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No. 7

Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials

Notes on Certain Aspects of the Regulations

I N T E R N A T I O N A L A T O M I C E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

V I E N N A 1961

This publication is no longer valid Please see http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/

REGULA TIONS FO R T H E SA FE TRA N SPO RT O F RADIOACTIVEM A TER IA LS

N O T E S O N C E R T A IN A S P E C T S O F T H E R E G U L A T IO N S


The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency:

A F G H A N IS T A NA L B A N IAA R G E N T IN AA U S T R A L IAA U S T R IAB E L G IU MB R A ZILB U L G A R IAB U R M AB Y E L O R U S S IA N SOVIET

SOCIALIST R E P U B L IC C A M B O D IA C A N A D A C E Y L O N C H IL E C H IN A C O LO M B IA C U B AC ZE C H O S L O V A K

SOCIALIST R E P U B L IC D E N M A R KD O M IN IC A N R E P U B L ICE C U A D O RE L S A L V A D O RE T H IO P IAF IN L A N DFR A N C EF E D E R A L R E P U B L IC

O F G E R M A N Y G H A N A G R E E C E G U A T E M A L A H A IT I H O L Y SEE H O N D U R A S H U N G A R Y IC E L A N D IN D IA IN D O N E S IA IR A N IR A Q

ISR A E LIT A L YJA P A NR E P U B L IC O F K O R E AL E B A N O NL U X E M B O U R GM E X IC OM O N A C OM OROCCON E T H E R L A N D SN E W Z E A L A N DN IC A R A G U AN O R W A YP A K IS T A NP A R A G U A YP E R UPH IL IPP IN E SP O L A N DP O R T U G A LR O M A N IAS E N E G A LS O U T H AFR ICASPAINS U D A NS W E D E NS W IT Z E R L A N DT H A IL A N DTU N ISIAT U R K E YU K R A IN IA N SOVIET SOCIALIST

R E P U B L IC U N IO N O F SO VIET SOCIALIST

R E PU BLICS U N IT E D A R A B R E P U B L IC U N IT E D K IN G D O M O F G R E A T

B R IT A IN A N D N O R T H E R N IR E L A N D

U N IT E D STATES O F A M E R IC A V E N E Z U E L A VIET-NAM Y U G O S L A V IA

The Agency’s Statute was approved on 26 October 1956 at an international conference held at United Nations headquarters, New York, and the Agency came into being when the Statute entered into force on 29 July 1957. The first session of the General Conference was held in Vienna, Austria, the permanent seat of the Agency, in October, 1957.

The main objective of the Agency is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world”.

© IA EA , 1961

Permission to reproduce or translate the information contained in this publication may be obtained by writing to the International Atomic Energy Agency, Karntner Ring 11, Vienna I.

Reprinted by the IA E A in Austria May 1962


SAFETY SERIES No. 7

REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

NOTES ON CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE REGULATIONS

IN T E R N A T IO N A L ATOM IC E N E R G Y A G E N C Y

Karntner Ring, Vienna I, Austria

1961


T H E S E NOTES A R E ALSO PU B LISH ED IN FR EN C H , RU SSIA N AND SPA N ISH

R E G U L A T IO N S F O R T H E SAFE T R A N S P O R T O F R A D IO A C T IV EM A T E R IA LS

N O T E S O N C E R T A IN ASPECTS O F T H E R E G U L A T IO N S

IA EA , V IE N N A , 1961

STI/PUB/32


The In ternational Atomic Energy Agency’s R egulations for the Safe T ransport of Radioactive M aterials were published in May th is year.

During the m eetings of the two panels "which (as sta ted in th e In tro duction to the Regulations) were convened by the Agency to prepare the regulations, th e view emerged strongly th a t there would be great advantage to all concerned if a docum ent could be published by the Agency to supplem ent the regulations them selves w ith m aterial of both a scientific and a general character relating to them .

The present notes have been produced in response to th a t dem and.T hey a ttem p t to provide some broad general guidance to users as to

the purpose of th e regulations and their working out in practice. They contain also the scientific background to the classification of radioisotopes for transp ort purposes given in the regulations. Furtherm ore, an approach has been m ade to the difficult question of design of containers in relation to the factors th a t have to be taken in to account by com petent authorities in approving Type B containers, w ith a view both to helping those concerned on bo th sides of th is tran sp o rt problem , and to stim ulating further though t on the subject, in order to build up a corpus of practical experience in th is field.

So far as broad guidance to users is concerned, two papers are incorporated in th is supplem ent; firstly, a laym an’s guide to the regulations prepared by Mr. A. H . K . Slater (U nited Kingdom) who served on both panels and secondly, a synoptic table of the regulations prepared by Monsieur G. E. Andre (Belgium) who was chairm an of the first of the Agency’s transp ort panels. An exam ple has also been given of an assessment of the am ount of exposure to tran sp o rt personnel, through th e courtesy of B ritish European Airways and th e U nited K ingdom Atom ic Energy A uthority. The paper on the classification of radioisotopes has been prepared by Mr. A. Fairbairn (United Kingdom) who served on the panels m entioned above and Mr. N. J . Dunning, a former m ember of the UKAEA. Mr. Fairbairn has also contributed a paper on the derivation of m aximum permissible levels of radioactive surface contam ination of transp o rt containers and vehicles. The paper on th e testing of transp o rt containers was w ritten by Mr. A. Grange (U nited Kingdom).

FO REW O RD


The Agency is grateful to all those nam ed for the ir work, and for their help in producing the present docum ent. The notes are now issued in the hope th a t fu rther though t on these and on o ther related problem s m ay be s tim u la ted ; b u t they should no t be regarded as representing the official policy of the Agency on th e subject w ith which they deal.

August 1961 D irector General


TABLE OF CONTENTS1. A L A Y M A N ’ S G U ID E T O T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L A T O M IC E N E R G Y

A G E N C Y R E G U L A T IO N S F O R T H E S A F E T R A N S P O R T O F R A D IO A C T IV E M A T E R I A L S

A. H . K . S l a t e r (United Kingdom)

2. S Y N O P T IC T A B L E S O F T H E I A E A R E G U L A T IO N S F O R T H E S A F E T R A N S P O R T O F R A D IO A C T IV E M A T E R I A L S

G. E. A n d r e (Belgium)

3. T H E C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F R A D IO IS O T O P E S F O R P A C K A G IN G

A. F a i r b a i r n (United Kingdom) and N . J. D u n n i n g (United Kingdom)

C H A P T E R I — IN T R O D U C T IO N

1. Type of packaging2. Maximum activity in a package3. Object of report

C H A P T E R II — M E T H O D OF C A LC U LA TIO N

1. Assumptions2. Intake3. Soluble radioactive material— calculation of radiation dose to

the lung

C H A P T E R III — G R O U P D E M A R C A T IO N

1. Results of calculation2. Initial demarcation3. Transfer of specific radioisotopes between groups after initial

demarcation4. The inert gases

C H A P T E R IV — DISCU SSION O F R E SU LT S OF G R O U P IN G

1. Routes of intake2. The gastro-intestinal tract3. Effect of major accident to a Type A package4. External radiation risk under accident conditions— implication

on maximum activity limits applicable to Type A packaging5. Type B packages

C H A P T E R V — T H E G R O U P IN G F O R T R A N S P O R T P U R PO SES O F R A D IO IS O T O P E S N O T A L R E A D Y C O N S ID E R E D IN TH IS R E P O R T

C H A P T E R V I — R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S

1. Group classification of radioisotopes for transport purposes2. Radioisotopes not allocated to groups3. Tests to help establish the validity of assumptions used for the

purpose of this Report


REFERENCES

I Calculations •— Formulae used and outline of derivationTable V •— Values of if (dose rate to critical organ due to maximum permissible body burden)Table V I — Composition of one (natural) curie

II Table V II — Radiation dose (rem) following the intake of one microcurie of radioisotopeTable VTII — Logarithmic scale used to give results of calculations

III Table I X — Radioisotopes listed in order of relative hazard and divided into three groups for the purpose of transport

IV Table X — The classification of radioisotopes into groups for transport purposes

V Table X I — Grouping on basis of half-life of some radioisotopes for which biological data is not available

V I Table X I I — Radioisotopes in each group listed in order of atomic number

4. TH E DERIVATION OF M A X IM U M PERMISSIBLE LEVELS OF R A D IO ACTIVE SURFACE CONTAMINATION OF TRANSPORT CONTAINERS AND VEHICLES

A. F a i r b a i r n (United Kingdom)

1. Introduction2. Derivation of maximum permissible levels2.2. The dispersal of contamination from surfaces2.3. Maximum permissible levels of air contamination2.4. The transfer of contamination to the hands2.5. Maximum permissible contamination levels for transport con

tainers3. Conclusion

5. APPROPRIATE TESTS FOR CONTAINERS FOR TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

A. G r a n g e (United Kingdom)

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N2. V A R IO U S S T A N D A R D S F O R P A C K A G IN G

2.1. Radioactive materials in general2.1.1. Packages of low specific activity materials2.1.2. Packages of materials exempt from certain of the regulations,

owing to smallness of content or non-dispersibility of the material2.1.3. Type A packages2.1.4. Type B packages2.2. ' Pyrophoric radioactive materials2.3. Fissile materials2.4. Package approval

3. S A F E T Y R E Q U IR E M E N T S IN P A C K A G IN G R A D IO A C T IV E M A T E R IA L S F O R T R A N S P O R T

3.1. General3.2. Prevention of release; containment

APPENDICES


3.3. Limitation of radiation; shielding3.4. Safety from criticality3.5. Safety from fire and safe dissipation of heat3.6. Safety from explosion3.7. Mechanical safety3.8. Absence of unsuspected hazards after an accident

4. TE ST IN G O F C O N T A IN E R S

4.1. Standard testing4.2. Transport accident conditions4.2.1. Introduction: the need for statistics4.2.2. General discussion4.2.3. Crash considerations4.2.4. Fire considerations4.2.5. Container size considerations4.3. Proposed additional tests4.3.1. Additional tests for Type B container4.3.2. Additional tests for containers integral with carrier4.4. Economic considerations4.5. Conclusion

A N N E X A

Additional tests for Type B containers

A N N E X B

Additional tests for Type B containers integral with carrier

A N N E X C

Figures 1— 2. Two examples of container

A N E X A M P L E O F A S S E S S M E N T O F E X P O S U R E F O R T R A N S P O R T P E R S O N N E L : A R A D IO L O G IC A L S U R V E Y O F B R I T I S H E U R O P E A N A I R W A Y S C A R G O W A R E H O U S E A N D P E R S O N N E L — L O N D O N A I R P O R T , 1 9 5 8


A LAYMAN’S GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY’S REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE TRANSPORT OF

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS*A. H . K . S l a t e r

U n i t e d K in g d o m

1. Why is the International Atomic Energy Agency concerning itself with a matter like transport of radioactive substances?

The IA EA is the U nited N ations body concerned w ith the peaceful uses of atom ic energy, and is authorized by its S ta tu te to establish standards of safety for protection of health and m inim ization of danger to life and property ; its T ransport Regulations have been m ade in pursuance of those functions.

2. What relation do these Regulations bear to national regulations?They apply a t the m ombnt—and only eould so apply in advance of

any convention on the sub ject—to S tates who have taken them over into their own national legislation. B u t they are w ritten in such a form th a t a S ta te no t having such legislation can take them over complete, if i t so wishes, for its pwn purposes. They will, of course, greatly facilita te in ternational m ovem ent of radioactive substances to the ex ten t th a t S tates which are Members of the Agency either adopt them firmly themselves or agree to apply their provisions to in ternational movements.

3. What do these Regulations cover?The carriage of all rad ioactive substances. Now i t m ust be m ade clear

th a t a substance is no t regarded as radioactive a t all for the purposes of these Regulations unless it has an activ ity of more th an 0.002 fic/g: and a consignor m ay be required by a carrier to certify th a t any given substance does no t fall w ithin th e scope of th e Regulations.* (Caution: This guide is not a substitute for the Regulations themselves

and for the details of the specific requirements in each case, reference must always be made to the Regulations.General references to the Regulations have been given at appropriate points throughout the guide: these are intended as “signposts” only, and readers are warned that they are not necessarily exhaustive).

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4. Are aU modes of transport covered?

Yes, all except the post. B u t th e w arning should ju st be sounded here th a t some of the rules given below are slightly modified in relation to carriage by sea or by inland w aterways—particu larly w ith regard to num bers of packages carried and stowages in m ixed loads especially w ith undeveloped X -ray or photographic films or foodstuffs.

5. What is the general aim of the Regulations?

I t is to perm it th e carriage of radioactive substances (as described in Answer 3 above) quite freely. Radioactive substances are accepted to be dangerous goods; b u t there are now well-established procedures for the carriage of such goods generally, and the Regulations aim a t fitting rad ioactive substances into these procedures safely and smoothly.

One particu lar point is th a t those concerned w ith or affected by the tran sp o rt of a particu lar package (whether as tran sp o rt workers or as m embers of the general public) will no t receive a rad iation dose in excess of th a t prescribed by th e In ternational Commission on Radiological P ro tection (ICRP) as acceptable annually for m embers of the general public (including children). (This is usually called the non-occupational dose).

6. How is this achieved basically?

By laying down rigorous standards of packaging and containm ent which are designed to keep rad iation w ithin permissible lim its, even in the event of an accident.

7. Does this mean then that all these substances can be carried safely?

Yes, provided you observe the rules for each class.

8. Does that mean I need to differentiate between t?ie substances themselves in some way?

Yes: they are classified according to their rad io toxicity in three classes as set ou t in the Regulations themselves and there are also special p ro visions for fissile m aterials.

[Annex I, Table IV: Sections 6 and 15]

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9. What does this differentiation mean in 'practice?

I t means th a t for each class only a certain activ ity level can norm ally be carried, subject to the type of packing used.

10. Could we go a little more fully into “type of packing and container” : what are these?

Yes, we do n o t lay down hard and fast rules about m aterials to be used, or go into detail of the type of construction, b u t we distinguish two broad classes:

(i) Type A packing which will prevent loss or dispersal of the rad ioactive content and re ta in shielding efficiently under conditions norm ally incident to transp o rt (such as m inor drops and spills) and under m inor accidents; and

(ii) Type B packing which has th e same effect under conditions norm ally incident to transport, and m ust also take account of the m axim um credible accident relevant to the mode of transport.

In general, of course, all radioactive m aterials m ust be so packed th a t the possibility of the ir escape in any form or m anner is brought to the absolute m inim um . Containers m ust therefore be leak-proof, and securely closed by a positive fastening device. Furtherm ore, this container m ust be enclosed in a shield adequate to prevent an external dose ra te in excess of those laid down.

W here th e radioactive m aterials are liquid, there are additional requirem ents in th e interests o f safety, chiefly th a t receptacles should have sufficient ullage to ensure th a t there is no gas pressure b u ilt up sufficient to d isrup t the receptacle, and th a t these receptacles should be surrounded by enough absorbent m aterial to absorb th e entire contents.

[Section 5: Annex I , Packaging Note]

11. So these materials can be sent by any mode of transport, i. e. road, rail, sea or air, once I have satisfied the Regulations?

Yes, if they are packed according to the standards m entioned.

12. So would I be right in summing up the position as follows:

(a) Radioactive substances themselves are divided into three classes, according to radiotoxicity.

(b) There are, for each such class, two types of packing possible, Type A or Type B, according to the requirements of each case, so that

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(c) This gives Six 'possible variations; substances of Groups I , I I and I I I in Type A packing or Type B packing respectively—Hind the limiting factor is the activity content in each case?

(i) Group I substances in Type A packing.(ii) Group I I substances in Type A packing.

(iii) Group I I I substances in Type A packing.(iv) Group I substances in Type B packing.(v) Group I I substances in Type B packing.

(vi) Group I I I substances in Type B packing— and the limiting factor is the activity content in each case?

Yes, and there are two fu rther safeguards in the in terests of safety.

13. What are these?

They a re :(i) T ha t n o t more th an 50 such packages m ay be placed in any one

car or vehicle or a ircraft or ships’ hold a t any one tim e ; and(ii) T h a t the num ber of packages w ith a certain type of label (see

Question 15 below) to be placed in any one car or vehicle or a ircraft a t any one tim e shall be so lim ited th a t the to ta l num ber of rad iation un its does no t exceed 40. (You will see th a t a rad iation u n it is explained in the definitions to the Regulations).

[Section 10. 2. 1 — 10. 2. 2. and 1. 1. 5.]

14. Are there any other rules 1 have got to know?

Yes, outside the fram ework described in Question 10 above we still have some other im portan t factors.

15. Can you tell me about all this?

Yes, le t us begin w ith the lim itation of external rad iation—I m entioned (in Answer 10 above) th a t packages in general had to be enclosed in a shield to prevent the external dose-rate from exceeding certain limits. Packages are divided into two categories according to these limits, and we call them W hite and Yellow. In general term s, W hite packages are such th a t the dose-rate of the rad iation originating from the contents a t any point o f the external surface of the package a t any tim e during transp o rt will no t exceed 10 m r/24 h for gam m a and/or X radiation, and certain equivalents for other types of rad ia tio n : while the levels for th e Yellow category are 200 m r/h for gam m a and/or X rad iation and

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equivalents for the o ther types a t the surface, and 10 m r/h for gam m a and/or X rad iation (and equivalents otherwise) a t 1 m from any external surface of the package.

[Section 7]

16. What does this mean for me in 'practice? Does it tie up in any way with what you have said about the substances in Question 12?

There is no d irect connection between these tw o things. In Question 12 we are talking about packaging and containm ent. H ere we are talking about shielding in order to lim it the external rad ia tion dose-rate. T hat m eans th a t once you have decided on contents you have got to consider the sort of shielding necessary to achieve these dose rates. In practice nearly all alpha-em itting substances will come in the W hite category, and all gam m as in the Yellow, and you will have to arrange accordingly. W ith the beta-em itters there is room for m anoeuvre, and you will have to consider th e energy emission of each particu lar substance before deciding w hat thickness of shielding you w ant and w hether you can bring th is down to the W hite category or w hether it should rem ain a t the Yellow. The category itself will be shown of course by affixing labels of the appropriate colour to the outside of the package, b u t we will come on to labelling later.

[Section 7]

17. How do I measure these rales?

You m ust use instrum ents approved by the com petent authorities for the form of transp o rt you are undertaking, b u t in general term s a simple beta-gam m a dosem eter should tell you all you will need to know about surface and distance rad iation levels here.

[Section 1. 3]

18. Can we sum up again at this stage?

Yes. F irst of all, you have your radioactive substance. You decide first th a t i t falls w ithin th e R egulations a t all (Question 3), and then in accordance w ith ac tiv ity level and radiotoxicity group you determ ine th e type of packing and containm ent you w ant (Question 12). Then you m ust also consider th e external rad iation dose-rates, and th is is essentially a p ro blem of shielding of the package. W hat you have to achieve there is set ou t in Question 16.

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19. Are these all the other factors?

No, I w ant to consider massive non-friable solids, fissile m aterials and special arrangem ents.

20. What about the massive non-friable class?

W here the radioactive m aterial is m ade up in the form of a non-friable massive solid, non-reactive w ith air or water, and non-soluble in w ater, a to ta l ac tiv ity irrespective of radiotoxicity groups (Question 8) can be carried of up to 20 c in Type A packing and 2000 c in Type B.

[Section 6. 2. 1. 1.]21. And fissile materials?

As you know, th is is one of the special difficulties in th is field and we are try ing in the R egulations to m ake a move, w ith all possible safety precautions, tow ards a slightly freer concept of transporting th is p a r ticular m aterial.

F irs t of all, for certain small quantities set ou t in the Regulations you do no t need any additional precautions ju st because these m aterials are fissile. This is intended to help, for example, the traffic in very small sam ples and sim ilar quantities.

