications

2.23 Nigeria has made a serious effort to upgrade the qualifications ofteachers. To be qualified to teach in a primary school one is currentlyexpected to have received the G;ade II certificate or a higherqualification. The Grade II certificate is awarded on completion of afive-year post primary course or a two or three year postjunior-secondarycourse, in one of the TTCs. Teachers with certificates below Grade II areconsidered to be funderqualified." Those who have failed the Grade II TTCexaminations are considered "unqualified." The percentage of Grade IIteachers or above rose from 34? in 1980/81 to 43? in 1982/83 and 63X in1985/86, based on information about 752 of teachers (Appendix Table 15).This took place during the period when teacher numbers rose from 177,000 to384,000, showing that Nigeria achieved massive quantitative expansion whileraising teacher qualifications. Retrenchment most affected the less-qualified, so by 1985186 the proportion of qualified teachers had risen to63? (again based on figures for 75? of the force) although the absolutenumber of qualified teachers had risen only modestly. Graduates, with andwithout teaching qualifications, numbered only 20 out of the whole teachingforce in 1985/86. About 6? of all primary teachers had NationalCertificate of Education (NCE) or an equivalent qualification. This numbermay be declining, presumably because this category of teachers is mostlikely to be posted to junior secondary schools. Teacher quality differs

- 15 -

substantially between states (Appendix Table 14). As late as 1985/86. theproportioni of qualified teachers remained very low in the northern states -- as low as 6Z in Sokoto and up to only 382 in Bauchi. In the middlestates it ranged from 28Z to 461 and from 79Z to 1002 in the south. Morethan half of the nation's 100,000 unqualified and underqualified teachersappear to be in the northern states. The implications of this foreducational quality are discussed in Chapter 3.

Student Flows

2.24 Data on dropouts, pushouts, repeaters, and drop-ins are sparse andfew definitive statements can be made about student flows, but thestatistics for the period indicate a few trends. It appears that of every100 students entering class 1 in the first UPE intake in 1976177, 61reached class 6 in 1981182. Progression rates for the period 1979/80-1985/86 are shown in Table 16 in the Appendix. At the start of this periodprogression between classes was 95-100Z, reflecting a general policy forautomatic promotion from class to class with only a few dropouts. Theserates declined quickly and then appear to have stabilized. By the end ofthe period, progress--on rates between classes were 85-902. At the 1984/85-1985/86 rates, a group of 100 class 1 students would produce only 57students in class 6 five years later, far below surviv-al rates for theearly 1980s. At this progression rate the unit cost of a primary schoolgraduate is about 702 higher than if there had been a 1002 progressionrate. The reasons for the low progession rates include abandonment of thepolicy of automatic promotion by a few states wnicb increased repetitionsand pushouts; and an increase in the number of dropouts in response to theimposition of school fees and levies and the overall economic andemployment situation.

2.25 Specific data on repeaters and dropouts come only from Lagos. In1981/82, about 52 of Lbe pupils in each class were repeaters. For class 4in the period 1983/84-1985/86 that figure increased from 4.52 to 9.4Z. Thedropout rate was 4-52 in each grade except 6 in 1981/82. In the period1983/84-1985-86 the rate fell from 3.62 to 0.32.

Enrollment Trends

2.26 The main impetus towaru universal primary education (UPE) began in1975, at the peak of the oil boom (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). At the time, 6.2million children were enrolled in primary school. Enrollment expanded 262in the next two years. Enrollment grew very rapidly until 1978, lessrapidly from 19,8 to 1981, then moderately until 1983. It peaked in 1982,at 14.7 million or nearly two and one-half times 1975 enrollment. Thatlevel of expansion was difficult to sustain. Since 1983, enrollment hasbeen declining about 4Z a year -- perhaps 72 in 1987. Fewer children areentering class 1: 2.5 million in 1987 and 2.7 million in 1984 and 1982,down from 3.0 millton in 1980, the peak year for class 1 entry. Morepupils are dropping out before class 6. Only 502 to 602 remain through thesixth year. These trends appear to be more pronounced in educationallydisadvantaged regions.

- 16 -

Table 2.1: GROWTH AND DECLINE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT(1976 - 1988)

Pupils Enrolled /a School-Age Population /b------- --------------- - ---- Cross

Portod/ X Average EnrollmentSchool Year Millions chango change Millions % change Ratio

VERY RAPID GROWTH (1975-197861976/76 6.2 13.3 47%197/77 8.1 30.6X 13.7 3.0X 59X1977/78 9.9 22.2% 26.45 14.0 2.2% 71n

RAPID GROWN (1978-81)I978 779 10.8 9.1X 14.4 2.9% 76%1979/00 12.1 12.0X 14.8 2.8X 82%1980/81 13.8 14.0X 11.7X 16.1 2.0X 91X

MODERATE CROWTH (1981-1983)1981/82 14.3 3.6X 15.5 2.7X 92%1982/83 14.7 2.8X 3.2X 15.9 2.6X 92%

CONTACTION (1983-1988)1983/84 14.4 -2.0X 16.3 2.6X 88X1984/8S 13.0 -9.7X 16.8 3.0X 77x1986/86 12.9 -0.8X -4.3% 17.2 2.4X 76%

Sources: a/ Federal Ministry of Educationb/ National Population Bureau

Table 2.2: KEY DATA FOR CRITICAL YEARS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

Pupils enrol l-c School- Gross Teachers* Avg. X of Female pupils*------- Age Enroll- ----- - Pupil- Tchrs ---------------

Aves-%go Pop n ment Avg.X Teacher Credo II X ofMin X change In mInb Ratio '000 change Ratio or abovca Min Total

1975/76 6.2 -- 13.8 47X 177.6 -- 34.9 34% 2.6 42%1982/83 14.7 13.1X 16.9 92X 384.0 11.7X 38.3 43X 6Wid 4151986/86 12.9 -4.3x 17.2 75X 303.3c -7.6X 42.5 63X 5.7 44X

Sources: a/ Federal Ministry of Educationb/ National Population Bureauc/ Dats for Anambra and Oyo missing; estimated to be 34,000 and 33,000 respectively.d/ Data for Benue and Gongola missing; estimated to be 0.16 and 0.12 million

respectively.

2.27 Why has enrollment not only stopped growing but started to decline?Rapid population growth may be a partial factor, but at 2Z to 3Z a year,the rate of growth is well below other African nations. More important wasthe fall in oil prices and the consequent decline in government revenues.In 1981, as part of the National Policy on Education, the federalgovernment withdrew totally from financing primary education yet prohibitedthe charging of tuition fees. As a result state gover..nents and therecently constituted local government authorities (LGAs) faced greatdifficulty in financing the subsector. So the education system isunderfinanced. It accounts for only about 13Z of public expenditures, andprimary education receives too little compared with postprimary, especially

- 17 -

university, education. Only 202 of Fifth Plan capital expenditures oneducation are destined for the primary schools. After teachers' salariesare paid, allocations for vital instructional materials are grosslyinadequate. The relative roles of the federal., state, and localauthorities have been unclear despite numerous attempts to define theirresponsibilities. The latest recommendation is that the federal and localgovernments share responsibility. Local governments have only minimalrevenue raising capabilities, however, so the arrangement might simplyperpetuate, and possibly intensify underfinancing. As a result of cutbacksin the budget for primary education, there were actually fewer schools in1985 (05,000) than in 1982 (38,000). The number of teachers fell from384,000 to 303,000 over the same period.

Chapter 3

PRIMARY EDUCATION: QUALITATIVE ISSUES

3.1 Impressive quantitative gains have been made since 1975, butnumbers do not present the whole picture. How well are the studentseducated? It is harder to measure cognitive gains, the development ofsocially appropriate attitudes and values, and the acquisition ofpsychomotor skills. The quality of education is often assessed in terms ofeducational inputs because research has shown that more funding, betterbuildings, more effective administration, better motivated and trainedteachers, and adequate supplies of books and other instructional materialslead to higher enrollment levels and student achievement.

Internal Effectiveness or Technical Efficiency

3.2 The relationship between learning gains and specific educationalinputs may be expressed as a ratio measuring the winternal effectiveness"or 'technical efficiency" of the system. There is no single measure of theinternal effectiveness of Nigerian primary education, as standardized dataon inputs and outputs are not generally obtainable. The discussion here isbased on observations about student achievement and about which materialand nonmaterial resources are available and used in the schools --including curriculum content and organization, books and other learningaids, teacher quality and competence, and the physical learningenvironment. The level of human and material resources -- especiallyinstructional materials -- has been reduced by budget cuts to thesubsector. Cutbacks in teaching staff have adversely affected the pupil-teacher and teacher-class ratios. Only N1.50 a pupil is allocated eachyear for instructional materials, an amount that covers only the mostmeager requirements. At one time the government bore all educationalcosts. As parents assume increasing responsibility for purchasing schoolsupplies, the concept of free education has all but disappeared.

The Curriculum

3.3 Much sound curriculum development work has been done in theproduction of educational objectives, subject content, and materials, but

- 18 -

there are too many subjects in the primary school program and too few booksand other instructional materials to support teachers' work.

3.4 Before 1987, the school year ran from September to July. Thecurrent 39-week school year runs from January to December. Students attendschool from Monday to Friday, usually from 8:00 to 1:30 except where thereare double sessions to alleviate overenrollment. The school week is dividedinto 38 thirty-minute periods (19 hours) for classes 1 to 3, and 38 forty-minute periods (26 hours) for classes 4 to 6. The curriculum is based onSection 3, 15 (2) of tFe National Policy on Education (1981).

3.5 To accommodate the objectives of the National Policy on Education(1981, see Chapter 1) using a traditional subject-based approach, thecurriculum includes 13 subjects allocated as Table 3.1 shows. Most time isgiven to English (8-10 periods), mathematics (6 or 7 periods) and toscience (7 periods). The medium of instruction in classes one to three isthe local language -- usually one of the three major languages (Hausa, Igboand Yoruba).

Table 8.1: THE PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUMWEEKLY SUBJECT PERIOD ALLOCATION

ClassSubJ-ct --- --- ----------

1 2 a 4 6 6

English language 10 10 10 9 9 8Handwriting 2 2 2 2 2 2Local language 2 2 2 2 2 2Math-matics 6 6 6 6 6 7Elementary science a 3 a 4 4 4Social studies 2 2 2 3 2 4Hleth sctnce 2 2 2 1 2 2Blbl./Islemlc studies 2 2 2 2 2 2Physical education 2 2 2 2 2 2Arts/Crafts 2 2 2 2 2 1Music 1 1 1 2 2 1Agricultural science/gardening 2 2 2 1 1 1Domstic science 2 2 2 2 2 2

Total as 88 as as 38 38

3.6 Comparatively little formal curriculum evaluation has been done inNigeria. This is seen as an omission that must be rectified if meaningfulcurriculum revision is to occur. Nigeria needs, for example, to define theaims and goals of primary education in practical terms, and investigate therelevance of its curriculum in the context of Nigeria's rich and diversecultures and geographic conditions. It needs to develop materials andmethods appropriate to national conditions and the current schoolsituation. In the meantime, certain observations can be made.

3.7 Local involvement in most aspects of curriculum development is longestablished. In the last few years, the Federal Ministry of Education hasstandardized primary school curriculum content nationally -- for Englishlanguage, science, mathematics, social studies, home economics and the

- 19 -

three major Nigerian languages. The federally published subject syllabusesbeing distributed throughout the states are based on modern approaches tocurriculum design and are comprehensively presented. They include subjectobjectives, content, suggested educational aids and in some cases teachingmethods. Curriculum development is excellent but there are too manysubjects at the primary level. It is doubtful whether teachers can dojustice to all of them or that six- to eleven-year-old pupils canassimilate so much content. It may be argued, however, that since theoriginal intention at the primary level is to provide education that may beterminal to a majority of the pupils, there is some merit in providing anenlarged curriculum that will ensure that the pupils acquire the necessarysurvival skills before graduation from primary schools. In any case,subjects are covered superficially and rote learning and memorization areemphasized rather than development of the cognitive and problem-solvingskills essential in everyday life. Furthermore, curriculum content in somecases is not relevant to the Nigerian society. Some topics should beadapted to the local situation. A discussion of electricity in class onesocial studies may not be appropriate, for example, in remote rural areas.The discussion may need to wait until the topic is introduced in science.

3.8 The teaching methods advocated are modcrn and appropriate to thecontent. However, it is doubtful whether inquiry, discovery, and activitymethods can be effectively utilized in poorly equipped classrooms byinexperienced teachers.

Agricultural science

3.9 The education blueprint states that schools should ensure that eachchild gains an understanding of agriculture and learns to appreciate itsvalue through practical participation in gardening, fishing or tendingpoultry. This priority gets only lukewarm acceptance by federal, state andlocal government officials. The curriculum provides for two periods weeklyof agricultural science and gardening. There was no evidence of this in 23schools in six states visited by two education missions. Nor was thereevidence of teachers being provided for the study of local crafts anddomestic science, as in O>e policy statement associated with agriculturalstudies.

Science and mathematics

3.10 In Nigeria primary school teachers are expected to teach allsubjects in the curriculum. Teachers' competence in science andmathematics is generally poor and their attitudes toward science andmathematics are often negative, especially aa,ong female teachers, whocomprise nearly half of the present teaching force. As a result of poorattitudes anid teaching of concepts students do not achieve much in thesesubjects. Primary students do not receive an adequate grounding in theskills and concepts they need to understand and assimilate ideas atpostprimary levels. This has serious implications for the nation in anincreasingly technological world.

3.11 Several initiatives have been mounted to investigate the state ofschool mathematics and science education at both national and state levels.A comprehensive study undertaken in Oyo, for example, £dentifies problemsin the teaching and learning of these subjects. From discussions with

- 20 -

personnel from other states there is reason to believe that the Oyo studyapplies generally to the -tion. According to this study, teaching takesplace in classrooms that are frequently overcrowded and inadequatelyfurnished so that many pupils sit on the floor. In some schools there arelimited stocks of teaching aids, including science and mathematicsdemonstration kits distributed by federal and state ministries, but thereis seldom space for classroom storage -- so instructional materials arestored in the head teacher's office where they are not always accessible.There are several excellent locally written and produced textbooks, butvery few pupils have a copy. Teachers are inadequately qualified, trainedand motivated to teach science and mathematics. They have little knowledgeof the content and methodology of the new federal curriculum either throughpre-service or in-service teacher education. All this has the obviousnegative impact on pupils who have already been led to believe that scienceand mathematics are difficult subjects. In addition, administrators andsupervisors are not supportive of teachers who want to become betterqualified in these subjects, and do not provide the advice and assistancenecessary. As a result, the prognosis for science and mathematicseducation in Nigeria's primary schools is poor.

Textbooks

3.12 Federal and state ministries have not mandated standards fortextbook provision but it is generally assumed that each child should havehis/her own book for English, social studies, the local language, andreligious knowledge. Children are supposed to have access to a dictionaryand atlas except in class one. Not all books are required at all levels.The number and length of books required increases as children proceedthrough the primary system.

3.13 Primary school textbooks are selected by state ministries ofeducation, which list three or four recommended books in each subject fromwhich schools and local education authorities can make selections.Occasionally, a state may adopt a single title in a subject. There aresufficient locally published titles to choose from as the primary schoolcurriculum has been reasonably closely followed by most commercialpublishers. In addition to the frequent use of individual Nigerian authorsor groups of local subject specialists, commercial companies have alsopublished course materials produced by federal and state educational andresearch agencies. For example, the Nigerian Educational Research andDevelopment Council (NERDC) prepares school curriculum content, developspupil texts and teachers' guides, and devises other teaching materials.Since 1982 textbooks and teachers' guides have been published for theNational Primary School Mathematics Course, classes 1 to 6. Materialspecifically developed by NERDC for the new English cur-iculum is due forpublication s'iortly. Draft textbooks and guides in Integrated PrimaryScience have also been published. Individual states have also developedspecialist course materials to suit their own needs. Imo state producedits own primary English course in collaboration with a commercial publisherand the Rivers State Book Development Project has produced social studies,mathematics, and arts and crafts materials that are particularly suited tothe ethnic, linguistic, and cultural peculiarities of that state.

3.14 A textbook consultant accompanying a World Bank mission in November1987 investigated the primary school textbook publishing and distribution

- 21 -

industry and the supply, demand, and availability of textbooks in primaryschools. He found that there is sufficient publishing capacity andexpertise in Nigeria to meet all primary school requirements. However,despite the availability in the primary zystem of more than 300 titles,children generally have limited access to textbooks in schools and thestandards of book conservation, usage, and management are low.

3.15 How books are provided. Generally, books are provided in one ofthree ways:

(a) Parent purchase. Drawing from state lists of recommendedbooks, schools select books they intend to use and circulatethis list to the parents. Parents purchase textbooks fromlocal bookshops buying those titles they ca.. afford.

(b) State purchase and resale. The state negotiates bulk purchasesfrom the publishers, usually at a discount, and sells books tothe pupils. Some northern states are moving in this directionas free distribution is becoming financially difficult.

(c) State purchasez and free distribution. The state purchases inbulk from publishers and provides books free of charge to thestudents. In the past the goal was to buy one book a year perpupil but the cost made this unattainable and the attempt wasshort-lived. Usually state purchase means that schools areprovided with stocks of books that are then available to pupilson loan.

3.16 In 1986 and 1987 the Federal Ministry of Education intervened topurchase limited quantities of textbooks for free distribution to states.The idea was that the FME should purchase teachers' books and teachers'sets of pupils' books for free distr`.bution to teachers. This was notachieved since the Federal Ministry of Education did not have sufficientfunds.

Factors Affecting Textbook Provision

3.17 Piracy. Piracy of school book titles is now a serious problem inNigeria. Different sources seem to publish the pirated editions, butpublishers and the National Book Development Council generally assume thepiracy to be based in the eastern\ states, particularly in the big bookmarkets of Onitsha and Owerri. The pirates concentrate their efforts onthe titles parents purchase most, as commercial publishers do. This piracydoes not significantly improve the availability of textbooks in the poorestand least accessible areas. It does seriously undermine the structure andhealth of the commercial book trade in Nigeria. By reducing sales, itforces legitimate book prices up - especially for secondary school titles,because of the lower print runs and the consequent dramatic impact on unitcosts. The Nigerian Publishers Association and the National Book PolicyReport have adequately identified the serious weaknesses in the copyrightlaw in Nigeria.

3.18 Duties on imported raw materials and equipment. The two factorsthat most affect the cost of primary school textbooks are imported paperand printing (see Annexes II, III. and IV). All print machinery, spare

- 22 -

parts, film, and plates have to be imported and all currently bear highduty. Nigerian publishers and printers urge removal of the 25? duty ontext paper and cover card imports for educational materials as a quick anddirect method of immediately reducing costs. Removing duties on importedprint machinery and spare parts would have a less direct impact on costsbut would, over the years, reduce costs and encourage the growth anddevelopment of local printing, binding and other origination processes soNigeria could fulfill all of its print requirements.

3.19 The availability of foreign exchange. With the establishment ofthe foreign exchange market (FEM) access to foreign exchange is no longer aproblem. Only the cost of the foreign exchange now limits the access ofpublishers and printers to essential machinery and raw materials.

3.20 Outstanding state debts to textbook publishers. In 1980 and 1981.state textbook purchases from publishers were larger than the states hadbudgeted for. Many of the largest educational publishers are still owedsums from that time. It is difficult to get a complete accounting of theoutstanding debts but it affects most publishers operating in the primarytextbook market. The original debts were incurred when the exchange rateon the naira was perhaps eight times lower than it is now and when manytextbook supplies came from outside Nigeria. Debts to overseas suppliersand printers must now be met by the devalued naira.

3.21 Purchasing power. Book supplies cannot be maintained either by thestate or parents unless the cost of providing books is significantlyreduced. Parents have little purchasing power and cannot afford to buybooks for their children.

3.22 Consumable supplies. Although classroom supplies such as chalk andschool registers were reportedly scarce, they were available in schoolsvisited by the mission. Furthermore, there i6 evidence that parents arestill purchasing exercise books, pens, and pencils for their children evenin the most isolated areas. Adequate supplies are stocked by retailers andhead teachers affirm that market traders provide stocks of these items inlocations accessible to most parents.

Primary School Libraries

3.23 Sector policy requires that class/school library resources beprovided, but scant evidence exists of serious planning about how thisshould be implemented, what it would cost, or what it would mean in termsof training and teaching. In schools where only minimal textbooks areprovided, additional reading and study materials are needed. Adequateschool libraries could fill this need. Of eight schools visited by theNovember mission only three made any provision for a school library. Bookswere very few, most of the titles were unsuitable, and only in one schoolwas any attempt made to record the issuing and return of books. Althoughthe federal ministry claimed books had been distributed to all primaryschools, it may be assumed that there is very little supplementary materialavailable outside of the prescribed textbook. Since those textbooks arescarce, most Nigerian children have little material to stimulate literaciard numeracy. Providing more textbooks could conceivably improve readinglevels and create more need for supplementary materials that could be heldin school libraries.

- 23 -

Teacher Quality and Competence

3.24 In the traditional classroom teachers are one of the chiefdeterminants of educational achievement. They are also the most expensiveeducational input, representing at least 902 of recurrent costs at primarylevel.

