ninkovi in search of period eye

8/9/2019 Ninkovi in Search of Period Eye

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In search of the period eye:

Contributions from neuroscience

MA Renaissance Studies: Dissertation

Pale Nikoi -09


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Contents

Table of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... 3

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4

2. General Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 6

2.1 A Note on Function ............................................................................................................... 13

3. Contributions from Neuroscience ................................................................................................. 16

3.1 Mirror Neurons ..................................................................................................................... 16

Case Studies: Empathetic Responses ............................................................................................ 20

3.2 Ambiguity .............................................................................................................................. 34

3.3 Plasticity ................................................................................................................................ 41

4. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 48

Appendix 1 - Contemporary account of empathetic responses to paintings ....................................... 51

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 52


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Table of Figures

Figure 1 - Olga Rozanova, Green Stripe (1918)

Figure 2 - Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition (c.1435)

Figure 3 - The Goddess Parvati

Figure 4 - Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus and Andrew, detail from the Last Supper

Figure 5 - Jesus, Thomas, James the Greater and Philip, detail from the Last Supper

Figure 6 - Matthew, Jude Thaddeus and Simon the Zealot, detail from the Last Supper

Figure 7 - Judas Iscariot, Peter and John, detail from the Last Supper

Figure 8 - Stefano Di Giovanni Sassetta, The Last Supper (1423)

Figure 9 - The Crucifixion, miniature from a 13th-century Psalter

Figure 10 - Mary of Cleophas (?), detail from the Deposition

Figure 11 - Mary Magdalene, detail from the Deposition

Figure 12 - Eos and Kephalos (1st

half of 5th

century before Christ)

Figure 13 - Niobide (1st

half of 5th


Figure 14 - Image of Maenad

Figure 15 - Relief of Maenad

Figure 16 - The 'rabbit or duck' illusion

Figure 17 - The Necker cube illusion

Figure 18 - Bi-stable image showing a vase or two faces

Figure 19 - Johannes Vermeer, Girl reading a letter at an open window (c. 1657-1659)

Figure 20 - Johannes Vermeer, The Music Lesson (c. 1662-1665)

Figure 21 - Diagrams representing functional and anatomical changes to a neural network (Kandel

2006, 214)


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1. Introduction

One fundamental problem in art history is the difficulty of coming to terms with art produced in

times and cultures remote from our own. How can the paintings of Rogier van der Weyden, for

example, be fully appreciated today, when paintings in 15th

-century Netherlands were conceived

under very different economic conditions to those of today and with very different objectives in

mind? I his primer in the social history of pictorial style , Painting and Experience in Fifteenth-

Century Italy 1 (1988), Baxandall proposes several ways of bridging this gap, albeit in the context of

15th

-century Italian painting. Partly by being attentive to both the economic context of the

Quattrocento and its proper language for talking about art, and partly by invoking the concept of the

peio ee, daaall (1988, 151) aages to shape ou peeptio of Renaissance painting.

The concept of the period eye refers to those cognitive skills that influence the way a particular

society in a particular period perceives art. The cognitive revolution of the 20th

century most

certainly contributed to the formation of this idea. I believe that the neuroscientific developments of

today have a similar potential for influencing the way art is understood. With this in mind, in this

dissertation I aim to answer the following research question: How can neuroscience contribute to

the appreciation of Renaissance art nowadays?

There are three relevant sets of skill, as Baxandall (1988, 31) explains; a stok of pattes, ategoies

and methods of inference; training in a range of representational conventions; and experience,

drawn from the environment. Essentially, standing before a work of art, the beholder brings to it a

combination of innate and socially-developed skills, olletiel also efee to as ogitie stle,

that contribute to the meaning of that work for the beholder (Baxandall 1988, 29). Essentially, this is

a more thorough address of what Gombrich (2002a, 246) called the eholes shae, that is the

projection of the eholes own life and experience into the image. And, since the painter

1 To be referred to as Painting & Experience for the remainder of this essay.


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endeavours to ath the oo eoiato of his auiees ogitie skills, the peio ee

influences pictorial style itself (Baxandall 1988, 40).

Ipotatl, the peio ee shapes ou poes of isiiatio. “o a etai pofessio, daaall

(1988, 39) elaoates, leas a a to isiiate patiulal effiietl i ietifiale aeas. Fo

example, Baxandall (1988) suggests that merchants are capable of discriminating between volumes

of barrels, sacks or bales, and are invited to do so by painters who would place in their works

geometric puzzles as a way of engaging their audience.

In this way, Baxandall places visual culture within a social context. His former teacher, Gombrich, on

the other hand, has been criticized for divorcing art from society, as a subject of study removed from

all other aspects of human life (Langdale 1998). It is its contextualised nature that makes the period

eye a particularly helpful instrument of art historical study, since it permits one to glean what it was

like to experience painting in fifteenth century Italy.

I believe that recent advances in the understanding of the human brain could enrich the concept of

the period eye. Interdisciplinary studies have, thus far, focused on modern art. In this dissertation I

propose to investigate the relevance of these studies for art of the Renaissance in parts of Europe

(for the purposes of this essay this covers mainly c.13th

to 16th

centuries). To do this, and to provide

the academic context for the remainder of the work, I will begin with an overview of the literature

dealing with the application of neuroscience to art. This shall be followed by a more focused analysis

concerning, in turn, the following three areas: mirror neurons, ambiguity, and neuroplasticity. The

section on mirror neurons will also include a more extensive case study of empathetic response

hih ill e ase o Leoao a Viis Last Supper a ‘ogie a e Wees Deposition.

Unfortunately, due to limited space, the latter two sections will focus on the theoretical aspects

without detailed case studies, although I will venture to provide examples where appropriate. A

concluding section will summarize the main findings in light of the literature and case studies

provided.


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It should be noted at the outset that this dissertation will not differentiate between different types

of beholder. Although a limitation of the work, it should not hinder the identification of certain

trends in the analysis. It must be recognised, however, that different types of audience may have

experienced paintings in very different ways. Any further study in this field would certainly warrant

closer attention to discrete categories of audience, based on social class, sex, or profession, for

example.

2.

General Literature Review

In this section I shall give an overview of the literature broadly concerned with the contributions of

neuroscience to art history. But firstly, to set the context for the discussion to follow, it is necessary

to define the problem in more detail.

The problem of recreating the social and artistic experience from history is an enduring one in art

history. The works of Heinrich Wölfflin in particular, embedded a historical awareness into art

history as a discipline (Harrison et al. 1998, 682-683). In Renaissance und Barock (1888), in which he

sets about explaining the stylistic change in architecture from one period to the other, Wölfflin (1998

[1888], 723) ites that To explain a style then can mean nothing other than to place it in its general

histoial otet2. Wölfflis ie of the hages i stle, as Kese (2009, 266) points out,

epee o histoiall istit oes of isio, elate to the Weltanschauung of the peio.

Additionally, Wölfflin plays no small part in establishing the concept of the history of seeing in art

history (Gombrich 2002a, 14).

If we accept the premise then that there indeed exists a histo of seeig, the assessig past

esposes, iee of elaiig the fo histo (Freedberg 1989, 22) seems to be a necessary

step towards sharpening our perception of Renaissance painting. Going as far back as the

Renaissance, however, a culture very unlike ours, the problem is exacerbated by the lack of

2 Eie “til ekläe ka ihts Aees heisse als ih ah seie Ausuk i ie allgeeie eitgeshihte

eieihe (Wölfflin 1888, 65)


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documentary evidence that might otherwise offer an insight into contemporary responses to

artworks (Baxandall 1988, 24).

Harrison et al. (1998, 683) identify the work of Wilhelm Dilthey as one of the most thorough to

address this problem. While some observers have deemed the problem of historicism

insurmountable (Gombrich 2002a, 54), Dilthey maintained, as did Gombrich after him, a more

optimistic stance that the aeful stu of at oks oul iee ispie oes histoial iagiatio

to tase oes o otet (Harrison et al. 1998, 683, Gombrich 2002a, 54). In this way Dilthey

hopes to eoe the appeiatio, utilizatio, a eeae of the eistig ajo fos of at

(Dilthey 1998 [1892], 725-726).