A fter th a t, we have three m ain classes. The first is where the m ateriali s contained in such a w ay th a t every package is safe from neutron in te raction in any a rrangem ent: th is m eans th a t a critical assem bly will no t be form ed when any num ber of such packages are stacked together in any m anner.

The second class comprises shipm ents in packages which do no t m eet th e very stringent requirem ents of Class I , b u t where th e num ber of packages transported together is stric tly lim ited on the basis th a t a critical assem bly will n o t be formed in any credible circum stance even if five tim es th e allowable num ber were to collect together. Of course if th e actual num ber of packages on th is basis should exceed 50, then th a t num ber m ust be reduced to 50 in accordance w ith w hat was said in Question 13 above.

Class I I I covers all shipm ents no t included in the foregoing. Packages used for shipm ents in th is Class m ust be so constructed th a t the shipm ent will be nuclearly safe a t all tim es during shipm ent, and com petent au thorities m ust certify the basis on which th e nuclear safety of the shipm ent is insured. All th is m eans th a t special arrangem ents are necessary under th is Class.

[Section 6.2.2. and 15]

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22. What exactly are these ?

Perhaps I should explain the idea behind this. The Regulations have the concept of special arrangem ents in relation to fissile m aterials, large sources and explosives. In such cases there m ust be consultation w ith the com petent authorities concerned on all the details of the particular consignm ent and its m ovem ent; and it is difficult in advance to say w hat special conditions or o ther measures these com petent authorities m ay require.23. Do fissile materials have any other special requirements?

Yes, you will w ant to look a t these in detail b u t the following factors are im portan t:

(a) They m ust be so packaged th a t conditions of criticality cannot be■ reached.

(b) They m ust always be in Type B packing.(c) You m ust also have a Certificate of N uclear Safety for th is type

of shipm ent (See Question 21 above).[Section 15]

24. Does this cover all the main types of source?

No, we had b e tte r also consider large radioactive sources. A nything above th e levels I have given in Question 12 should be considered a large radioactive source and, in practice, th ey will often require a special arrangem ent. Basically they will also require a Type B package and the external dose-rate has a W hite and Yellow class ju st as the other sources. You will find the details of th is set ou t in the Regulations.

[Section 16]25. Do all these rules cover things like waste, sludges, ores, concentrates and

so on?

N o, these are ra th e r special cases which have rules of the ir own, in general m uch less rigorous th an those for the sort of things we have been discussing otherwise. You should refer to the Regulations themselves for th e details.

[Section 14]26. We have talked about labelling, what are the requirements here?

The form of the label and its colour, W hite or Yellow, according to the external dose-rate is set ou t in the Regulations themselves, and you will see th a t bo th of them call for certain inform ation about the contents.

17


You m ust also look ou t for th e requirem ents in your own country as to labels and m arking, and you m ay find th a t for in ternational carriage your package will have to have two sets of such labels, i. e. one for its own country and another for in ternational carriage. B u t you w ant to look into th a t carefully a t th e tim e. I t is no t possible to say in advance w hat exactly m ay be required.[Section 8 and second paragraph of th e N ote facing the “ C ontents”

page in the Regulations]

27. What about accidents?

The quantities specified have been deliberately chosen to lim it the potential hazard in the event of an accident, and Type B containers have been designed to w ithstand the m axim um credible accident for the mode of tran sp o rt involved; bu t, of course, in special cases (for example, .fissile m aterials) there m ay be need to take additional precautions, and this would norm ally be p a r t of any special arrangem ents negotiated w ith the tran sp o rt authorities.

28. One final point, what about empties?

The m ain th ing here is to see th a t em pty containers are free from contam ination , or a t any ra te have only an absolutely negligible am ount of contam ination. They m ust th en be securely closed. They do n o t need a special label b u t in the transp o rt docum ents (see Question 30) they m ust be entered as having contained radioactive m aterials.

[Section 13.4]

29. Apart from the radioactive health and safety factors, do I have to do anything about transport documents?

Yes, in addition to th e norm al Bills of Lading and similar requirem ents applicable to any type of consignm ent you m ust w atch particularly th a t radioactive m aterials are entered as such, (and em pty containers in th e w ay specified in A. 29), and th a t fissile m aterials have the special additional certificates m entioned above.

[Sections 9 and 15.5]

30. What are my responsibilities in all this?

Y ou m ust comply w ith th e necessary Regulations, national or in te rnational. These deal, however, prim arily w ith standards of packing and

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containm ent, and you ■will require further advice (which is n o t contained in these Regulations) as to your personal liability in case of accident or damage. Y ou will like to know too th a t the Agency is preparing a convention on th ird -p a rty liability in relation to nuclear installations and tra n s port of radioactive substances and this will have an im portan t bearing on th is subject.

31. Could we just have a final run over the ground?

Yes, let us take things in this order:(i) The substance itself—is it radioactive or no t w ithin the Regu

lations ?(ii) W hat standard of packing and containm ent does i t require in

accordance w ith its ac tiv ity level and its group for rad iotoxicity ?(iii) Then w hat m ust be done about its shielding in order to achieve

the necessary external dose-rates ?All th e above have a general application throughout the field.(iv) We m ust then go on to th e special cases of:

(a) Fissile m aterials.(b) Large radioactive sources.(c) W aste, sludges, ores, concentrates and so on.

(v) We m ay also find th a t in the case of fissile m aterials, large sources and explosives we require a special arrangem ent which m ust be negotiated w ith the com petent au thority .

(vi) We also have to have in m ind such things as th e re tu rn of em pties and the case of massive non-friable solids.

(vii) W e m ust also then look to our transp o rt papers and see th a t the necessary entries are m ade as well as affixing the labels appropriate to the dose-rate of the package and to the requirem ents of carriage, both national and international.

32. Are all carriers likely to have to deal with all this run of material?

N o—in fac t outside atom ic energy establishm ents carriers are no t likely a t present to have to cope w ith all those problem s a t once. The traffic in radioisotopes is w hat probably m ost affects the average tra n spo rt concern. B u t as more atom ic power stations are commissioned, and as the use of atom ic energy grows, we will have to consider particularly the case of fuel elements (which are fissile m aterials) and especially these elements in the ir irrad iated form. The carriage of these last is a delicate operation, and you m ay be interested to know th a t it could, involve containers of the order of fifty tons in weight, with walls of 15-in steel. This

2* 19


all shows th e sort of precautions we are taking to m ake the atom ic age a safe age.

Finally, in a subject like th is where so m uch experience is being gained very fast, i t is likely th a t any regulations will require reconsideration a t least every tw o years or so. The Agency intends, in fact, to review these Regulations on th a t basis. A nd so we would hope th a t, if you have any com m ents or experience to p u t in to the common pool, you would le t the Agency know about it, as they will be keeping a watching brief on the working ou t of all th is as p a r t of their general duties.


SYNOPTIC TABLES OF THE IAEA REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

G. E. A n d r e (Chairman of the Panels)

B e l g i u m ,P A C K A G IN G A N D M A X IM U M A C T IV ITY

Packaging ( §5)Maximum radioactivity in a package (§ 6 )

The packaging shall consist o f a combination o f receptacles and

R adiotoxicity group R adioactive m aterials

radiation-absorbent m aterials meeting necessary and adequate requirem ents o f m echanical strength and o f protection against radiation and accidental contam ination.

I

Veryhigh

I I

High

I I I

Moderate or low

friable, massive solid o f melting point equal to or greater than 538° C (1000° F ) and non-soluble in water and non-reactive with a ir or water.

T Y P E A

Adequate strength under conditions normally incident to transport and under conditions incident to minor accidents 100 [zc 10 me 2 c 20 c

Special requirements for all packages of liquid radioactive materials: Ullage, receptacle surrounded by absorbent material, receptacle and container leak-proof. ( 5 .1 .5 )

T Y P E B

Adequate strength under conditions normally incident to transport and for the maximum credible accident relevant to the mode of transport. 20 c 20 c 200 c 2 kc

21


CONDITIONAL EXEM PTIO N S

Item sConditions

Radiation Packing and handling

A. Small quantities (13.2)

Package containing not more than:(a) 0.1 me of Group II ma

terial; or(b) 1 me of Group III ma

terial.

B. Instruments or similar manufactured goods (13.3)

Dose-rate not exceeding 10 mr/24 h at any point on the surface of the package (7.1)

The package is such that there can be no leakage of radioactive materials under conditions normally incident to transport (13.2.2).No external contamination.

C . Radioactive materials of low specific activity (§ 14)

(exempted from the packaging and labelling requirements)

. Unirradiated uranium and thorium, in solid form;Ores and ore concentrates of natural uranium and thorium;T , in such form or

mediate quantity that the

products content ° fany ^ w one container,__,• vehicle or com-

m a t e r i a l s P ^ t m e n t d o e s n o t e x c e e d :100 me Group I material

1 c Group II material 20 c Group III material.

Dose-rate not exceeding 10 mr/h (rail) at 3 m from any surface and 1.6 m from either end-surface of the vehicle; 10 mr/h (road) at 2 m from any ac - cessible surface of the vehicle.

Strong, leakproof packages or loaded in vehicles or compartments specially designed to ensure that there will be no leakage. Loading and unloading under the direct supervision of the consigner or consignee. Shipments by sea: stowage and distance regulations.Shipments by rail or road: in full truckload or car-load lots. Shipments by air: under special arrangements.

D . Empty packages (13.4)In good condition and securely closed. Decontaminated. Transport documents must show that the package has contained radioactive materials.

22


L A B E L L IN G A N D M A R K IN G OF

P A C K A G E S A N D L IM IT A T IO N OF

E X T E R N A L R A D IA T IO N

(irrespective of the kind and amount of radioactive material

contained: see also Note p. 6of the Regulations) T R A N S P O R T D O C U M E N T S

L A B E L S

affixed by the consignor to two opposite sides of the package (8.1.1, 8.1.3)

W H I T E

(as per model): dose-rate not to exceed 10 mr 24 h at any point on the surface (7.1)

Y E L L O W

(as per model): dose-rate not to exceed 200 mr/h at any point on the surface or 10 mr at 1 m. (7.2)

O T H E R M A R K IN G S OF O U T E R C O N T A IN E R (8.1.2)

Whenever possible: skull and crossbones and trefoil (as per model) applied by embossing, stamping or other indelible means.

M A R K IN G O F V E H IC L E S(8 .2 )

(other than ships, aircraft and passenger trains carrying express shipments in the direct

custody of the guard)

Label as per model (8.2.1, 8.2.2) Road vehicles: special notice in driver’s cab (8.2.3)

Information:

On radioactive materials: Radiotoxicity Group; Nature and form.

On packages:

Type of packaging (A or B);

Category of package (W H IT E or Y E L L O W ) and all particulars listed on the corresponding label.

On external radiation:

Dose-rate at the surface of the container;

Dose-rate at 1 m from the container.

Other pertinent particulars, where necessary. (9.1)

and

Certificate of consignor declaring compliance with regulations. (9.2)

Documents to be written in such languages as will be understood by the carriers concerned.

23


L IM IT A T IO N OF T H E N U M B E R

O F P A C K A G E S OTHER REGULATIONS

By vehicle or aircraft:

Not more than 50 packages with W H I T E or Y E L L O W labels or both (not applicable to carriage by water),

( 10.2. 1)but packages with Y E L L O W labels limited to 40 radiation units.

( 10.2.2)By water:

Up to 400 radiation units for packages with. Y E L L O W labels, but not more than 50 packages with W H I T E and/p^ Y E L L O W labels in any one hold. Prior approval from competent authority required to exceed these limits.

( 10.2 .2 )

Terminal or storeroom

Not more than 40 radiation units for packages with Y E L L O W labels, unless special provisions are made for radiation safety.

(10.2.3)

P R O H IB IT IO N OF M IX E D L O A D IN G O R S T O R A G E

M A X IM U M C O N T A M IN A T IO N L E V E L S F O R PA C K A G E S A N D C O N V E Y A N C E S

R E G U L A T IO N S A P P LIC A B LE TO :

Large radioactive sources

Fissile materials

10.3

§ 11

§ 16

§ 15


THE CLASSIFICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES FOR PACKAGING

A. F a i r b a i r n a n d N. J . D u n n in g

U n i t e d K in g d o m

CH A PTER I INTRODUCTION

1. Type of PackagingThe standard of packaging of radioactive substances for purposes of

transp o rt requires to be such th a t the health of transp o rt workers and members of the general public is adequately safeguarded under bo th norm al and accident conditions. In addition, the packaging should be such th a t the danger of rad iation dam age to undeveloped photographic film is reduced to acceptable limits.

U nder norm al conditions th e only po ten tia l hazard is th a t due to external rad iation and th is is controlled by the im position of m axim um permissible rad iation dose-rates, bo th a t th e surface of a package and a t some fixed distance, for example, 1 m, from th is surface. In addition, various transp o rt regulations specify segregation distances appropriate to th e form of transp o rt w ith respect to bo th persons and film.

In the event of an accident during transp ort, there is the additional po ten tia l hazard of loss of radioactive m aterial from the package which could lead to contam ination of persons and property. The subsequent rad iation hazard to persons would depend on a num ber of factors in cluding :—

(a) The design of the container, w ith special reference to resistance to mechanical im pact and fire;

(b) The radiotoxicity of the substances it contains;(c) The quan tity and physical form of the radioactive substance in the

container.From the point of view of transp ort authorities, i t is im portan t th a t

the regulations for the conveyance of radioactive substances be essentially simple, and a t the same tim e, provide adequate safeguards. In addition, the prom otion of the effective use of radioactive substances in fields of medicine, industry and food preservation requires packages which provide adequate safeguard a t a reasonable cost. A t th e Panel meetings convened by the In ternational Atomic Energy Agency to consider the

25


safe transp o rt of radioactive m aterials, i t was agreed th a t regulations should require the packaging to be adequate to p revent any loss or dispersal of th e radioactive contents and to re ta in the shielding efficiency under the following conditions:—

(a) Type A packaging under conditions norm ally incident to transp ort and under conditions incident to m inor accidents.

(b) Type B packaging under conditions norm ally incident to transport and for the m axim um credible accident* relevant to the mode of transport.

2. Maximum activity in a packageA t the second series of Panel m eetings it was agreed th a t, for the

purposes of transp ort, radioisotopes should be divided into three groups on th e basis of their potential in ternal radiotoxicity following intake to the body through a wound or by inhalation. These groups a re :—

Group I —very high radiotoxicityGroup I I —high radiotoxicityGroup I I I —m oderate or low radiotoxicityThe need to avoid drastic changes in existing transp o rt regulations was

accepted by th e Panel. On the basis of experience to date o f transport under such regulations, th e Panel considered th a t, subject to the safe tran sp o rt of fissile m aterial, highly irradiated fuel and large sources of specific radioisotopes being catered for by the regulations, the m axim um ac tiv ity in a package, in relation to package type and nature of contents, should be:

T a b l e I

M aximum A ctivity in a Package

Group o f the radioisotope

Type o f Packaging

I I I I I IMassive

non-friable solid

*(See below)

A 1 0 0 ^c 1 0 m e 2 c 2 0 c

B 2 0 c 2 0 0 c 2 0 0 0 c

* R adioactive m aterials in the form o f a non-friable, massive solid o f m elting point equal to or greater than 538° C (1000° F ) and. non-soluble in water and non-reactive with air or water.

* Maximum credible accident— means the worst accident which is considered credible for the mode of transport (and, as appropriate, for the specific journey) involved.

26


The object of th is rep ort is to review each radioisotope which is listed in current sales catalogues [1] and for which the In ternational Commission on Radiological P ro tection (ICRP) has m ade recom m endations [2] and to indicate in which of th e above Groups each radioisotope be classified.

The report gives th e technical basis on which the dividing lines are draw n between Groups I and I I and Groups I I and I I I , and a technical justification for the subsequent m ovem ent between groups of specific radioisotopes. The p rim ary purpose of the m ethod of classification of radioisotopes developed for the purposes of th is rep ort is to identify those which have to be classified into Groups I and I I because they would be m ore hazardous in the event of an accident during transp o rt th an radioactive m aterials in general.

Certain isotopes for which the recom m endations of th e IC R P [2] do n o t include d a ta are listed in current sales catalogues of radioisotopes; such isotopes have not, therefore, been classified in th is report. The IA EA R egulations [Safety Series No. 6, section 6.1] require any such isotope n o t so classified to be considered as belonging to Group I in the in terim period u n til biological d a ta is available. This report outlines an alternative interim m ethod for consideration by the Agency.

C H A PTER I I METHOD OF CALCULATION

1. AssumptionsAlthough a Type A package is designed to p revent any loss or dis

persal of the rad ioactive contents as a result of m inor accident, such as the dropping of th e package during handling, i t m ay n o t fully contain th e contents if i t becomes involved in a more severe accident. I f th is were a m ajor accident i t could cause the complete destruction of the package so th a t the whole of the radioactive content would be free to m ix w ith th e accident debris. However, on the basis of experience to da te of transp o rt of radioactive packages, it is considered th a t the chance of th is happening is quite small.

For the purpose of th is report, an accident which is more severe th an a m inor and less severe th a n a m ajor one is term ed a “ m edian” accident. I t is assum ed th a t as a resu lt of a median accident one-thousandth of th e contents would spill ou t of the package. The persons m ost likely to be contam inated by the spilt radioactive m aterial are breakdow n workers who, in the event of accident, would be required to remove debris and

3. Object of report

27


restore norm al traffic. A lthough it is advisable on general safety grounds for such workers to p ro tect the ir hands during work, they m ay suffer skin abrasions or even cuts which, if free radioactive m aterial were p resent, could become contam inated. The in take of radioactive m aterial through a cut or skin abrasion is term ed “ injection” , and if th e m aterial were soluble in the blood-stream would lead to a rad iation dose to the critical organ. In th is report such a dose is term ed a “wound dose” . I t would also be possible for breakdow n workers to inhale dust contam inated w ith radioactive m aterial. I f th is m aterial was insoluble in the blood-stream such in take would lead to a rad iation dose to th e lung; if i t was soluble in the blood-stream it would lead to a rad iation dose to the critical organ for th e radioisotope involved.

On the basis of general handling experience of radioactive m aterials, it is assum ed th a t, for any one person, the in take into the blood-stream of soluble radioactive m aterial by wound or by the lung or the in take of insoluble m aterial in to the lung will be unlikely to exceed one-thousandth of the q u an tity of radioactive m aterial which has leaked from a Type A package. An assessm ent of local rad iation dose resulting from the deposition of insoluble radioactive m aterial in a wound has n o t been m ade for th e purposes of th is report, as it is considered th a t such m aterial would probably be rem oved in the course of subsequent medical t re a tment.

For the purpose of th is report i t is assum ed th a t a person will no t suffer in take of a radioactive m aterial bo th by injection and by inhalation . In addition, for insoluble radioactiv ite m aterial, i t has been assum ed th a t th e dose to the gastro intestinal trac t, from m aterial which m ay pass to th e tra c t either direct or after in itial deposition in th e upper respiratory trac t, will n o t exceed th e lung dose as calculated in th is report [Ch. I I , 4 and Ch. IV , 2],

2. In takeF or a Type A package in take could resu lt from a m edian or a m ajor

tran sp o rt accident in which the package was involved. For a m edian accident, on the basis of the above assum ptions, the in take is one-mil- lion th (10~6) of the contents of the package (10-3 spilled from the package, 10~3 of th e spillage taken in to th e body). F or a m ajor accident in volving the complete disruption of th e package, lim ited experience in th e U nited K ingdom A tom ic E nergy A uthority from fighting uranium fires indicates th a t the in take is unlikely to exceed one hundred-thousand th (10~5) of th e contents of the package.

28


On the above basis, and using the figures from Table I relevant for Type A packages and th e th ree activ ity groups, th e possible in take for a person following an accident to a Type A package is given in the following tab le:

T a b l e II

POSSIBLE INTAKE OF RADIOACTIVE M ATERIAL FOLLOW ING AN ACCIDENT TO A TYPE A PACKAGE

Group o f the radioisotope

Accident 'Severity .....