3.25 Teaching quality is reflected in such classroom practices as theeffective use of learning materials, the creation of learningopportunities, and time spent on instructional and administrative tasks andon monitoring, evaluation and feedback. A comparison of classes thatperformed well, average and poorly, in an IEA study in Nigeria revealedthat classes perform best when teachers seldom lecture, use more personallydeveloped instructional materials, spend more time on monitoring andevaluating individual practice, and cover more of the curriculum thanclasses do that perform less well. Primary school teachers' qualificationsvary widely (see Chapter 2), and nationwide about 100,000 teachers areofficially unqualified or underqualified -- especially in the five northernstates and to a lesser extent in the middle states. Clearly this affectsthe quality of education in those states and the standardization ofeducational achievement throughout Nigeria. It is difficult to makeinterstate comparisons of the effect of poor teaching on pupil achievementbecause the entrance examinations for state secondary schools are notcomparable, progression rates into secondary education are determined bythe number of available places and not solely by performance onexaminations, and there are no controls for other classroom variables

3.26 Few formal studies on teaching competence seem to be available soreliance must be placed upon isolated observations and anecdotalinformation. World Bank mission members and Nigerian consultants whoobserved classes noted the low level of spoken English among some teacherswho were using it as the medium of instruction, and the absence ofinstructional materials in all public school classrooms visited. Incontrast teachers in a private school visited spoke English well and hadcharts and other aids in each classroom. However, in this school thecurriculum seemed to be somewhat irrelevant to Nigeria. The team wastreated to a rendering of English nursery rhymes, for example. An analysisof science and mathematics teaching in Oyo state primary schools(Bajah:1986) comments on the unpreparedness of teachers who are notcompetent themselves to teach these subjects in school. Inspection ofexercise books in public schools revealed that these were well kept,indicating that teachers demand a high standard of written work. No dataare available on how the results of internal school tests and examinationsrelate to teacher performance. This fragmented evidence points to teacherswho lack the necessary background and innovative skills for effectiveteaching. Some of the more effective teachers transfer to the privateschools where teaching conditions are generally better than in governmentschools.

The Learning Environment

3.27 Many educators have commented on the positive effects on learningof a facilitating school environment, which combines good physical

- 24 -

resources and a learning atmosphere created by the head and teaching staff.The school head can be instrumental in creating an effective learningenvironment by the way s/he manages the school and its resources.

3.28 As reported in Chapter 2 the environment in a typical Nigerianprimary school may not be conducive to learning. School buildings andsurroundings avt poorly maintained and unattractive. There are too fewclassrooms, and in every state many of those that exist are in adilapidated often dangerous state necessitating refurbishing andrebuildirg. Storage space is minimal. In some urban areas up to fourschools share the same premises, necessitating double shifts andovercrowded classrooms that occasionally accommodate 100 children.Existing facilities, already inadequate for one school, are expected tomeet the demands of more. At one school site, used by three schools andmore than 3000 pupils, there were only two pit latrines. Primary schoolsin many states are understAffed. Few instructional materials are availablesuch as wall charts, maps and apparatus, there being few grants for thistype of equipment, except for occasional allocations in money or in kindfrom the federal ministry. Parent-Teacher Associations that still functiondirect any fundraising projects at providing additional school buildings.in preference to learning resources. Where premises are shared, conflictarises over the use of existing facilities. Schools do not have storagespace and staff rooms, so resources are not secure. In schools in denselypopulated locations especially, materials are stolen and premises damaged.

3.29 The school ethos is largely the cre- .on of the headmaster and theteachers. In a depressing physical learning environment where educationalresources are meager and personnel poorly trained and inadequatelyremunerated, there are few incentives to build the invigorating imaginativecomnunity in which teaching and learning are facilitated.

Quality Control

3.30 As will be shown in Chapter 5 the supervision of primary schools isa problem because of the cumbersome administrative structure and inadequatefinancial and physical resources. Schools are seldom professionally oradministratively inspected and there is little control on teachingstandards, school management and the care and maintenance of buildings' andinstructional materials. The school inspectorate is immobile so teache^do not receive the support they need.

Pupil Achievement

3.31 Data on pupil achievement are scarce. Primary school leavingexaminations are conducted by the state and determine entry into statesecondary institutions, but they are not comparable between states as thesubjects examined and the standards expected for secondary school entryvary. It is reported from Oyo, however, that in 1987 approximately 602 ofstudents scored less than 20X. As the progression rate from primary tosecondary school in the state is about 502 one may deduce that theachievement level of students entering junior secondary school is generallyvery low. A nationally comparable measure is the common entranceexar.ination to federal (unity) secondary schools. Candidates for thisexamination are chosen from the highest achievers who compete nationallyfor the limited number of places in the federal secondary schools to which

- 25 -

entrance is determined. Their performance is scarcely representative ofall primary school leavers, and cannot be used to detect changes in theoverall qualitative output of the primary schools. In addition,standardized grades, not raw scores, are used to select students forsecondary school. There is no pass or fail category; as entry is basedupon the number of available places and each student's ranking by points.The final scores may be weighted so that a specified proportion of studentsfrom every state are admitted to secondary school in the interests ofnational unity.

Chapter 4

TEACHERS AND THEIR EDUCATION

4.1 Teachers are employed and paid under the Unified Civil ServiceRegulations. They pay about 8Z of their salary for rent and are eligiblefor allowances worth a total of 1580 annually for leave, transport andhousing -- if funds are available. Table 19 in the Appendix shows previousNigerian civil service salary scales, which had been frozen since 1982.Table 20 shows new salaries. Personnel enter the scale at a grade levelcommensurate with their qualifications:

Salary grade 4 Grade III and Grade II referred teachers5 Grade II teachers at least two GCE "A"6 Grade I teachers (GCE "Al plus teaching practice)7 NCE teachers8 Degree holders

Each grade level up to 10 has seven steps. In principle a teacher shouldadvance one step annually if there are no adverse performance reports.However, since the early 1980s financial restrictions have limitedpromotions and delayed salary payments, which has lowered teacher morale.The low salaries, uncertainty of payment, poor working conditions andpossibility of retrenchment are major obstacles to the recruitment ofqualified teachers.

4.2 Most qualified primary school teachers hold the Grade II teachers'certificate awarded to post-junior secondary students following a course ata TTC. A few teachers hold the NCE -- a higher qualification, awarded onthe successful completion of a three-year course of study after WASC.Previously, there were three types of programs at TTCs offering courses of5, 3 or 2 years duration depending upon candidates' entry qualifications.Primary school graduates underwent a five year program while students whodid not complete secondary education entered two or three year programsaccording to their qualifications. With the introduction of the 6-3-3-4program, all Grade II college entrants are required to have successfullycompleted the Junior Secondary course and to undergo a three year program.Grade II teachers can upgrade their status by passing the GeneralCertificate of Education ordinary (GCE '0') or advanced (GCE 'A') levelexaminations.

- 26 -

4.3 Of the estimated 303.000 teachera in the primary schools about 602are qualified, the majority holding Grade II certificates. The northremains relatively disadvantaged. Half the estimated 100,000 unqualifiedteachers work in the north, where only 6Z to 38Z of the staff arequalified. Although government has ambitious plans for raising primaryteacher qualifications to the National Certificate in Education (NCE) --the likelihood of this goal boing realized in the near future is remote.Currently only about 62 of primary teachers, frequently heads of schools,are NCE certificate holders. Hence, to assess the quality of teachertraining it is necessary to consider primarily Grade II teacher educationcourses.

Pre-service Training for Grade II Teachers

4.4 In 1985186, 223,331 student teachers were registered in czllegeswith about 7,000 instructors (Appendix Table 17). English language,mathematics, education and teachinb, practice are required forcertification, as well as a Nigerian language, integrated science andsocial studies. Students may also choose between physical education, art,music and agricultural sciences. Students are required to pass eightsubjects with a minimum grade of 402 in each to qualify for a certificate.Starting from 1988 national examinations will be given in five of thecompulsory subjects (mathematics, English, education, integrated sciencea.id social studies) and state examinations in three subjects. Syllabusesfor most subjects, devised by the National Teachers' Institute (NTI),contain objectives, content, methods, activities, and evaluation.Suggestions for teaching aids are included for some subjects. All TTCsfollow the national syllabuses but the state where the college is locatedmay require additional content.

4.5 The quality of instruction is a major problem in the TTCs. Datafrom fourteen states indicate that in 1985/86 the qualifications of many ofthe 5,167 instructors (73? of whom were male and 272 female) were generallyunacceptable for a teachers' college lecturer. Only 302 of 4,500instructors in twelve states had an undergraduate degree with teachingqualifications; 12? held postgraduate degrees with no professionalqualifications. About 49Z had NCE diplomas and the training of 9? wastotally inadequate for TTC lecturers. The NCE by itself may not besufficient qualification for TTC lecturers as its holders do notnecessarily have specific training to teach at the TTC level.

4.6 Instruction in TTCs is still largely theoretical. Insufficientattention is given to primary school content, pedagogy, and teachingpractice -- the latter two of which together represent less than 15? of thecurriculum. The TTC program tends to focus on general secondary education,so Grade II teachers lack adequate pedagogical knowledge and teachingskills. Theoretically they can develop these skills as they begin teachingbut beginning teachers often need help and advice from other teachers,heads of schools, or school inspectors -- all of whom may themselves lackskill and knowledge.

4.7 Many colleges report a shortage of instructional materials forteacher education. This is especially acute in practical and experimentalsubjects such as environmental science, and in subjects such as mathematics

- 27 -

and social studies where visual and tactile materials aid conceptualdevelopment. Required textbooks are also reportedly scarce.

4.8 The failure rate for the teachers' Grade I1 certificate examinationprovides one indication of teacher quality (Appendix Table 18). Only 29Zof the candidates qualified for a certificate, internal candidatesperforming only marginally better than external. Internal candidatesperformed particularly badly in some states, with pass rates well below 202in Bauchi, Borno, Gongola, Kaduna, Kano and Plateau -- some of thegenerally more educationally disadvantaged states. Among unsuccessfulcandidates, the failure rate was 842 for mathematics, 822 for arithmetic,802 for education, and 702 for English -- and many of these "failures" areteaching in schools. The level of the examinatio.n for the Grade IIcertificate is comparable to teacher certificate examinations elsewhere inAfrica, although the examination, like the instructional materials used byNigerian teachers in training, is more theoretically oriented than in manyother countries.

4.9 The academic and professional competence of the teaching force isone of the chief determinants of educational quality at the primary level,so the Nigerian teacher's low level of attainment is serious cause forconcern. Unfortunately it is not easv to identify factors responsible forpoor teacher quality. Certainly the educational standards of collegeentrants may be too low and the teacher education program deficient orboth. Poor standards in the teachers' colleges may be attributable toinadequately qualified staff, too academically-oriented a curriculum,inappropriate methodology; and a dearth of learning materials. Missionmembers observed that many Grade II teachers have not received the kind oftraining that, by exposing them to many possible courses of action andencouraging their initiative, enables them to teach effectively underdifficult conditions. In classrooms that are typically overcrowded andshort of textbooks and other instructional materials, it is not enough toupgrade the teachers' skills and knowledge. They must learn new skills andinnovative approaches thaL will help them assist their pupils overcome theinherent limitations of the Nigerian classroom today.

The Nigerian Certificate in Education

4.10 The NCE program is a 3-year course offered at 55 Colleges ofEducation and Advanced Teachers' Colleges throughout Nigeria -- including 4colleges specializing in technical teacher training and one in specialeducation. To enter these colleges one must usually have a Grade IIteachers' certificate or GCE "0" level. The NCE program provides a higherlevel of training than the Grade II certificate course. With it, servingteachers can be promoted or posted to junior secondary schools. Thecertificate course, which is underwritten bv the university Institutes ofEducation, contains a broad range of professional studies (includingcourses in educational psychology, special education, and tests andmeasurement), two teaching subjects in the area of the student's interestand twelve weeks of practice teaching. Several subject combinations may bestudied covering the primary and junior secondary school curriculum andreflecting national changes in the school curriculum. The emphasis oneducation courses is intended to rectify the weak professional training ofGrade II teachers.

- 28 ,

In-Service Teacher Education

4.11 Expansion under UPE forced state governments to recruit numerousunderqualified and unqualified teachers, so the federal governmentinitiated several in-service programs. The National Teachers' Institute(NTI) was established with technical assistance from UNESCO to upgradeprimary teachers through distance education and to conduct the Grade IIteachers' certificate examination in the centrally set papers. About30,000 teachers annually study with NTI, which publishes and distributestraining books and materials to all students at minimal cost (N=4 a copy).NTI field officers in every state facilitate the program, which uses TTCsas study centers with NCE graduates hired as instructors to prepare GradeII candidates for the certificate examination. NTI is currently reviewingthe Grade II program with a view to introducing a new certificate based ona curriculum richer in content and more modern in approach.

4.12 Ahmadu Bello University Institute of Education has beenparticularly active in upgrading primary teachers since the late 1960s. InApril 1968 the Teacher In-service Education Programme (TISEP) -- acorrespondence program designed to assist Grade III teachers obtain a GradeII Teachers' Certificate -- was transferred from the Ministry of Educationto the Institute. At its inzeption in 1967. it had an enrollment of 1,000which rose to a peak of 3,905 in 1980 and has catered to 18,580 studentsbetween 1979 and 1986 -- including underqualified teachers, failures anddropouts from secondary schools and teachers' colleges. It offers bothresidential sessions and correspondence studies.

4.13 The Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP) was launched in1969 with the support of UNESCO/UNICEF, to construct, evaluate and revisesyllabuses and develop and evaluate teaching methods, aids, books, andother materials. By 1975 PEIP had developed and placed many teachingmaterials into experimental classes in each of the then six northernstates. Experimentation and dissemination of curriculum materialscontinued into the 1980s. Between 1974 and 1986, 1,836 graduates --teachers, headmasters, and supervisors -- received diplomas in infantmethods, school supervision and administration, and educationaladministration and planning.

4.14 A program to earn the NCE by correspondence was started in 1976, asthere were only 27 NCE holders among the 2,043 teachers in northern primaryschools. Starting with an enrollment of 92, this course has graduated1,921 students and now has an enrollment of 1,600.

4.15 In-service teacher education is an important factor in the careerdevelopment of teachers, their continued efficacy in the classroom, andtheir retention as teachers. The need to upgrade many Nigerian primaryteachers is acute and more in-service training facilities should beprovided. However, there is a 702 failure rate on the Grade IIcertificate examination and many of the candidates have had in-servicecourses. If in-service programs are to be expanded, more effectiveprograms must be developed.

4.16 Most in-service programs are aimed at improving teacherqualifications. School heads and supervisors also need in-serviceprograms. They have few opportunities for further training apart from

- 29 -

registering in an education degree program or one of the few universityeducation courses such as those at Ahmadu Bello University and theUniversity of Lagos. (The University of Lagos offers two summer vaca..ioncourses of eight weeks theory and one week field work annually). Theirqualifications, experience, and effectiveness vary and many of them havelittle or no training in their assigned roles. It is essential to providethem with extensive in-service training to improve school management andquality control.

Chapter 5

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Principal Managerial Issues

5.1 Four basic issues must be addressed about the management of primaryeducation. First, distinctions between federal and state responsibilities-- including financing primary education -- are becoming increasinglyblurred. Second, horizontally delegated responsibilities for education atall three levels of government contribute to duplication of functions andadministrative inefficiency. Third, the trend to decentralize state rolesto zones my add to the duplication of functions. Fourth, with theproliferation of local governments, resources previously available forschools may be used for administrative costs. Increasing fragmentation atthe local level could strain the ability of these governments to survive.All these considerations could impede local ability to deliver education.

Management, Policymaking and Planning in Nigerian Education

5.2 Annex V gives a detailed description of management. policymakingand planning throughout the education sector. Here these issues arediscussed only as they relate to primary education. The 1979 Nigerianconstitution defines the authority of the federal, state and localgovernments for each type and level of formal education (Table 5.1) andclarifies leadership responsibilities, for policy formulation and planning,financing, quality control, and implementation.

Federal, State and Local Government Roles

5.3 The Federal Ministry of Education (FME) formulates policies,coordinates national educational practices, promotes quality, exercisesquality control, and maintains standards among the states. The FME has noresponsibility for implementing policy at primary level which isimplemented by the states which also prepare and adapt procedures, developrules, guidelines and manuals, train staff, and implement the bulk of theeducational programs. The status and grade levels of state officials areanalogous to those of federal officers. Primary education is the majorfunction of local governments, accounting for about 70Z to 80? of theirfinancial and human resources. They, together with state governments areexpected to finance primary education and implement subsector programs.

- 30 -

Table 6.1: OISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES Ab3NGTHE THREE TIERS OF GOVERNMENT

Level of GovernmentType of Activities Federal State Local

A. Type and Levels of Education

Pro-primary X XPrimary x xSecondary X XTeacher Training X XVocationai and Technical Education X XUniversity Education X XAdult Education X X X

B. Major Functions

Policy Formulation and Planning X X XImplementation X X XEvaluation and Control X XInspection and Supervision X X XExaminations XResearch and Experimentation X XCoordination X XRegulation of Professional Societies XRegistry of Education X X

C. Financing of Education X X X

D. Administration

Federal Ministry of Education X XState Ministry of Education XDistrict School Board X XLocal Education Authority XSchool Management Boards XSchool Community Associations X

Source: 'Nigeria: Revlew of the Institutional Framew,'.rk for the Managementof the Education Sector, Education Division, Projects Department,Western Africa Regional Office, The World dank, February 12, 1986.

Policy Fomulation and Planning

5.4 The formulation of educational policy for the whole sector is ledby the Federal Ministry of Education. This is a collective process, sharedby many institutions at federal, state and local levels. Institutionswhich participate in this process are the National Council of Education(NCE), State Councils of Education, and Joint Consultative Committee (JCC),whose roles are described in detail in Annex V. The decision makingprocess is highly complex, labor intensive and time-consuming, becausepolicy formulation and planning are separate functions and there is littleformal provision for reaching consensus. In order to ensure grassrootparticipation and wide representation, the process of policy making isinevitably laborour given the large size of Nigeria.

Planning for Primary Education

5.5 National educational plans are developed centrally in the contextof the National Development Plan. Federal and state planning units areresponsible for data collection and planning for primary education. Their

- 31 -

institutional capacity is weak. State planning units are expected to filldiffuse roles. They do not have enough human, financial and physicalresources to collect and process statistics, so there is an inadequate database for planning primary education.

Inspection and Supervision

5.6 Quality control in the primary schools is minimal. Schools areseldom inspected, and the few inspections that do occur focus onadministrative matters. Although all tiers of government maintain a corpsof inspectors who are expected to supervise schools, there is littlesupervision of instruction.

5.7 Recognized officially as a vital service within the ministries ofeducation, school inspectors are the primary agents for quality control.Highly visible, they are expected -- in theory -- to support and promotelearning, develop optimum conditions for teaching, help achieveinstitutional goals, prepare accurate staff records and confidentialreports, and serve as liaison to legislative education committees. TheFME, state Ministries of Education and local governments all conductinspections.

The Federal Inspectorate

5.8 The monitoring of educational standards among all the states is theprimary reason for maintaining a federal inspectorate. This it doescomprehensively at the post-primary level but has little involvement withprimary schools whose supervision becomes the responsibility of othergovernment levels.

The State Inspectorate

5.9 The State Directorate of Inspectorate Services usually comprisestwo separate divisions; one for primary education and oLe for post-primaryinstitutions. The primary education division is organized regionally withfield offices. The number of such offices varies from state to state,depending upon the number of schools and the size of the state. All,however, are headed by a generalist inspector who is resporsible forquality control at all primary institutions within his jurisdiction. Mostof the inspectorate services at state level have a pyramidal structure.There is one chief inspector, two deputy chiefs often for primary and post-primary education, three assistant inspectors, four principal inspectorsand several field inspectors. The group is usually relatively smallcomprising about 40-60 staff members, who are usually generalists. Oneexception to this is Bendel State with six chief inspectors responsible forprimary education, teacher education, secondary education,technicallcommercial/vocational education, planning and educationalservices respectively.

5.10 Kaduna State presents an interesting example of devolution ofresponsibility of the Inspectorate which is also found in some otherstates. In Kaduna eight zonallregiznaa aivectorates for education havebeen created, and most of the functions and staff of the inspectorate havebeen transferred to the zones. There are a Chief Inspector, AssistantChief and Principal Inspectors, who are responsitle for divisional

- 32 -

inspectors of sixteen divisions and finally for the assistant inspectorswho are posted to the districts where each is responsible, in theory, for30 schools. This type of structure facilitates the organization of smallgroups of core staff, who are responsible for the development of educationwithin a restricted area. In principle, the main functions of the zonaldirectorates are coordination of development activities and liaison withlocal governments. Within this mandate staff are required to collectinformation, plan development, inspect schools, monitor progress, anddisseminate new ideas. Zonal officers also administer constructionprojects, disburse funds and pay out teachers' salaries. In practice, muchof the zonal supervisor's time is spent in routine administration. Ouly afew of them have the resources to assess teaching and learning in theschools and help teachers in their professional growth.

Local Government Inspectorates

5.11 Primary school inspectorates are affiliated to the localgovernment, usually under the control of the local Education Council.Generally, one inspector is assigned to 25 to 30 schools, and is expectedto visit a school at least once a term carrying out a full inspectionannually. In reality, however, schools are visited only once a year atmost, full inspections are rare, and inspections that do occur often focuson administrative and organizational problems rather than addressprofessional concerns such as advising teachers. Their visits are followedup by long detailed reports that do little more than describe the schooland its staff. (A new federal format for inspection reports should makereports shorter and help focus inspections. It is hoped that these will besuitable for and available to inspectors at all levels.)