It is important to note that a of daaalls ieas ae foue ipliitl o epliitl o iolog

and, in particular, psychology. Indeed his chapter on the period eye (1988) begins with a standard

description of the mechanics of vision. Gombrich, perhaps more than any other art historian,

promoted the use of psychology (claiming in one interview that his approach to art history was

always biological (Onians 2007, 159)) to shed light on problems in the discipline. His influential book,

Art and Illusion, egis ith a uote fo Ma J. Fieläes Von Kunst und Kennershaft : At eig

a thing of the mind, it follows that any scientific study of art will be psychological. It may be other

things as ell, ut pshologial it ill alas e. (2002a, 1).

However, Gombrich wrote Art and Illusion in the 1960s, and Baxandall wrote Painting & Experience

in the 1970s. Since then, a great deal of progress has been made in understanding of the mind3

. The

20th

etu sa the aial of a e siee4 (Kandel 2006, xii). Considerable advances in

technology have exposed the human brain to closer examination than ever before. Although still far

from fully understanding this highly complex organ, techniques such as functional magnetic

resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron-emission tomography (PET) scans have allowed new insights

3 Fo the puposes of this issetatio I shall use the tes i a ai itehageal. Kael (2006,

xii) states that oe of the piiples of the e siee is that i a ai ae isepaale a that,sipl put, i is a set of opeatios aie out the ai.4 Elsehee efee to as euosiee, ai stuies o ai siees.


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into the ais inner workings. Not only does the new technology permit the observation of single

cells, but also of neural circuits in action (Kandel 2006, 305). Indeed, by the 1990s, fMRI allowed for

the oitoig of eual atiit i eal tie (Onians 2007, 3). The ability to investigate the brain

directly at a neural level has allowed scientists gain greater understanding of the mind by direct

observation, thus gradually leading away from a strict behaviourist approach to psychology. Kandel

(2006, xii) suaises the e siee of i as a siee that uses the poe of oleula

iolog to eaie the geat eaiig steies of life.

Although there may well be other aspets of the e siee eleat to ‘eaissae paitig,

owing to restrictions of space, this work will limit its scope to mirror neurons, ambiguity, and

neuroplasticity. In the process, I will highlight how each of these complements existing art-historical

thinking about Renaissance painting, using examples where appropriate. In order to establish a

suitable context it will be helpful to begin with a brief overview of the more general trends in the

literature.

One of the most comprehensive accounts of the rapprochement of the disciplines of art history and

neuroscience is John Oias Neuroarthistory (2007). An important feature of this book is its title,

indicative in itself of the rising interest of both the neuroscientific and the art-historic communities

in the bearing of recent advances in neuroscience on understanding art production and reception.

Furthermore, Onians himself taught a postgraduate module in At a the dai, named after the

1999 paper by Zeki, which was the first postgraduate course in an art history department that

applied neuroscientific principles. Freedberg, for his part, founded the Art and Neuroscience

Project at the Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America in 2001. This project encourages,

aog othe thigs, iestigatio of esposes to oks of at [since] developments in the cognitive

euosiees hae geatl illuiate the eual sustate of suh esposes. (The Art &

Neuroscience Project n.d.).


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An interdisciplinary approach however is not without its risks. Considerable criticism can be found of

those advocating oelo lais a aitios of iolog a the siees of the i (Kesner

2009, 268). One of the more high-profile cases involves Goihs espose to ‘aahaa and

Histeis (1999) somewhat provocative article The Science of Art – A Neurological Theory of

Aesthetic Experience (Onians 2007, 8). Gombrich, Kesner (2009, 268) explains, objected to the

authos poor application of biology to culture, based as it was on a simplistic and reductionist

account of art.

Although the potential pitfalls of straddling multiple disciplines are clear, I do not believe that this

confrontational account of the relationship between art history and brain studies is representative

of real trends. Each discipline has much to learn from the other. Indeed, the emphasis seems to be

very much on inter-disciplinary collaboration, as a uik glae at Oias (2007) bibliography

reveals, with combined efforts from the likes of Freedberg (art historian) and Gallese (neuroscientist)

or Hobson (psychiatrist) and Wohl (art historian). Mandelbaum (1970, vii) summarises this point

succinctly;

The paths of art historians, psychologists, and philosophers do not normally converge,

even when they are dealing with a common problem, since their aims and their methods

are in most cases radically different. Yet, questions regarding the nature of

representation in art have recently provided a common meeting ground.

A more particular problem for the present work is that of the applicability of neuroscience to

Renaissance painting. It has been noted (Zeki 1999, 99) that the developments in our understanding

of the mind lend themselves more to analysing art of the 20th

century than to previous periods

including the Renaissance. To uesta the easos fo this, it is ipotat to appeiate )ekis

general approach to the subject. His starting assumption is that the function of art is an extension of

the function of the visual brain, that is to acquire knowledge about the world (Zeki 1999, 1, 8). This


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assumption leads Zeki to extrapolate principles of art from principles of vision. As shall be shown,

this method encounters important limitations when applied to Renaissance art.

As a neuroscientist specialising in the human visual system, Zeki in the 1980s and 1990s contributed

much to the discovery and investigation of functionally specialised areas of the visual brain. The level

of specialisation turned out to be greater than scientists suspected. Not only does the modularity of

vision mean that there ae speifi goups of ells speialise i a iffeet attiute of the isual

see, suh as fo, olou a otio (Zeki 1999, 59), but there are specific groups sensitive to

particular colours but not to others, to vertical lines but not horizontal ones, or to movement in a

particular direction (Zeki 1999, 60-62).

One can begin to understand the way in which neuroscience can help one understand how a

painting such as Olga ‘ozaoas Green Stripe (Figure 1) affects the viewer. A bold green vertical

stripe on a pale background excites localised groups of cells activated by those formal features, and

the contrast itself is reinforcing for the brain since areas of high contrast in nature are usually

information-rich and therefore attract attention(Ramachandran and Hirstein 1999, 25). The act of

activating particular modules of the visual system in a targeted way and then enhancing them is also

known as isolation (Ramachandran and Hirstein 1999, 22). It is this type of rather direct connection

between the painting as a visual stimulus and the excitation of particular brain areas that prompts

Zeki to declare that the artist is in a sense, a neuroscientist, exploring the potentials and capacities

of the ai (Zeki n.d.). Where the approach seems to be less effective, however, is with a painting

such as Leoaos Last Supper or Rogier van der Weydens Descent from the Cross (Figure 2).


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Figure 1 - Olga Rozanova, Green Stripe (1918) Figure 2 - Rogier van der Weyden, Deposition (c.1435)

Moe ats tee toas abstraction and simplification means that, as stimuli, modern

paintings arouse more isolated areas of the brain and therefore more specific responses than more

complex figurative or narrative paintings (Zeki 1999, 99). For this reason, Inner Vision (1999) contains

many examples from Impressionism, Cubism, Suprematism, Fauvism, and Kinetic art. Although Zeki

develops a chapter entitled A euoiologial appaisal of Veee a Mihelagelo suh

examples are rare. It is interesting to note too, that Ramachandran typically uses Indian art, such as

the sculpture of the Goddess Parvati in Figure 3 for example, to elucidate his laws of aesthetics, but

these too exhibit elements of abstraction in a way that Renaissance paintings do not. Even within

the scope of modern art, it is recognised that science has little to offer in terms of explaining works

such as Mael Duhaps Pissoir , implying that responses to this work are primarily socially

constructed (Ramachandran 2000).


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Figure 3 - The Goddess Parvati

I believe that the starting proposition that the overriding function of painting is the discovery of the

world is reductionist to the point of offering little if any insight into figurative and narrative art.

Although Zeki may be correct on some meta-level, this is not particularly helpful to art historians.

Cota to )ekis uifig efiitio, a useful and necessary distinction between arts produced in

different periods must be based on function.

According to Gombrich (1984, 20), art should be judged primarily by standards of utility. Throughout

histo, oks of at ee osiee to hae a efiite futio (Gombrich 1984, 20). As a

consequence, it is not against our present taste that art should be assessed, but rather against a

easue of hethe it oks in terms of fulfilling its intended function (Gombrich 1984, 23).

Similarly, in his discussion of the Aims and Limits of Iconology (1978, 5), Gombrich emphasises

Hishs pia of gees i estalishig the itetio of the atists a theefoe the asi leel

of meaning of the work itself. Baxandall too highlights the importance of reconstructing the atists

intention in order to fully appreciate a painting, although it is debatable to what extent this is really

ever achievable (Baxandall 1989, 109).