I I I I I I

Minor ........................ 0 0 0

Median ....................... 1 0 “ 4 (xc 0N1or—I 2 (ic

Major ........................ 1 0 - 3 [i.c 0 . 1 pic 2 0 (*c

3. Soluble radioactive m aterial — Calculation of wound dose and inhalation dose

The rad iation dose delivered to the critical organ, assuming 1 ji.c in take to the body, has been calculated using th e equations given, together w ith an outline of the ir derivation , in A ppendix I [B and C], and d a ta recom m ended by th e IC R P [2].

F or each radioisotope the d a ta given by the IC R P [2] for all organs listed o ther th an the gastro intestinal tra c t have been exam ined and th e organ receiving the largest rad iation dose has been selected as the critical organ. This does no t always correspond to th e critical organ listed by the IC R P for chronic exposure.

F or radioisotopes w ith long effective half-life, it has been assum ed th a t subsequent tt> th e in take the critical organ will receive rad iation exposure for a period of 50 years. I t has also been assum ed th a t there is no tim e delay between the in take in to a wound or the lung and the arrival of the radioactive m aterial in the critical organ. In the case of a rad io isotope which decays to form rad ioactive daughters, i t has been assumed th a t 1 fxc of th e p aren t radioisotope only enters the body, b u t the estim ated dose takes account of all the energy released by th e daughter- elements form ed in the body. The results of the calculations are given for radioisotopes listed in order of increasing atom ic num ber in Table V II in Appendix II .

29


4. Insoluble Radioactive Material— Calculation of Radiation Dose to the Lung

For the purpose of th is report the term “rad iation dose to the lung” has been taken to m ean th e average rad iation dose to the whole lung and has been calculated using the equations given, together w ith an outline of the ir derivation, in A ppendix I [D] and data, recomm ended by the IC R P [2], including th a t relating to the retention of particulates in the respiratory trac t. The results of the calculations are given for radioisotopes in increasing atom ic num ber in Table V II [column 5] in A ppendix II .

C H A PTER I I I GROUP DEMARCATION

1. Results of calculationIn Appendix I I , Table V II gives th e results of calculations m ade as

outlined in C hapter I I for isotopes listed in order of increasing atom ic num ber.

In Appendix I I I , Table IX lists the radioisotopes, w ith a few exceptions, as explained in C hapter I I I , 3 and 4, in order of decreasing dose to the critical organ resulting from in take of 1 [xc of either the soluble or the insoluble form, whichever gives the greater dose. In addition, for m ost of the radioisotopes, Table IX includes basic biological d a ta given by the IC R P [2] and the specific activ ity . I t should be noted th a t for the purpose of th is work the basic biological d a ta [2] are quoted to varying num bers of significant figures, and in some cases one figure only is given. Because of th is the results of calculations m ade for the purposes of th is report are approxim ate and have been quoted to th e nearest value on a logarithm ic scale of num bers given in Table V III a t the end of Appendix II .

In the case of about 60% of the radioisotopes for which th e 'ca lcu la tions have been m ade, the calculated to ta l dose in rem to the critical organ resulting from the in take of 1 fxc is greatest if the in take is of soluble m aterial th rough a wound. For the rem ainder, which consist m ainly of radioisotopes of elements w ith relatively high atom ic num bers, th e inhalation of 1 fxc in insoluble form delivers a rad iation dose to the lung greater th an th a t to th e critical organ resulting from injection of 1 [AC of those radioisotopes in soluble form. W ith the exception of proctactinium -233, the inhalation of 1 [jlc of radioisotope in soluble form never gives the largest dose.

30


The dem arcation between Groups I, I I and I I I has been m ade on the basis of recom m endations m ade by the IC R P [3]. These are quoted below:

“52 (g) Em ergency work involving exposures above permissible lim its to radioactive m aterials shall be planned on the basis th a t the to ta l in take of radioactive m aterial during th e em ergency period should n o t exceed the am ount th a t would result from in take for one year a t th e m axim um levels for occupational exposure to such rad io active m aterials perm itted by the 1959 R eport of Committee I I .

The dose to th e critical organ during th e following 50 years resulting from such an in take will no t exceed the m axim um yearly lim it on dose sta ted in the 1958 Recom m endations of IC R P. These lim its are:

(1) for th e whole body and the gonads: 12 rem,(2) for the skin, thyro id and bone : 30 rem,(3) for o ther organs: 15 rem .”“52 (e) One or more short-term exposures to radioactive m aterials

(together w ith any exposure to external rad iation) w ithin a period of 13 consecutive weeks is considered acceptable if the to ta l intake of radioactive m aterial during th is period does no t exceed the am ount th a t would re su lt from in take for 13 weeks a t the m axim um levels for occupational exposure to such radioactive m aterials perm itted by the 1959 R eport of Committee I I . The dose to the critical organ during the following 50 years resulting from such an in take will no t exceed the quarterly lim it on dose sta ted in th e 1958 Recom m endations of IC R P. These lim its a r e :

(1) for the whole body and the gonads: 3 rem,(2) for the skin, thyro id and bone : 8 rem,(3) for o ther organs: 4 rem .”

The above recom m ended figures refer to rad iation workers who are under medical supervision. However, the doses are com parable w ith those recomm ended by the Medical Research Council in the U nited K ingdom for application in emergencies to members of the general public (including children). F or the purpose of th is report it is proposed th a t they be considered satisfactory for application to breakdow n workers following an accident during transp o rt of radioactive m aterials.

On th e basis of the assum ptions postulated in C hapter I I , it is considered reasonable to assume th a t following a m edian accident to a Type A package a worker m ay take a m illionth of the contents of a package into his body. As is shown in Table I I , these quantities are 10~4, 10~2 and 2 fxc for radioisotopes in Packaging Groups I, I I and I I I respectively. The initial group dem arcation between th e radioisotopes is based upon

2. Initial demarcation

31


the dose to the critical organ from the intake of the above am ounts of ac tiv ity in soluble or insoluble form, being less th a n :

(1) for the whole body and th e gonads: 3 rem,(2) for the skin, thyro id and bone: 8 rem,(3) for o ther organs: 4 rem,

even for the w orst toxic m aterial o f a group. The following tab le gives certain radioisotopes which have been selected from Table IX in A ppend ix I I I in order to illustrate the m ethod of dem arcation, including those radioisotopes which, on the basis of initial dem arcation, are a t th e top and a t the bottom of each group.

F or the G roup I nuclides a t the top of the list in Table I I I and in Table IX th e dose will be som ewhat in excess of the m axim um , as would be expected in any m ethod of grouping. Thus th e dose to bone from thorium -230 is 11 rem . A t the bo ttom of Group I, 10-4 fic of radium-226 would deliver a dose of 0.1 rem to bone, which is well below the m axim um value of 8 rem , b u t were radium -226 to be in Group I I , 10-2 (i.c would deliver 10 rem to bone, which is above the m axim um of 8 rem.

Considering the Group I I radioisotopes listed in Table I I I and Table IX , plutonium -241 is a t top of the group because 10-2 [xc would deliver a rad ia tio n dose of 5.5 rem to bone, which is below the m axim um dose of 8 rem which is used for group dem arcation. Cerium-144 m ust rem ain in G roup I I since a 2 jxc in take would deliver a dose of 9 rem to bone, which exceeds the value tak en as the m axim um . In addition, radium -224 is retained in Group I I since an intake of 2 jxc of either insoluble or soluble form would deliver a dose to the lung and bone respectively in excess of th e doses taken as a m axim um .

On th e basis of th e in itial dem arcation, Group I I I begins w ith iodine-126 for which an in take of 2 (j.c would deliver a dose of 4.5 rem to the thyroid , which is below the value of 8 rem used as the m axim um . Europium -152 is in Group I I I because a 2 (xc in take would deliver 3.6 rem to the kidney which is less th an the value of 4 rem used as the maxim um . Considering Group I I I as a whole, if the dose to the critical organ from2 (ic of any radioisotope is less th an 3 rem , th is is classified in the group.

3. Transfer of specific radioisotopes between groups after initial dem arcation

The in itial grouping of radioisotopes for the purposes of th is report is based on the rad ia tion dose resulting from a single-shot intake, and as a basis for calculation the ac tiv ity ra th e r th an th e weight of the radioisotope has been used. However, in the event of release of radioactive m ateria l from a Type A package in a tran sp o rt accident, the actual dispersion

32


ESTIMATED RADIATION DOSES FROM SELECTED RADIOISOTOPES SUBSEQUENT TO A M EDIAN ACCIDENT TO A TYPE A PACKAGE

T a b l e I I I

In tak e o f One M illionth (10 6) o f Contents o f Type A Package In itia l

D em arcation—

Proposed Group

R ad ioisotope

PossibleGroups

Mass In tak e (ng) A ctivity In tak e (ne)

G reatest Dose to Critical

Organ (rem)

Th232 I 9 x 102 io-4 1.3 x 10 ITh230 I 5.1 x 10~3 10-‘ 1.1 x 10 Ip u 239 I 1.64 x 10-3 10-4 3.0 IAc227 I 1.39 x IQ-6 10-4 2.0 IQ f 250 I 7.6 x 10-7 10-4 1.0^ ^ 2 2 8 I 1.2 x 10-7 10-4 4.0 x 10-1 IPu238 I 6.0 x 10"6 10-4 2.8 x 10-1 IRa“ I

II1.01.0.

x IO-4 x 10-2

10-410-2

1.0 x 10-11.0 x 10

Pu241 I 8.8 x 10~7 10-4 5.5 x 10-2II 8.8 x 10~5 10-2 5.5 (Bone)

( J2 3 S II 1.6 x 102 10~2 2.2 IICm242 II 3.0 x 10-6 10-2 2.0 (Liver) IISr90 II 6.9 x 10-6 10-2 9 x 10-1 IIBk249 II 5.5 x 10"6 10-2 5.0 x 10-1 IIPo210 ' II 2.2 x 10-o 10-? 5.0 x 10-1 IICe144 II 3.1 x lO-6 10-2 4.5 x 10-2 IIRa224 II

III

6.0

1.2

x 10-8

x 10-6

10-2

2

1.7 x 10-1 (Lung insol.)' 34

Sm147 III 1.0 x 108 2 1.6 x 103 III■£[238 III 6 x 106 - 2 ■ 6.0 x 102 IIIU 2 3 5 III 9.4 x 1 0 5 2 4.4 x 102 IIIJ 1 2 9 III 1.2 x 104 2 1.8 x 10 IIIJ1 2 6 II 1.3 x 10-7 io-2 2.2 x 10-2J1 2 6 III 2.6 x 10-5 2 4.5 (Thyroid)J1 3 1 III 1.6 x 10-6 2 4.0 (Thyroid) IIIEu162

(13 yrs)III 1.08 x 10"2 2 3.6 (Kidney) III

At211 III 9.7 x 10-7 2 3.6 (Thyroid) IIITm ™ III 3.3 x 10-4 2 3.0 (Bone) IIIJ1 3 3 III ... 1.8 x 10-« 2 1.1 IIIZr93 III 5.7 x 102 2 1.0 IIIJ1 3 5 III 6.0 x 10"7 2 3.6 x 10-1 IIISc46 III 6.0 x 10-6 2 6.2 x 10-1 IIIJ1 3 2 III 1.9 x 10-7 2 1.2 x 10-1 IIICo67 I I I 2.4 x 10-4 2 8.4 x 10“2 I I IJ1 3 4 III 7 x 10-8 2 6.6 x 10"2 IIIR h 103m III 3.1 x 10-8 2 2.4 x 10“4 I I I

3 33


of m aterial would be related to weight and the specific activ ity . A general review of th e figures in Table I I I for mass in take and ac tiv ity in take shows th a t for th e radioisotopes of high specific activ ity th e mass in take equivalent to the m axim um activ ity in take is well below 1 (j.g. W ith regard to the radioisotopes of low specific activ ity , i t is proposed th a t i t is reasonable to assume th a t, w hatever the weight of m aterial in a Type A package dam aged in a tran sp o rt accident, no person affected will take in to and re ta in in th e body more th an 1 mg of radioactive m aterial. Considering inhalation, i t is o f in terest to note th a t a du sty industrial atm osphere contains approxim ately one th ird of 1 mg of actual process m aterial dust/cubic m of air. A person exposed to an extrem ely dusty atm osphere containing 10 mg of dust/cubic m of air would require to inhale abou t six m in for an in take of 1 mg.

Consequently, i t is proposed to down-grade to Group I I I those rad ioisotopes for which an. in take of 1 mg results in a dose to th e critical organ less th a n the values used for initial dem arcation. On th is basis the following radioisotopes can be down-graded from Group I I to Group I I I :

samarium-147 uranium -238 uranium -naturalneodymium-144* uranium -235 iodine-129

bism uth-210

W ith regard to the im plications of th e uranium -234 content on the grouping of uranium enriched in uranium -235, while it is no t possible to down-grade uranium -234 itself on th e above basis, i t is proposed th a t as th e uranium -234 content of high uranium -235 enriched uranium is about 1% , uranium enriched in uranium -235 and containing uranium -234 should be in Group I I I for the purposes of transport.

W ith regard to thorium-232 and na tu ra l thorium (1 (xc weighs about 10 g) which, on th e basis of initial demarcation,- would be in Group I, th e figures used for calculation are provisional and the IC R P[2] say th a t although calculations and anim al experim ents suggest th a t thorium natu ra l, if injected intravenously, is perhaps as hazardous as plutonium and indicate the provisional figures, experience to date has suggested th a t in industrial circum stances th e hazard o f thorium na tu ra l is no t m uch greater th an th a t of uranium natural. For the purposes of th is rep ort i t is therefore proposed to group bo th na tu ra l thorium and thorium -232 in Group I I I .

* The activity of neodymium-144 is less than 0.002 nc/g; the current IA E A regulations do not require material of 0.002 (±c/g or less to be regarded, for purposes of transport, as radioactive material.

34


The complete m ethod used in th is rep ort for classifying the rad ioisotopes cannot be applied to th e inert gases because, being chemically inactive, biological d a ta is only available for them m insoluble form. In consequence, the ir classification has been based on the lung dose and, w ith the exception of radon-222, which is in Group I I , they have been placed in G roup I I I and have been listed in Table IX , A ppendix I I I , a t the end of the radioisotopes in th a t group. The (MPC) air of th e inert gases is generally abou t 10-6 to 10-7 fxc/ml. These values are reasonably consistent w ith those for the radioisotopes in general which are in Group II I .

C H A PTER IV DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF GROUPING

•1. Routes of intakeE xam ination of Table IX in Appendix I I I shows th a t on the basis of

the assum ptions and m ethods of calculation used for the purposes of th is rep ort of the isotopes which are no t classified in . Group I I I only actinium -228 and radon-222 are in a higher group (Group II ) solely because of th e lung dose (insoluble form), Otherwise the classification is essentially based on th e wound dose (soluble form). A review of the d a ta given in Table IX shows th a t th e values of inhalation dose and m axim um permissible concentrations in air of bo th soluble and insoluble forms are in general consistent w ith the classification by wound dose.

2. The gastro-intestinal (GI) tractF or th e purpose of th is report i t has been assum ed [Ch. I I , 1] th a t

for insoluble m aterial th e dose to the gastro-intestinal tra c t will no t exceed the lung dpse. On the basis of d a ta recom m ended by the IC R P[ 2 ] , of 1 [a c of insoluble radioisotope inhaled 0 . 6 fxc will pass through th e gastro-intestinal t ra c t during th e following two days. The problem of assessment of dose to th e tra c t is complex and a study of Table I in th e IC R P publication [2] indicates th a t some p a r t of the trac t, ra ther th a n th e tra c t as a whole, predom inates as the critical organ. F or the radioisotopes in soluble form , i t is expected th a t where a p a r t of the tra c t is considered as the critical organ, the value of the (MPC) air [column 5, Table IX , Appendix I I I ] would indicate if a gross error held been m ade by taking another organ as critical. In no case has this been found. A review of Table I in th e IC R P publication [2], shows th a t

4. The inert gases

3* 35


for insoluble forms of the radioisotopes either the lung or p a r t of the gastro-intestinal tra c t is the critical organ, the lungs being such in about 50% of th e cases. S tudy of the actual figures given for insoluble forms in th is table shows th a t the values of (MPC) air for lung or gastro-intestinal tra c t are not, in general, different by more th an a factor of 10. I t is of in terest to note th a t when allowance has been m ade for the radioisotopes which have been regrouped on the basis of low specific ac tiv ity [Ch. I l l , 3], there is no serious anom aly in the values for (MPC) air in a 168-h week in insoluble form [Col. 4, Table IX , App II I] , This also indicates th a t w ith the exclusion of the gastro-intestinal tra c t for nuclides in insoluble form, a gross error in classification should n o t arise. Hence it is concluded th a t if detailed calculations relative to the gastro-intestinal t ra c t had been m ade for th e radioisotopes considered, there would have been little or no change in the results of grouping. I t is pertinen t to note a conclusion from an extensive survey of some 90 radioisotopes[4] th a t m any of the highly toxic ones are in the very hazardous group, regardless of w hether they are inhaled or injected, w hether they are soluble or insoluble, and w hether the wound site, the lung, the gastrointestinal tra c t or some other organ is the critical body organ.

3. Effect of m ajor accident to a Type A packageThe m ethod of group dem arcation has assumed an in take to the body

of one m illionth of the contents of a Type A package following a median accident. I t is considered [Chapter I I , section 2] th a t the intake of ac tiv ity following a m ajor accident to a Type A package would be unlikely to exceed 10 tim es th a t for a m edian accident, th a t is 10~5 of the package contents. Assuming such an intake, the dose, term ed an “emergency dose” for the purpose of th is section, would be 10 tim es greater th an th a t used for the purpose of group dem arcation. Consequently, for some of the radioisotopes a t the top of Groups I I and I I I , such emergency doses would exceed those recom m ended by the IC R P as the m axim um permissible for short term exposure [Chapter I I I , 2, quotation 52e]. However, i t is considered th a t repeated exposures o f th is type would be very rare and th a t in th e event of a m ajor accident the breakdown workers involved m ay be regarded as being on emergency work. In such circum stances th e recom m ended m axim um values of emergency doses would be those quoted by the IC R P on for em ergency work [ChapterI I I , 2, quotation 52g]. These doses are abou t 4 tim es greater th an the sho rt term doses which have been used for dem arcation.

Considering Group I I I , the radioisotopes which require consideration on the basis of emergency dose are iodine-126, iodine-131, astatine-211,

36


europium-152 and jlead-212. The actual doses range from 28 to 44 rem , as com pared w ith the m axim um values of 15 to 30 rem. However, since the estim ated doses are of the same order of m agnitude as those recom m ended as m axim um permissible in emergency, and in only one case is the estim ated dose more th an double the m axim um value, it is considered th a t there is no justification for up-grading any of the above isotopes to Group I I , w ith a consequent reduction of the package contents by a factor of 200 (2 c to 10 me).

Considering Group I I , the radioisotopes which need consideration on the basis of emergency dose are plutonium-241 (55 rem) and radium-228 (40 rem ) in relation to the recom m ended m axim um emergency dose to bone of 30 rem, and, in addition, cerium-242 (20 rem) in relation to the recomm ended m axim um emergency dose to liver of 15 rem . I t is considered th a t th e difference in these figures does no t justify upgrading the above radioisotopes to Group I which would involve a reduction of package contents by a factor of 100 (10 me to 100 me).

A lthough in any m ethod of classification the radioisotopes a t the top of Group I are certain to be very hazardous, i t is of in terest to note, on the basis of the assum ptions used in th is report, th a t only four would lead to an emergency dose of 30 rem or more. I t is considered th a t the probability of such emergency doses is quite rem ote as, because of their value, by far the greatest am ount of such radioisotopes will be transp o rted in Type B packages which require to be designed to w ithstand the worst accidents which are considered credible for their mode of transport.