Constraints on Supervision and Inspection

5.12 The poor quality of Nigerian primary education and the dearth ofhuman, physical, and instructional resources in the schools are due, inpart at least, to the lack of quality control. Personnel responsible formaintaining educational standards at the primary level are the inspectors,headmasters, and teachers. It is widely acknowledged that the schools arenot inspected often enough, so responsibility for maintaining educationalstandards falls on the heads and teachers at each school -- people who areoften underqualified, working in isolation without an adequate supportsystem and with little peer interaction in less than adequate schoolenvironments. In addition to which their pay is -ften late. The resultinglaxity and lack of incentive to teach well contribute to deterioratingstandards.

5.13 Five types of constraint limit the effectiveness of the inspectors:

- Their responsibilities are too diffuse;- There are not enough inspectors and not all are sufficiently

professionally competent;- They euffer poor working conditions;- They receive inadequate financial support; and- They lack training opportunities.

5.14 Diffuse responsibilities. The list of duties of an inspector ofprimary schools in Kaduna illustrates how overwhelming the job is in

- 33 -

theory. The inspector is expected to advise on professional andadministrative matters; inspect and maintain efficiency; ensure that copiesof inspection reports are received &ad recommendations acted upon by theChief Education Officer; forward to supervisors inspection reports andrecommendations for eswablishing new primary schools; advise onappointments, transfers, and removal of head teachers; help organizerefresher courses, workshops, and seminars for teachers; represent theMinistry on advisory boards and PTA meetings; advise on teaching methods,buildings, and equipment standards; and other duties assigned by the ChiefInspector or Deputy Director. The duties of assistant inspectors are noless varied. Although support and advice to poorly trained and motivatedteachers is theoretically a priority, most inspectors' functions areadministrative and managerial.

5.15 There are not enough state, zonal, and local inspectors for thenumber of schools to be visited. Moreover, many state posts remain vacantfor long periods. The resulting heavy workload increases each inspector'sadministrative tasks and cuts into time for school supervision and theprofessional development of teachers. Visits to schools become mereadministrative inquiries or investigations of riots or complaints.

5.16 Working conditions for the inspectors' are worse than for otheremployees in the education sector. They are expected to travel frequently,causing inconvenience both to themselves and their families. Primaryschool inspectors often travel in hazardous conditions (by canoe, donkey,bicycle, or on foot) to reach remote schools. They incur many out-of-pocket expenses which may not be refunded either because funds are notavailable or because the expenses are nonrefundable under governmentregulations. Assistant inspectors form the bulk of the primaryinspectorate. They are recruited from among head teachers and NCE teacherswith primary school experience, entering the service at 07 salary grade andreaching their ceiling at grade 11. Their counterparts in schools canreach grade 12 and in some other ministries grade 13. Teaching offers amore settled life and more promotion prospects than the inspectorate so itis difficult to attract experienced heads and teachers to the job.

5.17 Because of inadequate funding, transportation, travel and housingallowances and motor vehicle loans for which inspectors are eligible werediscontinued. This limits field work because touring advances andtransportation are not always available. There are not enough vehicles andthe few available cannot be repaired or fueled regularly for shortage offunds. Financial constraints also limit the inspectors' participation inteacher upgrading courses that require funds for subsistence,transportation, and instructional materials. Not only are inspectorsunable to visit teachers in the classroom to advise them on teachingcontent and methodology and to support their use of instructionalmaterials, but they are prevented from mounting courses that could helpthem improve their knowledge and skills.

5.18 New entrants to the inspectorate should have a six-week inductioncourse; should be issued inspection guidelines in all school subject areasand such nonschool subject activities as administration, organization andlibrary. The Joint Consultative Committee on Education recommends forinspectors in-service education -- to include courses in supervision,refresher courses and seminars at local universities -- attachment abroad,

- 34 -

attendance at international seminars, active participation in subjectassociations, and in-h rvice courses to enable assistant inspectors acquiregraduate qualifications. Some courses have been mounted by the universityinstitutes of education, but no regular programs exist for state and localpersonnel. In view of recent endeavors to create a more advisory role forthe inspectorate there is need for a training prog-am which would improveinspectors' motivation and supervisory, advisory, reporting and teacherupgrading functions.

Chapter 6

RESEARCH, EVALUATION, AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

6.1 Research, evaluation, and educational technology are essential toeducational development: research as a basis for planning, educationaltechnology to help implement plans, and evaluation to gauge theeffectiveness of the programs. Facilities for each of these activitiesexist in Nigeria. This chapter discusses their current status in thecontext of primary education.

Research

6.2 Educational research covering a broad range of educational levelsand issues proliferates in Nigeria -- produced by individuals,institutional research programs, research organizations, colleges,university institutes of education, research councils, or technicalcommittees set up by the NCE or JCC. Chief among those engaged in researchon primary education are the National Educational Research and DevelopmentCouncil (NERDC) and the institutes of education. Research at NERDC isclosely linked to curriculum development and the production of syllabuses,textbooks and materials. To ensure the effective teaching and learning ofscience and mathematics the National Primary Science and MathematicsProject procures mathematics and science kits locally, produces trainingmaterials, teachers' handbooks, and textbooks, and develops evaluationinstruments. Workshops are held to train teacher trainers and pilot schoolteachers in their use. Similar applied research is being done in Englishtogether with more theoretical research --a readability study of primaryschool supplementary readers. The Nigerian and Foreign LanguagesDepartment at NERDC is surveying the use of languages in schools andinvestigating factors that hamper the success of the language policy. NERDCplans to develop language textbooks for the new syllabus, teacherorientation courses, and workshops. The special education section hasdeveloped programs on total communication for deaf primary school childrenand braille codes for Nigerian languages. The educational foundationssection has produced texts for teachers and teacher trainers on broad basiceducational issues, is establishing a data bank on college and universityenrollments and pupil teachers at primary level, and is collecting primaryschool teachers' opinions about their college courses. In addition NERDCsupports a bibliographic survey of all research studies into Nigerianeducation produced since amalgamation (the expected result of this will be10,000 to 12,000 entries in a 500-page volume).

- 35 -

6.3 A substantial body of theoretical research exists on a broad rangeof educational topics whose relevance encompasses all education levels.Among these, the 499 essays" presented by education students as part oftheir assessment requirements at Ibadan University, provide usefulinformation on educational practices as they are often based upon classroomobservation. Institutes of education do applied research to developteaching methods and curriculum, concentrating recently on science,mathematics and language education.

6.4 Some findings are shared through national professionalorganizations and research conferences but much of the topical research isnot coordinated nationally so there are substantial gaps in knowledge andunderstanding and much duplication of effort. Both NERDC and NTI, forexample, are gathering statistics for a primary school teachers' register,and NERDC, the National Education Technology Centre (NETC), and Institutesof Education are all separately developing teaching materials. Such bodiesas the National Science and Mathematics Centre and the National LanguageCentre (the latter now merged under NERDC) were created to coordinatenationwide research.

Evaluation

6.5 Ideally, evaluation of the subsector will include assessments ofthe teachers, curriculum, physical facilities, equipment, instructionalmaterials, planning, management and supervision.

6.6 Three levels of edacational evaluation are found in Nigeria:

(a) the formal, highly organized examination of students atdifferent levels and for different purposes;

(b) various ad hoc commissions, inquiries, and panels, set up toinvestigate specific issues and make recommendations; and,

(c) several uncoordinated individual or group research studiesconducted in universities and by groups like NERDC, WAEC, andNISER.

The public pays most attention to the examinations, least to the research.

6.7 The National Policy on Education stresses the role of assessment inprimary education particularly the need to continuously assess studentperformance in the classroom with an emphasis on guidance rather than judgea child in one competitive examination at the end of a course throughsummative and selection-oriented tests. Assessing individual attainment isone way to evaluate the overall achievement of primary education goals. Itis a way of finding out not only how much the individual child has learned,but whether the child (or group) is having cognitive difficulties, whetherthe curriculum and teaching methods and materials are satisfactory, andultimately if the primary subsector is effective.

6.8 There are two important examinations at primary level: the primaryschool leaving examination and a selection examination for secondaryscho,ls. The school leaving examination, under current plans, willeventually be replaced by continuous assessment, with certification done by

- 36 -

the schools. Until finr plans have been made for this, state Ministries ofEducation will still play a part in devising and grading the papers. Thismay have to continue for tome time as it is unclear if teachers will beable to cope with the complexities and volume of work required, or will beable to reach comparable standards between schools. Considering theinadequate training of the current teaching force, considerable in-servicetraining will be required in classroom techniques for assessing cognitive,social, psychomotor, and attitudinal development.

6.9 The more important examination is the competitive one for enteringsecondary schools. Whether a student enters one of the 41 federal or unityschools depends on his or her performance on the National Common EntranceExamination, conducted by WAEC, with Federal Ministry of Educationofficials making final selections. Candidates are examined in English,arithmetic, verbal ability and quantitative aptitude. Selectionexaminations are also important for entry into state secondary schools asthere are insufficient junior secondary places to accommodate all primaryschool leavers. Some states have a common entrance examination foradmission to their schools. Others use both the primary school leaving andsecondary placement examinatior.

6.10 The transition rate from primary to secondary schools is about 38Zwith considerable variation between states. Table 6.1 gives data on Imostate where the rate is comparatively high. This, with Table 6.2, shows

Tabla 6.1: TRANSITION RATE INTO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN IMO STATE, 1978-87

Year Transition Rate (X)

1976/77 33.11977/78 34.01978/79 84.61979/60 46.51960/61 49.61961/82 31.0*1982/83 42.31983/84 42.51984/86 35.9*1986/98 44.41986/87 47.6

* The progression rate dropped because UPE increased the number ofprimary leaver. and there wore inadequate secondary school placestw' absorb the number of students.

Table 8.2: IMO STATE PRIMARY SCHOOL LEAVINGCERTIFICATE EXAMINATION RESULTS, 1982-68

Year Entries Posses X Passes

1982 116,701 54,657 47.4198a 107,122 48,148 40.81984 104,S22 43,868 42.0196 106,703 63,968 78.711966 101,236 56,657 67.94

- 37 -

that some people who passed the state entrance examinacion did not enterstate schools. Some may have sat both federal and state entranceexaminations (for which there are fees of N10 and 15 respectively) andgained admission into federal schools, but this fails to explain all thediscrepancy. Whatever the reasons, add those students to the large numberwho failed the examination and dropout rates after primary schooling aresubstantial.

Educational Technology

6.11 There was virtually no evidence of educational technology in any ofthe primary schools visited by two World Bank missions. In one or twopublic schools there were vestiges of old wall charts and cardboard clocks.Up-to-date teacher-made charts were displayed in the private schools.Learning theory stresses the role of tactile and visual stimuli in conceptdevelopment especially in the primary schools. If teaching is to beeffective a broad range of teaching aids is required: it was surprising tofind so few in the schools, especially as considerable emphasis has beenplaced on educational technology in Nigeria.

6.12 School radio and television broadcasting began in the 1950s andbecame a federal institution in 1969 situated in Kaduna but under FMOEsupervision from Lagos. The unit extended its responsibility toaudiovisual aids in 1975 and became The National Educational TechnologyCenter (NETC) in 1977. NETCs function is to produce radio and televisionprograms which it offers to state broadcasting stations. It was alsosupposed to produce teaching materials for schools and train teachers inproduction. Reportedly some teachers have attended courses, but noinstructional materials are being produced. Its facilities are run downand grossly underutilized. It offers some old radio programs for grades 1-5 in English, Playschool and Science and plans to develop a new series inEnglish with the help of teachers.

6.13 Some states also have resource centers. Centers in Kano and Zariaare typical. They mount in-service courses for teachers, offer consultingand library services, produce and supply instructional materials, andmaintain a teachers' workroom for producing cheap teaching aids. They alsomaintain a cadre of specialist inspectors for educational quality control.When the centers began there were enough resources for them to functionefficiently. Now their operations are constrained by inadequate financingfor in-service courses, accommodation problems, a shortage of qualifiedstaff, and constant changes of leadership. Staff who are qualified arefrustrated by the lack of resources and by working in inadequatelymaintained buildings with outdated poorly cared for library books and otherresource materials.

- 38 -

Chapter 7

FINANCING PRIMARY EDUCATION

Introduction

7.1 Financial ill health is at the root of the deterioration inNigeria's primary school system and its failure to achieve statedobjectives. Reduced levels of capital funding have slowed down thecampaign for primary education and resulted in insufficient and dilapidatedschool buildings, inadequate toilets, roofs, fences, playgrounds,furniture, and storage facilities.

7.2 The latest comprehensive figures on the costs of education wereissued in 1982 by the panel on Alternative Sources for Financing Educatiunin Nigeria. Estimates of changes in sectoral funding presented here arebased on those figures and more recent information. Education as a shareof total federal expenditures fell from 21? (N781 million) in 1981, to 17Z(N599 million) in 1986, 14? (1514 million) in 1987, and an estimated 13Z in1988. While direct total expenditures on education in 1981 showed 362 forprimary, 30.5Z for secondary, and 24.5Z for higher, this had changed to332, S6Z and 112 by 1983. In 1985 the proportions of public recurrentexpenditure per pupi' for higher, secondary and primary education wereabout 50:10:1. Estimates of government expenditures on primary educationvary across states from N67 to N125 per child. In addition parents spendfrom 152 to 1132 annually for uniforms, books, and writing implements. GNPper capita was $370 in 1987. An average rural household's income isestimated at f1,568 -- so, relative to household income, the costs ofprimary education can be substantial. Capital funding has not beenconsistent over the years but figures for 1986 and 1988 indicate thateducation's share of the Federal capital budget will decline from 7.8? to4?, with 130 million earmarked for primary education in 1988.

7.3 The crisis in recurrent costs is serious. During the years beforethe military takeover in 1983, teachers' salaries were often in arrears formany months. The states occasionally borrowed from the federal governmentand external sources to pay teachers when their own budgets wereinadequate. Instructional materials are in chronic short supply. Thefederal budgets in 1986/87 and 3987/88 have provided some ad hoc relief tostate and local governments.

7.4 Most states have also had to cut back the number of teachers'colleges and enrollments since 1984 even though only 37Z of teachers havethe Grade II Certificate, the minimum acceptable qualification for primaryschool teaching.

7.5 Public concern about the financing of primary education has beenhigh. Several government committees (listed in Annex 1) set up since theinception of UPE in 1976 have addressed these problems. Theirrecommendations are briefly reviewed below, and the recent evolution ofprimary school financing is also documented to show how the system hasresponded to financial shortages and how it can devise innovative solutionsin times of difficulty. Finally, relatively radical proposals forfinancing of primary education are evaluated and suggestions outlined fortheir implementation.

- 39 -

7.6 First, it is stressed that given Nigeria's size and the unevendevelopment of education in different regions, it is often difficult togeneralize on a countrywide basis. For example, universal primaryeducation was introduced in the western states in 1955 and Lagos shortlythereafter. By 1985, enrollment rates in these states exceeded 100percent, due to the inclusion of under- and overage children, while Gongolastill had a primary enrollment rate of 48Z. Such differences suggest thatprimary education policy, including financing policy, has to be flexibleenough to accommodate special needs. Moreover, the institutional structureof school finance, the source of funds, per pupil expenditures, and theproportion of public funds targeted for primary education have variedtremendously over a short span of time and across states. So manyinferences about the subsector are conditional and should be interpretedcautiously.

Financing Before UPE

7.7 Traditionally primary education in Nigeria was in the hands ofvoluntary agencies (chiefly missionaries) in the southern part of thecountry where the largest concentration of schools -- accounting for over90 percent of enrollment at independence -- were to be found. Theseschools were fee paying but increasingly supported by government grants inaid. In 1955, the old Western Region introduced Universal PrimaryEducation, followed by the Eastern Region and Lagos in 1957. Parents wereexpected to provide school books and supplies. Additional costs forteachers' salaries, expansion of teachers' colleges, and new buildings wereborne by regional governments. This strained regional budgetstremendously. Only the Western Region -- which received a far higher shareof the cocoa tax, the principal source of revenue at the time -- was ableto successfully implement a tuition-free system. The eastern statesretained fees at the primary level except for the two lowest grades.Although this approach was not always effective, it provided a precedentfor the successful introduction of UPE in a part of the nation. Experiencein the north was different. Enrollment rates were very low at 5 to 10percent of nationwide enrollment at independence although the population ofthis region was larger than that of the other two. This was mainly becauseparents preferred the Koranic schools for their children. In contrast tothe south government schools were dominant, but pupils paid substantialfees even though local education authorities received state and localauthority grants.

7.8 The structure of government has undergone major changes but it isworthwhile to review the old system at a time when schools were consideredto be adequately staffed and maintained. In the north, state grantsamounted to N12 per pupil, plus grants for backward areas andadministrative and domestic science staff. Local government grants were anunspecified amount per pupil plus a grant to cover the deficits of thelocal educational authorities. Pupils paid tuition fees, usually on agraduated scale. In the west, the state paid teachers salaries, the localgovernment provided teaching materials, and parents, either directly orthrough PTAs or community associations, maintained school buildings.School furniture was provided by either tier of government, with parentscontributing additional amounts. In the eastern states, too,responsibility was shared. Postwar rehabilitation grants ensured that

- 40 -

school buildings built by volun-:ry agencies were in reasonable shape.School furniture was replaced through such grants.

7.9 Several factors contributed to this equilibrium in financing. Inthe north, parental responsibility was minimal but parental fees were highconsidering the region's sociocultural bias against attending governmentschools. As a result, enrollment was low. The east and west parental andcommunity involvement was higher with government responsible only for thepayment of teachers' salaries. These regions still had much of theoriginal stock of buildings provided by voluntary organizations and federalrehabilitation grants. This reduced the burden on community associationsand state and local governments but that legacy has eroded over time.

Financing During the Push for UPE and After

7.10 The federal government undertook the initiative for UniversalPrimary Education (UPE) motivated by the realization that the degree towhich the northern states lagged behind in education was inimical tonational unity. On the eve of UPE, in the northern states, the primaryschools in Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Kano and Sokoto -- with 352 of thenation's population -- were attended by only 142 of the total pupilsenrolled all primary schools. A single Southern state, Imo, had over 85Zof the students enrolled in all five northern states. The decision tointroduce UPE was announced in January 1974 and became effective in the1976/77 school year. The Somade Comnittee, appointed by the federalgovernment in 1969 to examine the question of U]?E had cautioned against itsrapid introduct'on and predicted "negative and disastrous consequences" ifthe move was not carefully planned. The Federal Ministry of Finance staffwas also opposed to the scheme, pointing out that the unit costs of UPE,computed by a Committee in 1973, were already outdated by inflation andthat the upcoming census and Udoji Commission wage awards would indicatemuch higher expenditures than anticipated. The state governments were atbest neutral to the idea although the policy statement on UPE indicatedadditional costs would be borne by the federal government and the stategovernments would act only as implementing agents. The local governmentswere not mentioned at all.

7.11 The 1981 National Policy Statement on Education (Revised), declaredprimary education to be free and universal. What exactly was to be "free"and to whom has been the subject of debate. The original concept was thatbooks and other supplies would be provided out of public funds. The roleof parents and communities in providing additional resources was notspecified but it was presumably to be minor or supplementary. Subsequentgovernment committees largely agreed that "freew meant only freedom fromthe obligation to pay fees. Committees and educators have acknowledgedthat while teachers' salaries should be provided out of public funds,parents and communities have important obligations. Moreover, impositionof a straight fee is contrary to the ideal of *free" education, but even ina "free* system the costs have to be borne by someone. The issue is how todistribute the burden equitably. Government policy on this point hasvaried over time.

7.12 The original UPE proposal was based on an estimated expenditure ofN35 per pupil for recurrent costs and N3,500 per classroom for capital

- 41 -

costs. The expectation was that 10 million pupils would be enrolled in theprimary schools. so the estimated recurrent expenditure was 1350 million.

7.13 These estimates proved to be unrealistic from the start. Theofficial estimate for recurrent grants per pupil had increased to P72.50 by1977, but the actual grant vas raised only to N40 per pupil in 1978. forlack of resources. Similarly, estimates of building costs rose to betweenN4,000 to 15,000 a classroom but the federal grant was cut back to W2,500 aclassroom. Enrollments also ran higher than expected. By 1979/80 they hadexceeded 12 million and were still rising.

7.14 The real crisis came in 1981, however, when the federal governmentwithdrew totally from the direct financing of primary education, after thenew constitution made education a state and local responsibility. Inprinciple federal withdrawal was compensated by the increased revenuesgiven to state and local governments. Under the new revenue sharingscheme, the federal government's share of divisible national revenuesshrank from 701 to 55Z with 1OZ going to local and 452 to stategovernments. In practice, the new financing scheme proved unworkable forthree reasons:

(a) UPE was seen . 3 a federally supported scheme, so withdrawal ofth. federal govprnment left a leadership vacuum. The brunt ofthe financial burden and other responsibilities fell on localgovernments which were weak, did not always receive theirstatutory 10X share of federal and state revenues in periods offalling oil prices, and in many areas had been under politicalpressure to give up such important traditional sources ofrevenue as the cattle and community taxes.

(b) The state governments interpreted the tying of 152 of theirfederation account receipts to primary school enrollment asindicating that this was the amount they should contribute toprimary schooling. This amount proved inadequate. Stateshares have turned out to be much larger.