While in Expressionism the 20th

century saw the rise of an entire movement dedicated to exploring

the atists ie eotioal ol a ouiatig it to a ie auiee, in the 15th

century, as


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Baxandall (Baxandall 1988, 3) put it, painting was still too important to be left to the painters. The

atist i the ‘eaissae oke to a pogae poie his pato (Gombrich 1978, 6). Such

a programme was contractual and could specify not only the subject to be painted, but also which

colours were to be used, what quality pigment was to be used, and what figures were to be

included, for example (Baxandall 1988, 6, 12). This therefore poses a problem for the Renaissance

art historian wishing to explore Renaissance art from a biological perspective, since it appears that

biology played a relatively minor role in shaping the art relative to certain other factors. This point is

central to Freedberg also, who, in his quest for universals in The Power of Images – Studies in the

History and Theory of Response (1989, xx), stresses the importance of not fogettig that esposes

are forged on the anvil of culture and in the fie of patiula histo.

I believe this problem is not insurmountable, but it does require a more detailed look at the function

of Renaissance paintings.

2.1

A Note on Function

Painting in the Renaissance had a fundamentally different function to art of the 20 th century. Most

Renaissance painting was religious. This apparently trivial observation, in fact, has certain important

consequences. There existed a tradition in Catholic thinking (Welch 2000, 137), stemming from Pope

Gregory I at the turn of the 6th

century, and filtering down to Thomas Aquinas in the 13th

century. A

contemporary of Aquinas, Johannes Balbus (John of Genoa), wrote in his Catholicon that the reason

for images in churches was threefold;

First , for the instruction of simple people [...] Second , so that the mystery of the

incarnation and the examples of the Saints may be the more active in our memory

through being presented daily to our eyes. Third , to excite feelings of devotion, these

being aroused more effectively by things seen than by things heard. (Johannes Balbus

cited in Baxandall 1988, 41)


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This orthodox stance was reiterated by the Council of Trent in 1563 (Welch 2000, 165). This is not to

suggest, however, that religious art was uniform since the time of Gregory I. Indeed, an important

poit to ote is that Gego Is aage ol efes to the fist of the thee parts that Balbus mentions

above, and the other two were, therefore, added later. This development may be related to the

important shift which occurred between the 13th

and 16th

etuies, hee the ste atioalit of

scholastic theologians was gradually modified by warmth of feeling and emotion (Huyghe 1967, 19).

St Bernard, like St Francis, encouraged their followers to contemplate God not only though the mind

but also through the emotions. This shift resulted in a need for a physical and material

representation.

In Painting & Experience, Baxandall (1988, 43-47) deals with Quattrocento painting, which

functioned very much as a collaborative creation between the artist and the audience, the former

providing the scene as a generic foundation for the latter to build their personal mediation upon. As

suh, the paite as a pofessioal isualize of the hol stoies (Baxandall 1988, 43). The painter,

therefore, avoided depicting people or places in too much detail, instead complimenting the

eholes interior vision (Baxandall 1988, 45-47). Although the centuries that followed saw a shift

towards greater detail, partly influenced by both technological and stylistic developments in the

north countries, the basic function of paintings in Renaissance Italy as aids to religious mediation did

not change.

An important piece of evidence for the role internal representations played in prayer, the book

Zardino de Oration (1454) offers the following instructions:

Moving slowly from episode to episode, meditate on each one, dwelling on each single

stage and step of the story. And if at any point you feel a sensation of piety, stop: do not

pass on as long as that sweet and devout sentiment lasts. (cited in Baxandall 1988, 46)


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In his take on the emotive function of images, Dominican Fra Michele da Carcano draws attention to

another important aspect of the tendency towards realism during the 15th

century. He writes that

with images e a be moved when they see [the Saints as if atuall peset cited in Baxandall

1988, 41). Gombrich (2002b, 84), among others, repeatedly draws attention to the importance of

the beholders ole as eyewitness for the development of painting in the Renaissance away from the

pitogaphi fo of pitoial aatio toas atualis. Giotto was one of the key figures to

stee paitig i the ietio of aati epesetatio, iflueced partly by friars whose

sermons encouraged the faithful to visualise the events from the Bible and the lives of the Saints as

if they were actually present (Gombrich 1984, 151-152). It became necessary not only to represent

hat happee, as i the pitogaphi stle, ut also uiall how it happened (Gombrich 2002b,

21, 89, Gombrich 1976, 16). It as pehaps thus that Gego Is aage as modified in the late

middle ages, although one can only speculate.

The early Franciscan tract, the Little book on the meditation on the Passion of Christ divided

according to seven hours of the day by Pseudo-Bede, provides an invaluable glimpse into the method

of meditation required from the faithful:

It is necessary that when you concentrate on these things in your contemplation, you do

so as if you were actually present at the very time when he suffered. And in grieving you

should regard yourself as if you had our Lord suffering before your very eyes. (cited in

Freedberg 1989, 171)

According to Freedberg (1989, 171), the narrative in the book addresses the reader occasionally to

euie, What the oul ou o if ou ee to see these thigs?. Desiptios of Chists suffeig

in this, as in other treatises that followed, were very gruesome and vivid (ibid.).

The above discussion shows that when considering art from any period, including the one under

investigation here, from a neuroscientific perspective, the focus should be less on the direct


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connection between the mind of the artist and that of the beholder, but rather on the intended

function of the art work and the mind of the beholder. By implementing an integrated approach

which combines the analytical elements in this way, it may be possible to establish the relevance of

neuroscience for Renaissance art. With this in mind, I will not turn to the first of the three

developments from neuroscience to be discussed.

3. Contributions from Neuroscience

The present section will focus in more detail on the three key discoveries to be considered, namely,

mirror neurons, ambiguity, and neuroplasticity. The section on mirror neurons will also include two

paintings Leoao a Viis Last Supper a ‘ogie a e Wees Deposition) as case studies

to be analysed in light of the theory. At a high level, the different parts will be organised in terms of

an explanation of the discovery followed by an examination of its relevance for Renaissance

painting. At the end of each section, I will pause to reflect on the contributions offered by each of

the discoveries.

3.1 Mirror Neurons

there was speech in their dumbness, language in their very gesture (Shakespeare, The

Winter's Tale Act v Scene 2 Line no 14-15)

The observation by Rizzolatti et al. in 1996 that certain neurons in macaque monkeys fire both when

the monkey performs an action and when it observes that action being performed by a human is

cosiee ‘aahaa as the single most important "unreported" ... sto of the eae

(Ramachandran n.d.). The easo fo ‘aahaas ethusias is that the haateisti

behaviour of mirror neurons (dubbed by hi as oke see oke o euos oul e uial

in understanding previously elusive aspects of human nature such as non-verbal communication,

learning by imitation, the development of language, and, crucially for the present discussion,

empathy. Oes ailit to put oeself i aothes shoes, to epathise ith thei oo, to


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understand the intention behind their actions, could all be attributable to a large extent to mirror

neurons.

It must be recognised that discussion of the role of empathy in art follows in the tradition of the likes

of Friedrich Theodor Vischer, Robert Vischer and Heinrich Wölfflin. As early as the 19th

century,

Fieih Vishe ote that the uosious poess hee the sujet pojets his o he

feelings into the inanimate object must be investigated on the level of our physical and psychological

ogaizatio (Harrison et al. 1998, 682). Ultiatel, it as Fieihs so, ‘oet Vishe, ho

embedded empathy as a central concern in art history (Harrison, Wood and Gaiger 1998, 682). In

1873, Robert Vischer adopted the term Einfühlung5 to esie the phsial esposes that ae

geeate the oseatio of paitigs (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 198). Building on Robert

Vishes ieas, Wölffli eploe the pshologial a phsial effets of patiula ahitetual

forms on the beholder (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 198). At the turn of the 20th

century, Aby

Warburg wrote about the Pathosformel : the representation of inner emotional states through

particular physical representations of figures. Bernard Berenson even approached the modern

understanding of empathetic responses, suggesting that the movement of figures depicted in

‘eaissae at as epeiee the iees o usles, thee ehaig thei epeiee

of the work itself (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 198).

Looking back even further, Socrates is purported to have taught the need to represent not only the

phsial i at, ut that the phsial shoul i tu eeal the the atio of the soul Tes psyches

erga) (Gombrich 2002a, xxii). Indeed, Warburg believed that Renaissance masters learned the skill of

achieving Pathosformel from classical Greece (Gombrich 2002a, 20). This seems to agree with

Paofsks theo that the Italia ‘enaissance of the 14th

and 15th

centuries was characterised by a

appoheet of lassial fo a lassial otet (Panofsky 1972, 111).