4. External radiation risk under accident conditions—Im plication of m axim um activity limits applicable to Type A packaging

The IA EA Transport Regulations allow up to 20 c of a radioisotope in a Type A package, provided th a t the m aterial is in the form of a non- friable massive solid of m elting point equal to , or greater than , 538° C (1000° F), and non-soluble in w ater and non-reactive w ith air or water. The above figure is considered as a reasonable lim it, since if the shielding m aterial in such a package containing 20 c of a radioisotope which em its 1 MeV gam m a photons completely broke open, the external rad iation dose ra te a t a distance of 10 ft from th e exposed source would be about 1 r/h , and a person would receive an emergency dose of 12 rem after spending 12 h a t a distance of 10 f t from the exposed source. I t is considered th a t the likelihood of anyone being w ithin 10 f t of the exposed source for even 3 h is rem ote and th a t if due w arning is given to breakdow n workers the external radiation risk from an exposed source is quite small. The external rad iation risk

37


from the am ount of m aterial released in a m edian accident is considered to be sufficiently small so as to be negligible.

B y far the greater num ber of radioactive m aterials 'which m ay m eet the above requirem ent for a non-friable massive solid will comprise radioisotopes in Group I I I , and for such isotopes it is considered th a t an increase in package contents by a factor of 10 is m ost reasonable from a safety po in t of view, particularly in view of the greatly reduced probability of in take afforded by the requirem ent. W ith regard to th e radioisotopes in Groups I and I I , it is considered th a t very few will be likely to be m ade into a radioactive m aterial which m eets the above requirem ent. In any case, th e probability of subsequent in take is considered to be soi rem ote th a t th e lim it of 20 c on external rad iation grounds is considered satisfactory for in take grounds until adequate inform ation is available from tran sp o rt operating experience to justify a change.

5. Type B packagesThe IA EA T ransport Regulations require Type B packages to be

designed to w ithstand th e m axim um credible accident for their mode of transp ort, and for the design to be approved by the com petent au thority o f th e country in which their shipm ent originates. W henever necessary for such approval, tests will be made on prototypes. However, unless a package is being transported in accordance w ith the requirem ents of th e above regulations for large radioactive sources, i t is undesirable to have unlim ited quantities of activ ity in such packages, and it is considered th a t the ir m axim um activ ity content should be based solely on need. The figures of Table I were agreed on th is basis by the IA EA Panels. This is no t though t to involve any serious problems for the consignors and consignees of such m aterials, particularly in view of th e pro visions m ade in the Agency Regulations for the shipm ent of large rad ioactive sources.

CH A PTER VTHE GROUPING FOR TRANSPORT PURPOSES OF RADIOISO

TOPES NOT ALREADY CONSIDERED IN THIS REPORTThe m ethod used in th is report for allocating a radioisotope to a

group can be used only when biological d a ta for the radioisotope is available. In consequence, the tables in the Appendices I I , I I I and IV contain only those radioisotopes for which th e IC R P [2] have provided d a ta necessary for the calculations. C urrent sales catalogues[1] include a num ber of radioisotopes which have no t been consid-

38


ered in th is report. W hen biological d a ta for these becomes available calculations can be done according to m ethods used in th is report and the radioisotopes can then be allocated to groups. However, in the m eantim e some other m ethod of classification is necessary.

U ntil such a m ethod is available, th e IA EA T ransport Regulations require any radioisotope no t allocated to a group to be considered as belonging to Group I. Since a large proportion of the radioisotopes considered in th is rep ort are in Group I I I th is m ethod m ay be unnecessarily restrictive and an alternative safe m ethod is desirable. In consequence, as a p a r t of th is report it has been decided to m ake a p relim inary study of a possible alternative m ethod based on th e half-life of th e radioisotope. E xam ination of th e sca tter diagram obtained by plo tting on log-log paper the wound dose (soluble form) against the half-life has indicated the possibility of an interim grouping based on half-life un til biological d a ta is available for th e radioisotope concerned. The possible m ethod which emerges from a study of the sca tter diagram is sum m arized in Table IV below. This half-life m ethod of grouping has been applied to 31 radioisotopes no t listed in Appendices I I , I I I and IV, and th e results are given in A ppendix V, Table X I. Of the radioisotopes considered by th is m ethod, one would fall into Group I , ten into Group I I and the rem ainder in Group I I I .*

T a b l e IV

R A D IO IS O T O P E S F O R W H IC H B IO L O G IC A L D A T A I S N O T A V A I L A B L E — P O S S I B L E M E T H O D O F G R O U P IN G B A S E D O N H A L F - L I F E

Half-life of radioisotope (d)

Group

104 to 1010 ............................................................................................ I10 to 104 ................................................................................................. IILess than 10 d, greater than 1010 d ...................................... III

C H A PTER VI RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Group classification of radioisotopes for transport purposesThe radioisotopes which have been allocated to groups on th e basis of

calculations done for th is rep ort are listed in alphabetical order, together w ith the ir groups in Table X , Appendix IV. I t is recomm ended th a t th is

39


list be used in the IA EA T ransport Regulations concerning the lim itation of quantities of radioactive m aterials in packages. Table X II in Appendix V I of the report lists the radioisotopes w ithin each group in order of increasing atom ic num ber.

For the convenience of users, the values of the specific activ ity of the radioisotopes have been included in Table X.

2. Radioisotopes not allocated to groupsI t is recomm ended th a t when biological d a ta for such an isotope

becomes available, arrangem ents should be m ade by the IA EA for the radioisotope to be grouped on the basis of calculations m ade according to the m ethods used for th is report. In the m eantim e, i t is recom m ended th a t consideration be given to the possibilities of an interim m ethod based on half-life, as outlined in Chapter V.

3. Tests to help establish the validity of assumptions used for the purpose of this report

The prim ary purpose of the m ethod of classification used in th is repoctr. ' is to identify those radioisotopes which have to be classified into Groups I ;s4 ■ or I I because they would be more hazardous in the event of an accident during transp o rt th an radioactive m aterials in general. In order to relate the results of calculation using biological d a ta to the lim its of quantities of radioactive m aterials in a package, i t has been necessary to m ake certain assum ptions (Chapter II ) concerning the loss of activ ity from Type A packages as a result of accident during transp ort and concerning the subsequent up take by breakdown workers of any m aterial spilt. W hilst effort has been m ade to ensure th a t the assum ptions reflect general experience in the handling and processing of radioactive materials, i t is recomm ended th a t tests be done using actual packages to establish w hether the assum ptions used do, in fact, represent a reasonable compromise between the requirem ents of economy and of adequate safeguard to th e health of tran sp o rt workers and the general public. I t is recom m ended th a t while the countries which m anufacture and process radioactive m aterials should sponsor such tests, the IA EA should prom ote tests and co-ordinate the in terpretation of the results obtained.

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTSThis report replaces the IA EA docum ent reference TO/H S/18; the

com ments received on the former docum ent are gratefully .acknowledged. The authors are particu larly indebted to Mr. H. J . D unster, D r. J . R.

40


B eattie, Mr. G. J . Appleton, Dr. I. S. Eve, Dr. G. W. Dolphin and Mr. A. H . K. Slater for advice given during the preparation of th is rep ort and th e preceding docum ent. The considerable com putation w ork required has been done b y the com puting staff in th e Safeguards Division of the U nited K ingdom Atomic E nergy A uthority , H ealth and Safety Branch.

R E FE R EN C E S[1] Miscellaneous catalogues and price lists for radioisotopes, in

cluding ,In ternational D irectory of Radioisotopes, IAE'A, Vienna (1961). Catalogue of Radioisotopes, Sales D epartm ent, Oak Ridge N ational Laboratories.Catalogue No. 4, “R adioactive M aterials and Stable Isotopes” , Isotope Division, Harwell, and supplem entary catalogues entitled “Radioactive Chemicals” and “Radioactive Sources” , issued Novem ber, 1959, by th e Radiochem ical Centre, Amersham.

[2] Recom m endations of the In ternational Commission on R adiological Protection:, “R eport of Committee I I on Permissible Dose for In tern al R adiation (1959)” .,

[3] Recom m endations of th e In ternational Commission on R adiological Protection , “R eport of Committee I I on Permissible Dose for In tern al R adiation (1959)” , p. xxxi. (Report on decisions, 1959 meeting).

[4] “M aximum Permissible Concentrations of Radioisotopes in Air and W ater for Short Period E xposure” . Proc. UN In t. Conf. PU A E, 13 (1956) 139 by K . Z. Morgan, W alter S. Snyder and M ary R. Ford.

A P P E N D IX ICALCULATIONS—FORMULAE USED AND OUTLINE OF DERIVA

TIONA. SYMBOLS

q — m axim um permissible body burden ( j j .c )

I —intake (jxc)/ 2 —fraction in critical organ of th a t in to ta l body f t —fraction going from blood to critical organ fa —fraction inhaled th a t is retained in critical organ T v —radioactive half-life (d)

41


T\) —biological half-life (d)T —effective half-life (d)T 0 —expectation of life after the inhalation (d)R —dose ra te in critical organ due to M .P.B.B. (rem/d)D w —dose to th e critical organ due to the in take of the nuclide in

soluble form through a wound (rem)Djj —dose to th e lung due to the inhalation of the nuclide in insoluble

formZ>i — dose to the critical organ due to the in take of nuclide in soluble

form by inhalation (rem) qf2 —burden of the radioisotope in critical body organ (jxc) n —relative dam age factor

B. DOSE TO CRITICAL ORGAN D U E TO IN H A LA TIO N OF N U CLID E IN SOLUBLE FORM

The dose to a critical organ delivered by q f2 (fj.c) is R (rem per week). Assume th a t a t the m om ent of in take I fa (jjlc) is transferred to th e critical organ and is subsequently elim inated exponentially. In a tim e in terval d< a t some tim e t after the in take occurred le t the dose be d D i rem to the critical organ. A t tim e t the am ount of nuclide in the critical organ is

J/aexp-°-693t/T (1)

Therefore the dose in th e tim e in terval d t isd D i = x / / aexp -°-693</T x d irem (2)

97 2

Hence th e to ta l dose delivered to th e organ during the subsequent life expectancy after in take is

r °D i = - x I f a fe"°-693/Trem5/2 J0

- * j x w (1~ e~o w , T ) d ‘ rem- (3)F or an inhalation of 1 jxc

D j = 1.44 . -T -R --7g- ( 1— e_0-693T«/T)rem/[xc. (4)1 h

42


C. DOSE TO CRITICA L ORGAN D U E TO CONTAMINATION OF S K IN ABRASION B Y N U C LID E IN SOLUBLE FORM

Same as in case B, except th a t /„ is replaced by —fraction going from blood to critical organ.

Z )w = 1.44 — e~°-693-^p) re m .J 2? \ /

D. DOSE TO T H E LUNG D U E TO IN H A LA TIO N OF N U CLID E IN IN SO LU B LE FORM

A t tim e < = 0, I\lc inhaled, of th is 25% is exhaled a t once, 62.5% is elim inated in 1 d and 12.5 % is retained in the lungs w ith an effective half-life of 120 d.

1 (jlc gives 3.7 x 104 disintegrations/sec 1.602 x 10-o erg/MeV 1 rad = 100 erg/g of tissueMass of lung = 10s g which is the value for adults. (In calculating for

th e case of children a smaller value m ust be used.)E — energy em itted per disin tegration (MeV).Dose ra te to lung bearing I fxc of nuclide is 3.7 x 104 S E (R .B .E .) n x

1.602 x 10-8 x 10-3 x 10~2 rem /sec = 5.9 x 10-7 2 E (R .B .E.) n rem /sec = 5.1 x 10~2 2 E (R .B .E .) n rem /d.

T he dose to th e lung is m ade up of two com ponent parts. The first com ponent o f dose is due to the assum ed 62.5% th a t rem ains in the lung for 1 d w ith only a physical decay taken into account. The second dose com ponent is due to 12.5% of th e inhaled ac tiv ity which is assum ed to be elim inated w ith an effective half-life, T. Hence the dose to the lung/jxc inhaled is l

Z>L = 0.625 x 5.1 X 10~2 2 E (R .B .E .) w je — —? 9--. d to rT„

+ 0.125 x 5.1 X 10~22 E (R .B .E .) (5)o

D h = ' L E (R .B.E.) n x 10~2 [4.6 T x (1 — e-°-6fl3/Tr)+ 0.92 1 — e — rem

E . DATA FO R EVALUATION T 0 = 50 y r = 18,250 d

43


T a b l e V VALUES OF R

Critical Organ R (rem/d)

Total Body 0 .0 1 4 3Bone 0 .0 8 0 *Kidney 0 .0 4 3Liver 0 .0 4 3Thyroid 0 .0 8 6Spleen - , 0 .0 4 3Pancreas 0 .0 4 3Lungs 0 .0 4 3Prostate 0 .0 4 3Skin 0 .0 8 6Fat 0 .0 4 3Body Water 0 .0 1 4 3Gonads 0 .0 1 4 3

* F o r em itters

The values given in th is table only apply when single in ternal organs are exposed and the value of 0.0143 rem /d should be used when several organs are exposed.

I t should be noted th a t the special values of th e curie have been used for na tu ra l thorium and na tu ra l u ra n iu m ; these are given in Table V I (ref. Brit. J . Radiol., Supplem ent No. 6, Recom m endations of the IC R P, revised. December, 1954).

T a b l e V I

COMPOSITION OF ONE (NATURAL) CURIEM etal Nuclide Disintegration/sec

Natural thoriumrjQj228

Th2323 .7 x 1 0 103 .7 x 1 0 10

u 234 3 .7 x 1 0 10Natural uranium ■JJ235 9 x 1 0 8

"(J238 3 .7 x 1 0 10

44


A p p e n d ix II T A B L E VII O F R E P O R T

R A D IA T IO N D O S E ( R E M ) F O L L O W IN G T H E I N T A K E O F O N E M IC R O C U R IE O F R A D IO IS O T O P E

Dose to critical organ (rem/nc intake) Dose to lung

from inhalationIsotope

CriticalMode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope o f insoluble

isotopeorgan

Wound Inhalation(rem/nc)

H 3 Body Tissue 2.4 X 10~4 2.4 x 10-4 1.0 x 10-2Be7 Total Body 1.4 X 10-3 3.6 x l0“4 5.9 x 10-3C u Bone 2.8 X 10~3 2.4 x 10“3 6.1 xlO-2JT18 Bone and Teeth 4.5 X 10“4 3.3 x 10-4 2.3 x 10-3Na22 Total Body 2.2 x 10~2 1.8 xlO-2 8.0 x 10-1Na24 Total Body 1.8 x 10-3 1.3 xlO-3 3.5 x 10-2Si31 Lung (Sol) 7.0 x 10~4 5.0 x 10-4 3.5 x 10-3p32 Bone 2.6 X10-1 1.6 xlO-1 1.0 xlO-1S35 Testis 1.1 xlO-2 9.0 x 10-3 2.8 x 10-2Cl36 Total Body 7.0 x 10-3 5.5 x 10“3 2.9 x 10-1Cl38At3’At41

Total Body 6.0 X 10“5 4.5 x 10-6 7.2 x 10-37.2 x 10“4 7.6 x 10-3

K 42 Brain 1.6 Xl0“3 1.2 x 10"3 3.2 x 10-2Ca45 Bone 6.0 x 10-1 3.6 x 10-1 5.7 x 10-2Ca47 Bone 1.1 x 10-1 6.0 x 10-2 5.7 x 10-2So46 Liver 1.4 xlO-1 3.6 x 10-2 3.1 x lO”1So47 Bone 6.0 X 10"3 1.5 x 10-3 1.2 x 10-2Sc48 Bone 6.0 X 10-3 1.5 x 10-3 4.4 x 10-2y 4 8 Kidney 8.0 x 10-2 2.0 x 10-2 1.4 x 10-1Cr61 Lung 1.3 x 10“3 3.3 xlO"4 3.3 x 10-3Mn52 Pancreas 5.0 X 10-2 1.6 xlO-2 7.7 x 10-2Mn64 Liver 5.0 x 10~2 1.4 xlO-2 1.9 xlO-1M n66 Pancreas 3.3 xlO-3 1.0 x 10-3 7.8 x 10-3Fe55 Spleen 2.4 x 10-2 7.0 xlO-3 6.6 x 10-3.Fe69 Spleen 1.3 xlO-1 4.0 x 10-2 1.4 x 10"1Co57 Liver 1.1 x l0“3 5.5 x 10“4 4.2 x 10-2Co58m Liver 4.5 X 10-5 2.2 x 10-6 3.8 x 10-3Co58 Total Body 6.0 x io - 3 2.4 x 10-3 1.3 x 10-1Co60 Total Body 2.0 xlO-2 8.0 x 10-3 7.7 x 10-1Ni69 Bone 8.0 X 10-2 3.0 xlO-2 8.7 x 10-3Ni63 Bone 2.4 x 10-1 9.0 x 10-2 2.4 xlO "2Ni66 Bone 3.3 x 10-3 1.3 x 10-3 7.1 xlO-3Cu64 Spleen 3.3 x 10-3 1.4 x 10-3 4.0 x 10-3Zn65 Prostate 1.8 XlO-1 5.5 xlO-2 1.2 xlO "1Z n 69m Prostate 5.0 x 10-2 1.6 x 10-2 1.1 xlO-2Zn69 Prostate 2.8 X 10-3 9.0 x 10-4 7.2 x 10-4Ga72 Liver 7.0 X 10-3 1.6 x 10 -3. 2.5 x 10~2Ge71 Kidney 5.5 x 10-4 1.5 xlO-4 1.2 xlO-3

45


Appendix I I , ContinuedDose to critical organ

(rem/uc intake) Dose to lungfrom inhalation

IsotopeCritical Mode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope o f insoluble

isotopeorgan

Wound Inhalation(rem/tic)

As73 Kidney 7.0 x 10~3 1.8 XlO-3 1.9 x 10-2As74 Kidney 1.3 x lO-2 3.6 XlO"3 1.7 xlO-1As76 Kidney 3.3 X 10-3 9.0 X 10-4 3.9xl0-2As77 Kidney 1.0 x 10-3 2.6 x 10-4 9.6 x 10-3Se75 Kidney 7.0 x 10-3 5.0 x 10-3 5.6 x 10-2Br82 Total Body 2.6 x 10-3 2.0 x 10-3 3.3 x 10-2J £ r 85m 4.4 x 10-3K r86 2.6 x 10-1K r87 8.4 x 10-3R b 88 Pancreas 2.4 x 10~2 1.8 xlO-2 1.2 xlO "1