(c) As a result of certain administrative rearrangements, such asthe abolition of the old local education authorities in thenorthern states, primary education had to compete forexpenditures with other sectors. In this competition it faredbadly, especially in states where educational expenditures werecontrolled by the Ministry of Local Government rather than theMinistry of Education.

7.15 In summary, the slump in the oil market in the 1980s has meantthat, even in nominal terms, state and local government revenues in 1986were below the level reached in 1982 -- in real terms they were halved.Absolute spending on primary education by all tiers of government was boundto decline even if their relative shares were preserved.

Present Financing Patterns

7.16 There is considerable variation in the relative contributions ofstate and local governments, fees, and PTA contributions in kind towardsustaining the schooi system. The federal government contributes its share

- 42 -

only in the form of special grants. Most states imposed either adevelopment or an education levy, especially after 1984, to deal withworsening finances. Under provision 3(15)1 of the National Policy onEducation, fees are prohibited at the primary level. The development oreducation levy has also been withdrawn in the 1987 or 1988 budget for manystates. It has proved difficult to sustain a levy which, by definition,is a charge levied for a specific purpose or a crisis situation and not along-term tax. Many states reduced or abolished the levies in response tothe improvements in revenues after depreciation of the naira late in 1986(Appendix Table 21). Table 7.1 shows the various sources of financing forprimary education, based on available information.

Tabl- 7.1: PRIMARY EDUCATION - SOUCES OF FINANCING

PTAS and ComuxnityFederal state Local Parents Organizations

Major Som capital T"chers' salaries Uniform and Build schoo s,capital projects; (1OX in Sokoto, 50X station-ry; provide furniture**projects; teachers' in Bonue and Ogun, recurrent costsgrant for salaries 58X In Io (1988], (26X in Imo, andtextbooks (90X1 n 66X In Cross 9X in Cross River)*;

Sokoto, SOX River); maintenance textbooks (in theIn Ondo); and provision of high enrollmenttextbooks tollets and wate-; southern states)

share of textbooks

e Direct enrollment foes are prohibited, so most fees are In the nature of registratior, initiation, or examination fees, etc.

S The role of PTAs and community organizations varies. In some areas they are effectiveIn helping to ustain primary education through crisis sitjations; in others they aremarginal.

Source: consultant's report

7.17 Little information is available about capital expenditures. Inrecent years, capital expenditures at the state and local levels have beencut back drastically and total expenditures have not been much above Nibillion in 1985 and 1986, although some recovery probably occurred in 1987.Evidently, little of this amount has been spent on primary education.State allocations have been directed largely toward secondary, technical,and higher level education. Even in the proposed Fifth Plan theallocations for primary education are meager. In Rivers state capitalexpenditures on primary schools between 1984 and 1986 amounted to less thanhalf a million naira, or less than 5Z of all capital expenditure, and the1987 budget provided for N120,000. Oyo's proposed 5-year plan budgets N167million for education but only N28 million or 172 is earmarked for primaryeducation. Oyo state itself has estimated that it needs 3,000 newclassrooms in the primary subsector, which would cost about 1160 million tobuild, or the entire Five Year Plan allocation for education.

Suggestions for Reform

7.18 Various committees of experts in Nigeria have reviewed policies andstrategies for financing primary education. Their concerns have centeredon the following issues:

- 43 -

(a) determining the financing responsibility and role of each tierof government and the PTAs;

(b) ensuring stability of funding and that funds intended forprimary education are spent on the suhsector;

(c) reforming the existing management of primary educationfinancing; and

(d) obtaining additional resources for the subsector.

The following views have been expressed in the reports.

7.19 The Onabamiro Committee of 1982. The Committee felt that voluntaryagencies should be allowed to establish schools, including fee- payingschools. It recommended that the government should provide instructionalmaterial huch as chalk and dusters but not clothing or textbooks. It hadno specific recommendations about the roles of the government tiers butwelcomed community participation. The report suggested committing aportion of national revenue to capita;L projects for five years in additionto normal annual budget provisions.

7.20 The Eke Report of 1983. The Eke Committee expressed the opinionthat the federal, state and local governments should contribute 152 oftheir statutory revenues to primary education through a Primary EducationJoint Fund. It thought that the division of responsibility between thestate and the local authorities should be decided by the state legislativeassemblies. It recommended bridge loans by the federal gove:nment whenstate institutions break down for lack of finance. The Repcrt was againstfees. It commented on the weakness of local governments in managingeducation at the primary level.

7.21 The Report of the Study Group on Funding Education (The FafunwaReport of 1984). This report recommended that an (unspecified) amount forteaching and nonteaching staff salaries shoul' be taken directly from thefederation account for salaries and allowances for primary education.Teachers' instructional materials were to be provided by the stategovernments while local governments provided furniture, housing forteachers in rural areas, and buildings maintenance. Parents were toprovide textbooks, exercise books, writing materials, and uniforms but thestates were to share costs in disadvantaged states. The report suggestededucation levies of various kinds not linked to access to schools.

7.22 The Hamza Committee of 1987. It recommended that teachers'salaries and allowances should be financed 50Z by local governments, 30Z bystate governments, and 202 by the federal government; and that schoolmaterials and buildings should be financed 50Z by state governments, 302percent by local governments and 20Z by local communities. The report,envisaged local governments and communities helping to finance capital andother changes but not teachers' salaries. The Committee suggested settingup a Primary School Management Board ard a Committee for Procurement andDisbursement of Primary School Funds in each state.

- 44 -

7.23 In its 1987 report, the Political Bureau recommended that thefederal government bear responsibility for paying all primary schoolteachers' salaries in the country and that state and local governments bearresponsibility for providing structures and equipment and maintaining theschools. The federal government accepted this recommendation in a modifiedform, stating in a white paper that primary education would be a sharedfederal and local responsibility.

7.24 Certain features are common to these recommendations:

(a) Tnterest in restoring the federal government's direct role inprimary education, especially in paying teachers' salaries;

(b) Concern that primary education funding be protected fromfluctuations in general revenues and from the encroachments ofother sectors or subsectors;

(c) Insistence that the Ministry of Education supervise all aspectsof primary education, including financing; and

(d) Concern that funds intended for primary education might notfind their way to the local government or the subsector.

Most of the committees felt there was considerable potential for raisingadditional revenues at the state and local level, and there was a consensusthat parental and community participation should be encouraged as much aspossible.

7.25 If steps are taken to implement these measures, the followingshould be taken into account:

(a) The ability of various tiers of the government to performspecific roles depends on their shares of revenue and theirrevenue raising capabilities.

(b) To enst're that federal allocations reach local governments thepractice has been, since January 1988, to bypass the stateauthorities and deposit the required amounts in a joint accountat the local government level. Control of educational financesshould be restored to the state Ministries of Education beforedecisions are made about either earmarking revenues or creatinga special fund for education that does not have to be voted onannually.

(c) Caution is needed in formulating a countrywide policy about theincreased role of parents, PTAs, and community associations.PTAs and community associations cannot be expected to play thesame role everywhere, although they should certainly beencouraged. And, where community or parental support islacking, the local or state government has to step in tomaintain the quality of education.

(d) Resource mobilization at the state aLJ local levels is highlydesirable but tax collection at state and local levels has beenineffective and studies or action plans for revenue

- 45 -

mobilization do not exist in most cases. Growth rates in GDPhave been negative or very low in recent years and thegovernment's poor track record on delJvery of services willprobably stiffen resistance to taxes. Resolving the problem ofraising additional revenues will take time and must besucceeded by a visible improvement in educational services.

(e) Costs must be lowered and wastage reduced. Issues affectingthe distribution of space and books and the capital cost ofbuilding primary schools should be carefully studied.

7.26 In response to the various recommendations, in 1986, the FederalMilitary Government approved federal government direct participation withlocal governments in the subsector. It granted N105 million for primaryschool rehabilitation throughout the country. In 1988 it allocated N300million to local governments for various projects including primary schoolrehabilitation, and granted N30 million to the Federal Ministry ofEducation to help primary schools. At a press conference on March 23,1988, the Minister of Education announced government's approval of plans toraise the level of funding to primary education and for streamliningmanagement. He said that the federal government, from its share of thefederation account, would contribute 652 of annual calculated costs ofprimary school salaries to a National Primary Education Fund to be set upfor the purpose. Ea_h state and local government is required to set asideits contribution to be used specifically for primary education. Under therevenue allocation formula, 80 of the Education Fund will be shared amongthe 21 states plus Abuja, and 202 will be shared among the 12 educationallydisadvantaged states. Allocation will assume the equality of all stateswith amounts allocated proportionate to the total population of each stateobtained from projections of the 1963 population census.

7.27 A National Commission for Primary Education (a parastatal bodyunder the Federal Ministry of Education) will be set up to manage thisscheme. It will advise the federal government of the amount to be deductedannually for specified purposes, and allocate it to the designated stateand other agencies. State and local governments will continue to developand manage primary education with an emphasis on local efforts. Advisorycommittees are to be set up at district and village leve:.s, through whichcommunity involvement in primary education may be effected.

Scenarios for Financing Primary Education

7.28 To help in decision-making related to the underfinancing of primaryeducation and federal actions to sefeguard 65Z of teachers' salaries,financial projections are presented based on four different developmentscenarios:

(a) Scenario A assumes that the enrollment ratio will remainconstant -- that 742 of the estimated primary school agepopulation will be enrolled in school;

(b) Scenario B assumes that by the year 2000 the enrollment ratioin the primary schools will return to 922, the level reached atthe zenith of UPE, in 1982/83;

- 46 -

(c) Scenario C assumes that by the year 2000 Nigeria will achieve1002 enrollment in primary schools (with a slight over estimateto allow for over- and underage children); and

(d) Scenario D assumes that gross enrollment remains constant. Forthis scenario, only selected statistics are presented.

7.29 For each of these scenarios, estimates are made for total schoolenrollments, gross needs for teachers and classrooms, net annualrequirements and estimated capital costs for the additional classrooms,using World Bank population estimates (Appendix Table 2) and 1985/66enrollment figures from the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education. It isassumed that the cost of a classroom (estimated at N20,000 by the July 1987World Bank mission) will increase with inflation: that the domestic rate ofinflation (based on the CPI index) will be 202 in 1988, 15Z in 1989, and10% a year thereafter: and that there will be one teacher for each 40students and one classroom for each class.

7.30 Teachers' salaries are calculated using a weighted sverage of theaverage teacher's salaries from the state with the highest percentage oftrained teachers (Imo:99.9Z) and the state with the lowest (Sokoto:6z).Weighting is based upon a ratio of trained to untrained teachers (63:37nationally). The formula used is:

National average teacher's salary = N 63I(ATS) + 37S(ATS)100

where I(ATS) is the average teacher's salary for Imo and S(ATS) isthe average teacher's salary for Sokoto. For 1988 on, the new civilservice salary scales are used. To give a more complete picture, anallowance of N580 a year per teacher is added to the basic salaryin 1987, and 31365 thereafter. Teachers' basic salaries areassumed to increase 8Z a year.

7.31 Recurrent cost estimates are based on two different assumpticnsabout unit costs.

(a) Estimate A (based on calculations by the July 1987 missionusing data from a few states and LGAs) assumes a unit cost ofN115 of which 93Z is for teachers' salaries and the rest non-wage expenditures -- the latter rising with inflation. (Forall scenarios the salary component decreases from 93Z to 90Z).

(b) Estimate B is based on the average teacher's salary per pupilplus 32 for teaching materials, 310 for textbooks (based on amission-estimated average cost of 6 primary texts, at 330,amortized over 3 years), and 35 for building maintenance withnonwage expenditures rising with inflation and the salarycomponent falling from 86Z to 81% of total unit costs over 15years.

7.32 Under Scenario A (Table 7.2) -- assuming that the enrollment ratiorema4ns constant at 74Z -- total capital costs over 15 years are N8.9billion, and recurrent costs increase lot annually, quadrupling in 15years. The federal goveranent's 652 share of teachers' annual salaries

- 47 -

increases from less than N1 billion to nearly ki4 billion ill the sameperiod. The amount currently set aside is sufficient only for the firstyear.

7.33 Under Scenario B (Table 7.3) assuming the enrollment ratioincreases to 92Z by the year 2000, the total capital required foradditional classrooms is 114.5 billion, and recurrent expenditures increase101 to 122 annually, reaching N9 billion, of which N7.3 billion is wages.Teachers' salaries increase from N1.5 billion to N7.3, the required federalcontribution rising to 114.7 billion.

7.34 Under Scenario C (Table 7.4) assuming that Nigeria will achieveuniversal primary education by the year 2000 a total of 119 billion will berequired to provide additional classrooms. Recurrent expenditures,increasing by 112 yearly, will reach 119 billion, including N8.3 forteachers' salaries. The federal government's contribution to wages would beN5.4 billion.

7.35 Simply to hold gross enrollment constant at 13 million through theyear 2000 (Scenario D) will require N3 billion to supply the currentshortfall in infrastructure. Unit costs under this scenario will rise toN2.2 billion, N3.1 billion, and 14.5 billion in 5, 10, and 15 years,respectively. Wages will increase from 11.4 billion to N3.6 billion, withthe federal government's share increasing from N0.9 billion to N2.3billion.

Table 7.2: PROJECTED FINANCING REqUIREMENTS - SCENARIO Al

Projections Co.t Estimtes (N million)

Enroll- - Recurrent Costs…Enroll- mont Total Total Pupil Teachers'ment Ratio Teachers Additional Capital Unit Costs Salaries

Yer ('000) (X) Rooms Classroom Coot" A B Total 865

1985/88 12,916 74 822,876 n/a n/. n/a n/a1987 18,838 74 888,450 10,675 212 1,684 1,664 1,426 9271988 18,862 74 a48,660 13,100 801 1,956 2,093 1,816 1,1801989 14,424 74 860,600 14,060 86 2,164 2,837 1,998 1,2991990 14,992 74 874,800 14,200 895 2,884 2,679 2,206 1,4841991 15,470 74 886,760 11,960 866 2,614 2,846 2,418 1,670|19m 16,858 74 896,450 9,700 827 2,870 8,108 2,632 1,7121998 16,518 74 412,960 16,600 611 8,188 8,469 2,915 1,8951394 17,284 74 480,860 17,900 729 8,660 8,878 8,288 2,1061996 17,891 74 447,276 16,425 786 8,936 4,294 8,682 2,8281996 18,458 74 481,826 14,060 698 4,886 4,742 8,939 2,6601997 19,040 74 476,000 14,676 796 4,798 6,274 4,388 2,820199 19,904 74 497,600 21,600 1,289 6,854 6,911 4,848 3,1481999 20,589 74 518,476 15,875 1,042 5,968 6,672 6,360 8,4842000 21,094 74 527,860 18,876 ',002 3,639 7,236 6,867 3,814

!/ Assumes that the enrol lmnt ratio will remain constant--that 74X of the estimated primaryschool primary school age population will be enrolled in school.

Source: Staff estimtes

- 48 -

Tabl 7.3: PROJECTED FINUACING REQUIREMENTS - SCENARIO B8

Projections Coat Estimates (N million)

Enroll- ------ Recurrent Cost -Enroll- m_nt Total Total Pupi Teachors'

c nt Ratio Teachers Additional Capital Unit Costs SalariesYer ('000) (X) Rooms Classrooms Costs A 8 Total e6%

1965/86 12,915 74 822,876 n/a n/. n/a n/a1987 18,626 76 840,625 17,760 855 1,667 1,690 1,462 9441988 14,374 77 359,860 18,726 431 2,027 2,170 1,983 1,2241989 16,166 76 379,126 19,775 500 2,276 2,467 2,104 1,3661999 15,999 79 399,976 20,650 6o0 2,644 2,762 2,864 1,5301991 10,679 61 421,976 22,000 678 2,863 3,106 2,688 1,7181992 17,607 83 446,176 28,200 781 8,228 8,490 2,966 1,9211993 18,766 84 469,650 24,476 907 8,626 8,945 3,816 2,1661994 19,619 6s 495,476 26,626 1,062 4,083 4,459 8,724 2,4211995 20,909 87 522,725 27,260 1,221 4,600 5,018 4,186 2,7211996 21,946 66 648,625 25,900 1,07? 5,157 5,640 4,686 8,0461997 22,899 89 572,476 23,860 1,298 6,771 6,548 6,217 3,3911998 24,207 90 606,175 82,700 1,951 6,512 7,189 6,890 8,8291999 26,257 91 681,425 26,260 1,728 7,326 6,082 6,691 4,2842000 26,226 92 656,650 24,225 1,749 6,180 8,996 7,294 4,741

*/Assu_ that the enroll mnt ratio will Increase to 92x by the yer 2000r3hurco: Staff estimates

Table 7.4: PROJECTED FINANCING REQUIREMENTS - SCENARIO CO

Projections Cost Estimates (N million)

Enroll- ------ Recurrent Cost-…Enroll- ment Totol Total Pupil Techorscm_nt Ratio Teachers Additional Capital Unit Costs Salaries

Year ('000) (f) Rooms Classrooms Cots A B Total 65X

1985/8S 12,915 74 822,875 n/. n/a n/a n/a1987 13,698 76 342,476 19,600 392 1,656 1,699 1,460 9491966 14,611 78 306,276 22,800 524 2,060 2,206 1,914 1,2441989 16,594 80 S89,860 24,576 622 2,339 2,526 2,164 1,4071990 16,618 82 415,325 25,475 709 2,641 2,867 2,444 1,6891991 17,601 64 489,026 23,700 726 2,968 8,281 2,748 1,7881992 18,430 66 480,760 21,725 732 3,s83 8,612 8,058 1,9881993 10,643 88 491,076 80,326 1,124 3,791 4,125 8,467 2,2641994 20,960 90 524,000 32,925 1,842 4,316 4,716 3,936 2,5601995 22,243 92 660,076 82,076 1,438 4,893 6,888 4,463 2,8941996 23,441 94 586,025 29,960 1,477 5,609 6,024 6,004 3,2531997 24,700 so 617,600 31,475 1,707 6,224 6,642 6,627 8,6681996 26,359 98 658,975 41,476 2,474 7,091 7,829 6,414 4,1691999 28,6,0 100 712,60 63,675 8,522 8,267 9,122 7,489 4,8362000 29,691 102 742,276 29,625 2,136 9,204 10,184 8,268 6,368

*/ Assum that Nigeria will achieve 1001 enrollment in the primary schools by the year 2000.source: Staff estimates

7.36 Under any of the scenarios, the Ni billion put aside to safeguardwages is insufficient for all but the first year or two. The role of thestates in funding the subsector is unclear. And the capacity of localgovernments to provide the remainder is doubtful as they are currentlyfunded more by revenue-sharing arrangements (statutory grants providingabout 0S of their revenue) than by locally collected taxes. Unless these

- 49 -

issues are addressed, there may be a deficit not only on the wage bill buton nonwage expenditures. Should this happen, the quality of the schoolswill be further jeopardized and enrollment ratios will continue to fall.

7.37 The worst possible scenario is if the federal allocation remainsconstant and the number of teachers has to be reduced. By the year 2000the Ml billion will be sufficient to pay only about one-third of thecurrent teaching force, conditions in the schools will decline, access willbe eroded as the subsector's capacity falls to the pre-UPE level. In theinterests of justice, fairness and national development this eventualitymust be avoided.

7.38 There is no question that the schools should be improved andenrollments raised, but Nigeria must adopt policies that are implementable,affordable, and sustainable. In this context, the nation faces certainissues. First, should Nigeria improve the quality of its schools or expandthe system? Improving the qua'ity of the schools may increase demand;expanding the schools, under current financial constraints, will surelylower standards further. This is not necessarily an either/or choice butany policymaking must reflect a balancing of tradeoffs.

7.39 Second, if the federal allocation is safeguarded, state and localcontributions should be determined and similarly assured. Are therealternative sources of revenue? Some regions of Nigeria have succeeded ininvolving the community in providing education. Are there ways tointensify local involvement in other regions? All of these possibilitiesshould be fully explored and recommendations made.

7.40 Can cost savings be made? Primary education is the most costeffective educational subsector. Already capacity utilization is beingpushed to its limits -- in urban areas more than one school uses buildingson a single site and double shifts are employed, while in rural schoolsthere is multigrade teaching. Nonwage expenditures are well below acceptednorms, the deficit being borne by parents whose contribution to primaryeducation matches government's per capita expenditures. Pupil/teacherratios are nationally higher than government policy allows showing thateconomies have been effected in teacher use. Further econonies wouldintensify the existing poor conditions in many schools. As the normalmethods of effecting economies have been saturated the only route is toinvestigate more experimental ways of reducing costs.

Chapter 8

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 This document provides an analysis of Nigerian primary educationand assesses the present status of implementation of selected major policyobjectives in the subsector. It presents evidence of quantitative andqualitative decline in Nigerian primary education, highlightingdeficiencies in provision that are characterized by underfinancing,inefficient control and management, the non-availability of adequate humanand material resources, and imbalances in access and equity.

- 50 -

8.2 In many respects the study presents a severe assessment of thecurrent state of primary education in Nigeria, which has been attested toby further consultant field studies throughout Nigeria since the initialdraft was produced. The primary subsector has made outstanding progresstoward universal enrollment since the mid 1970s. The overriding importanceof primary education, for the viability of all higher levels of educationand for the nation's continued growth and development is indisputable.Consequently, a thorough analysis of the problems and issues within thesubsector is essential so that government officials outside of educationand senior Bank management support this important subsector.

What Is Happening to Enrollments?

