Nineteenth Century Political Philosophy

The development of Romanticism

Political Liberalism• Associated with England and Low Countries• Protestant

– Appreciates Work ethic– Commerce and Industry

• Tolerant– Wars over religion are just silly

• Respect for Rights of Property• Individualistic

– Social mobility possible

• Role of education to improve one’s lot in life• Based on Reason and Rational thought• John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume

RomanticismPassion over Calculation

• Anti-thesis of Rational Liberalism• Anti-Industrial, Commercial• Medieval Nostalgia

– Chivalry and Heroism stressed

• Individualism reinterpreted– Passions rather than Intellect

• Admire all strong passions– Even negative violent ones

– Cult of the Hero

• Nationalism encouraged– Rebellions justifiable

• War justifiable in defence of ‘Liberty’• Byron, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Nietzsche• Identified with Germany

Rousseau

Kant

Nationalism

Romanticism

Hegel

Nietzsche

Schopenhauer

Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 – 1778

“Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains”

• Father of Romantic Movement– Noble Savage

• Opponent of Progress and Industrialisation– Makes government powerful– Crushes individuals– Material benefits no match for human

friendship/emotions

• Politics and morality cannot be separated• Learn by experience• Social Contract

– Bible of French Revolution

Rousseau’s Social Contract– Justifies totalitarianism

• Democracy best in small states• Aristocracy best in medium states• Monarchy best in large states

– Big fan of City States• Sparta over Athens • The General Will of the people is easily recognisable

– Equality over liberty • Each of us puts his person under the supreme

direction of the general will • The general will is always right• Every man governed by self interest

– Self-interest good for the individual– Self-interest is also good for the community

– Lack of respect for private property• The State is master of all their goods

Immanuel Kant1724 - 1804

• German Idealist – Romanticist– Building block for Hegel

• Pedantic University Professor• Believed in Democracy• Supported French Revolution up to Terror• Advocated Federation of free states who outlaw

war – as war is utterly irrational• Prussian – but not a nationalist

– Often argued with authorities over some of his more liberal ideas

Immanuel Kant’s Ideas• Critique of knowledge as a means of reaching

philosophical conclusions– Mind more important than matter

• “There can be nothing more dreadful than that the actions of a man should be subject to the will of another”– Rights of Man ideals – Moral worth exists only when a man acts from a sense of duty

• Two imperatives driving the will of humans– Hypothetical Imperative

• You must do so and so if you wish to achieve such and such– Categorical Imperative

• Act as if the maxim of your action were to become a general natural law

– Ie – if it were applied by everybody would it work» Eg it is wrong to borrow money because if we all did, there

would be no money to borrow

Georg Hegel1770 - 1831

• Prussian University Professor• Protestant• 1806 Jena• Nothing is completely real except the whole (like a

complex organism)– Called ‘The Absolute’– Mr A is an uncle

• Uncle means nothing without a Nephew– The Universe cannot be spherical

• Spheres have a boundary• A boundary only exists when something lies outside the

boundary

• There is no freedom without law– In fact, freedom is the right to obey law

• ‘Spirit’ is the essential historical force

Hegel’s Spirit• Historical development of spirit

– Oriental (despotism)• One is free

– Greeks & Romans (Aristocracy)• Some are free

– German (Monarchy – NOT Democracy)• All are free

– The monarch embodies the will of all

• ‘The State is the idea of Spirit in the external manifestation of human Will and its freedom’

• “The German Spirit is the spirit of the new world”– Rewrites German History

• Not barbarians but the true spirit of man fighting the effete Romans

• Protestant and United Prussia praised over Catholic and disunited Austrians

Nations and Individuals in Hegel’s World

• Nations– Nations are the principle of historical

development– A particular nation shows the true spirit

• Germany

• Individuals– A few world historically important

individuals who embody true spirit• Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon

– War allows for the spirit to be purely represented

Artur Schopenhauer1788 - 1860

• Danzig, Prussia• Dark, philosophical pessimist• Influenced by Plato, Kant, The Vedas, Goethe

– Ascetic Mystic combined with Hellenism• The World as Will and Idea 1818 • Emphasizes the role of ‘Will’

– The Primacy of the Will– As the creative but irrational force of human nature

• Ethically evil (Pessimistic)– Only Art can withstand the role of Will

• Personally dislikes Hegel despite some philosophical similarities

• Influences Nietzche

Friedrich Nietszche1844 - 1900

• Saxony• Son of Lutheran Pastor• University of Basel• 1870 Franco Prussian War

– Medical orderly– Retires in ill health

• Ill health plagues Nietszche for rest of life– Insane 1888 - 1900

Friedrich Nietzsche’s Ideas• Admires strength of will above all else

– Spartan ideals• Life is hard – the difficulties of life allows us to appreciate the

best parts of life– Suffering amplifies the pleasure

• Believes in Heroes (individuals over the State)– UberMensch – Superman

• Masses can suffer to produce a great man• Napoleon

• Anti-Democratic & Anti-Liberal– All are not equal– Democracy leads to mediocrity– Believes in the superiority of the Aristocrat

• Not a Nationalist– Wants an international super-aristocracy to guide humanity

• Anti-Christian– Dislikes submission to a Higher Order– Prefers old testament to new testament– Not anti-semitic