R b 87 /Pancreas 1.4 x 10-2 1.1 xlO-2 \1.0 xlO-1(Liver 1.4 x 10-2 1.1 xlO-2 /

Sr86m Bone 8.0 x 10-6 3.3 x 10-6 1.4 xlO-4Sr86 Bone 8.0 x 10-2 3.0 x 10-2 6.6 x lO"2Sr88 Bone 1.0 4.0 x 10-1 2.0 x 10-1Sr90 Bone 9.0 x 10 3.6x10 1.2Sr91 Bone 1.2 xl0~2 5.0 x 10-3 2.4 xlO-2Sr92 Bone 6.0 x 10~3 2.4 x 10-3 1.2 xlO-2Y »o Bone 1.0 x 10-1 2.6 xlO-2 4.6 x lo-2Y » ln i Bone 8.0 x 10-4 2.0 x 10-4 1.1 xlO-3Y » i Bone 1.3 3.3 x 10-1 2.3 x 10-1Y «2 Bone 9.0 x 10-3 2.2 x 10-3 1.2 xlO-2Y » s Bone 2.4 x 10-2 6.0 x 10“3 3.2 x 10-2Zr83 Bone 5.0 x 10-1 1.3 xlO-1 2.2 x 10"2Zr96 Bone 2.2 x 10-1 5.5 x 10-2 2.2 xlO "1Zr97 Bone 1.6 xlO-2 4.0 x 10-3 4.0 x 10-2N b 93m Bone 3.6 x 10-1 1.0 xlO-1 4.2 x lO"2N b 96 Bone 5.0 x 10-2 1.2 x 10-2 7.2 x 10-2N b 97 Bone 6.0 x 10-4 1.5 x 10~4 1.8 xlO-3Mo99 Kidney 1.4 x 10-2 9.0 x 10-3 2.6 x 10-2Tc96m Kidney 3.6 x 10-5 1.8 xlO-5 1.3 x 10-3Tc»<> Kidney 5.5 x 10-3 2.8 x 10-3 4.2 x lO-2Tc97m Kidney 3.0 x 10-3 1.5 x lO"3 4.6xl0-2Tc97 Kidney 1.0 x 10-3 5.0 x 10-4 2.3 x 10-2Tc99m Total Body 2.0 x 10-5 1.0 x lO"6 5.3 x 10-4T o 99 Kidney 6.0 x 10-3 3.0 x 10-3 1.1 xlO-1R u 97 Kidney 4.0 x lO"3 1.0 x 10-3 7.2 x 10-3R u 103 Kidney 1.8 xlO-2 4.5 x 10-3 8.2 x lO-2Ru106 Kidney 6.0 x 10“3 1.5 xlO-3 1.0 x 10"2Ru10« Kidney 1.5 x 10-1 3.6 xlO-2 1.2

RhiOSm (Spleen(Kidney

1.2 xlO "61.2 xlO-6

4.0 xlO-6 | 4.0x10-® (

1.2 x 10-4

46



Dose to lung(rem/uc intake)from inhalation

IsotopeCritical Mode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope

o f insoluble isotope

organW ound Inhalation

(rem/ixc)

Rh105 Kidney 2.2 X 10-8 7.0 X 10"‘ 7.6 X 10-8p d 103 Kidney 1.2 X 10~2 4.5 x 10-3 . 1.0 x i o - 2Pd109 Kidney 4.5 X 10-8 1.6 X 10-8 9.2 x 10-3Agios Kidney 8.0 X 10-3 2.0 x 10-3 8.8 x 10-2AgHOm Kidney 3.0 x 10-2 8.0 x 10-8 7.6 XlO-1A g m Kidney 8.0 x 10~3 2.0 x 10-8 3.6 x 10-2Cd109 Kidney 4.5 X 10-1 1.1 xlO-1 9.0 x 10-2Cdllim Liver 7.0 x 10-1 1.8 x 10-1 2.0 X 10-1Cd116 Liver 4.5 x 10-2 1.1 xlO-2 2.7 x 10-2

La113m f Spleen (Kidney

1.5 X 10-41.5 x 10-4

3.6 xlO-5 13.6 x l0“6 J

8.4 X 10-4

In114m Kidney 2.4 x 10-2 6.0 x 10-3 3.4 X 10-1

I n u5m (Kidney(Spleen

4.0 x 10-44.0 x 10-4

1.0 x lO"4 )1.0 x 10-4 /

2.2 X 10-3

In 118 Kidney 1.0 x 10-1 2.4 x 10-2 1.9 xlO-1Sn118 Bone 1.0 x 10-1 2.8 x 10'2 1.4 x 10-1Sn125 Bone 1.2 x 10-1 3.3 x 10-2 1.1 xlO-1Sb122 Bone 8.0 x lO-8 2.2 x 10"3 3.5 x 10-2Sb124 Bone 9.0 x 10-2 2.8 x 10-2 3.7 x 10-1Sb125 Lung (Sol) 6.0 x 10~2 1.6 x 10'2 2.6 X 10-1^ 0 i2 6 m Kidney 3.6 xlO-2 1.6 x 10-2 5.5 x 10-2X © i2 7 n i Kidney 1.2 xlO-1 5.0 x 10-* 1.7 x 10-1Te127 Kidney 1.2 x 10-3 5.0 x 10-4 4.6 X 10-3Tel® ®m Kidney 2.1.x 10-1 9.0 x 10'2 2.6 x 10“lTe129 Kidney 6.0 x 10-4 2.8 x 10-4 2.1 x 10"3rp e 131m Kidney 1.8 xlO-2 8.0 x 10-3 3.8 x 10-2Te132 Kidney 5.5 x 10-2 2.4 x 10-2 6.4 x 10-aJ1 2 S Thyroid 2.2 1.8 2.5 x 10-2J1 2 9 Thyroid 9.0 7.0 9.3 X 10-2J1 3 1 Thyroid 2.0 1.6 3.0 X 10~2J1 S 2 Thyroid 6.0 x 10-2 4.5 xlO-2 5.4 X 10-8J133 Thyroid 5.5 X 10-1 4.0 x lO"1 1.9 x 10-2J1 8 4 Thyroid 3.3 xlO-2 2.6 x 10-2 2.2 x 10-8J1 3 5 Thyroid 1.8 X 10-1 1.3 x lO"1 1.2 xlO-2X e lslm 2.1 xlO-2X e133 1.5 X 10-®X e188 1.2 x lO"2Cs181 Liver 7.0 X 10-4 5.0 x 10-4 2.8 x 10-3Cs131m Liver 8.0 X 10-6 5.5 x 10"s 1.2 x 10-8Cs184 Liver 1.3 x lO '1 9.0 x 10-2 5.6 x 10-1Cs188 Liver 2.2 x 10-2 1.5 x 10-2 7.5 x 10-2Cs18' Liver 1.2 X 10-2 8.0 x 10-3 4.8 X 10-2

47



(rem/sic intake) Dose to lung from inhalation

IsotopeCritical Mode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope of insoluble

isotopeorgan

Wound Inhalation(rem/txc)

Cs137 Liver 1.1 xlO-1 8.0 xlO-2 4.6 x 10-1Ba131 Total Body 4.0 xlO-3 1.1 xlO-3 , 2.4 xlO-12Ba140 Bone 3.0 xlO-1 8.0x10-? 1.9 xlO-1 |La140 Bone 2.0 xlO-2 5.0 x 10-3 4.4 x I0-2Ce141 Bone 9.0 x 10-2 2.2 x 10“2 4.7 xlO-2Ce143 Bone 1.5 xlO-2 3.8 x 10~3 3.2 xlO-2Ce144 Bone ' 4.5 1.1 1.0Pr142 Bone 1.3 x 10“2 3.3 x 10-3 2.4 x 10-2p r H 3 Bone 8.0 xlO-2 2.0 xlO-2 4.6 x 10-2N(l144 Bone 8.0 x 102 2.0 x 102 2.3x10Nd147 Liver 7.0 x 10-2 1.8 xlO-2 3.6 xlO-2N d149 Liver 1.8 x 10-3 4.5 x 10-4 4.6 x 10-3Pm 147 Bone 7.0 x 10-1 2.0 xlO-1 7.0 x 10-2Pm 149 Bone 1.3 x 10-2 3.3 x 10“3 1.9 xlO-2Sm147 Bone 8.0 x 102 2.0 xlO2 2.6x10Sm151 Bone 7.0 xlO-1 2.0 x 10-1 4.8 x 10-2 :Sm153 Bone 8.0 x 10-3 2.0 x 10“3 1.1 xlO-2Eu152 Bone 4.5 x 10-3 1.1 xlO-3 1.4xl0-2(9.2 hr) Eu152 Kidney 1.8 4.5 x 10-1 3.7 xlO-1(13 yrs) Eu164 Bone 1.3 xlO 3.3 9.6 x 10"1Eu155 Bone 4.5 xlO "1 1.2 x 10”1 9.0 x 10-2Gd163 Bone 2.2 xlO-1 5.0 x 10“2 7.5 x 10-2Gd159 Bone 4.5 x 10-3 1.0 xlO-3 9.2 x 10~3Tb160 Bone 3.6 x 10-1 9.0 x 10-2 2.1 xlO-1D y 165 Bone 1.1 xlO-3 2.8 x 10-4 2.2 x 10-2D y 166 Bone 8.0 x 10-2 2.0 x 10-2 4.4 x 10~2H o166 Bone 2.6 xlO-2 6.0 x 10-3 2.6 x 10-2Er169 Bone 3.6 xlO-2 9.0 xlO-3 2.4 x 10-2Er171 Bone 4.0 x 10-3 1.0 x 10-3 8.8 x 10-3Tm ™ Bone 1.5 4.0 x 10-* 2.0 x 10-1Tm 171 Bone 4.5 x 10-1 1.1 xlO-1 2.9 x lO '2Y b 175 Bone 1.6 xlO-2 4.0 x 10-3 9.8 x 10~3Lu177 Bone 4.0 x 10-2 1.0 x 10-2 1.4 x 10-2H f 1 8 1 Spleen 7.0 x 10-1 1.6 x 10-1 9.6 x 10-2Ta182 Liver 7.0 x 10-1 1.8 x 10-1 ' 3.2 x 10-1\ \ r i 8 i Liver 9.0 x 10-4 2.8 x 10-4 5.6 x 10-2W 185 Bone 3.6 x 10-3 1.1 XlO-3 ; 6.3 x 10~2\ y i 8 7 Liver 1.0 xlO-3 3.3 xlO-4 1.5 x 10-2Re183 Thyroid 2.8X-10-3 1.4 xlO "3 4.5 x 10-2Re186 Thyroid 1.5 xlO-2 7.0 x 10“3 2.2 x 10-2

48


Appendix I I , Continued

Isotope

Dose to critical organ (rem/(i.6 intake) Dose to lung

from inhalation o f insoluble

isotope (rem/|ic)

Criticalorgan

Mode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope

Wound Inhalation

Re187 Skin 2.8 x 10-3 1.5 XlO-3 1.4 x 10-2Re188 Thyroid 1.2 xlO-2 6.0 x 10-3 2.0 x 10-2Os185 Kidney 1.5 xlO-2 6.0 x 10-3 1.5 x 10-1Os191m Kidney 2.6 x 10-4 1.1 xlO-4 2.9 x lO"3Os191 Kidney 5.5 x 10-3 2.2 x 10-3 1.8 xlO-2Os193 Kidney 4.5 x 10“3 1.8 xlO-3 1.4 x 10-2Ir190 Liver 1.2 xlO-2 3.6 x 10-3 2.0 x 10-2Ir192 Kidney 1.5 xlO-1 5.0 x 10-2 2.7 x lO"1Ir194 Kidney 6.0 x 10-" 2.0 X 10-5 2.4 x 10“2p t I91 Kidney 1.6 x 10-2 5.0 x 10-3 1.7 xlO-2p^i93m Kidney 1.8 x 10-3 5.5 x 10“4 1.9 xlO-3Pt193 Kidney 2.2 x 10-2 6.0 x 10-3 2.2 x 10-2p^l97m Kidney 7.0 x 10-4 2.0 x 10-5 1.6 x 10-3p t 197 Kidney 4.5 x 10-3 1.4 x 10-4 6.7 x 10-3Au198 Kidney 7.0 x 10-3 2.0 x 10-4 1.7 xlO-2Au198 Kidney 8.0 x 10-3 2.6 x 10-4 2.3 x 10-2Au199 Kidney 2.8 x 10“4 8.0 x 10-4 7.5 x 10-3JJg i9 7 m Kidney 1.4 x 10-2 9.0 x 10-3 6.6 x 10“3H g 197 Kidney 7.0 x 10-3 4.5 x 10-3 2.7 x 10-3H g203 Kidney 1.3 x 10"1 8.0 x 10-2 5.8 x 10-2I J J 200 Kidney 1.5 x 10-3 7.0 X 10-4 6.7 x 10-3I J 1201 Kidney 2.8 x 10-3 1.3 x 10-3 6.5 x 10“3IJ1J202 Kidney 1.1 xlO-2 5.5 x 10-3 3.5 x 10“2TJ204 Kidney 3.0 x 10-2 1.5 xlO-2 2.6 x 10-1Pb203 Kidney 4.5 x 10-3 1.3 xlO"3 4.2 x 10-3Pb210 Bone 2.0 x 102 5.5x10 2.8x10Pb212 Kidney 1.4 4.0 x 10-1 1.7Bi208 Kidney 1.8 x 10-1 4.5 x 10-2 7.0 x 10-2Bi207 Kidney 1.6 x 10-1 4.5 x 10-2 4.9 x 10-1Bi210 Kidney 4.0 1.1 2.0Bi212 Kidney 2.6 x 10-1 7.0 x 10-2 1.9 xlO-1Po210 Spleen 5.0 x 10 1.2 x 10 3.4 x 10At211 Thyroid 1.8 1.4 1.1R n 220 2.6 x 10-3R n 222 3.7Ra223 Bone 1.4 x 10 5.5 3.6 xlORa224 Bone 4.0 1.6 1.7 x 10Ra228 Bone 1.0 X 103 3.0 X 102 1.3 xlO2Ra228 Bone 4.0 x 102 1.2 x 102 1.7 xlO2Ac227 Bone 2.0 x 104 5.0 x 103 2.6 x 102Ac228 Bone 8.0 x 10-1 2.0 x 10-1 2.41^227 Bone 1.1 xlO2 2.8x10 4.0 x 10

4 49


Appendix I I , Continued

Isotope

Dose to critical organ (rom/uc intake) Dose to lung

from inhalation of insoluble

isotope (rem/nc)

Criticalorgan

Mode o f E n try o f Soluble Isotope

Wound Inhalation

lyjj228 Bone 4.0 X 103 2.3 xlO3 2.3 XlO2Th23l) Bone 1.1 XlO6 2 . 8 x 1 0 4 5.4 x 10T h m Bone 4.0 X 10~3 1.1 XlO"3 4.0 x 10-3y j j2 3 2 Bone 1.3 x10s 3.6 x 104 5.2 x 10T h 234 Bone 7.0 x 10-1 1.8 xlO "1 1.9 xlO-1T ^ N a t Bone 1.4 xlO6 3.6 x 104 2 . 8 x 1 0 2P a 230 Bone 2 . 6 x 1 0 6 . 0 3.7 x 10-3P a 231 Bone 3.6 x 104 9.0 x 103 6 . 1 x l OP a 233 Bone 5.5 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-1 4.2 xlO-2JJ230 Bone 4.2 x 10 1.1 xlO 6.7x10■[J232 Bone 4.5 xlO2 1.1 xlO2 2.3 x 102| J233 Bone 9.0 x 10 2.3 xlO 5.5 x 10U 234 Bone 9.0 x 10 2.3x10 5.4 x 10■JJ235 Bone 7.5 xlO 1.9x10 5.1 xlO| J238 Bone 7.5 xlO 1.9x10 5.3x10■JJ238 Bone 7.5 x 10 1.9 xlO1J2 3 5 Kidney 5.2 x 10 1.3 x 10^J23 8 Kidney 3.0 xlO2 8 . 0 x 1 0 4.9 x 10

* U N a t Kidney (chem. toxic) 3.0 x 102 8 . 0 x 1 0 1.1 xlO2N p237 Bone 1 . 2 x 1 0 4 2 . 8 x 1 0 3 5.6 xlON p239 Bone 9.0 x 10-3 2.2 xlO-3 7.7 x 10-3p u 238 Bone 2 . 8 x 1 0 3 7.0 x 102 6.4x10p u 239 Bone 3.0 x 104 7.0 x 103 6 . 0 x 1 0Pu240 Bone ‘3.0 x 104 7.0 x 103 6 .0 x 1 0Pu241 Bone 5.5 xlO2 1.3 xlO2 5.9 x 10“2Pu242 Bone 2.4 x 104 6 . 0 x 1 0 3 5.8x10A m 241 Bone 9.0 x 103 2 . 2 x 1 0 3 6.5 x 10A m 243 Bone 8 . 0 x 1 0 3 2 . 0 x 1 0 3 6.1 xlOCm242 Liver 2 . 0 x 1 0 2 5.0x10 4.3 xlOCm243 Bone 7.0 x 103 1 . 8 x 1 0 s 6.7 xlOCm244 Bone 5.5 x 103 1.3 xlO3 6.7 xlOCm246 Bone 1.1 xlO4 2 . 8 x 1 0 3 6 . 2 x 1 0Cm24* Bone 9.0 x 103 2 . 2 x 1 0 3 6.3x10Bk249 Bone 5.0 x 10 1 . 2 x 1 0 5.6 xlO-2Cf249 Bone 2 . 8 x 1 0 4 7.0 x 103 6 . 8 x 1 0C f 260 Bone 1 . 0 x 1 0 4 2.4 x 103 6 . 8 x 1 0Cf252 Bone 2 . 2 x 1 0 3 5.5 x 102 2.1 xlO2

* 99.28 U 288, 0.715 U *8*, 0.0058 U 234* * Specific activ ity less than 0 .0 0 2 M-c/g; the current IA E A regulations do not require

m aterial o f 0 .0 0 2 j-tc/g or less to be regarded, for purposes o f transport, as radioactive m aterial.

50


T a b l e V T I I

LOGARITHMIC SCALE USED TO GIVE RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS

1.0 1.8 3.3 4 .0 71.1 2.0 3.6 4.5 81.2 2.2 5.0 91.3 2.4 5.51.4 2.6 6.01.5 2.81.6 3.0

4*


A p p e n d i x I I I

T A B L E I X O F R E P O R T

R A D IO IS O T O P E S L I S T E D IN O R D E R O F R E L A T I V E H A Z A R D A N D D IV ID E D IN T O T H R E E G R O U P S F O R T H E P U R P O S E O F T R A N S P O R T

K E Y

designate the nuclide, refer to the nuclide in insoluble form, is the dose in rem to the lung following the inhalation of 1 (ic of nuclide.is the Maximum Permissible Concentration of the insoluble nuclide in air in |zc/ml for continuous occupational exposure quoted from ICRP publication 2 [2].

refer to the nuclide in soluble form, is the Maximum Permissible Concentration of the soluble nuclide in air in [xc/ml for the continuous occupational exposure quoted from ICRP publication [2],

(1)

Nuclide

(2)

Insoluble form Soluble form

Lung Dose (rem/tic)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

!AC./ml

w

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

l c/ml

(5)

90Th230 Thorium-230 5.4 x 10 3 x 10-12 8 x 10-1391Pa231 Protactinium-231 6.1 x 10 4 x 10~u 4 x 10“13e4Pu239 Plutonium-239 6.0 x 10 10“u 6 x 10-1394Pu240 Plutonium-240 6.0 x 10 10-u 6 x 10-1398Cf249 Californium-249 6.8 x 10 3 x 10-11 5 x 19"1394Pu242 Plutonium-242 5.8 x 10 io - 11 6 x 10-1389Ac227 Actinium-227 2.6 x 102 9 x 10-12 8 x 10“1393N P 237 Neptunium-237 5.6 x 10 4 x 10-11 io -1296Cm245 Curium-245 6.2 x 10 4 x 10-11 2 x 10~1298Cf250 Californium-250 6.8 x 10 3 x 10-11 2 x lO '12,»Cm2« Curium-246 6.3 x 10 4 x 10"11 2 x 10-12.iAm ” Americium- 241 6.5 x 10 4 x 10-11 2 x 10-12,sA m “ Americium-243 6.1 x 10 4 x 10-11 2 x 10-12« C m » Curium-243 6.7 x 10 3 x 10-11 2 x 10-1296Cm244 Curium-244 6.7 x 10 3 x 10-11 3 x 10-1290Th228 Thorium-228 2.3 x 102 2 x 10“12 3 x 10-1294Pu238 Plutonium-238 6.4 x 10 io -u 7 x 10“1398Cf252 Californium-252 2.1 x 102 10"11 2 x 10-12w Ra22* Radium-226 1.3 x 102 6 x 10-8 io -11

Columns 1 and 2 Columns 3 and 4 Column 3

Column 4

Columns 5, 6, 7 and 8

Column 5

52


Column 6 is the dose in rem that will be delivered to the criticalorgan listed in column 6 following the inhalation of one [xc of the nuclide in soluble form.