8.3 There is evidence of substantial and continuing declines inabsolute primary education enrollments. The magnitude of the reality may beworse than it appears due to earlier inflation of statistics, but there isno doubt that since the reduction in federal allocations and theintroduction of fees and levies the number of primary students hasdecreased in almost every state.

8.4 Underfinancing alone does not account for enrollment declines. Ifschool closures were rational and the average class size were allowed toincrease, existing premises could probably accommodate as many pupils asthey did in 1982. Nor is there any evidence that pupils are turned awayfrom school. The decline in enrollments probably has less to do with adecline in "supply" than with a drop in demand. For one thing, parents,whose purchasing power is declining, are unable to pay the educationallevies and other contributions required in some states. They may also beunwilling to send their children to school because they perceive a declinein standards and realize that education is not worth what it once was.Indeed, they may be unprepared for the opportunity costs of maintainingchildren in school.

8.5 Regional and gender imbalances persist. Physical facilities arebetter in the south and east of Nigeria. Children in the northern statesare disadvantaged in their access to education. Nationally females areless likely to be enrolled than males, especially in northern governmentschools, as parents tend to prefer to educate sons or to send daughters toreligious schools. It is difficult to measure the long-term effects ofsuch imbalances, but they are significant -- particularly in shapingattitudes toward education and in socialization.

How Good Are the Primary Schools?

8.6 The pupil-teacher ratio has deteriorated from 35:1 in 1975 to 42:1in 1985. On average, there is less than one teacher (0.95) per class,partly because provision for teaching training did not keep up with schoolexpansion especially during 1979-1983, and partly because of recentretrencbment on teaching staffs and defection from the service as pay haseroded and payment has been irregular. Government policy is a 30:1 targetratio. Research shows little difference in achievement between classeswith 35 and classes with 40 students.to a teacher. Population densityvaries enormously, however. The average pupil-teacher ratio may be 42:1,but in some urban areas it must be at least 80:1.

- 51 -

8.7 The percentage of teachers with Grade II certificates (anythingfrom 2 years postsecondary or five years postprimary training) or aboverose from 34Z in 1975 to 43Z in 1982 and 63Z in 1985 -- largely as a resultof letting less qualified personnel go. However. partially as a result ofteacher training programs to implement UPE, many teachers have inadequateacademic and professional backgrounds and teaching experience, which limitstheir classroom proficiency and their pupils' progress. Primary schoolteachers are particularly ill-equipped to teach science and mathematics.Many of the issues Nigeria must resolve revolve around the quality ofteacher training and -- since government intends to upgrade teachers, aboutthe cost-effectiveness of both preservice and inservice residential anddistance-learning teacher training courses.

8.8 Head teachers are potentially a key factor in student achievementbut Nigeria's head teachers work under difficult conditions, tend toconcentrate upon administration, and have few opportunities forprofessional training to upgrade their advisory skills either as masterteachers or as supervisors of instruction.

8.9 Curriculum development is good, to the extent that objectives,content, syllabuses and materials are defined. There are too manysubjects, however, and the bias is too academic. Teachers emphasizememorization and rote learning at the expense of practical skills andunderstanding, which is unsuitable for a 6-year program with 6 to 11-year-old children under existing teaching conditions. Parts of the curriculummay also be irrelevant. National policy outlines broad curricular goalsbut does not define the purpose of primary education under currentconditions of a changing society in economic and demographic crisis. Thecurriculum might, for example, emphasize the development of skills forself-employment.

8.10 Student assessment is largely examination based and the failurerates on the examinations for leaving primary school and competing to entersecondary school are high. Whether the failure rates are high because offalling standards, as some people say, is difficult to substantiate on thebasis of examination results as student scores are not strictly comparableover time and between regions. To reduce undue reliance on examinationsgovernment has introduced a policy of continuous assessment -- withteachers measuring student achievement as they progress through the schoolyear. This needs to be worked out in detail, however, before the primaryschool leaving examination is even partially discarded. Teachers must betrained in assessment and a way devised to assess students comparably indifferent regions.

8.11 There are not enough classrooms. Nigeria needs an estimated135,000 new and rehabilitated classrooms at a cost of at least N=3 billion.Many school buildings are old, poorly maintained, inadequately furnished,and occasionally unsafe. To accommodate all pupils and to comply withgovernment policy restricting double sessions and limiting class size, someurban schools share sites, with several classes and an equal number ofteachers using the same room simultaneously.

8.12 The shortage of instructional materials particularly textbooks andlibrary books is severe. The N1.5 per pupil allocated annually for

- 52 -

instructional materials is totally inadequate. Fifteen times that amountwould be more realistic for even a minimally acceptable level of supplies.

8.13 School inspectors are inhibited by a lack of financial and physicalresources, understaffing, inadequate qualifications, poor conditions ofservice, too many functions and too much emphasis on administrative duties.They have little time to help undertrained teachers.8.14 Management and administration is as constrained as the inspectionservices. In addition there is a duplication of function between differentadministrative levels resulting in inefficiency.

8.15 Planning is erratic. It is constrained by the absence ofsystematically gathered statistical data, by mediocre financial andphysical resources, a shortage or poor distribution of suitably qualifiedpersonnel, and the low status of planning units in the decisionmakingprocess. The planning process is unrealistic so human, physical, andfinancial resources are uncoordinated contributing to regional imbalancesand declining enrollment.

RECOMNENDATIONS

Improve Financing

8.16 The federal government should re-establish and strengthen itsdirect role in primary education. Measur?s have been taken to safeguardteachers' salaries by establishing a national primary education fund intowhich federal funds amounting to about one billion naira -- covering 652 ofprimary teachers' salaries -- will be deposited, with state and localgovernments setting aside the balance.. Moreover 20? of this fund is to beassigned to disadvantaged states. This is a step in the right direction,but there is no assurance that the states and localities can supply thedifference, especially at this time when it is important to keep up withthe growth in the school-age population and to improve the quality ofinstruction. A study should be launched immediately to decide if thefederal allocation is adequate and if the formula for distributing fundssatisfies criteria of equity and efficiency.

Provide Instructional Materials

8.17 Research indicates that even marginal injections of instructionalmaterials into resource-starved classrooms can substantially improvestudent achievement. Efforts must be made to improve the supply ofeducational materials, especially textbooks. The ongoing discussionsbetween the Federal Ministry of Education and book publishers and printersare encouraging, and so is the imminent release of the government's bookpolicy. Several issues require resolving, however. The high cost of bookproduction must be addressed if the supply of books to the schools is toincrease. Paper accounts for up to 70Z of a book's price, so costs couldbe reduced considerably by removing the 25Z import duty on paper, directlyor through a rebate. Further economies could be effected by changing bookspecifications. In the interests of durability it may not be cost-effective to reduce paper and cardboard cover weights but reducingspecifications unrelated to durability -- such as number of colors, pageformat, and size -- would reduce costs. Introducting a long-term policy on

- 53 -

book procurement could eliminate waste of superfluous stock. Stifferpenalties are required to control the problem of book piracy, whichultimately raises book prices for legitimate consumers and often means lessdurable products. Some state governments have sizable outstanding long-term debts to local publishers which must be repaid if they are to continuereceiving supplies. The level of book care i low. To prolong the livesof books and make them accessible to a maximum number of pupils, teachersmust be trained to practice and teach book conservation and greateremphasis must be placed upon the responsibility of pupils, teachers andheadmasters to preserve and make maximum use of property. To reinforcethis accountability. help recover the cost of providing books, andencourage book conservation, Nigeria might consider a book fee or rentalpolicy -- very cautiously, in view of evidence that enrollments began todecline when fees were introduced.

Increase Access

8.18 In view of declining enrollments, the media should be used toincrease public awareness of the importance of primary education andregular school attendance -- especially in regions where enrollment hasfallen most and among disadvantaged groups, particularly women. Governmenthas taken measures to address women's low rate of participation in schoolsthrough the Women Education Unit and through conferences on, for example,women's participation in science, mathematics, and technology courses.This type of action should continue. These measures,together with improvedinstruction, should increase demand for primary education. Providingadditional classrooms and qualified teaching staff in response to increaseddemand and to cover present deficits will be very expensive and should bedone gradually. Where feasible, other methods of expanding access shouldbe considered -- these include double shifts, multi-grade teaching, andalternate year intakes. Already many classrooms are being fully used. Iffurther economies are not possible, alternative innovative methods ofincreasing access at minimal cost should be explored.

Rationalize Management

8.20 To imp. ve the effectiveness of the system it is necessary torationalize the responsibilities for primary education among differentlevels of goveranment. The financial and managerial roles of each tierrequires careful delineation with central monitoring and facilitating. Overa period of time there could be gradual devolution of responsibility to theperipherary resulting in community accountability for local schools.

Strengthen Planning

8.19 Government is fully aware of weaknesses in educational datagathering and reporting -- and in economic, facility, and personnelplanning within the subsector. The capacity of federal and state planningunits should be upgraded to improve the data base and to produce viableplans and strategies for development of the subsector.

Strengthen and Reform Supervision

8.20 The Federal Ministry of Education should continue its currentefforts to upgrade and strengthen the inspectorate services. The

-54 -

inspectors' role, now heavily administrative, must be changed so thatinspectors spend more time advising and training teachers and organizatingcourses. Emphasis should be placed on improving the inspectors' role inencouraging teachers to use and manage Instructional materials effectively.School-based professional upgrading should be strengthened, withheadteachers and senior staff responsible for advising teachers onclassroom practices, including teaching, methods, management techniques,and more proficient use of materials.

Facilitate Relevant Research

8.21 The measures recommended for improving the quality of instruction,increasing enrollment, facilitating planning, and improving quality controlinvolve short- and medium-term strategies. Other problems highlighted inthis study require further research before solutions are proposed. Fundingto appropriate institutions will facilitate coordinated research into keyissues. Recommended research subjects are, among others:

(a) the quality and relevance of curriculum content and materialsto local conditions, especially in mathematics, science, andlanguages; reducing the curriculum load and improvinginstruction; creating good conditions for curriculumevaluation;

(b) evaluation and assessment at the primary level as a tool forimproving teaching and learning;

(c) the primary school teachers" terms and conditions of service;(d) pre- and in-service training (including the quality of

entrants, the content and quality of the curriculum, methods,instructors, physical resources and instructional materials inteachers' colleges) with a view to making firm recommendationsabout improving teacher education and instructionalerfectiveness;

(e) community participation to improve primary education;(f) existing physical facilities with a view to renovating

dilapidated buildings, adding necessary structures and planningfor the future;

(g) the education of special groups, such as women, nomads,itinerate fishermen; and gifted children;

(h) innovative measures to reduce costs and improve the efficiencyof the system in terms of input/output (i.e., rates ofdropouts, push-outs, drop-ins and repeaters); and

Ii) the efficiency of the m1r:agement of primary education, inparticular issues involving policy-making, planning andimplementation, the roles and functions of the three levels ofgovernment (federal, state and local) and of the schoolmanagement boards and directorates.

8.22 These recommendations are by no means exhaustive but it is hopedthat they will form the basis for ongoing improvements and innovations inNigerian primary education and will produce a qualitatively better, morerelevant, service for which there is increased demand.

- 55 -

Table 1: TOTAL POPULATION AND PRIMARY SCHOOL ACE POPULATION 1976/1987

Total Population Primary School Age PopulationMid- -- School ----------------- -----------Year Government World Bank Year Government World Bank

1976 14,891,806 74,884,000 1975/78 13,830,8511976 70,823,50a 76,758,006 1976/77 18,674,6531977 78,805,600 78,656,00 1977/78 14,027,3971978 80,889,690 80,568,000 1978/79 14,889,4491979 82,926,000 82,603,900 1979/80 14,760,8281980 85,067,000 84,732,000 1980/91 15,141,9261981 87,264,800 87,629,0a0 1981/82 16,588,0451982 89,518,600 90,418,000 1982/83 16,934,811

1988 91,831,800 93,402,000 1988/84 18,846,0601984 94,205,800 98,485,000 1984/85 16,768,6821985 96,641,500 09,689,00 1985/88 17,202,187 17,880,00

1986 99,141,300 103,167,0w 1987 17,647,161 18,026,000

The National Population Bureau projections above are ussd by the Federal

OffIce of Statistics. Howover, the Ministry of Health uses a lSX estimateof the '-*otal population to arrive at a 15,862,600 primary school agepopulation In 1986. The Ministry of National Planning projections use17X of a slightly higher total population to reach a figure of 18 million.

SOURCES: 1. Total population:Government: National Population Bureau January 1984World Bank: Africa Region Population Projections 1987-88

2. Primary school age population:Government: Uses UN/ECA estimate of 17..% of total populationWorld Bank: As above

- 56 -

Tabl- 2s TOTAL POPULATION AND PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE POPULATION ls8-2666

Totsl Population Primary School Age Popn 6 Year OldmLid- ---------- SchoolYear Governmnt World Bank Yoer Govern mnt World Bank World Bank

(U)

1985 98,641,56 99,669,00 1985/86 17,262,187 17,886,9M 3,209,M09198e 99,141,866 168,167,6O6 1997 17,647,151 18,025,000 8,315a,6198? 111,715,566 16e6,775,0 1068 18,103,579 18,782,666 3,480,0001988 164,888,606 116,493,006 1989 19,572,271 19,492,600 8,652,001989 167,640,896 114,819,600 1990 19,065,178 20,200,600 3,688,0001990 109,612,400 118,265,00 1991 19,646,667 20,966,006 8,821,6001991 112,657,566 122,800,0 192 20,065,036 21,486,606 8,987,0601992 115,577,166 126,456,606 1998 20,572,724 22,821,000 4,122,0661998 118,572,966 186,719,606 1994 21,106,976 28,289,606 4,284,0601994 121,647,766 185,692,066 1995 21,658,291 24,177,060 4,465,0001995 124,868,606 1w9,576,,se 1996 22,215,641 24,987,000 4,638,060A996 128,642,400 144,156,060 1997 22,791,547 25,729,606 4,771,001997 181,868,7w 148,828,866 1998 28,888,278 26,897,06 4,900,0661998 184,778,66w 158,610,066 1999 23,996,626 27,756,06 5,621,6O1999 188,276,06 168,495,600 206 24,618,128 28,566,066 5,184,602066 141,872,800 168,464,600 2661 25,258,858 29,109,006 5,238,666

SOURCES: 1. Total population:Govenrmsnt: National Populs '-n Bureau January 1984World Bank: Africa Region 'ation Projoction. 1987-88

2. Primary echool age populat..Covernment: Use. UN/ECA estim at of 17.83 of total populationWorld Bank: As above

Table 8: 84MOWETS BY WAD, SEX, AND STATE 1965/06

I II III 1v V VIstat. "hi1 Fousl Ha. Feme _lle Fer1-. Hai* Fee_1* Phil Fe _1- Phl Fo.f_ Phi. Fe_lo Taue

Northern

Baiachi 38,421 23,536 sS,646 21,958 33,231 21,043 51,855 19,0951 25,764 16,452 25,514 15.752 190,428 1170.3 305.267Born* 51,126 34.090 51,920 s2,280 48,042 32.028 40,950 27,300 43,126 22,604 48,010 32,024 283,594 i0.605 4"70.200Kaduna 121.729 4 ,101 105.980 s88892 8e, 69 42,481 80.805 47,434 72.820 43,30S 58,769 33.623 524.880 291,60 816,56sKano 99.121 458611 96,693 44,179 91. 965 39 O6N 8.01o 34,960 85,782 38.902 70,125 3.207 530,61 254,145 76,221Sokoto 79,002 42,628 81,287 42,157 77,697 41,161 81,702 42,987 78,418 42,S80 78,411 36.664 476.467 248,197 724,664

middle

B.... 73.709 56.302 47,454 35,791 43,629 33,372 40,266 29,633 3s,398 25.129 26,267 18.86o 268,725 128,887 487,610Oengola 54,719 34,3s9 43,314 28,941 37,407 26,098 36,174 23,209 35,171 20,695 38,129 17.79 257,914 148,512 384.243Kuare 54,841 80,131 48,635 45,482 486,43 44,738 48,307 41,472 41,843 37,230 38,084 31.597 2,6151 250,680 s25,eoNiger 65,519 36,940 49,66 29,136 43,590 29,063 49.741 0.0722 44,672 20,740 31,34 19.488 2e4,sn21 16,089 451.010Plateau 63,715 49,241 58,572 41,412 49,249 36,727 45,712 34,489 42,23s 51,824 38,999 26.431 291,458 2,0124 511.607FcT AbMa 6,707 5,531 5,203 4,274 4,360 3,5S8 4,460 S.401 8,578 2,425 2,826 1.415 26,631 20,6t1 47.244

Southern L

Anambra 203,809 178.214 131,221 115,756 115,314 102.691 109.646 1oo0,1t 97,020 92,430 82,s98 84.5s2 s3,s7s 674,100 1,414.078BUndo 78,89 78,806 82,238 62.790 67.359 63.862 62.000 60,263 1s,88e 56,589 8,271 50.688 8s5,626 372,948 758.572Croer River 70.039 u,997 55,077 52,167 5s.359 51,109 60,167 48,406 45,915 4,542 40,273 3S,60 314,628 1,6w 66,654leo 89,901 81,s58 82.947 76,427 19,248 70,316 77,501 69,251 70,298 67.557 80,070 61.968 459,965 427,074 e87,c0L6s 55,394 as.101 57.752 58,269 58.607 s0,463 54,400 5W,921 53.60 5.421 4s,842 48,330 32s676 35,60s 682,360Ogwn 46,699 43,181 31,789 30,248 32,249 30.262 28,342 27,373 27.114 26.019 2a.573 22,406 tn9,m1 179.489 69.260Odo4 47,9 47,022 40,708 35,929 39,425 38,7s a8,718 36,014 32,724 31,414 30.904 30,996 280,444 2,958 4SS,897ay* 209,800 204,864 177,53 176,701 163,289 16,607 135,190 115,093 142,116 140,653 116.799 U.204 962,372 973.526 1,935,89Rivers 46,565 44,881 30.003 28,975 28,975 27,73 27,142 27,146 24,487 2,999 18.776 17,995 175,948 170.712 348,660

NIERIA 1557,e886 1,245,113 1,288,524 1,019,766 1,204,207 981,587 1,14S,17 9T 15,325 1,05,90 842,791 927,671 748,663 7,.11,426 5.73,444 12,914,670- - - - - - - - - - - -_ - -_. ..... _ __

SOUTCE: FME

NOTE: Oyo eat;noend u.ing 19e3/84 breedon

- 58 -

Table 4: PRIDRY SCO00L BatUJ8M AN ENttOiLLEN RATIOS 197I/76-1987

Primry School Age Population Priery School Enrollmnt Ratio.YV.. --------------- Enrollments _ _

Governmnnt World Bank Oonrnment World Bank

C11) (5)

1978/76 18,80.681 6.168.47 48.31976/7 15,674.583 *.10.324 59.21977/78 14.027,S97 9,867,961 70.81976/79 14,389.449 10.798650 78.01979/80 14.760.80 12.117.403 62.11980/81 15.141,926 18.777.973 91.01981/82 15.533.048 14,811.608 92.11982/81 15.934.811 14.676,608 92.1198/i84 16,846.060 14,S38,487 68.01984/81 16.768,632 13.025.287 77.719s8/68 17,202.187 17.380.000 12,914,870 75.1

1987 17.647,161 16,025,000

: SOLCE: Priaa,y school enrollmante: FlE

NOTam: 5. Enrol Imnmt In chool your t/t.1 caopcred to primryechool age population in year t

2. Enrollment. In Primary Orcdc I:1975/76 Include. B8 chi, Niaer, River. and F.C.T. Abujn1976/77 to 1980.81 include F.C.T. Abuja. However number. for Ahujamy be Included in statietics of notehboring *totc*.1982/8S includoe catiatet- for Benue and Gongola bm.ed on 1981/62 breakdown1988/84 includes Lagoo figure of 106,906 for 1982/68

_ 59 -

i i I i 4B Q8f9 2r,2t,

j IX_I I

~~ aC

! , I ! i 912 * a R's I F

:~~~~~~~~~3 Z IL,

cfi me ' , wgRS". M in II -1t 1 .

i~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .4 ..