5 A liteal taslatio i Eglish oul e feelig i.


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All this, Goih (1970, 36) suaises suitl, tes to oooate the hpothesis that e

interpret and code the perception of our fellow creatures not so much in visual but in muscular

terms.

Since their discovery, the existence of mirror neurons in the human brain could only be suggested

via fMRI scans that indicated increased activity in certain areas of the brain. Very recently, however,

obstacles to observing individual cells within the brain were finally overcome. This allowed for the

existence of mirror neurons in humans to be proven, and for their mechanism to be demonstrated

(Mukamel et al. 2010). In their important article, Motion, emotion and empathy in esthetic

experience, Freedberg and Gallese (2007) specifically focus on mirroring mechanisms and empathy,

describing several different types of empathetic response to visual stimuli. Broadly, three key types

of response are identified. Each shall be described in turn.

The f ist oes the oil egageet ith gestues, oeets a itetios of othes

(Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 201). The authors offer as an example Mihelagelos Prisoners,

explaining that esposes ofte take the form of felt activation of the muscles that appear to be

atiate ithi the sulptue itself (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 197), thus effectively

communicating to the beholder the sense of exertion the figure must be experiencing as it tries to

free itself from the block of marble (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 198).

The seo tpe of io espose oes the feelig of epath fo oil sesatios

(Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 201-202). Caaaggios Incredulity of St. Thomas, for example, is shown

to arouse iees soatoseso sste as the peeie to e touhe a poe theseles.

Furthermore, these tactile sensations are localised in that part of the body observed to be affected

in the painting, i this ase the thoa hee Jesus ou is situate. A i Goas Desastres de la

Guerra, bodily empathy arises as a result of both the representation of unbalanced figures as well as

from images of bodily harm and mutilation. The latter is seen to activate those areas of the brain


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normally activated during the actual experience of pain as well as the ensuing shock (Freedberg and

Gallese 2007, 198). Significantly, the experience of physical empathy often translates into emotional

empathy – the thi tpe of io espose (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 197). The latter point

suggests that a beholder is capable of identifying the emotions of others by internally imitating their

actions (Freedberg and Gallese 2007, 201-202).

It is worthwhile introducing, at this point, a consideration of function into the discussion. In The

Power of Images, Freedberg (1989, 1-2) offers two contemporary accounts of empathetic responses

to paintings. The first of these, from 1584, emphasises the ability of a painting to rouse the beholder

to a wide variety of emotions or desires, depending on what is represented in the painting (see

Appendix 1). This aout ehoes Aletis On Painting (1970 [1435-1436]) where he wrote that we

weep with the weeping, laugh with the laughing, a giee ith the gieig. The second account,

from 1587, is worth restating here in full:

[...] since the eye is the most perfect among the exterior senses, it moves the minds to

hatred, love and fear, more than all the other senses ...; and when the beholders see

very grave tortures present and apparently real ... they are moved to true piety, and

thereby drawn to devotion and reverence – all of which are remedies and excellent

means for their salvation. (cited in Freedberg 1989, 2)

This account brings to the fore the tradition of empathic meditation (Freedberg 1989, 164). This

tradition ties in firmly with the earlier discussion of function, and it is worth remembering that

images ee a effetie a of ietig peoples attetio toas Chists suffeigs a goo

deeds by exciting them to empathy (Freedberg 1989, 164).

It is interesting to note that mirror neurons are an inbuilt feature of the human brain. This suggests

that the neural mechanism underlying empathy is universal as it is shared by all humans regardless

of when or where they lived. This is an important point, and one we shall return to, as it addresses


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the perennial debate in art history about whether there are any aspects of human cognition that are

universal in this sense, or whether this is always historically specific and moulded by the particular

society or culture in question.

In osieig the o a its laguage i th

-century painting, Baxandall (1988) focuses on the

highly codified and formalised movements and gestures exhibited. This method of interpretation can

be revealing, although highly dependent on the scarce literary evidence from the time. Thus, the

Mirror of the World from the 1520s provides a rare insight into the meaning of gestures by matching

them to particular emotional states or particular circumstances. This approach does, however,

overlook those more spontaneous gestures, of which the interpretation is none the less important. I

believe that complementing the contemporary literary evidence from the period with an

understanding of mirror neurons may help the modern audience view Renaissance art more like a

Renaissance audience. I will now look at two specific examples of paintings where I believe

knowledge of mirror neurons and their role can provide toas viewer with an augmented

experience of the works.

Case Studies: Empathetic Responses

The to paitigs I ill o eploe i oe etail, i ie of the isussio aoe, ae Leoaos

Last Supper a ‘ogies Deposition. Although the paintings are from different decades and

locations, I believe each one can demonstrate different aspects of the empathetic response. It is the

itetio hee to use the to ase stuies to eostate ho the popose itegate appoah,

combining neuroscience and a consideration of function, can contribute to the appreciation of

Renaissance art and also highlight any limitations of the approach.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper

The istoria will move the soul of the beholder when each man painted there clearly

shows the movement of his own soul. [...] These movements of the soul are made

known by movements of the body. (Alberti 1970 [1435-1436])


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The most important consideration in painting is that the movements of the figure

expresses its mental state, such as desire, scorn, anger, pity, and the like. (da Vinci 2008,

168)

Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper in 1495 –1497 in what was at the time a mausoleum of

the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan (Zöllner 2007, 122). The painting depicts the

moment that Jesus tells his apostles that one of them would betray him: When Jesus had thus said,

he was troubled in spirit, and testified, and said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall

betray me. (John 13.21. The Gospel of Joh futhe eouts the isiples eatios as the looked

one on another, doubting of whom he spake Joh .. These reactions of surprise, anger and

questioning are captured in the group of three to the left of the painting (Saints Bartholomew,

James, son of Alphaeus and Andrew) and another to the right of Christ (Saints Thomas, James the

Greater and Philip).

Figure 4 - Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus and

Andrew, detail from the Last Supper

Figure 5 - Jesus, Thomas, James the Greater and Philip,

detail from the Last Supper

The aout otiues to esie the see: Simon Peter therefore beckoned to him, that he

should ask who it should be of whom he spake. (John 13.24). This is captured in Figure 6. Peter then

leas i toas Jesus east a asks hi, hile Jesus ases: He it is, to whom I shall give a sop,


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when I have dipped it. And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of

“io. (John 13.26). Figure 7 shows Judas and Jesus reaching for the same piece of bread.

Figure 6 - Matthew, Jude Thaddeus and Simon the Zealot,

detail from the Last Supper

Figure 7 - Judas Iscariot, Peter and John, detail from the

Last Supper

The story is infused with drama. Leonardo manages to convey a sense of this through the gestures

and attitudes of the apostles. Both James, son of Alphaeus, and James the Greater raise their hands

in astonishment, for example, the former raising his eyebrows and the latter with mouth wide open.

Bartholomew, meanwhile, stands up to lean across the table with great intensity, both hands on the

table, and his powerful gaze adding to the spectacle. It is interesting to note an account of

Leoaos fiend Luca Pacioli, who wrote that it was

not possible to imagine the apostles more agitated upon hearing the voice of unfailing

truth [...] In their poses and their expressions, they seem to be speaking one to another

and this one to that with vigorous astonishment and dismay. (cited in Zöllner 2007, 122)

Even Darwin (2006 [1872], 1430) efes to the Leoaos Last Supper to eeplif astoishet i

his writings on the gestures of the human body. Just as Alberti (1970 [1435-1436]) advocates the use

of many and varied gestures in a painting to render the picture more compelling, Leonardo here

deploys these gestures with a specific aim. The image conveys hat it ust hae ee like he

Christ uttered those words (Gombrich 1984, 226).


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A consideration of the eholes io espose permits the art historian to place the beholder at

the centre of the analysis. To that end, it is possile to uesta Leoaos use of epessie

gestiulatio asie to the haates as a etho of heighteig the eholes epeiee of the

scene. In beholding the Last Supper , in accordance with the taught meditation techniques, the

behole ust oetate o eah of the figues i tu. A, i aoae ith Leoaos o

intention, and thanks to the mirror system, he should feel angered with Andrew, astonished with

James the Greater, and perhaps saddened with John. Not only does the beholder reflect

intellectually on the parts of the story as he concentrates on each character or group of characters in

turn (as he would have done presented with an earlier, pictographic version of the story (Figure 8)),

but reacts empathically to each character also, based on a mirror response to each gesture, thus

being further implicated as a witness to the scene.