Column 7 is the critical organ for columns 6 and 8.

Column 8 is the dose in rem that will be delivered to the criticalorgan listed in column 6 following the injection of one |*c of the soluble nuclide into the body via a wound.

Column 9 lists the minimum value of the maximum permissiblebody burden of the nuclide in (ic quoted in ICRP publication 2 [2].

Column 10 lists the specific activity of the nuclides in c/g quotedin a comprehensive list of nuclides by one of the authors.

Column 11 indicates the toxicity group of the nuclide for purposesof transport.

N o t e : * Indicates for the nuclide, which of the doses, Lung (insoluble form), Inhalation (soluble form), Wound (soluble form), is the greatest.

Soluble form Maximumper

missiblebody

burden(we)

(9)

Specificactiv ity

c/g

(1 0 )

Tpxicitygroup

(1 1 )

Inhalationdose

(rem/tic)

(6 )

Critical organ

(7)

Wound dose (rem/ne)

(8 )

2.8 x 104 Bone *1.1 X 105 0.05 1.94 x 10-29.0 x 103 Bone *3.6 x 104 0.02 4.52 x 10-27.0 x 103 Bone *3.0 x 104 0.04 6.1 x 10-27.0 x 103 Bone *3.0 x 104 0.04 2.27 x 10-17.0 x 103 Bone *2.8 x 104 0.04 3.056.0 x 103 Bone *2.4 x 104 0.05 3.9 x 10-35.0 x 103 Bone *2.0 x 104 0.03 7.2 x 102.8 x 103 Bone *1.2 x 104 0.06 6.9 x 10“42.8 x 103 Bone *1.1 x 104 0.04 1.04 x 10-12.4 x 103 Bone *1.0 x 104 0.04 1.31 x 102 T2.2 x 103 Bone *9.0 x 103 0.05 3.64 x 10-1

12.2 x 103 Bone *9.0 x 103 0.05 3.242.0 x 103 Bone *8.0 x 103 0.05 1.85 x 10-11.8 x 103 Bone *7.0 x 103 0.09 4.21 x 101.3 x 103 Bone *5.5 x 103 0.1 8.2 x 101.0 x 103 Bone *4.0 x 103 0.02 8.3 x 1027.0 x 102 Bone *2.8 x 103 0.04 1.68 x 105.5 x 102 Bone *2.2 x 103 0.01 6.5 x 1023.0 x 102 Bone *1.0 x 103 0.1 9.8 x 10-1

53


A ppendix I I I , Continued


d )

Nuclide

(2)

Lung Dose (rem/no)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 h r wk

no/ml, (4)

(MPC) a 168 h r wk

(jic/ml(5)

„ P u !41 Plutonium-241 5.9 x 10- 2 1 0 - 8 3 x 10- 1192U 232 Uranium-232 2.3 x 102 9 x 10- 12 3 x 10- 1188R a 228 Radium-228 1.7 x 102 1 0 - 11 2 x 1 0 - 1182P b 2”> Lead-210 2 .8 x 10 8 x 1 0 - 11 4 x 10-ut ,C m » Curium-242 4.3 x 10 6 x 1 0 - 11 4 x 10- 1190Th 227 Thorium-227 4.0 x 10 6 x 1 0 - 11 IO - 1 0

92U 233 Uranium-233 5.5 x 10 4 x 10- 11 2 x 1 0 - 1092U 231 Uranium-234* 5.4 x 10 4 x 10"u 2 x 1 0 - 1038S r90 Strontium-90 1 .2 2 x 1 0 - 9 10-1°92U 23* Uranium-236 5.3 x 10 4 x 10- 11 2 x 1 0 - 1097B k 2* 9 Berkelium-249 5.6 x 10- 2 4 x 10- 8 3 x 10- 1081Po210 Polonium-210 3.4 x 10 7 x 10-“ 2 x 1 0 - 1092U 23» Uranium-230 *6.7 x 10 4 x 10- 11 1 0 -io88R a 223 Radium-223 *3.6 x 10 8 x 1 0 - 11 6 x 1 0 - 1088R a 221 Radium-224 *1.7 x 10 2 x 1 0 - 10 2 x 1 0 - 991P a230 Protactinium - 230 3.7 x 10- 3 3 x 10- 10 6 x 1 0 - 10

A n 228 Actinium-228 *2.4 6 x 1 0 ~ 9 3 x 10- 8, 3E u 1H Europium-154 9.6 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 - 9 1 0 - 968Cel« ' Cerium-144 1 .0 2 x 1 0 - 9 3 x 10- 9

Thnat Natural thorium 2 .8 x 1 0 2 1 0 - 12 6 x 1 0 - 13

80T h 232 Thorium-232 5.2 x 10 4 x 10- 12 7 x 10- 13, 2Sm “ 7 Samarium -147 2 .6 x 10 7 x 10- 11 2 x 1 0 -ne o N d i“ Neodymium-144* 2.3 x 10 IO - 1 0 3 x 10~u92u 238 Uranium-238 4.9 x 10 5 x 10- 11 3 x 10- 11XJnat Natural uranium 1 .1 x 1 0 2 2 x 1 0 - 11 3 x 10- 11

92U 23‘ Uranium-235 5.1 x 10 4 x 10- 11 2 x 1 0 - 10b3I 129 Iodine-129 9.3 x 10- 2 2 x 1 0 - 8 6 x 1 0 - 1083B i210 Bism uth-210 2 .0 2 x 1 0 - 9 2 x 1 0 - 9

T 12653 Iodine-126 2.5 x 10- 2 1 0 - 7 3 x 10- 953I 131 Iodine-131 3.0 x 10" 2 1 0 - 7 3 x 10- 9ssAt211 Astatine-211 1 .1 1 0 - 8 2 x 1 0 - 9tsE u 'ts Europium-152

(13 yrs)3.7 x 10- 1 6 x 1 0 " 9 4 x 10- 9

82P b 212 Lead-212 *1.7 7 x 10- 9 6 x 1 0 - 969Tm 170 Thulium-170 2 .0 x 1 0 - 1 i o - 8 1 0 - 83 9 -1- Yttrium -91 2.3 x 10- 1 i o - 8 1 0 - 8J 4R u 101 Ruthenium -106 * 1 .2 2 x 1 0 - 9 3 x 10- 838Sr*» Strontium -89 2 .0 x 1 0 - 1 1 0 - 8 1 0 - 8

5 4


Appendix I I I , Continued

Soluble form M axim ump er

missiblebody

burden(v-c)

(9)

Specifioactiv ity

o/g

(10)

Toxicitygroup

(11)

Inh ala tio ndose

(rem/nc)(6)

Critical organ

(7)

W ound dose (rem/nc)

(8)

1.3 x 102 Bone *5.5 X 102 0.9 1.14 x 102X.l x 1 0 2 Bone *4 .5 x 102 0 .0 1 2.08 x 101 .2 x 1 0 2 Bone *4 .0 x 102 0.06 2.34 x 1025.5 x 10 Kidney * 2 .0 x 1 0 2 0.4 8 .8 x 105.0 x 10 Liver * 2 .0 x 1 0 2 0.05 3.32 x 1 0 s2 .8 x 10 Bone * 1 .1 x 1 0 2 0 .0 2 3.17 x 10*2.3 x 10 Bone *9 .0 x 10 0.05 9.5 x 10- 32.3 x 10 Bone *9 .0 x 10 0.05 6 .2 x 1 0 - 33.6 x 10 Bone *9.0 x 10 2 .0 1.45 x 1021.9 x 10 Bone *7.5 x 10 0.06 6.3 x lO - 5 I I1 .2 x 10 Bone *5.0 x 10 0.7 1 .8 x 1 0 31 .2 x 10 Spleen *5.0 X 10 0.03 4.5 x 1031 .1 x 10 Bone 4.2 x 10 7 x 10- 3 2.73 x 10*5.5 Bone 1.4 x 10 0.05 5.0 x 1041 .6 Bone 4.0 0.06 1 .6 x 1 0 56 .0 Bone * 2 .6 x 10 0.07 3.21 x 1042 .0 x 1 0 - 1 Bone 8 .0 x 1 0 - 1 0.04 2.24 x 10"3.3 Bone *1.3 x 10 5.0 1.45 x 1021 .1 Bone *4.5 5.0 3.18 x 103

3.6 x 104 Bone 1.4 x 105 0 .0 1 SpecialDefinition

3.6 x 10* Bone *1.3 x 105 0.04 1 .1 1 x 1 0 - 72 .0 x 1 0 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 2 0 .1 1.95 x 10- 82 .0 x 1 0 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 2 0 .1 4.97 x lO" 13 See Ch.8 .0 x 10 Kidney *3 .0 x 102 5 x 10~3 3.33 x 10- 7 I I I . 3.8 .0 x 1 0 Bone *3 .0 x 102 0.03 Special

Definition1.9 x 10 Bone *7 .5 x 10 0.03 2.14 x 10-«7.0 Thyroid *9.0 3.0 1.62 x 1 0 - 41 .1 Kidney *4.0 0.04 6 .6 x 1 0 - 4 I l l1 .8 Thyroid * 2 .2 1 .0 7.8 x 1041 .6 Thyroid * 2 .0 0.7 1.23 x 1051.4 Thyroid * 1 .8 0 .0 2 2.06 x 1 0 *4.5 x 10 1 Kidney * 1 .8 2 0 .0 1.85 x 102

4.0 x 10" 1 Kidney 1.4 0 .0 2 1.4 x 10*4.0 x 10- 1 Bone *1.5 9.0 6 .0 x 1 0 33.3 x 10- 1 Bone *1.3 5.0 2.50 x 1043.6 x 10- 2 Kidney 1.5 x 10- 1 3.0 3.38 x 1034.0 x 10- 1 Bone * 1 .0 4.0 2 .8 8 x 10 4

5 5



Nuclide

(1)

iiN a»38Sr92 27C0 60 61 Pm 14

( 2 )

2Sm1519„T h ^48Cd115m73T a182, 2H f1814,Ag” »maoCa4555C S 134

63I 1334oZr°383B i20755Cs13’„E u »«48Cd1° 9

SlSb*241,N bs,m05Tb'™48ln 1Um„ S c “s(B a»»17CI3677I r 1921 5 P 3283B i212gjTl204

T V 1 2 9 mS ! l e

IViSS28i\l40Zr95,4Gd‘“5iSb125 ♦ .In 11* *6MnM

T13553,oZn“83B i2063 3 A S 74

Sodium-22 Strontium-92 Cobalt-60 Promethium -147 Samarium -151 Thorium-234 Cadmium-115m Tantalum -182 Hafnium-181 Silver-110m Calcium-45 Caesium-134 Iodine-133 Zirconium-93 Bism uth-207 Caesium-137 Europium-155 Cadmium-109 Thulium-171 Antimony-124 Niobium-93m Terbium -160 Indium-114m Scandium-46 Barium -140 Chlorine-36 Iridium-192 Phosphorus-32 Bismuth-212 Thallium-204 Tellurium-129m Nickel-63 Zirconium-95 Gadolinium-153 Antim ony-125 Indium -115 Manganese-54 Iodine-135 Zinc-65 Bismuth-206 Arsenic-74

Insoluble form

Lung Dose (rem/pic)

(3)

*8.0 X *1.2 X *7.7 x7.0 x4.8 x1.9 x2 .0 x3.2 x9.6 x

*7.6 x5.7 x

*5.6 x1.9 x2 .2 x

*4.9 x *4.6 x

9.0 x9.0 x2.9 x

*3.7 x4.2 x2 .1 x

*3 .4 x *3.1 x

1.9 x *2.9 x *2.7 x

1 .0 x1.9 x

* 2 .6 x *2 .6 x

2.4 x * 2.2 x

7.5 x2 .6 x

*1.9 x *1.9 x

1 .2 x1 .2 x7.0 x

*1.7 x

io - 11 0 - 210-110-210-210-110-110-110-210-1I 0 -2io - 110-210-210-110-110-210-210-210-110-2101010-10-10-

10-

10101 0 -1010-

10101010101 0 -101010

(MPC) a 168 h r wk

l i c / m l

w

3 x 1 0 - 9 1 0 - 73 x 10- 9 3 x 10- 8 5 x 10-8 1 0 - 8 1 0 ' 8 7 x 10- 9 3 x 10“ 83 x 10- 94 x 10-84 x 10“ 97 x 10" 8 10 '75 x 10- 9 5 x 10“ 9 3 x 10- 8 3 x 10- 88 x 1 0 - 8 7 x 10- 9 5 x 10- 81 0 - 87 x 10- 98 x 1 0 - 9 10~88 x 1 0 - 99 x 10- 9 3 x 10- 8 7 x 10- 8 9 x lO- 9 10~8 10~7 1 0 - 83 x 10- 8 9 x 10~ 9 1 0 -8 10“8 1 0 - 72 x 1 0 - 8 5 x 10- 84 x 10- 8

Soluble form

(MPC) a 168 h r wk

tic/ml

(5)

6 x 1 0 “ 8 2 x 1 0 - 7 1 0 - 72 x 1 0 “ 8 2 x 1 0 - 8 2 x 1 0 - 81 0 - 81 0 - 81 0 - 87 x 10- 8 I 0 - 8 lO- 8 1 0 - 84 x 10- 8 6 x 1 0 j82 x 1 0 “ 83 x 10- 82 x 1 0 -84 x 10-85 x IO- 8 4 x 10- 83 x 10- 84 x 10-88 x 1 0 -8 4 x 10- 8 1 0 - 74.x 1 0 - 82 x 1 0 -83 x 10-82 x 1 0 - 73 x lO- 8 2 x 1 0 -84 x 10-88 x I0 - 8 2 x 1 0 - 79 x 1 0 -8 1 0 - 74 x lO- 8 4 x 10-86 x 1 0 -8 1 0 - 7

56-




missiblebody

burden(lie)(9)

Specificactivity

c/g

(10)

Toxicitygroup

(11)

Inhalationdose

(rem/vie)

(6)

Critical organ

(7)

Wound dose (rem/nc)

(8)

1.8 x 10-2 Total Body 2.2 X lO-2 10 6.3 x 1032.4 x 10-3 Bone 6.0 X 10-3 2 1.26 x 10’8.0 x 10-3 Total Body 2.0 x 10-2 10 1.14 x 1032.0 x 10-1 Bone *7.0 x 10-i 60 9.4 x 1022.0 x 10-1 Bone *7.0 x 10-i 100 2.55 x 101.8 x 10-1 Bone *7.0 x 10-1 4 2.32 x 1041.8 x 10-1 Liver *7.0 x 10-i 3 2.64 x 1041.8 x 10-1 Liver *7.0 x 10-t 7 6.2 x 1031.6 x 10-1 Spleen *7.0 x 10-i 4 1.62 x 1048.0 x 10-3 Kidney 3.0 x lO -2 10 4.70 x 103

- 3.6 x 10-1 Bone *6.0 x 10-1 30 1.91 x 1049.0 x 10-2 Liver 1.3 x 10-i 20 1.22 x 1034.0 x 10-1 Thyroid *5.5 x 10“l 0.3 1.13 x 1061.3 x 10 -1 Bone *5.0 x 10 -1 100 3.5 x 10-34.5 x 10-2 Kidney 1.6 x 10-i 2 2.16 x 1028.0 x 10-2 Liver 1.1 x 10-1 30 9.82 x 101.2 x 10-1 Bone *4.5 x 10-i 70 1.36 x 1031.1 x 10 -1 Kidney *4.5 x 10-i 20 2.55 x 1031.1 x 10-1 Bone *4.5 x 10 i 90 1.12 x 1032.8 x 10 -2 Bone 9.0 x 10 -2 10 1.76 x 1041.0 x lO^1 Bone *3.6 x 10-i 200 1.05 x 1038.0 x 10 -2 Bone *3.6 x 10-i 20 1.11 x 1046.0 x 10-3 Kidney 2.4 x 10-2 6 2.29 x 10*3.6 x 10“2 Liver 1.4 x 10-i 10 3.38 x 1048 x 10“2 Bone *3.0 x 10~l 4 7.3 x 1045.5 x 10~3 Total Body 7.0 x 10“3 80 3.21 x lO -2 I I I5.0 x 10-2 Kidney 1.5 x 10-i 6 9.1 x 1031.8 Bone *1.1 x 10 -1 6 2.88 x 1067.0 x 10 -2 Kidney *2.6 x 10~l 0.01 1.47 x 10’1.5 x 10~2 Kidney 3.0 x 10 -2 10 4.28 x 1029.0 x 10-2 Kidney 2.0 x 10-1 3 2.47 x 1049.0 x 10 -2 Bone *2.4 x 10-i 200 45.55.5 x 10“2 Bone *2.2 x 10“l 20 2.12 x 1045.0 x 10-2 Bone *2.2 x 1 0 '1 90 3.62 x 1031.6 X 10~2 Lung (Sol) 6.0 x lO -2 40 1.43 x 1032.4 x 10“2 Kidney 1.0 X io - 1 30 5.2 x 10 -121.4 x 10 -2 Liver 5.0 x lO -2 20 8.3 x 1031.3 x 10 -1 Thyroid *1.8 x lO-1 0.3 3.48 x 1065.5 x 10-2 Prostate *1.8 x 10 -1 60 8.2 x 1034.5 x 10“2 Kidney *1.8 x 10 -1 1 9.9 x 1043.6 x 10-3 Kidney 1.3 x lO-2 40 1.01 x 106

57



(1)

Nuclide

(2)


Lung Dose (rem/no)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

(jic/ml

(4)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

iie/ml

(5)

62T e127m Tellurium-127m *1.7 x 10- 1 10-® 5 x 10- 8, 60 s186 Osmium-185 *1.5 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 -® 2 x 1 0 - 723V48 Vanadium-48 *1.4 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 - 8 6 x 1 0 - 860Sn113 T in-113 *1.4 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 - 8 1 0 - 72aF e69 Iron-59 *1.4 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 - 8 5 x 10- 627C0 58 Cobalt-58 *1.3 x 10- 1 2 x 1 0 - 8 3 X 10- 78oHg203 Mercury-203 5.8 x 10~2 4 x 10- 8 2 x 10-®9lP a233 Protactinium -233 4.2 x 10- 2 6 x 1 0 -8 2 x 10-75(JSn125 T in-125 1.1 x 10-1 3 x 10- 8 4 x 10" 83,R b 86 Rubidium -8 6 *1.2 x 10 -1 2 x 1 0 -8 10-72„Sa47 Calcium-47 5.7 x 10- 2 6 x 1 0 -8 6 x 1 0 -843T c « Technetium-99 *1.1 x 10-1 2 x 1 0 -8 7 x 10- 7"V 90 39 x Y ttrium -90 4.6 x 10- 2 3 x 10- 8 4 x 10- 83,R b 87 Rubidium-87 *1.0 x 1 0 - 1 2 x 1 0 -8 2 x 10-7

ssSe141 Cerium-141 4.7 x 10- 2 5 x 10- 8 2 x 10-’4,Ag105 Silver-105 *8.8 x 10 -2 3 x 10- 8 2 x 10-744R u l »3 Ruthenium -103 *8.2 x 10 -2 3 x 10- 8 2 x 10-728Ni59 Nickel-59 8.7 x 10- 3 3 x 10- 7 2 x 10-738S r86 Strontium-85 6.6 x 1 0 -2 4 x i o - 8 8 x 1 0 -8S9P r» 3 Praseodymium-143 4.6 x 10- 2 6 x 10-8 10-7eeDy188 Dysprosium-166 4.4 x 10- 2 7 x 10- 8 8 x 1 0 -8!sMn“ Manganese-52 *7.7 x 10- 2 5 x 10- 8 7 x 10-®45R h 105 Rhodium -105 *7.6 x 10- 3 2 x 10-7 3 x 10- 765Cs136 Caesium-135 *7.5 x 10- 2 4 x 10- 7 2 X 10- 741N b95 Niobium-95 *7.2 x 10- 2 3 x 10- 8 2 x 10-’eoNd1” Neodymium-147 3.6 x 10- 2 8 x 10-8 10-762T e132 Tellurium-132 *6.4 x 10- 2 4 x 10- 8 7 x 10-®74W 185 Tungsten-185 *6.3 x 10- 2 4 x 10-® 3 x 10- 7ec 14 Carbon-14 *6.1 x 10-2 1 0 - 6 10-6