I Iti j j I,S R,0:i {^oo$ii

I j4 I-I-

Ia1 1 1 ogps i sgl25;tg I !U.8S

|~~~ ~~ .4 | Uz|!|| ||5*3l 1g|RC||S2WX{C| |||{|@j 4<

iI j1 i C n j .3 e

|~~~~~~~... .4 .4.4 '-.|* t§ l£ 4: I |0

Tabl 8: FWIDRAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION: 1987 PRELIHINRY NAATIOL PRI4ARY SOML CENSL STATISTICS OF TEAOUB AND SnWTO , SC100S, LU S

STATE S,ATE NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF NO. OF STUDENTS PERcaE NAME W4S SCHOOLS C0ASSES TEAOERS 5TUDENTS ---------------

------------------ ----------- CLASS TEACE LOA S04W01LH F TOTAL N F TOTAL RATIO RATIO RATIO RATIO

1 ANIPA 28 2,074 24,671 10,661 153.18 25,979 420,857 S72,15 0 792,707 S 2 31 84.466 3822 BAUJCHI 16 1,606 8,542 8,463 1,S7S 10,036 197.928 122,694 820,632 49 32 20,040 200a BeDEL 19 1,768 15,824 8,542 9,848 17,890 410.511 896,221 806,782 61 4S 42,460 4S84 9EAE 1S 2,816 16,S02 9,419 3.S64 1s.lOS 310,002 229,698 845,697 38 42 41.977 236s 8N1 1s 1,483 4,808 8,968 I,962 10,930 263,670 181,S36 45,062 103 43 25.837 8258 CR9O5 RIrWR 7 876 1.839 2,748 2,128 4,878 128,269 11S,252 243,821 1S8 SO 34789 428

a IHD 21 2,084 7,018 9,257 13,768 26,020 800,627 480,996 61.82 137 42 45.792 4819 KAOL8 7 1,340 18,967 6.576 3,888 10,114 335,028 281,600 86,828 41 S6 80,947 429

10 KANO 20 8,188 21,330 16,202 1,217 17,419 884,680 249,483 834,083 39 48 41,704 26611 KWARA 12 1,290 9,760 7,87 7,491 15.068 18,637 171,551 38S,188 37 24 30,016 27912 LAUOS a 951 17,209 8,228 11,421 16,644 384,618 387.664 772.209 4 96,37 8121S NICIR 9 996 5,736 8,123 1,264 6,887 141,884 78,864 220,118 38 34 24,488 22114 001 10 1,294 12,818 4,611 6,881 11,192 205,320 193,178 398,498 31 36 39,849 808

1S ONDO 17 1,877 14,174 6,247 7.982 14,229 287,020 248,648 sos,588 38 38 29,789 21 016 OYO 28 2,483 29.028 12,682 1l.806 28,488 S02,201 801,308 1,008,859 38 35 43,831 41217 PATEU 14 1,418 13,173 11.173 3,872 15,045 284,898 226,143 S10,741 39 34 36,482 S6118 RIVERS 10 1,097 2,416 7,108 4,444 11,847 197,549 190.00S 887,SU4 160 34 88,7885 8920 AUJA 9 208 274 1,194 448 1,642 20,183 16,162 86,815 1i3 22 4,035 17921 AKVA INN 10 1.030 10,852 8.871 4.650 10.121 222,599 220.943 448,842 42 44 44,354 43122 KATSINA 7 1,588 10,710 5,713 713 6,486 268,781 118,994 881.728 36 59 84,832 248

TOTAL 273 80,148 287,904 185.073 117.100 270.178 8,847,288 4,709,504 10,886,739 44 39 38,689 380

a - -- - - - _ - G=_ - -

SOUEi WI COMputer Centre, Kadwia.

NOTE Enrollat based on 90i of returns. Total actual *etimated enrolllmnt I 12 mlIIion.

.b I i, tC a I a ia8§9§ | il |

, | X j f t b S 8 s g S ¢ g | u s 8 a ia a

i ffi' |E2§fig|tt§lgEss§§::E~~~ I

* * 4 31lS|4lB El t

I I g I > a " 9 X X W 8 % aB r 8 2 B _ | g B S i- a a3 e)aitc4t,W 48 4. 0 -°ia- °g 5°2#

3 | isez a 8 eea e a ar&4 ct * 3z7

| | e Ia8 S Dgl ;

t | £ * X"us*za;suaamuas ' < ! S~~~~~~~* ii Na

j l . j Fe 8 ta ° g1Bw 1g t;g | | o 8 | | g 8 i s ai

j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I N-4 EsgtYYgi e

, I, ,

i °e 3 0|8*8l9terallt;yeuoRi;ieeti§ 1a °a 1.

i § | eagsa£ggi2W"osua§X;o ! s a 4a

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 19 -

Table 8: FEMALE PRIMARY SCOOL EtOLE'TS ENOLUea RATIOS AN SHARE OF PRIKAY SHS. EtOLLNTS COWARED TO hALE ENROLJN RATIOS BY STATE 1975/76-1985/66

F_eal Priery Enrol leenta F_mel Enrol lmnt Ratios Feo_1 Shero of Enrolloant Hlt Enrollant Ratlee

State 1975/76 1962/83 1965/66 1975/76 1962/66 1908/86 1975/76 1982/83 1965/86 1978/76 IWO/I3 1905/8S

Northern

Bauchi 46,169 164,587 117,689 15.9 47.7 31.7 36.6 37.9 38.2 27.6 78.1 61.2borno 65.350 151,395 166.606 18.3 S5.6 40.7 81.2 86.5 39.7 40.3 61.9 61.9Kaduna 76.186 394,068 291.636 15.6 67.7 46.6 34.9 35.4 35.7 29.0 1U.5 83.8Koan 40.696 367.305 234,545 7.0 44.8 26.6 28.S 30.2 30.7 17.7 108.4 60.1Soketo 43,218 228,384 248,158 8.0 35.4 35.8 31.6 33.4 84.2 17.8 70.7 68.7

Middle

Benue 8S,660 n.n. 198,8S7 28.9 n.e. 53.6 81.4 n.e. 42.5 63.1 n. R. 72.4Gongels 86.667 n.e. 146,332 27.5 n.e. 36.8 33.4 n.n. 36.1 54.8 n.m. 69.6Kear, 74,924 209,373 250,650 36.6 86.0 95.7 41.4 33.7 47.7 31.8 169.1 105.0Nger 20,211 157,410 166,089 14.2 92.9 91.0 36.5 34.9 36.8 24.7 178.0 156.1 0^Plateau 47,736 241,384 220,124 19.7 83.9 71.1 32.3 42.7 43.0 41.4 112.5 94.1 9FCT Abuja n.e. 10.960 20,613 n.S. n.e. n.m. n.a. 37.2 43.6 n.e. n.s. n.n.

Southern

Anambr 270,831 422,311 674,100 63.1 62.7 122.6 42.2 49.5 47.7 86.4 84.S 14. 6Bandel 286,248 429,195 372,946 97.4 122.9 99.2 47.2 49.9 49.2 108.9 123.3 102.5Crose River 272,304 422,506 301,626 6.6 65.6 56.8 46.6 48.6 48.9 75.1 90.3 59.2I.e 846,685 400.893 427,074 79.1 76.9 76.1 46.9 48.5 48.1 89.4 81.7 a1.9Loom 188,764 294,125 3365,S 105.5 129.0 126.7 50.4 51.3 50.7 108.9 117.6 123.5Open 113,638 206.162 179,490 61.3 93.6 75.7 44.3 48.4 48.6 77.2 100.0 60.1Ondo 157,3S6 844,051 222.938 48.3 88.6 63.4 47.1 49.7 49.2 54.1 39.6 55.2Oye 258,973 947,398 973,526 41.6 126.2 12.3 43.9 48.0 50.3 S3.8 136.6 120.9Rivers 136,191 289,271 170,116 67.3 118.5 64.7 S1.1 49.4 49.3 64.5 121.2 66.6

NIGERIA 2.625,061 5,680,743 5,739,217 39.5 71.6 67.1 42.6 38.7 44.4 53.2 113.4 63.9- - - - - . -. .-- ----- ___--

SOIRCE: Feelo primary echool nrollment.: FJE

NOTES: 1. Femal population SO0 af total2. Enrollments in school year t/t+1 compared to primary

school ago population in year tS. 1982/83: Bred on 1981/82 ratios by see

1985/86: Oyo ba"d on 1963/84 ratio by *"a4. Total& incomplete

- 63 -

Tub. 9: l-t: OF SOtILS 1978/76-1486/86 Mo CUASOCSSR 19/684 SY STATE

-- ~~~~~~~~- - -- - - ----- -- ------- - _-- -- - - - - _-----__---- --- - ---- - - ------- -- - - -- - -- -Classeroom

Number, Of Schwool Elearfoos CI.e.. por CI...

State 1975/76 1982/63 1965/86 196/84 198/84 1983/84

Northern

BauchI 1.086 1,839 1.798 11.266 9.328 1.21Sorno 1,626 2.088 1,886 11,000 13.821 0.60Kaduna 8e9 2.886 2.948 17.498 22,901 0.76Kano 679 8.063 8,106 19,881 28.067 0.84Sokoto 782 4,0s8 2,42 17,286 17.644 0.98

middle

sonua 1.200 2.700 2,398 20.694 28,810 0.08Oongol. 1.,64 1,087 1.460 n.e. 14,140 n.e.Kware 889 1.305 1,466 17,430 1,449 1.08Niger 245 1,064 1.164 5,419 11,269 0.48Plateau 68S 1,702 1.37s 9.494 15,8a8 0.60FCT Abuje n.e. 19S 203 1,200 1.080 1.11

Southern

Anambra 1.708 2.050 2.071 16.588 27,617 0.60Bendel 1.562 1.736 1,772 1S.76 21,7S8 0.86Crose River 1,605 1,660 1,489 21,lb 21,809 0.97leo 1,880 1.990 2.010 20,838 28,349 0.87Lgog 244 909 wee 1D,6C00 1,914 0.98Ogun 1,161 1,276 1.277 10.193 12,801 0.80Ondo 1,189 1,627 1,606 18,186 24,747 0.73

yo* 1,993 2.86 3,807 31.050 51,759 0.62Rivers 595 1,066 1,0S1 8,62 10,S53 0.85

NI0EXA 20.924 87,688 85,488 289,244 379.704 0.76

SOUtCE: RE

- 64 -

Table 10: SIZE OF SCHOOLS BY STATE 1975/76-1985/86

Pupils/School Clases/School

stat.e 1975/76 1982/83 1986/86 1982/83

Northern

Bauchi 118 236 171 6.4Borne 137 199 256 6.6Kaduna 264 886 277 7.6Kano 261 897 246 7.6Sokoto 187 169 296 4.8

Middle

Benu- 222 3861 196 8.8Congola 164 280 268 7.2Kwara 8386 476 869 11.9Niger 226 424 B87 10.6Plateau 216 382 372 9.6FCT Abuja n.e. 161 288 5.1

Southern

Anambra 876 416 688 14.2Bendel B88 495 428 12.4Cross River 888 528 414 14.6I.o 898 415 441 11.9Lagos 1585 828 746 15.7Ogun 221 884 289 9.8Ondo 288 426 202 14.80YO 296 695 644 18.2Rlv.er 455 648 819 1B.7

NIGERIA 295 887 864 10.2

SUE= = e

SOURCE: FIIE

- 65 -

Table 11: CLASS SUE, TEACHERS PER CLASS AND PUPILS PER TEACHER BY SeArE 1982/88

Number of Average Techors PuD; IsState Enrolments Clasee Class Size per Clae per Teacher

North-rn

Bouehi 434,166 11,859 86.6 6.89 41.8Borno 414,624 18,821 83.6 0.77 39.0Kaduna 1,112,240 22,033 W6.5 1.88 88.6Kano 1,214,920 28,067 52.7 6.94 S5.8Sokoto 684,030 17,288 89.0 1.06 87.8

Mlddle

Benue 076,720 23,610 41.6 1.08 88.0Gonsole 520,198 18,484 a8.7 1.16 88.4Kwra 6206,907 5,s528 40.6 1.08 ab.7Ntger 460,765 11,269 40.0 0.78 51.5Pltau 656,020 16,281 84.7 1.88 25.2FCT Abuja 29,462 994 29.6 1.57 18.9

Southern

Anambra 868,462 29,117 29.8 1.O6 27.6Bendel 869;922 214 40.0 1.86 29.6Cross Riv6r 888,484 24,282 85.8 0.99 86.8Iao 826,684 28,617 85.0 1.17 80.6Logos 670,921 14,278 40.0 1.06 88.0Ogun 426,294 12,457 84.2 0.97 85.8Ondo 691,898 24,681 28.7 0.87 88.0n0o 1,971,774 61,668 88.2 0.66 68.6R Vero 586,288 14,681 40.0 1.065 8.0

NIGERIA 14,676,668 884,986 88.1 1.06 86.2

SOURCE: FME

Tab bl 2: Nll86 OF TDOERS BY STATE A0 SEX 1975/76-193?

Numbor of Teachers Number of FemaIe Teacher. Proportion of FPlm Teachers

State 1976/76 1982/83 1985/686 1987 1975/76 1982/83 1983/86 1975/76 1982/83 1985/86

N>rthern

Bauchl 4.816 10,608 6,2S6 289 n.n. 1.8586 6.0 n.m. 29.760nrO 6,484 10,640 10.009 1.06, n.n. 2.247 19.6 n.n. 22.4Kaduna 6,828 29.262 16,416 1.65 n.m. n.a. 22.8 n.0. n.a.Kano 6.089 21,757 18,298 19,529 87S n.m. n.m. 9.4 n.m. n.a.Sokoto 3,649 18,074 13,013 807 n.m. 1,264 13.9 n.n. 9.7

Middle

B6nuo 7,313 25,677 12,216 1,171 n.n. n.n. 16.0 n.n. n.-.Ongolm 4.679 15.873 10,244 n.m. n.a. n.n. n.m. n.r. n.m.Kera 8,006 16,037 1S,169 1,795 n.n. 7,322 38.9 n.S. 48.3NiMer 1,874 8,761 6,602 148 n.m. 1.405 9.4 n.n. 20.7Plateu 4,755 22,397 15,1s0 1,179 n.n. n.n. 24.8 n.n. n.a.PCT Abuja n.n. 1,861 1,683 n.n. n.m. 441 n.m. n.D. 26.2

Southern

Anambra 16.36S 80,964 n.a. 5,S25 n.n. n.m. 33.8 n.s. n.n.Bendel 17,909 29,074 17,908 3,937 n.n. n.m. 22.0 n.n. n.*.Cross River 17,079 23,943 15,792 6,371 n.n. 7,081 51.4 n.n. 44.8I. 19,083 27,562 20,938 21,209 S,979 n.m. 12,212 31.4 n.r. 86.3Lagoo 11,S31 18,038 16,613 14.786 5,972 n.n. 11,616 52.6 n.r. 69.9Ogun 8,488 12,060 11,203 10,868 2,945 n.m. 6,601 34.7 n.m. 8.9Ondo 10,914 20,986 16,824 3,902 n.m. 11,113 35.8 n.m. 66.1Oyo 18,913 28,780 n.n. 8,073 n.n. n.n. 42.7 n.n. n.n.Rivers 7,280 15,401 11,826 11,172 2,280 n.a. 4,665 31.0 n.m. 39.4

NIOBIA 177,465 383,989 236,303 52,239 n.m. 67,823 29.4 n.s. 28.7

…---------- ------------------------- - - ---- --------------- ------------------------------ ----- --…

Sa5CFS: FRE; 1987 State Ministries of Education

NOTE: Total* incomplete

Table 13: PRIMARY TEACHER TRAINING: GRADE II TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES 1976/76-1985/1986

…- - - ------------- - ------- - ----------- - ------- - -------------- - - ---- - - - - - -- - ---- --

Number of Colleges Enrollments Final Year Students

state 1975/78 1982/83 1975/76 1980/81 1982/83 1985/8 1980/81 1982/88------------- --------------

Northern

Bauchi 8 22 7,078 109818 19,241 12,806 1,340 5,914Borno 8 n.e. 4,742 19,368 n.a. 20,68m 2,202 n.e.Kaduna 18 22 8,707 22,069 28,849 86,142 , 84 na.Kano 24 28 8,444 22,827 2,3863 21,982 8,172 3,476Sokoto 25 27 9,736 27,064 26,843 18,606 4,087 0,479

Middle

Benue 8 n.. 5 701 20,814 na. 10,598 n.e. n.e.Gongole 12 14 5,832 12,488 17,093 18,518 2,aa3 a.m.Kware i1 18 5,262 12,684 15,177 10,466 1,749 n.e. INiger 14 18 7,080 12,484 10,861 5,981 1,626 n.e. ffiPlateau 14 18 8,8S6 15,686 19,503 18,6Sl 2,174 8,916 -

FCT Abuje n.n. 2 n.a. n.s. 855 1,185 n.n. n.s.

Southern

Anambra 10 21 4,912 16,827 16,278 18,39 6a s,9 5,914Bendel 13 21 8,156 28,987 83,022 12,481 4957 1.nCross River 18 13 7,123 8,738 8,675 1,849 975 6s1Io 21 14 6,97 15,478 9,998 2,214 269 742Lagos 8 8 8,510 7,958 3,99s 2,696 2,as7 72Ogun 6 8 8,141 7,Sol 7,8on 8,566 2,647 8,494Ondo 10 11 4,898 11,484 9,681 1,098 4,761 4,129

O e16 18 8,U41 19,891 12,209 12,748 42,12 4,12Rlv rn. 9 19 8,894 7,911 9,191 ss6 2,408 n.n

NI4ERIA 250 29o 118,222 282,244 270,987 228,881 51,827 41,879ec = _3 _3 3== eo3= = 33

-SOURCES ------I U---

SOtItCES: PME, UNESCO Planning Teem reports

Table 14: TEACHERS BY qUALIFICATIONS 19S5/06

Numbers by Qualification Percentage by qualification

NCE/ Grad II Grade I Other Total NCE/Equiv Crade I Gradh II Other TotalEqulv Certificate Referred lnel. grade. Certiflcate Referred inel. grads.

State 1986/86 19865/86

Northorn

Beuchi 266 2109 1822 2118 6817 4.2 38.4 26.8 3.5 190.0Borno S8 1981 6745 1217 19609 0.6 19.6 67.4 12.2 109.9Kaduna n.a. n.e. n.e. n.n. 16416 nA. nA.. n".. n.o. W.0Kano 48 2576 6991 6688 18293 0.2 14.1 49.1 8.5 196.9Sokoto 62 727 7994 4240 18013 0.4 6.6 61.4 82.6 100.0Middle

Benus n.n. n.n. n.n. n.a. 12216 n.a. n.e. n.e. n.*. 109.0Gongola 100 8674 4148 2322 10244 1.0 86.9 4U.5 22.7 196.9Kwa r 246 e792 4967 8176 15170 1.6 44.8 82.7 20.9 196.0Niger 72 11S 2936 1971 6802 1.1 28.7 48.2 29.9 1in.0Plateau 822 5485 7043 2258 15103 2.1 36.8 46.6 14.9 It.s:fCT Abuj 6 471 647 568 1668 0.4 26.0 a8.4 88.2 196.0 a'Southern

Anambra n.n. n.a. n.n. n.n. n.s. n.n. n.n. n.e. n.o. 19.0Bendel 8621 14046 0 287 17998 20.2 76.5 0.9 1.8 190.9Cross River 0 15792 0 0 16792 0.9 196.9 o.9 9.9 141.9I.o 1244 19667 0 27 209U9 5.9 93.9 0.0 0.1 150.9Lags 1526 12651 1236 1201 16618 9.2 76.2 7.4 7.2 196.0oun 1640 8746 768 149 11208 13.7 78.1 6.9 1.8 1.00Onde 2289 14877 n 158 16824 18.6 65.6 9.9 9.9 190.0Ono n.n. n.n. n.e. n.n. n.n. n.s. n.n. n.*. n.m. n.m.Rrre lla69 8612 2820 48 11241 8.2 75.7 20.6 0.4 190.9

NIGERIA 11744 119420 49697 20a67 285780 5.7 57.7 28.9 12.7 100.0

-- - ------------- - --- - --------- - ----- --- ~~~~~~~~~~~~- - - ----

SWRCE: FIE

NOTES: 1. qualified defined a Grade II Crtificate or higher qualification2. Gradustee among primary school teachers:

1980/81 a81962/83 871985/86 20

3. Totals incomplete

- 69 -

Table 1:t TEAOCRS PERCENTAGE qUAUFPI BY STATE 1M1/91-1W5/6W

Parcoentg ualitled

State 1980/81 1982/83 1986/88

Northern

Bauchl 6.9 18.0 37.6Born* nas. n.a. 26.4Kaduna 87.4 48.7 n.a.Kano 8.4 9.6 14.3Sokoto 2.2 1.6 0.6

Middle

Benue n.a. n.a. n.a.Gongola n.u. n.a. 86.8Kuara 48.8 n.a. 46.4Niger 8.1 9.9 27.8Plateau 20.9 17.8 88.4FCT Abuja r.o. 24.9 26.4

Southern

Anambra 12.1 54.2 n.a.sendal 40.0 40.6 98.7Cross Rivor 86.5 n.j. 100.0ina, $os.0 so.. g.9Lagos 63.7 69.1 85.8Ogun 40.6 54.6 91.8Ondo 49.6 66.4 99.1QYO 44.6 57.S n.a.