Figure 8 - Stefano Di Giovanni Sassetta, The Last Supper (1423)

There is the danger here of overstating the case. The gesticulations of the Apostles would be difficult

to interpret to this level of meaning if the beholder was unfamiliar with the story (Gombrich 2002b,

69). Uoutel, a othe fatos oul hae fe ito the eholes epeiee of this ual.

There is, simultaneously however, the danger of dismissing altogether the part played by empathy

(and by the mirror mechanism). An experiment cited by Changeux (1994, 192) provides considerable


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insight. The neurologist Alexandre Luria, while investigating the impact of lesions of the frontal lobe

– one of the areas where mirror neurons occur (Rizzolatti and Craighero 2004) – found that when

patients were presented with a painting by Baron Klodt, the Last Spring, they were incapable of

understanding its content. The scene depicted a ig gil sittig i a ahai hile he elel

parents watch her sadly and her sister stands by the window in an attitude of profound sorrow

(Luria in Changeux (1994, 192). Luias sujets, uale to establish a coherent view of the picture,

guesse ase o the gils go that the ee lookig at a eig see. Chageu ituitiel

suggests that the frontal cortex plas a essetial ole i iseig the etal states, affects,

beliefs, desires and intentions of othes, whether real or represented in a painting (Changeux 1994,

192). It may be said then, without exaggeration, that it is thanks to the mirror neuron system that

the gestures can be interpreted at all. I believe the knowledge of the story and the understanding of

the gestures in terms of emotional states combine in the painting and reinforce one another to

produce a powerful holistic effect.

Thee is a ee, hoee, fo ultual sesitiit. Goihs (2002b, 69) perceptive analysis of the

mural reveals that in the Last Supper , Leonardo combines spontaneous and conventionalised

gesticulation, reporting that the gestures themselves are often taken as representative of a

Mediterranean culture. Having said that, both Gombrich (1976, 33) and Baxandall (1988, 48-49)

emphasise the trans-cultural influence of popular preachers in the 13th century. As Baxandall (1988,

64) points out, these ee skille isual pefoes ith a oifie age of gestiulatio ot speial

to Ital. It has been demonstrated, in addition, that the expression and interpretation of certain

basic emotions (such as happiness, sadness, fear, and surprise) exhibit remarkable consistency

across cultures (Feldman 1993, 368-369, Ekman and O'Sullivan 1991).

It ust e ote that, all aouts, Leoaos Last Supper was an exceptional rendition of this

traditional theme (Zöllner 2007, Gombrich 1984, 224). It is notable precisely for the animated nature

of the characters and the diversity of their attitudes, as the contemporary accounts demonstrate.


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Pehaps this the plaes Leoaos Last Supper among those works that traversed the tradition of

pictographic representation and ushered in the new, dramatic, style of painting. One reason why this

depiction was unusual was ue to the elatie iffiult of taslatig Jesus pshologial suffeig

into a visual representation. The isussio aoe has sho that osieig the eholes

mirror response, the audience is brought to the fore of the analysis, and the intended experience of

the work can be reconstructed somewhat more accurately than is possible otherwise. Furthermore,

the analysis has shown that consideration of the mirror response only makes sense and adds value

to the analysis if considered in conjunction with the art-historical context. As a theme, the Last

Supper seems to have been less open to the imparting of the type of emotional intensity discussed

above than certain other themes from the Passion. Other more physical aspects of the Passion offer

the painter a more straightforward message to convey. The following section addresses this

hypothesis in more detail by examining Rogier a e Wees Deposition6.

Rogier van der Weyden’s Deposition

One approach to determining the meaning of medieval painting, pioneered by Panofsky in his

influential article on the Arnolfini Portrait (1934), is that of isguise solis. I espose to the

ensuing pursuit of coded messages in pictures, Marrow (1986) tries to re-focus attention on two

points that he deems more central to the task of understanding pictures. The first of these is a

greater emphasis on the eholes espose i.e. hat oe "oes" i fot of it, o ith it (1986,

152)), and the second is the ole of the oks i stiulatig e states of osiousess Marrow

uses Rogiers Deposition to elaborate on these points (Figure 2).

“iilal to Leoaos Last Supper , Rogiers Deposition stands at the crossroads between the 13th

-

century pictographic tradition and the increasingly prominent dramatic representation in the 15th

century. The 13th

-century Crucifixion below (Figure 9), for example, converted scripture into image

form in such a way as to conceptualise the key theme; the idea of compassion. This was embodied,

6 Also known as The Descent from the Cross, or simply Descent .


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tpiall, the Vigi o the oe ha, ho itesse he sos eath, a “t. Fais o the

othe, ho epathise ith Chists suffeig to such a degree that he experienced the stomata

himself (Marrow 1986, 153). The Virgin is shown, furthermore, with a sword piercing her heart, as a

liteal epesetatio of “ieos pophe7.

Figure 9 - The Crucifixion, miniature from a 13th-century Psalter

The 14th

century saw the invention of the Andachtsbild (the devotional image). These images were

characterised by the gradual isolation of holy figures from recognisable settings (Marrow 1986, 153).

Rather, artists istille the essage of Mas a Chists opassioate loe ito its oe essetial

elements (Marrow 1986, 153-154). This development coincides with the rise of personal meditative

devotion in the northern countries, hat Paofsk efee to as oteplatie iesio

(Marrow 1986, 154). These images had the function, therefore, of stimulating the appropriate

emotions in viewers (Marrow 1986, 155).

7 Yea, a so shall piee though th o soul also, that the thoughts of a heats a e eeale.

(Luke 2.35)


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Rogiers Deposition shares some of the Andachtsbild ’s characteristics. As von Simson (1953, 9) points

out, the see is stitl liite to the hua sphee, ithout the patiulas of akgou o

landscapes to distract the viewer from the unfolding drama. The intended effect of the composition

is to pusue the sigle thee of laet ito its fiest eotioal aifiatios (von Simson 1953,

10). Indeed, the subject of the painting can be specified as the juxtaposition of the passio and

compassion (von Simson 1953, 11). This is epesete isuall Mas postue ioig that of

Jesus. It is worth pausing here to describe briefly the historical development of this theme.

The 12th

and 13th

centuries saw an increasing intimacy in the relationship between Mary and her

dead son. The assoiatio of Mas suffeig ith that of Chists is a pat of Chistia otie that

stems from the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux in the 12th

century (von Simson 1953, 11). The

association grows stronger throughout the 13th

century, inspired partly by the increased emphasis

laid by St. Francis and his followers on the affect. Whereas in previous times Mary was shown to

possess a piestl igit i fae of he sos saifie, the forming attitude now held the Virgins

suffering in such reverence that Bonaventure was inspired to suggest that at the Crucifixion Mary

as tasfoe ito the likeess of Chist (von Simson 1953, 12-13).

These tendencies reached a peak in the 14th

and 15th

centuries, giving rise to what von Simson (1953,

13) efes to as the age of Copassio. The Pietà as a devotional image, for example, now

becomes second in popularity only to the Man of Sorrows (von Simson 1953, 14). Indeed, the

Speculum humanae salvationis, published in 1324, did much to popularise the association by

following the “ee “tatios of Chists Passio ith the “ee “oos of Mary (von Simson 1953,

12-13). By the mid-15th

century, then, the passio and compassio are perceived as inseparable by

writers such as Bernardine of Siena and Denis the Carthusian (von Simson 1953, 14). As von Simson

suaises, The aste thee aopte the mariology of the most famous theologian of his time

and country [Denis], i a iage hih popula eotios eee itelligile to eeoe. (1953,

15).


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Although Marrow (1986, 156) criticises von Simson for over-emphasising the importance of liturgical

and doctrinal content of the painting, both authors do, in fact, insist on the primacy of the

eholes espose. Von Simson (1953, 16) eplais that it is though estalishig the o of

siilitue between the beholder and Jesus that the artist brings the doctrine to life. Indeed,

unlocking the meaning of Rogiers Deposition lies on the level of human experience or, in other

os, the otie ha to e lie to eoe effetie (von Simson 1953, 15).

Marrow (1986) claims that the iees espose is not only inspired towards the appropriate

response by contemplating Christ and the Virgin, but in the sees witnesses, and not least the

Virgin herself, these responses are actually exemplified (Marrow 1986, 155). This, according to

Marrow (1986, 155), represents a shift in emphasis unique to the Renaissance, away from the

traditional subject matter, that is the story or idea depicted, and towards the beholder. In some

sese, Ma i ‘ogies Deposition is an aspirational representation of the beholder. In summary

then, Marrow (1986, 157) argues that works such as Rogiers Deposition

surpassed the symbolic images of compassion of the thirteenth century, and the

Andachtsbilder of the fourteenth, both of which espoused compassion only conceptually

or by inference, by visualizing and thus explicitly extolling diverse forms of emotional

response to traditional Christian subjects.