53I 132 Iodine-132 5.4 x 10- 3 3 x 10- 7 8 X 10- 874W 181 Tungsten-181 *5 .6 x 10- 2 4 x 10- 8 8 X 10- 752Te126m Tellurium-125m *5.5 x 10- 2 4 x 10- 8 1 0 -7s4Se76 Selenium-75 *5.6 x 10- 2 4 x lO" 8 4 x 10- 730Zn69“ Zinc-69m 1.1 x 10-2 10-7 10-766Cs136 Caesium-136 *4.8 x 10- 2 6 x 10-® 10~743T c97m Technetium-97m *4.6 X 10- 2 5 x 10-® 8 X 10- 718Cd1» Cadmium-115 2.7 x 10- 2 6 x 1 0 -8 8 X lO"82 1 S 0 48 Scandium-48 *4.4 x 10- 2 5 x 10- 8 6 x 1 0 -85,L a 140 Lanthanum -140 *4.4 x 10 - 2 4 x 10-® 5 x 10- 84,T c»8 Technetium-96 *4.2 x 10- 2 8 x 1 0 -8 2 x 10-7

58


Appendix I I I , Continu&d


missiblebody

burden(no)(9)

Specificactivity

c/g

(10)

Toxicitygroup

(11)

Inhalationdose

(rem/p.c)

(6)

Critical organ

(7)

Wound dose (rem/nc)

(8)

5 .0 x 10~2 Kidney 1 .2 x 1 0 - 1 7 9 .8 X 1036 .0 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 1 .5 x 1 0 “2 8 7 .3 x 1032 .0 x 10“ 2 Kidney 8 x 1 0 - 2 8 1.7 x 105£ .8 x 1 0 - 2 Bone 1 .0 x 1 0 - 1 30 9 .7 x 1034 .0 x 10~2 Spleen 1 .3 x 1 0 - 1 2 0 4.92 x 1042 .4 x 10~3 Total Body 6 .0 x 1 0 " 3 30 3 .1 3 x 1048 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Kidney * 1 .3 x 1 0 " 1 4 1 .3 7 X 104

*1 .3 x 1 0 - 1 Bone 5.5 x 10-2 4 0 2 .0 8 X 1043 .3 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 1 .2 x 1 0 - 1 7 1 .0 5 X 1051 .8 x 1 0 - 2 Pancreas 2 .4 x 1 0 - 2 30 8 .1 x 1046 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Bone 1.1 x 1 0 - 1 5 5 .9 x 1053 .0 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 6 .0 x 1 0 - 3 10 1.71 x 1 0 - 22 .6 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 1 .0 x 1 0 - 1 3 5 .3 X 1051.1 x 1 0 - 2 Pancreas 1

Liver J 1 .4 X 1 0 -2 2 0 0 6 .6 X 10 -8

2 .2 x 1 0 - 2 Bone *9.0 x lO"2 30 2 .8 X 1042 .0 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 8 .0 x 1 0 - 3 3 0 3 .1 1 x 10*4 .5 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 1 .8 x 1 0 - 2 20 3.19 x 1013 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 - 2 103 8 .1 x 1 0 - 23 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 - 2 70 2 .3 7 X 1042 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 - 2 20 6 .6 X 10*2 .0 x 1 0 - 2 Bone * 8 .0 x 1 0 - 2 5 2 .3 x 1051 .6 x 1 0 - 2 Pancreas 5 .0 x 1 0 - 2 5 4 .4 2 X 1067 .0 x 1 0 - 4 Kidney 2 .2 x 1 0 - 3 4 0 8 .2 x 106 I I I1 .5 x 1 0 - 2 Liver 2 .2 x 1 0 - 2 200 8 .8 x 1 0 - 41 .2 x 1 0 - 2 Bone 5 .0 x 1 0 - 2 4 0 3 .9 3 x 1041 .8 x 1 0 - 2 Liver * 7 .0 x 1 0 - 2 10 8 .0 X 1042 .4 x 10~2 Kidney 5.5 x 10~2 3 3.06 x 1061.1 x 1 0 - 3 Bone 3 .6 X 10~3 3 0 9 .7 x 1032 .4 x 1 0 - 3 Bone 2 .8 x 1 0 - 3 3 0 0 4 .5 94 .5 x 1 0 - 2 Thyroid * 6 .0 x 1 0 - 2 0 .3 1 .0 5 X 1 0 72 .8 x 1 0 - 4 Liver 9 .0 x 1 0 - 4 70 4 .9 8 x 1031 .6 x 1 0 - 2 Kidney 3 .6 x 1 0 - 2 20 1 .8 x 1045 .0 x 10~3 Kidney 7 .0 x 1 0 - 3 96 1 .4 4 X 1041 .6 x 1 0 - 2 Prostate * 5 .0 x 1 0 - 2 0 .7 3 .2 9 X 1088 .0 x 1 0 - 3 Liver 1 .2 X 1 0 '2 30 7 .4 x 1041 .5 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 3 .0 x 1 0 - 3 20 1 .4 8 X 1041.1 x 1 0 - 2 Liver * 4 .5 x lO "2 3 5 .1 x 1061 .5 x 1 0 - 3 Bone 6 .0 x 1 0 - 3 9 1 .4 9 x 1085 .0 x 1 0 - 3 Bone 2 .0 x 1 0 '2 10 5 .6 x 10s2 .8 x 1 0 - 3 Kidney 5 .5 X 1 0 '3 10 3 .2 4 x 106

59



(1)

Nuclide

(2)

---------------------Insolub e form Soluble form

Lung Dose (rem/jic)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

pic/ml

w

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

[ic/ml

(5)

,iL u 17’ Lutecium -177 1.4 x 10~2 2 x 10 -7 2 x 10-74<A97 Zirconium-9 7 *4.0 x 10 -2 3 x 10"8 4 x 10-83 3 A s76 Arsenic-7 6 *3.9 x 10 -2 3 x 1 0 -8 4 x lO -852Tel31m T ellur ium -131m *3.8 x 10-2 6 x 1 0 -8 10-74 7Ag1U Silver- 111 *3.6 x 10"2 8 x 10 "8 10-7e sE r1"8 Erbium -169 2.4 x 10-2 10-7 2 x 10-7.iS b « * Antim ony-122 *3.5 x 10-2 5 x 1 0 -8 6 x 10-88iT 1202 Thallium-202 *3.5 x 10 -2 8 x 10~8 3 x 10-7,,N a 24 Sodium-24 *3.5 x 10 -2 5 x 1 0 -8 4 x 1 0 -763I 134 Iodine-134 2.2 x 10-3 10-6 2 x 10-736B r 82 Brom ine-82 *3.3 x 10 -2 6 x 1 0 -8 4 x 10-7

V43 39 1 Y ttrium -93 *3.2 x 10-2 5 x 1 0 -8 6 x 10-819k « Potassium-42 *3.2 x 10-2 4 x 1 0 -8 7 x 10-758Ce143 Cerium-143 *3.2 x 10-2 7 x 1 0 -8 9 x l o - 816®35 Sulphur-35 *2.8 x 10 -2 9 x 1 0 -8 9 x 10-8

Holmium-166 *2.6 x 10“2 6 x 1 0 -8 7 x l o - 842Mo89 Molybdenum-99 *2.6 x 10-2 7 x 1 0 -8 3 x 10-731Ga72 Gallium-72 *2.5 x lO -2 6 x 10-8 8 x l o - 827C067 Cobalt-57 *4.2 x 10-2 6 x 10-8 10-o38S r91 Strontium-91 *2.4 x lO-2 9 x 1 0 -8 2 x 10-726F e“ Iron-5 5 6.6 x 10“3 3 x 10-7 3 x 10-766B a 131 Barium -131 *2.4 x lo - 2 10-7 4 x 10-7. .P r 1" Praseodymium-142 *2.4 x lO-2 5 x 1 0 -8 7 x 10-879Au188 Gold-198 *2.3 x 10-2 8 x 1 0 -8 10-743T C 7 Technetium-97 • *2.3 x 10-2 10-7 4 x 10-67gPtl»3 Platinum -193 2.2 x 10 -2 10-7 4 x 10-766D y165 Dysprosium-165 *2.2 x 10 -2 7 x 10-7 9 x 10-776R e18° Rhenium -186 *2.2 x 10 -2 8 x 1 0 -8 2 x 10-775r ®188 Rhenium -188 *2.0 x 10-2 6 x 1 0 -8 10-777I r 190 Iridium -190 *2.0 x 10-2 10-7 4 x 10-76iPm 149 Promethium -149 *1.9 x lo - 2 8 x 10-8 -IO- 733As73 Arsenic- 73 *1.9 x 10-2 1 0 -7 7 x 10-7760 s 191 Osmium-191 *1.8 x lo - 2 10-7 4 x 10-778Ptioi Platinum -191 *1.7 x 10-2 2 x 10-7 3 x 10-777Ir 194 Iridium -194 *2.4 x 10-2 5 x 1 0 -8 8 x lO "875R e183 Rhenium -183 *4.5 x 10-2 5 x 10 -8 9 x 10"7, 0Y b i76 Ytterbium -175 9.8 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 2 x 10-7

W 1 8 7 74 vv Tungsten-187 *1.5 x lo - 2 10-7 2 x 1 0 -7p + l 9 7 m 78 T1 Platinum - 197m *1.5 x lO -2 2 x 10-* 2 x 10-6

«3E u >62 Europium-152 *1.4 x lo - 2 1 0 -7 10-7(9 yrs) (9.2 hr)

6 0



Soluble form M aximump er

missiblebody

burden(u-o)(9)

Specificactiv ity

<=/g

(10)

Toxicitygroup

(11)

Inh ala tio ndose

(rem/nc)(6)

Critical organ

(7)

W ound dose (rem/nc)

(8)

1.0 x 10~2 Bone *4.0 x 10-2 20 1.09 x 1054.0 x 10“3 Bone 1.6 x lO-2 5 1.9 x 1069.0 x 10“4 Kidney 3.3 x 10“3 20 1.56 x 1088.0 x 10-3 Kidney 1.8 x 10-2 4 8.0 x 1052.0 x 10-3 Kidney 8.0 x 10-3 20 1.57 x 1059.0 x 10“3 Bone *3.6 x 10“2 30 8.2 x 1042.2 x 10~3 Bone 8.0 x 10-3 20 3.9 x 1055.5 x 10“3 Kidney 1.1 x 10 -2 20 5.4 x 1041.3 x 10“3 Total Body 1.8 x 10-3 7 8.7 x 1062.6 x 10 -2 Thyroid *3.3 x 10-2 0.2 2.68 x 1072.0 x 10-3 Total Body 2.6 x 10-3 10 1.06 x 1086.0 x 10“3 Bone 2.4 x 10-2 2 3.24 x 1061.2 x 10 -3 Brain 1.6 x 10-3 10 6.0 x 1063.8 x 10-3 Bone 1.5 x 10 -2 7 6.6 x 1069.0 x 10"3 Testis 1.1 x 10“2 50 4.29 x 1046.0 x 10-3 Bone *2.6 x 10“2 5 6.9 x 1069.0 x 10-3 Kidney 1.4 x 10“2 8 4.73 x 1051.6 x 10-3 Liver 7.0 x 10-3 5 3.09 x 10s5.5 x 10-4 Liver 1.1 x 10-3 200 8.5 x 1035.0 x 10-3 Bone 1.2 x 10“2 3 3.56 x 106 I I I7.0 x 10-3 Spleen *2.4 x 10-2 103 2.22 x 1031.1 x 10 -3 Total Body 4.0 x 10~3 50 8.7 x 1043.3 x 10-3 Bone 1.3 x 10 -2 7 1.15 x 1082.6 x 10-4 Kidney 8.0 x 10-3 20 2.455.0 x 10-4 Kidney 1.0 x lO '3 60 1.42 x 10-36.0 x 10-3 Kidney *2.2 x 10-2 70 1.99 x 1062.8 x 10-4 Bone 1.1 x 10-3 10 8.2 x 1067.0 x 10-3 Thyroid 1.5 x 10-2 20 1.9 x 10s6.0 x 10-3 Thyroid 1.2 x 10-2 7 1.0 x 1083.6 x 10~3 Liver 1.2 x 10 -2 40 6.2 x 1043.3 x 10~3 Bone 1.3 x 10 -2 20 4.21 x 1051.8 x 10 -3 Kidney 7.0 x 1 0 '3 300 2.36 x 1042.2 x 10 -3 Kidney 5.5 x 10-3 20 4.56 x 1045.0 x 10-3 Kidney 1.6 x 10 -2 10 2.28 x 10s2.0 x 10-5 Kidney 6.0 x 10-4 7 8.5 x 10s1.4 x 10-3 Thyroid 2.8 x lO '3 80 4.61 x 1034.0 x 10-3 Bone *1.6 x 10 -2 30 1.78 x 1053.3 x 1C'4 Liver 1.0 x 10-3 30 7.0 x 10s2.0 x 10“6 Kidney 7.0 x 1 0 '4 5 1.22 x 10’1.1 x 10-3 Bone 4.5 x 10-3 8 2.24 x 10“

61



(1)

Nuclide

(2)


Lung Dose (rem/nc)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

lio/ml

(4)

(MPC) a 168 hr wk

no/ml

(5)

,60s193 Osmium-193 *1.4 X io - 2 9 x 1 0 -8 10-780Hg187m Mercury-197m 6.6 X io -3 3 x 10-7 3 x 10“77iR e™ Rhenium -187 *1.4 x 10-2 2 x 10-7 3 x 10-621Sc47 Scandium-47 *1.2 x 10-2 2 x 10-7 2 x 10-738S r» 2 Strontium-92 *1.2 x 10-2 io - 7 2 x 10-739 Yttrium -92 *1.2 x 10-2 i o - 7 io - 746Pdl°> Palladium-103 1.0 x 10-2 3 x 10-7 5 x 10-762S m 153 Samarium-153 *1.1 x 10-2 io - 7 2 x 1 0 '744R u 105 Ruthenium -105 *1.0 x 10-2 2 x 1 0 -7 2 x 10-71H 3 Hydrogen-3 *1.0 x 10-2 4 x 10-4 2 x 10"«

33AS77 Arsenic-7 7 *9.6 x 10-3 io - 7 2 x 10-746P d u>» Palladium-109 *9.2 x 10-3 io - 7 2 x lO"7

64Glci159 Gadolinium-159 *9.2 x 10-3 io - 7 2 x 10-7MNp**» Neptunium-239 7.7 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 3 x 1 0 -768®r ' 71 Erbium-171 *8.8 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 2 x 10-7!5Mn“ Manganese- 56 *7.8 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 3 x 10-77»AU199 Gold-199 *1.7 x 10-2 3 x 10-7 4 x 10-744R u 97 Ruthenium-97 *7.2 x 10-s 6 x 10-7 8 x 10-728Ni65 Nickel-65 *7.1 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 3 x 10-78»Hg197 Mercury-197 2.7 x 10-3 9 x 10-7 4 x 10-77»Au 196 Gold-196 4.6 x 10-3 2 x 10-7 4 x 10“778p t197 Platinum -197 *6.7 x 10-3 2 x 1 0 -7 3 x 10-781T1200 Thallium-200 *6.7 x 10-3 4 x 10-7 9 x 10-781T1201 Thallium-201 *6.5 x 10-3 3 x 10-7 7 x 10-7

4B e 7 Beryllium -7 *5.9 x 10-3 4 x 10-7 2 x 10-662Te127 Tellurium-127 *4.6 x 10-3 3 x 10-7 6 x 10-782P b 203 Lead-203 4.2 x 10-3 6 x 10-7 9 x 10-760Nd149 Neodymium-149 *4.6 x 10-3 5 x 10-7 6 x 10-780Th231 Thorium-231 *4.0 x 10-3 4 x 10-7 5 x 10-729Cu»4 Copper-64 *4.0 x 10-3 4 x 1 0 -7 7 x 10-72,Co68m Cobalt-58m *3.8 x 10~3 3 x 10-» 6 x 10-6i4Si31 Silicon-31 *3.5 x 10-3 3 x 10-7 2 x 10-624Cr61 Chromium-51 *3.3 x 10-3 8 x 10-7 4 x 10-6-6Os191m Osmium-191m *2.9 x 10-3 3 x 10 -6 6 x lO -6a o Z n " Zinc-69 7.2 x 10-4 3 x lO-6 2 x 10-«66Cs131 Caesium-131 *2.8 x 10-3 io-« 4 x 10"617C138 Chlorine-38 *2.7 x 10-3 7 x 10-7 9 x 10-7„F18 Fluorine-18 *2.3 x 10-3 9 x 1 0 -7 2 x 10-6

49In 11Sm Indium-115m *2.2 x 10-3 6 x 10-7 8 x 10-7

62



Soluble form Maximumper Specific

activity 'c/g

(10)

Inhalation dose

(rem/no)

(6)

Critical organ

(7)

Wound dose (rom/fic)

(8)

missiblebody

burden(HC)(9)

Toxicitygroup

(11)

1.8 x 10 -3 Kidney 4.5 x 10-3 10 5.3 x 1069.0 x 10-3 Kidney *1.4 x 10-2 4 6.6 x 1051.5 X 10~3 Skin 2.8 x 10-3 300 3.83 x 1 0 -81.5 x 10 -3 Bone 6.0 X 10~3 50 8.2 x 1062.4 x 10-3 Bone 6.0 X 10-3 8 1.26 x 1072.2 x 10-3 Bone 9.0 x 10-3 2 9.5 x 1084.5 x 10-3 Kidney *1.2 X 10-2 20 7.5 x 1042.0 x 10-3 Bone 8.0 X 10-3 20 4.35 x 1061.5 x 10-3 Kidney 6.0 X 10-3 2 6.6 x 1082.4 x 10"4 BodyTissue 2.4 X 10-4 103 9.7 x 1032.6 x 10-* Kidney 1.0 X 10-3 80 1.05 x 1081.6 x 10-3 Kidney 4.5 x 10-3 7 2.12 x 10«1.0 x 10-3 Bone 4.5 x 10-3 20 1.1 x 10“2.2 x 10“3 Bone 9.0 x 10 3 30 2.33 x 1061.0 x 10-3 Bone 4.0 x 10-3 9 2.35 x 10*1.0 x 10-3 Pancreas 3.3 x 10-3 2 2.17 x 1078.0 x 10“‘ Kidney 2.8 X 19-3 70 2.09 x 1061.0 x 10-3 Kidney 4.0 X 10-3 30 5.5 x 1051.3 x 10 -3 Bone 3.3 X 10"3 4 1.88 x 107 I I I4.5 x 10"3 Kidney *7.0 X 10-3 20 2.45 x 1052.0 x 10“4 Kidney *7.0 X 10“3 40 1.20 x 1061.4 x 10-4 Kidney 4.5 x 10-3 10 8.8 x 1057.0 x 10-4 Kidney 1.5 x 10-3 40 5.8 x 1061.3 x 10"3 Kidney 2.8 x 10-3 40 2.17 x 10s3.6 x 10"4 Total Body 1.4 x 10-3 600 3.51 x 1065.0 x 10-4 Kidney 1.2 x 10~3 20 2.63 x 1081.3 x 10-3 Kidney *4.5 x 10-3 30 2.97 x 1054.5 x 10-4 Liver 1.8 x 10-3 3 1.05 x 1071.1 x 10-3 Bone *4.0 x 10-3 30 5.3 x 1061.4 x 10-3 Spleen 3.3 x 10-3 10 3.83 x 1082.2 x 10-* Liver 4.5 x 10~6 103 5.9 x 1085.0 x 10-4 Lung (Sol) 7.0 x 10-4 10 3.86 x 1073.3 x 10-4 Lung 1.3 x 10-3 800 9.2 x 1041.1 x 10-4 Kidney 2.6 x 10-4 100 1.17 x 1089.0 x 10-4 Prostate *2.8 x 10-3 0.8 5.3 x 1075.0 x 10-4 Liver 7.0 X 10~4 700 1.0 x 1064.5 x 10-6 Total Body 6.0 x 10-6 9 1.33 x 10s3.3 x 10-4 Bone and

Teeth4.5 x 10-4 20 9.3 x 107

l.O x 10“4 Kidney | Spleen |

4.0 x 10-‘ 30 6.1 x 108

63



(1)

Nuclide

(2)


Lung Dose (rem/nc)

(3)

(MPC) a 168 h r wk

[ic/mlW

(MPC) a 168 h r w k

(ic/ml(5)

p t i 9 3 m Platinum -193m *1.9 x 10“3 2 x 10-o 2 x 10-862Te129 Tellurium-129 *2.1 x 10-3 io -8 2 x 10-841Nb97 Niobium-97 *1.8 x 10-3 2 x 10"8 2 x 10-«43T c 98m Technetium- 96m *1.3 x 10-3 io -6 3 x 10-532Ge71 Germanium- 71 *1.2 x 10-3 2 x 10-8 4 x 10-856Cs134m Caesium-134m *1.2 x 10-3 2 x 10-o io -5

V » l m 39 x Yttrium -91m *1.1 x 10"3 6 x 10-8 8 x 10-849In 113m Indium -113m *8.4 x 10"4 2 x 10“8 3 x 10-o

43T e99m Technetium-99m *5.3 x 10-4 5 x 10-o io -638S r85m Strontium- 85m *1.4 x 10-4 10~5 lO -645R h 103m Rhodium- 103m *1.2 x 10-4 2 x 10-6 3 x 10-5

86R n 22» Radon-220 2.6 x 10“3 io -736K r 87 K rypton-87 8.4 x 10"3 2 x 10-718a 41 Argon-41 7.6 x 10-3 4 x 10-764X e 135 X enon-135 1.2 x lO-2 io -836K r 85m Krypton-85m 4.4 x 10“3 io -854X e 133 X enon-133 1.5 x 10-2 3 x 10-8aeKr®* K rypton-85 2.6 x 10-1 3 x 10-854X e 131m Xenon-131m 2.1 x 10-2 4 x 10-8i 8Ar37 Argon-37 7.2 x 10~4 io -3

* U ran ium enriched in uranium -235 and containing uranium -234 is in Group I I I (Ref. Ch. I l l , 3).