R]vors n.s. na. 78.9

NIGERIA 84.1 48.1 68.8

SOURCES: FME; 1987 Stat. Ministries of Education

NOTES: 1. Qualified mans Grade II Certificat, or higher2. Graduates among primary school teachers:

190/61 as1982/88 871965/86 20

S. Totals incomplete: 1960/61 Nigeria based on c. 90X of total1982/88 Nigeri based on c. 76X of total

- 70 -

Table 16 PROGRESSIN AND PROGRESSION RATES 1979/80-1986/8C

Yar I II III IV V VI

1979/88 2,713,988 2,885,012 2,s46,e64 2,e66,928 1,384,717 1,218,978X 94.5 103.6 10O.7 100.8 96.2

1980/81 2,971,696 2,565,204 2,468,566 2,361,881 2,072,262 1,817,921X 89.7 94 95.1 89.8 89.6

1981/82 2,9,66,42 2,664,813 2,410,788 2,348,066 2,109,801 1,862,019U 80.4 86.2 87.4 81.8 82.7

1982/88 2,782,479 2,885,406 2,269,389 2,107,810 1,921,217 1,744,646X 88.7 098.5 03.2 97.2 92.1

1988/84 2,869,288 2,422,482 2,s49,646 2,842,638 2,048,129 1,768,908X 81.7 90.4 s0.8 88.2 82.9

1984/85 2,786,281 2,886,224 2,189,709 2,121,812 1,949,162 1,698,669X 84.6 92.7 94.1 89.7 86.6

19s6/86 2,862,998 2,388,290 2,165,794 2,666,612 1,902,380 1,676,534

AVERAGE PROGRESSION RATE

1979^80-1998/84 14,248,998 12,428,717 11,844,448 11,226,820 9,585,6261986j3l-1984/85 12,874,129 11,688,098 11,281,204 16,166,661 8,892,103Aver ag Rate (X) 86.9 94.1 95.2 90.0 88.0

1980/81-1984/865 14,266,286 12,874,120 11,688,093 11,281,204 10,166,6611981/82-1985/86 14,091,588 12,117,215 11,885,821 10,986,836 9,936,179Average Rate (X) 98.8 97.9 97.4 97.8 98.3

COHORT SURVIVAL X

1979/80 Intake 166.6 94.6 88.8 77.6 75.5 82.61980/81 Intake 16.6 89.7 76.4 78.9 65.6 56.41981/82 Intake 1606. 80.4 79.2 71.5 64.11982/88 Intake 166.6 88.7 86.2 75.51988/84 Intake 100.0 81.7 75.71984/85 Intake 16060 84.6

At 1984/85-85/86 166.6 84.5 78.8 73.7 6e.1 56.9Rates

SOURCE: FUE

NOTE: 1982/88: Total* include estimates for Benue and Gongolabsed on 1982/88 breakdowns

Tablo 17: NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, CLASSES, TOTAL ENROLLMENT, TEACHERS, AND RATIO IN GD. 11 TEACHERS TRAINING COLLEGES 1985/86

A v e r a g N u n b a r o f

Number Number Number Students' Stud nts' Studants' T eahers' Teachers'state of of Total of Per Per Per Per PerNumber state Schools Classes Enrollment Te"chors School Teacher Class School Class

1 Anambre n.n. n.n. 18,639 n.a. n.s. n.s. n.e. n.e.2 Bauchi 11 296 12,806 427 1164 30 43 39 18 Bendel 10 261 12,481 572 1248 22 49 67 2

4 Benue 1S 873 10,696 428 580 25 28 24 1S Borno 17 e20 20,688 425 1215 49 33 25 1

6 Cross Rtver n.r. n.e. 1,849 n.e. n.n. n.s. n.e. n.s. n.s.7 Congola n.n. n.a. 16,618 n.s. n.n. n.s. n.a. n.n. n.a.8 Io 14 86 2,214 257 158 9 28 18 3

9 Keduna 24 733 85,142 1038 1484 34 48 48 110 Kano n.e. n.e. 21,982 403 805 26 43 n.s. n.s.

11 Kware 13 246 10,466 95 n.s. n.e. n.a. 31 2

12 Lagos 4 n.s. 2,696 221 665 27 n.e. 24 n.o.

1? Niger 9 n.r. 5,981 189 445 19 n.a. 26 n.e.

14 Ogun 8 n.n. 3,656 n.s. 547 n.n. 35 24 n.e.

15 Ondo 2 81 1,093 447 n.s. n.n. n.s. n.n. n.a.

16 Oyo 1S n.n. 12,743 n.n. 1168 n.s. 47 so n.s.

17 Plateau 1S 394 18,681 n.n. n.e. n.e. 40 n.s. n.s.

18 Rivers 5 16 836 61 127 13 38 10 319 Sokoto 20 868 18,586 678 675 23 40 19 2

FCT (Abuja) 1 30 1,186 41 1185 29 n.n. 41 1

NIGERIA 223,881

SOURCE: Statistieo A Computer Section Federal Ministry of Education Lagos.

Table IS: NATIONAL TEACHERS' ISTXTUTE, KADUNA TEACHERS' OtADE II CERTICATE EXMTIaN RESULTS 1907

OVERALL PERFCRMANE ANALYSIS

N10. OF CANDIDATESSTATE STATE NO. REGISTERED ThAT SAT FOR EXAM NO. OF PASSES NO. OF FAILURES X PASSESCODE NAME tNT. EXT. TOTAL INT. EXT. TOTAL INT. EXT. TOTAL INT. EXT. TOTAL INT. EXT. TOTAL

e1 ANABRA 6221 2776 709 5205 2708 7913 3349 1l6o 4404 lse 1663 a609 64.8 39.' 65.702 BAUC)I 8S08 2342 5860 3480 2255 57ZS 622 64? 1169 2958 6e9e 456 15.9 28.7 26.403 BENDEL 961 2374 3335 951 2184 813S 4U9 78 1189 462 1484 1946 51.4 32.1 U7.904 GENUE 4152 1952 6164 4116 189u 6906 904 6s6 16Sb 3212 1239 4451 22.6 34.4 25.9es eORND 3a9 2865 3162 298 2778 3074 34 482 S5S 264 2295 2569 11.4 17.3 16.6oe CROSS RIV 1397 1719 3106 1378 168s 8963 454 708 1162 924 977 1961 32.9 42.0 37.907 GONCOLA 2441 a6s3 6J34 2410 3449 5869 311 926 1236 2099 2524 4623 12.1 26.8 21.108 IM 622 768 1325 62L 654 1275 398 331 729 223 323 646 64.1 59.6 67.209 KADUNA 6211 se5s 12966 6le6 5710 11878 474 1641 2123 5694 4061 9766 7.7 28.9 17.910 KAN 207 3972 4179 207 3991 4088 7 749 766 200 3132 3332 3.4 19.3 18.611 KWARA 3336 a381 7187 3308 3727 703S 80l 1217 2018 2607 2610 5017 24.2 32.7 28.712 LAGOS 709 291 2724 764 1884 2598 467 T18 1189 237 1171 1408 66.3 37.8 4S.613 NIGER 153 3161 3269 157 2989 3126 a3 483 114 126 2488 2612 19.7 16.3 16.414 OCtUN 1236 l16s 2342 1227 1os3 2280 723 296 6t18 564 768 1262 58.9 28.0 44.66s aNo 483 692 117s 482 649 1131 190 144 334 292 566 797 39.4 22.2 296

1e OYO 28s3 2487 6320 2837 2393 6230 1648 913 2461 1289 1480 2769 54.6 38.2 47.117 PLATIAU 3994 3330 7814 3952 3272 7224 376 884 1204 3692 2438 M26 9.4 25.5 1s.718 RIVERS 226 1817 1543 212 1223 143S 87 421 508 126 862 927 41.0 34.4 35.419 SOKOTO 550 23e4 2854 531 2208 2737 182 S48 708 869 166 2029 30.6 24.8 25.9 -20 ABUJA 4" 343 841 496 326 821 133 6a 201 363 257 626 29.8 20.9 24.6 S

…------------- … -…-- ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------ -- - ------------------------- - ----- - --------------------

TOTAL 1982 48667 87719 38746 46893 85833 11454 13536 24984 27286 333e3 66649 29.6 28.9 29.2

AMOG THE 85,633 CANIDATES T AT SAT FO THE EXA f4 ATZC(A) 947 RESULTS WERE CANCIL LD(8) 2,020 RESULTS WERE WITH-HELD

AMON THE 24,984 SUCCESSFUL CANDIDATES(A) 16,247 PASSED ENGLISH(B) 5,788 PASSED ARITH.(C) 14,442 PASSED MATHS(D) 15,334 PASSED EDUC.

AWONG THE 6C,649 UWSUCCESSFUL CANDIDATES(A) l,2s5 PASSED ENGLISH WHILE 32,631 FAILED(U) 2,634 PASSES ARITH. WHILE 11,496 FAILED(C) 5,874 PASSED MATHS. WHILE 29,u83 FAILD(D) 11,662 PASSED EDUC. WHILE 46,181 FAILED

- 73 -

Table 19: 1980-82 CIVIL SERVICE SALARY SCALES IN NAIRA

Grad 1 2 8 4 6 6 7 IncrementalLevel Step Rate

…-- --- ------- -- ---------------- …- …---

1 1060 1524 1548 1672 1596 1620 l60 24/30

2 1868 1566 1690 itvs 165 1686 1710 so

a 1672 1614 1656 1608 1746 1782 1824 42

4 1762 1794 1838 1878 1920 1962 2004 42

6 1986 20658 2186 2202 2274 2346 2418 72

6 2418 2514 2610 2706 2802 2898 2994 98

7 8174 8294 8414 8584 8654 8774 8894 120

8 8924 4088 4248 4416 4572 4784 4896 156

9 5112 6274 64a8 6698 6760 5922 6084 162

10 6282 6444 6So6 6768 162

11 7820 7600 7680 7866 186

12 8034 8260 8466 8682 216

18 8712 9082 9362 9872 820

14 9868 10178 10498 10818 820

16 11046 11682 12078 516

16 12854 12936 18606 St8

17 18812 14448 16084 8S8-__--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: FME

Table 20: NEW CIVIL SERVICE SALARY SCALES IN NALR

TncrmmeILevel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 1i 11 12 13 14 16 Rate

1 156s 1629 1740 186o 198l 210 2220 2349 24B0 2650 2700 2820 2940 9se63 818 120

2 133 16s8 1830 1908 2130 2280 2430 2580 273a 28890 a3m3 313 3330 3480 a3ao 1SO

3 1S72 1762 1932 2112 2292 2472 2652 2832 3012 8192 3372 3562 8782 3912 4092 lee

4 1702 1962 2172 2382 2592 2802 3092 3222 3432 3642 8852 4062 4272 4482 4892 213

6 1986 2226 2460 2760 2940 3186 3420 3666 8906 4140 4386 4828 4866 5166 8s4e 240

6 2418 2712 3686 3390 3594 3886 4182 4476 4770 60e4 5358 6652 946 6240 06534 294

7 3174 as86 3998 4410 4822 5234 6846 69s5 6470 6882 7294 770S 8118 8s58 8942 412

8 3924 4422 4920 5418 6916 6414 6912 7410 7908 8406 894 9402 9900 19698 16896 499

9 5112 s7e2 6292 6882 7472 8o62 8852 9242 9832 13422 11012 11802 12192 12782 13372 50o

1i 6 m 6932 7682 8232 8882 9632 10182 10832 11482 12132 12782 13482 14682 14732 16382 659

11 7320 8330 9340 1 6S5 113Wa 12370 13886 14396 15400 16410 Is19

12 o334 9078 16122 11166 12210 13254 14298 15342 16386 17439 1344

13 8712 8616 1392 12024 13128 14232 15336 16440 17544 18648 1164

14 9958 11042 12226 13410 14694 15778 16962 18140 19330 20514 1184

1S 1134 12519 13974 16438 16962 18386 19830 21294 1404

16 12354 13918 15482 17046 18616 20174 21738 23382 1564

17 13812 1546 17100 18744 20388 22032 23676 25320 1e44- - --------------------------------------------------------- ---------- - ------ - ------ - ------------ - ---- - ---- …------ …

SWRCE: FIIE

- 75 -

Tabl- 21: COST RECOVERY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION 1987

Stat. Cost Recovery Provisions

Northern

BauchiBorn* 1987 Levies *xpectod to generate N8.8mKadunaKano 1987 No leviesSokoto 1987 No school ftes

Middle

BenueCongola 1987 Education levy NS/taxable adult abolishedKwarsNiger 1987 NS registration foo plus N2/term upkeep tooPlateau 1987 Education levy NIS/taxable ddultFCT Abuja

Southern

Anambra 1987 Primary I made free (cost N12.Sm)Bendel 1986 Primary fees abolished (cost Nilm) (but Hinchlitffe: NS/term levy)Cross River 1987 Registration fees (budgeted to raise NS.8Sm)Imo 1987 Education levy N25/taxablo adult; Nl0/term equipment chargeLogos 1987 No fees or leviesOgun 1987 No leviesOndo 1986 NS/term levy abolished (1985 revenue was N8.5m)Oyo 1987 Primary remains free; but development levy, and parents pay up to N9/sesslon (?)Rivers 1988 Education levy (NS/term) abolished

SOURCES: 1987 state budget speeches, stte Ministries of Education1987 Technical Committee Report on Organization and Manaaem*nt

of Primary Educatlen

- 76 -

Figure 1 - MALE AND FEMALE ENROLLMENT RATIOSAID FEMALE SHARE OF ENROLLMENT BY STATE1975176

180170-

160

150-140

130120-110

100

90 9

so 2 30 4 6 0111 31 5 61 817C

so~ ~ Benueo 4 0

60~~~~0N

40 r0

30 00of020-

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

~~ Idol. Fernole Female share

State Identification Number

1 Anambra2 Bauchi3 Bendel4 Benue5 Bono6 Cross River (including Akwa-Ibom)7 Gongola8 imo9 Kaduna (including Katsina)10 Kano11 Kwara12 Lagos13 Niger14 Ogun15 Ondo16 Oyo17 Plateau18 Rivers19 Sokoto

- 77 -

Figure 2 - WLE AND FEMALE ENROLLMENT RATIOSAND FEMALE SHARE OF ENROLLMENT BY STATE1985186

180 -

170

160-

150

140130 0

120

110100~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0

10 2 3 91 11 13 41 61 81

bA 90 11 e s

hi ~ ~ ~ auh

so- 0~ o8 Imo70-

10- 10 Kano

11 Kwabra

12 Bauchi13 Nierde14 Begue15 BOndo16 OrosRie(icuigAa-om17 Gongesa

18 Riv

19 Skadno inldntotia

0 1 10 an

11 Anamra12 Lagosi13 Nierde14 Ognue15 Borndo16 CrosRie(icuigAwIbm17 Platelau18 River19 SKotnoinldn Ktia

- 78 -

Figure 3 - ENROLLMENT BY GRADE AND SEX1985186 AND 1987

1.6 l ale 1985/861.5

1.4

1.3 2

1~~~91

i.2 - $/

a 0.9

2~~ 3

G10-1 = 0.8 0=

0.7-

0.6-

0.5

0.4-

0.3

0.2-

0.1

1 ~~~~2 3 4 56

GRADE

- 79 -

Figure & - PUPILS PER CLASS BY STATE. 1982183

80 -

70-

60

80

40 -4

0. -J7,

20-

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

State Identification Number

1 Anambra2 Bauchi3 Bendel4 Benue5 Borno6 Cross River (including Akwa-Ibom)7 Gongola8 Imo9 Kaduna (including Katsina)10 Kano11 Kwara12 Lagos13 Niger14 Ogun15 Ondo16 Oyo17 Plateau18 Rivers19 Sokoto

ANNEX I

COMPARATIVE EDUCATIONAL INDICATORS

Middle IncoseCoto Burkina Oil Exporting

Nigeria k Cameroon Ghana d'Ivoire Faso Kenya Countries /

Gross Priary Enrollment Ratio 89 108 79 77 27 190 94

Pupil-teacher ratio 8s so 28 s6 62 87 37

Publ.s recurrent expenditure per pupil 66 49 189 88 78

Primary education expenditures aspercentage of total public expenditures 9.3 17.2 15.2 28.2 23.9 15.3 9.8

Public recurrent expenditures on primaryeducation as percentage of total publicrecurrent expenditures on education 33 41 32 46 81 65 34

Adult literacy rate 42.4 66.2 63.2 42.7 13.2 69.2 6e.2

Estimated number of years of educationattained by working-age population 3.46 3.97 2.10 0.67 4.26 3.61

Source: Education in Sub-Saharan Africa -- Policies for Adjustment,Revitali2ation, and Expansion. The World Bank, Washington DC, 1988

g For 1988 unless otherwise stated1984

SI Ue s weighted man

PAPER o COPlS IN SELEISD PRIMARY TrTLS

'1 I I Ii Ii I j j VvS i Avrage Pavr

____ h _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 D 1984 100

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

BASE 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1984 0.12 0.19 0.11 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.37 0.35 0.40 0.37 o

175 137 173 160' 167 185 185 185 192 83 88 77 151

1985 0.21 0.26 0.19 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.71 0.29** 0.35** 0.28**

158 121 209 168 178 256 185 185 203 200 188 177 186

1986 0.19** 0.23** 0.23** 0.42** 0.48** 0.69 0.50* 0.50* 0.75* 0.70 0.75 0.65

492 479 709 580 578 578 607 607 486 486 463 473 545

1987 0.59 0.91 0.78 1.45 1.56 1.56 1.64 1.64 1.80 1.70 1.85 1.75

* u 1985 paper stocks used-costed at purchase not rpplacesmrt cost .** etter reel size available, less pappr wastage

M1I1 all titlps selpcted reprinted in yFar cnce rned in formats & quantities which wpre approximately canparable thus

allowing reasonable unit cost catparisons.ML2 Only I incrmasPe arp comp rable. Caoparison betwPen individual actual pricss isn't possiblp bpcausp of varying

book extracts.183s All pappr htre i' i'.ported book quality-bptwppn 70-80 gsm, uncoated, wood-froe. Mostly fram overseas mills -

oweasionally via hJ-gerian merchants.

FRINFIG CW! CMPa0Ir IN SELED ,PRDA TrILES

NBI All printing undertakon in Nigeria.NB2s Insufficient time to break out printing costs to differentiate between 1 colour and four colour costs.NE3s These costs lnclude cover printing and binding. Mhre work is neded to break out binding costs.NB4s Thse costs do not iiiI3e origination.NB5s Tte print rtm qpentities of e titles renained reasonably constant through 1'84-87 to allow reasonably constant unit cost

camparisons

4 4r

AverageI I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Papar Price_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Increases

:04 a a W X X _ X j i i 8 8 X 1984-

aEUE 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1984 0.20 0.29 0.48 1.01 0.98 0.98 0.62 0.62 0.38 0.26 0.48 0.44 co

105 83 94 98 .119 119 106 106 71 146 S8 125 105

1985 0.21 0.24 0.45 0.99 1.1' 1.17 0.66 0.66 0.27 0.38 0.42 0.55

125 93 125 96 117 118 113 116 126 200 121 141 126

1986 0.25 0.27 0.60 0.97 1.15 1.16 0.70 0.72 0.48 0.52 0.58 0.62

160 110 146 92 133 131 129 129 163 250 135 143 143

1987 0.32 0.32 0.70 0.93 1.30 1.28 0D.8 0.70 0.62 0.65 0.65 0.63

- 83 -ANNEX IV

PAPER AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL RAW MATERIALS & MANUFACTURERS COST 1984-87

Averages achieved by calculations derived from 21 book title costings, allof which were annually reprinted betweeni 1984 and 1987 with comparableproduction specifications.

Lowest Actual Average 2 of Highest Actual2 Recorded Paper to Total Z Recorded

ManufacturingCosts

1984 192 33.252 44Z

1985 282 42.5Z 532

1986 282 40.75Z J 56?

1987 532 67.25? 752

- 84 -

ANNEX VPage 1 of 5

MANAGEMENT, POLICY AND PLANNING OF NIGERIAN EDUCATION

Managerial Environment

1. The 1979 Nigerian Constitution defines the authority of thefederal, state and local governments for each type and level of formaleducation. It also clarifies leadership responsibilities, with respect topolicy formulation and planning, financing, quality control andimplementation. Attachment 1 shows the constitutional allocation ofresponsibilities by level of government and major functions.

2. The Constitution gives each of the 21 states a high degree ofautonomy. The constitutional role of the federal government with respect toeducation is to provide intellectual leadership, determine policies, setstandards, and provide guidelines to meet the national goals of education anddevelopment. A law reinforces this leadership role by stating that federallaws, in times of conflict, will supersede state laws.

Federal Responsibilities for Education and Training

3. The Federal Ministry of Education (FME) formulates policies,coordinates national educational practices, promotes quality, exercisesquality control, and maintains standards among the states. The FME has noresponsibility for implementing policy at the primary level. The FME'sorganizational structure is shown in Attachment 2.

4. Channels of communication are clearly defined. The Minister ofEducation is responsible for all policy decisions at the federal level. TheState Ministers of Education usually assist him in this function. TheDirector-General (DG) advises the ministers and implements their policydecisions. All political and administrative decisions are channelled throughthe DG, a generalist from the administrative services. The Secretary ofEducation speaks for FME professionals, and is responsible for making thetechnical expertise of the departments available to the DG. Directors cangive the DG advice directly on administrative policies and managerialdecisions but no decisions on professional issues can be processed without theconcurrence of the Education Secretary.

State Responsibilities

5. The states are responsible for implementing policies formulated bythe federal government. The states prepare and adapt procedures; developrules, guidelines and manuals; train staff; and implement most educationalprograms. The status and grade levels of state officials are analogous tothose of federal officers. The organization charts for Kaduna, Katsina,Kwara, Lagos and Rivers states (Attachment 3-7 of this Annex) show that thestructures for delivering education vary widely. States such as Lagos have asingle department for all types and levels of education. Some states (such asKaduna) have established separate departments to handle higher education,science and technology, while others (such as Kano) have delegatedresponsibility for adult education to local government authorities. Some

- 85 -

ANNEX VPage 2 of 5

states have different categories of personnel. Kwara state, for example, hastwo permanent secretaries, one responsible for all post-primary and secondaryeducation and the other for planning and inspection. In many statesautonomous organizations have been established to share responsibilities withthe state ministries (such a the Schools Directorate in Rivers state). Asmany of these organizations are relatively new. their roles, status andrelationships with the state ministries are unclear, resulting in waste andduplication. The grouping of work units in the state ministries are notuniform. Some are grouped by function (e.g., planning or construction), someby the educational level they service, and others by the geographical area forwhich they are responsible.