Subsequently, Maos (1986, 163) argument turns to establishing the relationship between artistic

stimuli and consciousness itself. At a high level, he explains that the new method of representation

required a different engagement from the viewer. In particular, the meaning of the work now

depended to a much greater degree on the viewer experiencing the appropriate emotional

response. An important change, therefore, from Middle Ages was characterised by a work of art no

loge eig efiale eel hat is epesete ut its eaig eig vested also in effects

hih ae oetl ultiate i the ehole (Marrow 1986, 169).


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Although I agee ith the ke ieas i oth Maos (1986) and Simsons (1953) analyses, I do not

think that these fully address the question of the beholders espose to the ok i uestio.

Mao oest uite eplai why the image of Mary should affect the viewer in the first place.

Although her image certainly functions as a reminder that hers is the appropriate emotional

response that the beholder should aspire to, I would like to suggest that this works in combination

with the mirror response aroused by the image. The image of Mary involves the viewer in a direct

bodily engagement with the painting. As methods of engaging the iees osiousess, Mao

(1986) cites instances of artists using mirrors that face the viewer or outwardly gazes from

protagonists. I think that the evocation of the different types of mirror response could be added to

this list of tools that the artist can deploy to achieve his aim. The recognition and understanding of

this tool seems critical, therefore, to recreating the intended 15th

-century experience of the painting.

Practical experiments investigating the viewer response to different paintings are not within scope

of this essay. One might only hypothesise here that results of such tests on the effects of ‘ogies

Deposition would reveal the different characters in the painting to arouse different mirror

responses. Aside from Christ and Mary, already discussed, one would expect viewers to empathise

with the distressed woman on the left of the panel (Figure 10) (perhaps Mary of Cleophas, Marys

sister), symptomatic of an emotional mirror response. Viewers may also feel unbalanced, as they

hae ee sho to o fae ith Goas Desastres de la Guerra (see Section 3.1), by the sight of

Mary Magdalene, tiste as she stas at Chists feet (Figure 11).


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Figure 10 - Mary of Cleophas (?), detail from the

Deposition

Figure 11 - Mary Magdalene, detail from the Deposition

What may be referred to as the mechanics of a painting - that is its composition, colours, and other

formal aspects - are largely discernible. If the stated hypotheses are correct, however, this would

cast fresh light onto the mechanics of the beholders espose, all the more important if this is the

true (or at least other significant) subject of the painting. Again, I would argue that the power of the

painting is derived from the successful integration of the narrative, the formal aspects of the

painting, and the manipulation of the audience participation by the evocation of empathetic

response. Thus, if indeed the otie ha to e lie to eoe effetie (von Simson 1953, 15), it

is now possible to see the important roles played by the artist, the painting, and the audience in

bringing it to life.

To eiteate, pesete ith ‘ogies Deposition the modern viewer is faced with the usual problem

of bridging his time and culture and that of Rogier and his audience in order to appreciate the

painting more fully. As von Simson (1953, 15) poits out, The etet to hih the age as oe

oteplatio of these eets supasses oe uestaig. An awareness of mirror responses

can perhaps reveal an overlap between the modern viewer and the 15th

-century viewers espose.


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As ith Leoaos Last Supper , the analysis demonstrates how the investigation into mirror

responses could be combined with an appreciation of the iconography to contribute to recreating

the original intended experience of the work.

Perhaps the new light shed on this work ca also help aess Maos (1986) concern with the

relationship between the consciousness of the audience and the artwork. While the inversion of the

subject matter described above is certainly significant, it may not be as unique as Marrow suggests

(1986). He writes that, Nee efoe [...] had the situations of the observed in art and its observer

ee so epliitl eese. (Marrow 1986, 165). It a e appopiate hee to eall Paofsks

theory about the rapprochement of classical form and classial otet, a to suggest that ‘ogies

Deposition i fat otais eleets of Waugs Pathosformel . What I would like to suggest here is

that ‘ogies Deposition adopts not only classical forms, but classical aims too, in order to achieve

the highly emotive effect described above, albeit in a different context, namely a Christian one.

Examples of possible classical forms prefiguring images of the dead Christ are shown in the figures

below. Figure 12 is reminiscent of images of the Pietà, while Figure 13 of the deposition itself.

Figure 12 - Eos and Kephalos (1st

half of 5th

century before

Christ)

Figure 13 - Niobide (1st

half of 5th



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Parallels between the characters in these mythological scenes and Jesus and Mary are not the only

ones that can be drawn. Indeed, Warburg exemplified his concept of Pathosformel with reference to

the Maenads as the types borrowed in Renaissance scenes of the Crucifixion to depict the mourning

women at the foot of the cross (Wind 1937). Indeed, Figure 15 offers a striking comparison with

Ma Magalee i ‘ogies Deposition.

Figure 14 - Image of Maenad Figure 15 - Relief of Maenad

What is more, I believe it is the universality of the mirror system mechanism that permits certain

forms to be reused in different contexts while maintaining particular effects. If this is true, it would

be testable experimentally, and would be supported i f toas iees were shown to exhibit the

predicted esposes. This a also patl eplai h soe paitigs, suh as ‘ogies Deposition,

receive as much attention today as they do despite the cultural and temporal distance. This point

shall be developed further in Section 3.3.

To conclude, with reference to the research question stated in Section 1, the discussion and analyses

above have gone some way to answering how neuroscience can contribute to the appreciation of

Renaissance art nowadays. Crucially, the analyses of the case studies are demonstrative of an

integrative approach to understanding art works. Zeki (1999, 28-29) argues that what is important


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for a general appreciation of a work of art can be gained through a direct experience of it thanks to

the universality of perception. The rest, he claims, should be left to the connoisseurs. I do not think

that a strict distinction between these different kinds of knowledge about a painting is a helpful one.

I believe it is precisely the marriage of these different elements that can add the most value to

toas appreciation of the works. I believe that the analysis here has shown that any universal

aspects of brain mechanisms, in this case empathetic response, cannot be isolated from the rest of

iconography and can only be truly helpful in revealing the meaning of paintings when integrated

with iconographic and other art-historical knowledge.

This approach has revealed several specific insights into Renaissance art. Whilst lending valuable

suppot to daaalls ideas about how gestures and movements in paintings were read by a

contemporary audience, the consideration of mirror responses has allowed for further

reconstruction of the intended experience of these works. In particular, it has allowed for the

consideration of the effect of the less codified and formalised gestures that Baxandall (1988)

explores in Painting & Experience. A key to this is the emphasis given in the analysis to the

eholes esponse itself. This seems particularly relevant given the increasing consideration in the

peio gie to the eholes affetie ioleet i the oks. Highlighting these aspects in the

analysis, it has also been possible to suggest broader implications for the persistence of certain

evocative forms (Pathosformel a thei elatio to the eholes osiousess. This section has

also elaborated on some key themes of the discussion. Namely, it has explored the roles of nature

and nurture in the production and consumption or art works, as well as the corresponding status of

the universal versus the historical in art history. These themes shall be explored further in the

following Sections.

In spite of the limitations of )ekis appoah discussed above, he does nevertheless make some

significant contributions, not least through the study of ambiguity to which I shall now turn.


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3.2

Ambiguity

Ambiguity – rabbit or duck – is clearly the key to the whole problem of image reading.

(Gombrich 2002a, 198)

Goihs uhaateistiall hisial oet oes itoue a oetheless ipotat thee

to the present discussion. Ambiguity can be understood at various levels of complexity. Simple

perceptual ambiguity, at one end of the scale, is well exemplified by such bi-stable illusions as the

rabbit/duck illusion (Figure 16) or the Necker cube illusion (Figure 17). In both cases, the stimulus on

the page is constant while the brain switches between two alternative views (between a rabbit and a

duck in the former and between two alternative perspectives on the cube in the latter). These

illusions present the brain with too little information to be able to resolve the ambiguity. As a result

the ai sithes etee to euall plausile itepetatios, although at a given time, only

oe itepetatio is possile (Zeki 2004, 183).

Figure 16 - The 'rabbit or duck' illusion Figure 17 - The Necker cube illusion

To understand this phenomenon at a neural level, it is necessary to distinguish, in the first place,

etee oia oes a essetial oes. As etioe i Section 1, the brain is subject to a

high degree of functional specification. In the human visual system, some groups of cells are

responsible solely for detecting motion, whilst others react only to certain colours, and others


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respond to orientation (i.e. vertical or horizontal forms). A neural node describes one collective of

suh speialise ells. A oe is sai to e essetial if its atiatio esults i the osious

perception of the attribute that that node is responsible for, without further processing by the brain.

To account for the register of discrete attributes due to the activity of essential nodes, Zeki (2004)

has oie the te 'ioosiousess. Oe pat of the isual sste i the ai es ponsible for

olou peeptio, ae V, is a goo eaple of a essetial oe. Atiit theei esults i the

osious peeptio of olou ithout the ee fo futhe poessig (Zeki 2004, 177). Essential

nodes can, therefore, be thought of as perceptual sites in the brain that function simultaneously as

processing sites. Intervention from a higher cognitive area such as learning or memory (also

efee to as the top-o ifluee is not required to process and interpret the stimulus.

Consequently, the illusions discussed above imply that each essential node, and therefore each

microconsciousness, can have multiple states, with each state resulting in a different interpretation

of the stimulus (i.e. rabbit or duck). Zeki (ibid.) conjectures that these states must be determined by

the strengthening of one set of cells within the node at the expense of another.

These ambiguous images demonstrate another key principle of perception. At least since Plato, a

psychological hypothesis has existed that human perception is concerned with the extraction of

stable universals (the essential) from the ever-changing world around us (Gombrich et al. 1970, 3).

This particular role of the human visual system is upheld oe stuies i this fiel. The ol

kolege that is oth auiig, ites Zeki (1999, 5), is kolege aout the euig a

haateisti popeties of the ol. As suh, under normal circumstances (for the above illusions

are contrived), the ai is a aiguit-esolig ahie pa eellee (Kandel 2006, 297),

processing, as it does, incomplete and changing inputs to create a logiall oheet output. It

should be noted, furthermore, that as an incentive for the brain to discover hidden objects (an

important skill in nature), the brain has evolved to enjoy the exercise (Ramachandran 2000).

Following from this evidence, ambiguity can be defined as an unstable state characterised by a

certainty of several logically coherent interpretations – a plurality of truths (Zeki 1999, 25).


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recognition. Experiments, however, also indicate that the fronto-parietal cortex (involved in higher

cognitive function) is engaged as the brain switches between one percept (i.e. interpretation) and

the other (Zeki 2004, 186).

Figure 18 - Bi-stable image showing a vase or two faces

This has led Zeki (1999, 29) to speculate that highly complex ambiguous images such as the paintings

of Vermeer, while subject to the same principles as simpler ambiguous images, engage many more

areas of the brain, including its memory. The brain is still tasked with attributing meaning to the

image by establishing the most likely state (or situation in the ase of Veees paitigs that

befits the visual clues. Typically, however, Vermeer does not provide sufficient clues to allow for the

determination of just one stable state, inviting more questions than offering answers. Aside from

physical aspects, like colour and form, ambiguity can thus apply equally to less tangible aspects of art

(1999, 22). Zeki terms this notion situatioal osta. What is written in the note the woman in

Figure 19 is reading? What is the relationship between the man and woman in Figure 20? The

paintings themselves do not provide the answers to these questions. Hence, according to Zeki (1999,


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24-25), the pshologial poe of Veees oks oes fo thei ailit to geeate

aiguit.

Figure 19 - Johannes Vermeer, Girl reading a letter at

an open window (c. 1657-1659)

Figure 20 - Johannes Vermeer, The Music Lesson (c.

1662-1665)

As a practical example, I would now like to consider the role of ambiguity as discussed above with

speial efeee to Velázuezs Las Meninas. This large format (318cm × 276cm) group portrait

depicts the King and Queen of Spain, their daughter, Velazquez himself, the court dwarfs, a

chaperone, a guard, and an attendant. Art historians, philosophers, and indeed other artists have

produced voluminous analyses attempting to decipher this highly complex painting.

The painting contains three focal points: the Ifata Magaita, Velazuezs self -portrait, and the

reflection of the royal couple. Velázquez is one of five characters that look out at the viewer from

the painting. These gazes have the effect of implicating the viewer in the scene, effectively rendering

them a fourth focal point of the painting. This is enhanced by both the mirror where the beholder

might expect to see himself , a the paites o attitue as he stas efoe his aas. Perhaps

he is pausing to study his subject, before adding another brush-stroke. Thus the spectator becomes

that subject.


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But the subject of the canvas that Velázquez so tantalizingly obscures from view could equally be the

king and queen or the Infanta Margarita or even the whole scene from the point of view of the

couple – i.e. Las Meninas itself. Although previous studies have attempted to decipher this enigma

with certainty, I believe it is precisely the ambiguity between this multitude of certainties that lends

the painting its dynamic. It is thanks to this that Each focal point involves us in a new set of

elatios (Clark 1960, 36). Foucault (2004, 5) also acknowledges the complex relationships between

the different roles, writing: No gaze is stale ... sujet a ojet, the spetato a the oel,

eese thei oles to ifiit. As with the simple illusions seen at the beginning of this section, the

compositional balance of Las Meninas means that at any one time the viewer is capable of

contemplating only one of these focal points as the subject matter, and the instability of each

perpetuates the iees interaction with the painting.

In the case of Las Meninas, the ultimate purpose of this illusionistic game is open to speculation.

One might argue that it addresses concerns particular to the 17th

-century Spanish empire on the one

hand, and those of Velazquez in improving his social standing on the other. Considering first the

latter, the painting in which Velazquez had included his self-portrait was originally entitled The

Family (Levey 1971, 147, Portus 2004, 171), thus indicating the aspirational nature of his inclusion in

the group. With espet to the foe, i “pai paites ee ot eepte fo the atisas ta –

the alcabala sales tax imposed on manufactured goods – until 1677 (Shiner 2001, 67, Taggard 1996,

80). In both Florence and Rome, however, it was already recognised as a liberal art. Velázquez may

thus be making an appeal to his audience to reconsider both the intellectual underpinnings of his

art, and his own social status as an artist. Seen in this way, the ambiguity may function as a powerful

hetoial tool that poses the uestio athe tha offeig a ases since these, ultimately,

must come from the audience. In this case, then, an understanding of ambiguity does help explain

how the painting works, but, for lack of material evidence, one can only speculate as to the aims of

the painter, or why he chose to paint the work the way that he did.


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The importance of ambiguity in art has been highlighted by art historians and neuroscientists alike,

both otig its ailit to egage ith the eholes iagiatio (Gombrich 1984, 228, Zeki 2004,

189). “oethig, )eki (2004, 189) quotes Schopenhaue, iee the ultiate thig, ust e left

oe fo the i to o. Whilst )eki (1999, 26) lais that aiguit is a haateisti of all geat

at, Quatee (1998, 121) in the early 19th

etu, stipulates that It is the fitious a the

incomplete in every art, and these alone, which constitute art, and become moreover the sources of

the pleasue of iitatio. Cota to )ekis alue jugeet, Q uatremère rather introduces a

principle; that all art can only ever be incomplete, and the beholder is inevitably absorbed in the

exercise of bridging the gap between it and reality. Whilst there is a danger here of abstracting the

problem to a point where it no longer bears any relevance to the task at hand, I aim to show how

these theories have, in fact, very concrete implications for understanding Renaissance painting.

It is important to note first, that the exercise above in using ambiguity to explain Renaissance

painting is limited. Las Meninas stands out in Renaissance painting, if not in the history of art, as an

exceptional painting. The ability to shed more light on such a unique painting, as welcome as it is,

does not necessarily help improve the art historias uestaig of a peio o a stle i at

history.

I think it may be possible, nonetheless, to broaden the relevance of ambiguity for Renaissance art,

again, by considering the proper context. A paradox of realism during the Renaissance, Gombrich

(1984, 228) explains, was that by attempting to replicate nature in portraits, the sitters depicted

actually came across as lifeless. In an effort to make his characters seem less rigid, Botticelli depicted

the movement of hair and garments. Leoaos Mona Lisa o the othe ha, use the atists o

ietio of sfumato to puposefull istot aeas aou the oes of the sujets outh a

eyes. The overall effect of using the technique in this way is to introduce an element of uncertainty

aout the sittes oo: He epessio alas sees just to elue us (Gombrich 1984, 228). An


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important element of the painting is thus left to the eholes iagiatio, a it is this iagiatie

engagement borne out of built-in ambiguity that brings the Mona Lisa to life for the beholder.