Local Government Responsibilities

6. In Nigeria, local government is a relatively new phenomenon indevelopment administration, having been created in 1977 after a series ofexperiments dating back to the 1950s. Each state formulated and legislatedits own local government edicts following federal guidelines for localgovernment reform. The edicts, strikingly similar, established 303independent local units, each governing an estimated populatior of 150,000 to800,000. Examples of local administration are shown in Attachments 8 and 9.

7. Primary education is the main function of the local governments,accounting for about 70 to 80 percent of their financial and human resources.Local and state governments are expected to meet all expenditures fcr primaryeducation and to implement all primary programs.

Principal Managerial Issues

8. Four basic issues about the management of primary education mustbe addressed. First, distinction between federal and state responsibilitiesincluding the responsibility for financing primary education are becomingincreasingly blurred. Second, horizontally delegated responsibilities foreducation for all three levels of government contribute to the duplication offunctions and administrative inefficiency. In principle, each of the threelevels of government has an important role to play in the conduct and deliveryof primary education in Nigeria. Where duplications exist, they should beidentified and functions streamlined. Third, the trend to decentralize stateroles to zones has exacerbated the duplication of fun'-ions. Fourth, with theproliferation of local governments, resources previously available for schoolsmay be drawn off for administrative costs. Increasing fragmentation at thelocal level could strain the ability of these governments to survive as theirinstitutions are new and fragile. The lack of clearly definedresponsibilities, duplication of functions, the deflection of educationalfunds to administrative costs, and weak institutional structures could weakenthe local ability to deliver education.

9. Nigeria needs to strengthen the local capacity to deliver primaryeducation. Recognizing the need for grassroots participation in providingprimary education, the National Council of Education in 1987 approved a neworganizational arrangement whereby Primary School Management Boards would be

- 86 -

ANNEX VPage 3 of 5

set up at the state levels with Management Committees responsible to the Boardat zonal, local government, district and village levels. This was in responseto recommendations of the Technical Committee on the Management and Financingof Primary Education.

Policy Formulation and Planning

10. The decision-making process in Nigeria is highly complex, labor-intensive and time-consuming, partly because policy formulation and planningare regarded as separate fuictions and processes. This is perhaps inevitablein order to ensure grassroot participation and representativeness of views ina large country like Nigeria. Many federal, state and local institutionscontribute directly or indirectly to the decision-making process. Theycontribute to this collective process through defined procedures led byfederal officials with the FME, taking the lead in educational policy-making.

11. There is little formal provision for reaching decisions based on aconsensus of the various parties contrib-ting to the deliberations, but somefeatures of a consensus-gathering mechanism have emerged over the years.First, consensus is sometimes reached through widespread consultations thatmay take place over a long period of time. The genesis of the 1981 NationalPolicy on Education, for example, dates back to a June 1973 seminar convenedto formulate national policy. The policies adopted by the Federal ExecutiveCouncil were later placed before an Implementation Committee which translatedthem into programs. The Federal Government did not react to the 1978"Blueprint for Policies" until 1980, and produced the blueprint as nationalpolicy only in 1981. Second, policy consultations take place in a strictlyhierarchical order, with institutions ranked hierarchically to facilitateconsultations between staff of equivalent status and grade. Opportunities forconsultation between top, middle and lower levels are rare. Third, evenpolicies that take a long time to formulate often undergo bureaucraticrefinements to adapt policy to state or local needs.

12. Because of these limitations, federally formulated policies tendto be abstract, often symbolizing the long-term goals of the nation withoutmuch practical application. Operational solutions to pressing concerns areoften not addressed or are left to lower levels of government.

Policy-making Institutions

13. Several institutions are involved in policy-making for primaryeducationt

(a) National Council of Education (NCE): The NCE is the highesteducational policy-making body in Nigeria. Theoreticallyadvisory, the NCE coordinates educational policies across federaland state governments. Chaired by the Federal Minister ofEducation, it comprises all the state Commissions of Education.The permanent secretaries of the federal and state ministries ofEducation participate% as advisers. The NCE meets twice a year for

- 87 -

ANNEX VPage 4 of 5

two or three days, the venue rotating among the states. Decisionsrequiring the concurrence of all states are resolved by consensus.

(b) State Council of Education (SCE): Many states have establishedState Councils of Education, with functions identical to those ofthe NCE. They focus on local implementation of educational policyand modification of those policies to meet state requirements.

(c) Joint Consultative Committee (JCC): The JCC advises the NCE andreviews national policy proposals. It analyzes policies, debatesoptions, earmarks funds and determines frameworks for implementingproposals. It ptepares memoranda outlining common strategies andimplementation programs for the NCE. The JCC has a widemembership, including the PSs and other senior officials of thefederal and state Ministries of Educatior., representatives fromthe academic community, research organizations, and professionalsocieties. Seven reference committees assist the JCC, solicittechnical and specialist advice on issues that require furtherstudy, and resolve any differences that have not been finalizedwithin JCC.

Procedures for Planning

14. Educational plans are developed mainly by the National PlanningOffice (NPO) of the National Ministry of Economic Planning. Unlike policyformulation, the procedures for planning are fully structured. First, aguideline is prepared, circulated to a wide audience for review, and revisedfor approval. Second, investment projects are prepared on the basis of therevised guidelines. Finally, the program is reconciled with availableresources and developed into a planning strategy. The planning cycle iscompleted in about three years.

Coordinating Institutions

15. Educational policy-making and planning institutions need to bestrengthened at the federal level as well as at the states level. At thefederal level, the FME and NPO are both small and understaffed. The FMEplanning unit is currently without a director and had been without anassistant director for several months and in 1984 had fewer than sixprofessionals. The Manpower Board has frequently complained about thesystem's inability to provide basic information on outputs, studentemployability, dropouts and system waste. Record keeping is unsatisfactory.

State Planning Units

16. Planning and policy-making at the state level should be led by theplanning divisions of the state Ministries of Education but, in many statesmore weight is given to decisions made by established divisions than torecommendations from the new planning units. These units are frequentlyunderstaffed both numerically and in terms of qualifications. Appropriatelytrained staff reportedly seldom remain for long. They leave voluntarily or

- 88 -

ANNEX VPage 5 of 5

are deployed else'Aiere. The functions of some of these units are too diffusefor the few underqualified personnel to perform effectively. Physicalresources are also often inadequate. There are too few vehicles for fieldtrips for data gathering.

17. The Research and Planning in Oyo State Ministry of Educationillustrates typical shortcomings. This unit is responsible for research, datagathering and anlalysis. physical planning, such educational services asexaminations and government publications. The unit has five professionalofficers, two educational technologists and four buildings of:Hicers fortechnical iuistitutions only. Only the chief education officer's persona.vehicle and occasionally a ministry pick-up are available for school mappingexercises. There is a shortage of resources and personnel, and an imbalancein the staff skills.

18. Under these conditions, the state planning units can fulfill noneof their functions adequately. They can merely engage in routine activitieswhich have become a traditional facet of their operations such as thegathering and presentation of basic schools data. The data for primaryschools are often unreliable and inadequate. They may be over-inflated orunder-reported as the data gathering purpose seems to warrant. They may omitmuch information that is essential to successful educational planning; forexample, the numbers of available classrooms, number and condition of items offurniture, the qualifications and salary scale and step in that scale ofteachers. In no state apart from Lagos is there information on dropouts andrepeaters. The data are an inadequate basis for planning decisions. Seldomare planning units in a position to make such decisions as they lack theauthority. The result is that isolated developmental activities are pursuedindividually by various divisions in state Ministries of Education. The lackof coordination and the poor data base result in an uneven provision offacilities and poorly coordinated monitoring of development programs. Theeffects may be seen in the low level of facility provision in most states andin the overcrowding of primary school classrooms.

[ - 89 - ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX VPage 1 of 9

NTGERIA

ALLOCATION OF MAJOR FUNCTIONS AMONG THE THREE TIERS OF COVERNUENTS

LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT

TYPES OF EDUCATION FEDERAL STATE LOCAL

A. Pro-Primary Educotion Legislation A Guidelines on Establishment,establishment, training, control mainten-fees, curriculus, teach-r anc- of pre-qualifications A other primary schoolsminimum requirments Supervision A main-

Registratior of teachora and tenance ofschool recordkeeping standards

B. Primary Education Policioo and setting of Implementation of national Operation a manage-standards policy ment all schools

Limited inspections A Maintenance of standards A School location Asupervision quality construction

Administration of entrance Inspection and supervision Coordination withexaminations Evaluation A meonitoring local education

Recruitment, training, and authoritycertification of teachers Advice state and

Coordination of school federal governmentboard A local education on management Aauthorities quality of

Research limited to state primary schoole

-C. Secondary Education Policymaking Manageomnt and operation of Establishment,Setting of national stat secondary schools control and manage-standards Collaborate with Federal ment of private

Curriculum developmnt A Ministry for inspection of schools; fulfill-design schools Ing prescribed

Textbook development Induction A orientation requ;rmentsLimited inspection course" of StateOperation and management of Provision of teaching staff Ministriesunity secondary schools Implementation of national

Administration of policyexaminations -Qualified teacher

-Approved curriculo

D. Teacher Education Policis A setting of Management of teachers' Advise state astandards colloee federal

Management of federal Registration of teachers; governmentteachors' colloges number, kind, A level of on teachers'

academic chiev em nt qualificationInventory of teachingresources: librariescontaining books, docu-mnts, A audiovisualmaterials

Promulgation of teazhers'councils

E. University Education Policies A setting of Management of state-standards supported uriversities

Management of federaluniversities throughNational UniversnitiCommission

F. Adult a Nonforml Institute National Co-is- Create MASS literacy boards stablish localEducation *ion for Developmnt of Establish state centers on adult educe-

Adult Education (NCDA) adult education tion committeeEstablish National Adult -Administration, policy A -Administra-Education Center (NAEC) quality control within tion of local

Formulate policies statet centersSet uniform standards and -Research, planning A -Recruitment ofquality control development teactars'

Coordinate stat practices, -Inspectorate services loarnersincluding universities A -Curriculum development A -Monitoring pro-private sector materials gress results

Seek international coopers- -Inservice training -Assessmenttion

Coordinate support services

- 90 -

ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX VPage 2 of 9

NI_RA - RGAMIUTSML S _IR O FE _FAL MSIRY OF BUCATION

Perconnel Finance & Plannin ~~Priar A Post- Tcnlgcl duainEducationalDapartnt 5u~~~l ;ee Reeesrc ondary.4 Seodry A cec npcoa,Spport

Department Statistics Educatio on Edun tducaton so'..co*

Appointuante. Bad 9et Plennng Primary lh~~~~:ineraity ehia Pr"ar A EvaluatioProsot.ion and o;..elon Division Education D~~~~~~i,ision Seconda.y and

In pctorata Accrdiaton

TraiigAcute Reac' S..od.ry TaerScncPot nte-ntina

A Staff Divielon S~~~tatstics Education -LEdu:catio Secondary Educat Ion Welforo Divisil __j Education E!ternal Aid

Division ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ineec; *to DI inison

ShArt d Gin |

EAucetic. I ultralCounsellipg

EducationGenerlEducations1pporttern i cc

D prt Sp l*o St tud R euren Sctonra I cuF rn 1 Setr I a e Pln pltr up

Eapend i tore Reaearch tatoisraePross

Stores Pay.nte Capital Intereraton"I naltoa,ta PanElEpnditur. Regional a tt Te cee ll tar nj c I NI tion|

Research [II°;T;-;, 1 L1~ L .n. T*R tr T.ndern

Foder H n sety of Educat,on. Jan!ar |d tn

_ 91 _ ATTACaMENT TO ANNEX VPage 3 of 9

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN KADUNA STATE

COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION1

LPERLANNT SECRhETAY|

EDIR_

|PLAN ST RSECNAR0Y| |ADULt EDUCATIONAL |PORCST POT RIN RY| |ADNNALSTRETIONAL

PDEVELOPAfN SUPERVISTON CENTERS SCHOOLS DIRECTORS

CHIEF EDUCATION

OFFICERS

_ | *~~~~~~~~~~~~~EAMNT

ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX' VPage 4 of 9

ADMIINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT KATSIA STATE

AS N CISSIONER FOR EDUCATION

I~~~~~~~~~~~

|PERIIANEN4T S-.CRETARY|

IOST-PRIMARYI INSPECO E IPLING, RESEwCHI ADULT A PIIMRDARYII I L J l ^ ~~~DEVELOPW NON-FORMA L

|OEPUTY DIRECTR _I---I _ I I ~~~CHIER- EDUjCATION oFFiZ&-s I

POSTPRTIMAR lEHICAL/1 OE' CINEI HVOCATIONALiT _ _

r~~~~~~~~~~

| I PRD"RY I SPEC CAL I[PRINCIPAL EDUCATION OFCR

[.[3 |~~TEA TRAIN3 ECIA;;L1

rA~SSISTANT EOlUCATION OFFICER4

PRI!M~~~~~~

- 93 -

ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX VPage 5 of 9

ADMINISTRA1'ION OF EDUCATION AT KWARA STATE

COMMISSIONERt OF EDUCATION

PERzuE SECRETARY I rPEOWMNENT SECREARtY 2|

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING AND INSPECTORATE fDEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEBENT

m RI SARICHWU I I EDECTION SECONDARY SDUCATO TCIENCE I^ RESERCH | A EDUCATION | EDUCAIONiATION TIN|tTECHIOLOGY|

- 94 -AMfACHMENT TO ANNEX VPage 6 of 9

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT LAGOS STATE

|GOVERNOR

rCOZ"ISSIONER FOR EDUCATIO NDeI -- IADVISR N OUATOCHIMN SHOOLS LANACESET BOARDI

IPEXECUTIVE SECRETARY ERMANENT SECRETARY IHIHER EDUCATION | ONITORINCI SCAOL_YW^CEENBOARD I LMINIrSTRY OF IEDUCATION IWCTNI I SAI1~E

r S0H00L IIEDUCATION EUC-ATIN EDlii ii0 UCATIONAL] EUAIN B; URSHIP|TALSI14DMINISTRATIoN4 ISEVICES I ncULMY1 EECGNIILNIeI OR

116 SCOOL MANAGEIENT COMMITTEES] [EEE&A BRD

ISCHOOLS itAEMNI BOAR _

AGRY3 FELODW4 OO KoROUl IlREPODt ACUON W EE IBJLE.(K

GE SUIJER E

|LOCAL SCHOOIL PRINCIPAL ||LOCAL SCHOIOL HEADMASTER|

- 95 -

ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX VPage 7 of 9

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT RIVERS STATE

|COMMISSIONEt FOR EDUCATIN - CHAIRMAN :SCHOOLS-|DIRECTORATE RSSD

IPERNANEN S RTRIIDPECTOR *SCp-.OOLS|

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

SECONDARY EDUCATION SECONDARY EDUCATION SECONDARY EDUCATIONISCHOOL MANAGEMENT TEACHERS SERVICE MINISTRY PERSONNEL ACCOUNTANT

MINISTRY PROFESSIONAL DIVBRSIONS HEEDI BY CIES |

s~~~ECtM MOe I1mci(L IAU| NN PLANNIN35 A EDUCATIOA SagLLEDUCATI ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~|FR^ EDDSCtVICES

BOARD OF GOVERNRS I PRIMARY SCHOOL COMMITTEE)

[SCHOOL COMMITTEES]

r ZO-NAL OFFICES HA^DED B3Y I DISTRICT I IUCATIONI IDISTRIDCT PRIMARYIPRINCIPALS SP EIAL GRADE BOARDS SCHOOL COMMITT

ALL SCHOOLS

- 96 -

ATTACHHENT TO ANNEX VPage 8 of 9

ADMZNXSRATION OF EDUCATION AT ZARIA LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF KADUM STATE

EDUCATION WORKS NATURAL RESOURCES TH ADMINI ON

PLANNING & SUPERVISOR DISTRICT PLAWNINQ& CO MMUNIT LIRAIESS9TATISTICS || RELIGION |INPECTOR IDEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT 1j IS 1- '-C

COMMERCIAL | jSAITC

- 97 - ATTACHMENT TO ANNEX V

Page 9 of 9

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION AT ZONE OR REOIONAL LEVEL: ZARIA ZONE 5 OF KAOW A STATE

|REGIONAL DIRETR

j ASSISTANT DIRECTOR I

XL.SE

PRINCIPAL EDUCATION OFFICIALS1

EXAMINATI Ld DRRES PRIMARY EDUCATIONI PRINCIPALPLANNING &3ULRI R| INSP ECONDR SENORL

om s ISTATISTICIAN H

- 98 -

ANNEX VIPage 1 of 3

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. BANK DOCUMENTS

1. Nigeria: Review of the Institutional Framework for the Management ofthe Education Sector, February 12, 1985, Projects Department, WesternAfrica Regionai Office, Education Division.

2. Nigeria: Education Sector Expenditure Review, July 1985 (Prepared byProf. Charles Benson), Education and Training Department, EducationPoli y Division.

II. CONSULTANT'S REPORTS

1. The Cost and Financing of Primary Schooling in Nigeria, KeithHinch'iffe, School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia,Norwich, England, August 1987.

2. Nigeria: Primary Education Sub-Sector Study Back-to-Office Report,Luiz Secco, UNESCO, August 1987.

3. The State of Primary Education in Nigeria - Preliminary Observations,Samir A. Jarrar and Byron G. Massialas, EDG International, October,1987.

4. Nigeria Report - November 1989, Anthony A. Read, The Publishers'Association, Book Development Council, London, England.

5. Nigerian Primary Education Improvement Scheme, Peter Ikechukwu Odor,April 1989.

6. Improvement of Educational Data Base-A Statistical and PlanningStudy, Prof. S.C. Aleyideino, April 1989.

7. A Research Study on Primary School Textbooks Financing in Nigeria,Kunle Akanbi, Department of Educational Technology, Obafemi AwolowoUniversity, April 1989.

8. Nigerian Primary Education Project Preparation - Evaluation Study,Samuel 'Tunde Bajah, International Centre for Educational Evaluation,University of Ibadan. Nigeria, March 1989.

9. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Print and Production Survey,Nicholas Russell, United Kingdom, February 1989.

10. Supplementary Materials and Libraries in Nigerian PrimarY Sch-oo.s andTeachers' Colleges, Julie Carpenter, The British Council, London,January 1989.

- 99 -

ANNEX VIPage 2 of 3

11. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Distribution of Books, Prof. F.Carew, Nigeria, March 1989.

12. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Educational MaterialsDistribution Study. Bridget C. Nwankwo, St. Bridget's Primary School,Nigeria, April 1989.

13. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Report on the Development ofSchool and College Libraries, Dorothy S. Obi, University of Nigeria,February 1989.

14. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Report on Financing the Project,R. Smith, U.S.A., February 1989.

15. Nigeria Primary Education Project - Book Distribution, P.P. Nwoltu,Nigeria, Marcn 1989.

III. NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS

A. Educational Policy

1. National Policy on Education (Revised) Federal Republic of Nigeria,rederal Government Press, Lagos, 1981.

B. Educational Financing

1. Report of the Panel Appointed on Alternative Sources for FinancingEducation in Nigeria, February 1982 (Chairman, Dr. Sanya Onabamiro).

2. Report by the Presidential Commission on the Funding of PrimaryEducatic'i in Nigeria, December 6, 1983 (Chairman, Chief A.Y. Eke).

3. Report to the Study Group on Funding Education, November 1984(Chairman, Prof. A.B. Fafunwaj.

4. Report of the Technical Committee on the Management and Financing ofPrimary Education ir. Nigeria, 1987 (Chairman, Yahya Hamza).

5. Government's Views and Comments on the Findings and Recommendationsof the Political Bureau, 1987, Federal Government Printer, Lagos.

C. Educational Planning

1. Statistics of Education in Nigeria, 1980 - 1984, 1985 edition,Federal Ministry of Education.

2. Statistics of Education from various States: Lagos, Kaduna, Oyo,Cross River, Imo, Ogun, Gongola, and Sokoto.

- 100 -

ANNEX VlPage 3 of 3

D. Curriculum

1. National Curriculum for Primary Schools in all subjects published bythe Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.

2. National Curriculum for Primary Teacher Education produced by theNational Teachers' Institute, Zaria.

3. Report of the Oyo State Advisory Committee on Science and HathematicsEducation in Primary Schools, Secondary Schools and Teachers'Colleges, Ministry of Education, Oyo State.

IV. BOOKS AND JOURNALS

1. Nigerian Education, Trends and Issues, edited by Segun Adesina, KunleAkinyemi and Kayode Ajayi. University of Ife Press, Ife-Ife, 1983.

2. Perspectives of Quantities and Qualities in Nigerian Education, ASynthetic Report of the Bagauda Seminar, September 1-5, 1980,Nigerian Educational Research Council, Lagos.

3. The InsPector, Journal of the 'ederal Inspectorate of Education,Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos (Various issues).

I~~~~~~~~A ETO

I

I

N1ICERIA StCtAD__ ~ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS t

> BURKINAFAR(

y 4 10X "' ~v SOKCOTO K INA

{ N \ t < '; 4 ' i t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~MAIDUR

BENIN fs fi r~ K,CDUNa |

KA,UNA_X\ BAUC"I

WJ t. ; bt~~~INNA << -

ILORIN -

IEIADAN AKURE -AIURDI

00 ABFOKUTA

~BENIN ENUGUCITY 0 State Capitals

.t; .. <( * lNational Capital

OWERRt '. LLABAR State Boundaries~~ ~~ .~l - _ International", . 2 :"~ 2'7 0' Boundaries

ARC4kURT -. )M&TpS 0

40 *0 120 160

eILES0 20 40 6'0100