While Gombrich associates this heightening of the psychological power of painting with Leonardo

and his important invention of distorting outlines of forms, I believe that an important parallel exists

in earlier painting, namely the religious paintings of the 15th

century. As discussed in Section 2.1, the

eligious paitig fo this peio as tpiall itee to opleet the eholes iteal

vision of a particular scene. Another way of looking at it, in light of the above discussion, is that the

paite i fat uilt aiguit ito the pitue i oe to peit the iiiuals iagiatio to

create its own version, and become witness to the events. Thus, not by obscuring forms as Leonardo

did, but rather by the omission of specific descriptive detail, artists left open the possibility of many

variations of the scene, engaging the eholes i as he ties to fi his. I this a, the gap

between painting and reality becomes instrumental in the function of the painting.

In this section I have shown how recent developments in understanding the neurology of ambiguity

to oo )ekis (2004) phase a illuiate seeigl ople oks suh as Mihelagelos

Rondanini Pietà a Velazuezs Las Meninas. Crucially, however, again by considering the problem

in context and in terms of the function of the works, it has been possible to add another layer of

uestaig to daaalls (1988) explanation of 15th

-century religious paintings.

3.3

Plasticity

It seems there is nothing to exceed the plasticity of man, except, of course, the plasticity

of woman. (Gombrich et al. 1970, 11)

The last of the major developments in neuroscience that I wish to discuss is neuroplasticity. In

Painting & Experience, there are two aspects of his social history of pictorial style that Baxandall

does not dedicate much attention to. Firstly, whilst addressing in detail the impact that the period

eye has on style, Baxandall (1988) only hints at the potential reciprocity of this relationship, that is,


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the influence that art could have on the period eye. And secondly, although Baxandall (1988)

suggests that experience of art is influenced by both innate and conditioned factors, Painting &

Experience focuses mainly on the latter. It has been pointed out (Onians 2007, 179-180) that,

ultimately, he gives little consideration to the passive structuring of the brain, concentrating instead

on formal training. I think that neuroplasticity, the concept that the neural networks comprising the

brain are malleable, offers fresh insight into the relationship between experience and the brain, and

into the broader but related relationship between society and art.

Since the 1960s, evidence has been growing in support of the idea that, contrary to previous belief,

the human brain does not become ha-ie during childhood and adolescence, but continues to

change in several important ways throughout adulthood (Doidge 2007, xviii). Although much

research is being done to determine exactly the extent of the mutability of the human brain (Rakic

2002, 614), already the discovery that brain neural circuits are not permanent or necessarily

function-speifi, is eee soe as oe of the ost ipotat isoeies of the tetieth

etu (Doidge 2007, xix).

The neural network can change in response to experience in several different ways (Kandel 2006,

204). Firstly, synaptic connections between neurons can be made weaker or stronger. Weaker

connections can be observed when a particular stimulus is repeated over time resulting in a

decreased psychological response, a process known as habituation. Alternately, the synaptic

connection can be strengthened (diagram on left of Figure 21) by other types of learning such as

sensitisation or classical conditioning. Sensitisation is the occurrence of a synaptic amplification as a

result of repeated stimulation, while classical conditioning is an associative type of learning where a

behavioural response is elicited by a previously unrelated stimulus through repeated exposure to the

stimulus in synchronisation with a stimulus that normally does evoke the response (famously studied

by Ivan Pavlov on dogs). I the oaest tes, Kael (2006, 171) explains, these observations

suggeste that the flo of ifoatio i the aious eual iuits of the ain could be modified


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by learning. Even more astonishingly, experiments have demonstrated that learning can also cause

the atual ue of sapses i the ais etok to hage (Kandel 2006, 213). New

connections are established aitie plastiit as a result of learning (diagram on right of Figure

21), and existing connections abandoned sutatie plastiit when they are not used (Doidge

2007, 298).

Figure 21 - Diagrams representing functional and anatomical changes to a neural network (Kandel 2006, 214)

The etet of the ais plastiit has ee eostate i aati fashio ueous

practical experiments. Ramachandran and Blakeslee (Ramachandran and Blakeslee 2005, 59)

describe several methods of quickly altering a pesos o-image, giving them the impression that

parts of their body have either changed shape or become disembodied. This, the authors explain,

eostates that the ight ki of seso stiulatio a opletel alte oes appaetl


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certain knowledge developed over a lifetime in just a few seconds (Ramachandran and Blakeslee

2005, 59).

Thus the brain was shown to be undergoing constant change as a direct result of experience,

pefetig its iuits so it as ette suite to the task at ha. (Doidge 2007, xviii-xix). It is

important to note that the changes described show a tendency towards greater efficiency. It has

been reported that, under some circumstances, healthy working parts of the brain would

compensate for parts that were not working, either due to genetic mutation or damage caused by

accidents, physically extending their influence in the brain (Doidge 2007, xviii-xix).

Another experiment described by Ramachandran (2000), involving the conditioning of rats to

distinguish a rectangle from a square, reveals a feature of neuroplasticity particularly pertinent to

the present discussion. Conditioning the rats by feeding them cheese every time they are presented

with the rectangle but not the square leads the rats to exhibit a preference for the rectangle by

moving towards it. Once the rats are then presented with the original rectangle and another,

skinnier and longer, rectangle, they exhibit preference for the new rectangle even though this is not

what they were taught to associate with food. As Ramachandran (2000) explains, what the rats

leae as a ule: etagulait. I othe os, the geate the aspet atio of the shape, the

geate is the ats pefeee fo it. This is efee to as the peak shift effet a oth at histoias

(Gombrich et al. 1970) and neuroscientists (Ramachandran and Hirstein 1999) have explained the

power of caricature in these terms, as well as its bearing on art more generally. What is more, the

effect can be cumulative, evoking a stronger response every time the stimulus is presented.

These discoveries certainly bear importance for the nature/nurture debate. Although DNA

eteies hih euos ae ale to oet ith hih othe euos, uilt ito the ais

neural network is the potential for a multitude of behaviours. Which particular circuits are then

favoured over others, and therefore which particular responses and behaviours are

generated/produced is down to experience (Kandel 2006, 202). This radical new view of the human


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emphasis placed on colour (colorito) and drawing (disegno) in Venetian and in Florentine painting

respectively during the Renaissance. This states that visual preferences developed in each city

according to the influence of their distinct environments on the populatios ais (University of

East Anglia 2006). Alternatively, it may be possible to re-examine the question of what impact the

accurate presentation of perspective on the canvas may have had on the public of the 14th

and 15th

centuries. Doidge (2007, 299-300), explains that perceptual learning occurs as the ais ailit to

discriminate between visual stimuli becomes greater, or when the brain learns a new way of

perceiving altogether, resulting in structural changes to the brain. This seems to support the theory

that Aletis On Painting (1970 [1435-1436]) was not only an instructive manual on how to execute

the e etho of painting, but also crucially an instructive manual, dedicated originally to the

Duke of Mantua, on how to look at these paintings (Maniura 2010). Aletis ai i this teatise

Spencer (1970) explains, is one of making the new humanist art of Florence understandable and

desirable for a larger group of artists and patrons. (my emphasis). It seems appropriate to recall

Maos (1986, 163) concern with the alternative state of consciousness demanded of the beholder

by Renaissance art. Although further research would be required to test these ideas, it is significant

in itself that such questions should be reopened for consideration by developments in brain studies.

The ais popesit to hage i espose to epeiee has le soe (Changeux 1994, 193) to

oi the te etal Daiis. Plastiit is competitive, Doige (2007, 298) writes, and Kandel

(2006, 202) discusses plasticity in terms of the selection of preferred connections from a set of

existing connections. Given that the selection process is based on the actual use of synapses and

neural pathways, I wonder whether in fact Lamarckian evolution is not a better analogy. In any case,

the relevance for art is the same, as summarised by Gombrich (cited in Changeux 1994, 189 : In art

history, the word evolution is a good deal more than a metaphor aig that form adapts to

function through a process of mutation and selection, and then of survival of the fittest forms.


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duilig o Dakis (2009, 192) idea that memes are the replicators of culture, just as genes are

the replicators of life (in the biological sense), Changeux (1994, 196) suggests that paintings can be

seen as a sthesis of ees. It should be noted that here too the term is more than a metaphor.

Mees ae actually realized physically, Huphes (cited in Dawkins 2009, 1

ninkovi in search of period eye

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