64



Soluble form Maximumper Specific

activityc/g

Inhalationdose

Critical organ Wound dose (rero/ne)

missiblebody

burden

Toxicitygroup

(rem/y.c) (tic)(6) (V (8) (9) (10) (H i

5.5 x 10"* Kidney 1.8 X 10-3 100 1.99 x 1052.8 x 10-* Kidney 6.0 x 10-4 5 1.97 x 1071.5 x 10-4 Bone 6.0 x 10~4 10 2.61 x 1071.8 x 10 -6 Kidney 3.6 x 10“6 60 3.81 x 1071.5 x 10-4 Kidney 5.5 x 10-“ 100 1.61 x 1055.5 x 10-6 Liver 8.0 x 10-6 100 7.4 x 1062.0 x 10-4 Bone 8.0 x 10“4 5 4.11 x 1013.6 x 10-6 Spleen )

Kidney j 0.5 x 10-4 30 1.6 x 1071.0 x 1 0 -' Total Body 2.0 x 10~5 200 5.2 x 1063.3 x 10-5 Bone 8.0 X 10~5 70 3.16 x 107 h i4.0 x 10-« Spleen |

Kidney j 1.2 x 10-6 200 3.21 x 1079.4 x 108 2.77 x 107 4.25 x 107 2.54 x 1068.4 x 106 1.86 x 105 3.97 x 102 8.3 x 104 1.01 x 105

* * Specific activity less than 0.002 (j.c/g; the current IAEA regulations do not require material of 0.002 ixc/g or less to be regarded, for purposes of transport, as radioactive material.

65


A p p e n d i x IV

T A B L E X O F R E P O R T

T H E C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F R A D IO IS O T O P E S IN T O G R O U P S F O R T R A N S P O R T P U R P O S E S

Nuclide Group Specific Activity* (eg-1)

Actinium-227 ..................... I 7.2 X 10Actinium-228 ..................... I I 2.24 X 106Americium-241 ................ I 3.24Americium-243 ................ I 1.85 X 1 0 - 1Antim ony-1 2 2 .................. I I I 3.9 x 106Antim ony-1 2 4 ................... I I I 1.76 X 104A n tim on y-125 ................... I I I 1.43 X 103A rgon-37.............................. I I I 1.01 X 106A rgon-41.............................. I I I 4.25 X 107Arsenic-73 ......................... I I I 2.36 X 104Arsenic-74 ......................... I I I 1.01 X 106Arsenic-76 ......................... I I I 1.56 X 106Arsenic-77 ......................... I I I 1.056 X 10sA statine-211....................... I I I 2.06 x 106Barium -131 ....................... I I I 8.7 X 104Barium -140 ....................... I I I 7.3 X 104Berkelium-249 ................... I I 1.8 x 103Beryllium -7 ....................... I I I 3.51 x 106Bism uth-206 ..................... I I I 9.9 x 104Bismuth-207 ..................... I I I 2.16 x 102Bismuth-210 ..................... I I I 6.6 x 10-‘Bismuth-212 ..................... I I I 1.47 x 107Bromine-82 ....................... I I I 1.06 x 10sCadmium-1 0 9 ..................... I I I 2.55 x 103Cadmium-115 m ................ I I I 2.64 x 104Cadmium-1 1 5 ..................... I I I 5.1 x 106Caesium-1 3 1 ....................... I I I 1.0 x 105Caesium -134m .................. I I I 7.4 x 10°Caesium-1 3 4 ....................... I I I 1.22 x 103Caesium-1 3 5 ....................... I I I 8.8 x 10-4Caesium-1 3 6 ....................... I I I 7.4 X 104Caesium-1 3 7 ................... I I I 9.82 X 10C alcium -45......................... I I I 1.91 X 104C alcium -47......................... I I I 5.9 X 106Californium-249 ................ I 3.05Californium-250 ................ I 1.31 X 102Californium-252 ................ I 6.5 X 102Carbon-1 4 ............................ I I I 4.59Cerium-1 4 1 ......................... 2.8 X 104Cerium-1 4 3 ......................... I I I 6.6 x 106Cerium-1 4 4 .......................... I I 3.18 X 103

66


Appendix IV , Continued

Nuclide Group Specific A ctiv ity*(eg-1 )

Chlorine-36......................... I I I 3.21 X 10-2Chlorine-38.......................... I I I 1.33 X 108Chromium-5 1 ..................... I I I 9.2 X 104Cobalt-57 ............................ I I I 8.5 X 103C obalt-58m ......................... I I I 5.9 X 108Cobalt-58 ............................ I I I 3.13 X 104Cobalt-6 0 ............................ I I I 1.14 X 103Copper-6 4 ............................ I I I 3.83 X 106Curium-242 ....................... I I 3.32 X 103Curium-243 ....................... I 4.21 X 10Curium-244 ....................... I 8.2 X 10Curium-245 ....................... I 1.04 X i o - 1Curium-246 ....................... I 3.64 X io - 1Dysprosium-165 .............. I I I 8.2 X 108Dysprosium-166 .............. I I I 2.3 X 106Erbium -169 ....................... I I I 8.2 X 104Erbium-171 ....................... I I I 2.35 X 108Europium-152 (9.2 hr) I I I 2.24 X 108Europium-152 (13 yrs) . . I I I 1.85 X 102

•Europium -154.................. I I 1.45 X 102Europium-1 5 5 .................. I I I 1.36 X 103Fluorine-1 8 ......................... I I I 9.3 X 107Gadolinium-153 : .............. I I I 3.62 X 103Gadolinium-1 5 9 ................ I I I 1.1 X 108G alliu m -72 ......................... I I I 3.09 X 10®Germanium-7 1 ................... I I I 1.61 X 106Gold-1 9 6 .............................. I I I 1.14 X 108Gold-1 9 8 .............................. I I I 2.45 X 10sGold-1 9 9 .............................. I I I 2.09 X 105Hafnium-181 ..................... 1.62 X 104H olm ium -166..................... I I I 6.9 X 106Hydrogen-3 ....................... I I I 9.7 X 103Ind iu m -113m ..................... I I I 1.6 X 107Indium -114 m ..................... I I I 2.29 X 104Indium -115 m ..................... I I I 6.1 X 108Indium-115* ..................... I I I 5.2 X 10-12Iodine-126 ......................... I I I 7.8 X 104Iodine-129 .......................... I I I 1.62 X 10-4Iodine-131 ......................... I I I 1.23 X 106Iodine-132 ......................... I I I 1.05 X 107Iodine-133 ......................... I I I 1.13 X 108Iodine-134 ......................... I I I 2.68 X 107Iodine-135 ......................... I I I 3.48 X 108Iridium -190 ....................... I I I 6.2 X 104Iridium -192 ....................... I I I 9.1 X 103Iridium -194 ....................... I I I 8.5 X 106

5* 67



Nuclide Group Specific A ctiv ity*(eg-1 )

Iron-5 5 ................................ I I I 2.22 X 103Iron-5 9 ................................ I I I 4.92 X 104K ryp ton-85m ..................... I I I 8.4 X 106K rypton-85 ....................... I I I 3.97 X 102K rypton-8 7 ....................... I I I 2.77 X 10’Lanthanum -1 4 0 ................ I I I 5.6 X 106Lead-203 .............................. I I I 2.97 X 105L ead -210 .............................. I I 8.8 X 10L ead -212 .............................. I I I 1.4 X 106Lutecium -1 7 7 ..................... I I I 1.09 X 105Manganese-52 .................. I I I 4.42 X 105Manganese-54 .................. I I I 8.3 X 103Manganese-56 ................... I I I 2.17 X 107M ercu ry-197m .................. I I I 6.6 X 105M ercury-1 9 7 ....................... I I I 2.45 X 105Mercury-203 ....................... I I I 1.37 X 104Molybdenum-99................ I I I 4.73 X 105Neodymium-1 4 4 * ............ I I I 4.97 X io -13Neodymium-147 .............. I I I 8.0 X 104Neodymium-1 4 9 .............. I I I 1.05 X 107Neptunium-237 ................ I 6.9 X io -4Neptunium-239 ................ I I I 2.33 X 105Nickel-59 ............................ I I I 8.1 X io -2Nickel-63 ............................ I I I 4.55 X 10Nickel-65 ............................ I I I 1.88 X 107N iobium -93m ..................... I I I 1.05 X 103Niobium-95 ....................... I I I 3.93 X 104Niobium-97 ....................... I I I 2.61 X 107Osmium-1 8 5 ....................... i n 7.3 X 103O sm ium -191m .................. h i 1.17 X 10°Osmium-1 9 1 ....................... i i i 4.56 X 104Osmium-1 9 3 ....................... i i i 5.3 X 105Palladium -1 0 3 ................... i i i 7.5 X 104Palladium -1 0 9 .................. i i i 2.12 X 10sPhosphorus-32................... i i i 2.88 X 105Platinum -1 9 1 ..................... i i i 2.28 X 105Platinum -1 9 3 ..................... i i i 1.99 X 105P la tin u m -193m ................ i i i 1.99 X 105P la tin u m -197m ................ i i i 1.22 X 107Platinum -1 9 7 ..................... i i i 8.8 X 105Plutonium-238 .............. i 1.68 X 10Plutonium -2 3 9 ................... i 6.1 X 10-2Plutonium-240 ................... i 2.27 X 10-1Plutonium-2 4 1 .................. i i 1.14 X 102Plutonium -242 ................... i 3.9 X 10"3Polonium -210..................... i i 4.5 X 103



Nuclide Group Specific A ctiv ity*

P otassiu m -42..................... III 6.0 X 10®Praseodymium-1 4 2 ......... III 1.15 X 10ePraseodymium-143 . ; . . . III 6.6 X 10*Promethium -1 4 7 .............. III 9.4 X 102Promethium -1 4 9 .............. III 4.21 X 106Protaetinium -230 ............ II 3.21 X 104Protactinium -231 ............ I 4.52 X 10"2Protactinium -233 ............ III 2.08 X 104Radium-223 ....................... II 5.0 X 104Radium-224 ....................... II 1.5 X 105Radium-226 ....................... I 9.8 X 10 -1Radium-228 ....................... II 2.34 X 102Radon-220 ......................... III 9.4 X 108Radon-222 ......................... II 1.54 X 106Rhenium -1 8 3 ..................... III 4.61 X 103Rhenium -1 8 6 ..................... III 1.9 X 106Rhenium -1 8 7 ..................... III 3.83 X 1 0 -8Rhenium -1 8 8 ..................... III 1.0 X 106Rhenium natural ............ III 2.4 X io -8R h od iu m -103m ................ III 3.21 X 107Rhodium -1 0 5 ..................... III 8.2 X 106Rubidium-8 6 ..................... III 8.1 X 104Rubidium-8 7 ..................... III 6.6 X io -8Rubidium natural ......... III 1.8 X io -8R u th en iu m -97 ................... III 5.5 X 105Ruthenium -1 0 3 ......... .. III 3.19 X 104Ruthenium -105 . .............. III 6.6 X 10«Ruthenium -1 0 6 ................ III 3.38 X 103Samarium -1 4 7 ................... III 1.95 X io -8Samarium -1 5 1 .................. III 2.55 X 10Samarium -1 5 3 ................... III 4.35 X 106Scandium-46 ..................... III 3.38 X 104Scandium-47 ..................... III 8.2 X 106Scandium-48 ..................... III 1.49 X 108Selenium-7 5 ....................... III 1.44 X 104Silicon-31 ............................ III 3.86 X 107Silver-1 0 5 ............................ III 3.11 X 104Silver-110m ....................... III 4.70 X 103S ilv er-1 1 1 ............................ III 1.57 X 106So.dium-22 .......................... III 6.3 X 103Sodium-24 .......................... III 8.7 X 106Strontium-85m ................ III 3.16 X 107Strontium -8 5 ..................... III 2.37 X 104S tro n tiu m -89 ..................... III 2.88 X 104S tro n tiu m -90 .............. : . . II 1.45 X 102S tro n tiu m -91 ..................... III 3.56 X 106

69



Nuclide Group Specific A ctiv ity* (eg-1 )

Stro n tiu m -92..................... I I I 1.26 x 107S u lp h u r-35 ......................... I I I 4.29 x 104Tantalum -182 .................. I I I 6.2 x 103Technetium -96m .............. I I I 3.81 x 107Technetium-9 6 .................. I I I 3.24 x 105Technetium -97m .............. I I I 1.48 X 104Technetium-9 7 .................. I I I 1.42 x 10-3Technetium-9 9 m .............. I I I 5.2 x 10eTechnetium -99.................. I I I 1.71 x 10-2Tellurium -125m ................ I I I 1.8 x 104Tellurium -127m ................ I I I 9.8 x 103Tellurium-127 ................... I I I 2.63 x 10eTellurium -129m ................ I I I 2.47 x 104Tellurium-129 .................. 1.97 x 107Tellurium -131m ................ 8.0 x 105Tellurium-132 .................. I I I 3.06 x 105Terbium -160 ..................... I I I 1.11 x 104Thallium-200 ..................... I I I 5.8 x 105T h alliu m -201..................... I I I 2.17 x 106Thallium-202 ..................... I I I 5.4 x 104Thallium-204 ..................... I I I 4.28 x 102Thorium-227 ..................... I I 3.17 x 104Thorium-228 ..................... I 8.3 x 102Thorium-230 ..................... I 1.94 x 10-2Thorium-231 ..................... I I I 5.3 x 105Thorium-232 ..................... I I I 1.11 x 10-7Thorium-234 ..................... I I I 2.32 x 104Thorium n a tu ra l ..............Thulium-170 .....................

I I II I I 6.0 x 103

Thulium-171 ..................... 1.12 x 103T in -1 1 3 ................................ I I I 9.7 x 103T in-125 ................................ I I I 1.58 x 108Tungsten-1 8 1 ..................... I I I 4.98 x 103Tungsten-1 8 5 ..................... I I I 9.7 x 103Tungsten-1 8 7 ..................... I I I 7.0 x 106Uranium-230 ..................... I I 2.73 x 104Uranium-232 ..................... I I 2.08 x 10Uranium-233 ..................... I I 9.5 x 10-3Uranium-234 ..................... I I 6.2 x 10 -3Uranium-235 ..................... I I I 2.14 x lO - 6Uranium-236 ..................... I I 6.3 x 10-6Uranium-238 ..................... I I I 3.33 x 1 0 -7Uranium n a tu ra l..............V anadium -48.....................

I I II I I 1.7 x 106

Xenon-131m ..................... 8.3 x 104X enon-1 3 3 .......................... I I I 1.86 x 105

70



Nuclide GroupSpecific A ctiv ity*

(eg-1)

X e n o n -1 3 5 .......................... I I I 2.54 X 10*Y tterbiu m -1 7 5 ................... I I I 1.78 X 106Y ttr iu m -9 0 ......................... 5.3 X 105Y ttr iu m -9 1 m ..................... I I I 4.11 X 107Y ttrium -9 1 .......................... I I I 2.50 X 104Y ttr iu m -9 2 .......................... I I I 9.5 X 108Y ttrium -9 3 .......................... I I I 3.24 X 108Zinc-6 5 ................................ I I I 8.2 X 103Zinc-69m ......................... .. I I I 3.29 X 108Zinc-6 9 ................................ I I I 5.3 X 107Zirconium-9 3 ..................... I I I 3.5 X i o - 3Zirconium-9 5 ..................... I I I 2.12 X 104Zirconium-9 7 ..................... I I I 1.9 X 106

* Column included to aid the conversion of weight to a ctiv ity units.* Uranium enriched in uranium -235 and containing uranium -234 is in Group I I I

(R ef. Ch. I l l , 3).* * Specific activ ity less than 0.002 ptc/g; the current IA E A regulations do n ot require

m aterial o f 0.002 fic/g or less to be regarded, for purposes o f transport, as radioactive m aterial.


A p p e n d ix V

G R O U P IN G ON B A S I S O F H A L F - L I F E O F S O M E R A D IO IS O T O P E S F O R W H IC H B IO L O G IC A L D A T A I S N O T A V A I L A B L E

T A B L E X I O F R E P O R T

Radioisotope Half-Life (d) Group

AI28 ............................ 2.92 x lO 8 IB a 133 ......................... 2.7 x lO 3 I IB a 139 ......................... 5.9 x lO -2 I I IB r80 .............. ............. 1.8 x lO -1 I I ICe139 ............................ 1.4 x lO 2 I ICo58 ............................ 77.3 I IGa88 ............................ 3.9 x lO -1 I I IGa87 ............................ 3.3 I I IGa70 ............................ 1.5 x lO -2 I I IGe15 ............................ 5.7 x lO -2 I I IAu195 ......................... 180 I IH f176 ......................... 70 11In 114 ............................ 8.3 x lO -4 I I I JI n i i 8 m 3.8 x lO -2 I I IJ 1 2 4 4.5 I I IJ 1 2 5 4.5 I I Ip j j 2 0 9 1.4 x lO -1 I I IMg28 ............................ 1.5 x l 0 “2 I I IMo101 ......................... 1.0 x lO -2 I I INi67 ............................ 1.5 I I IP a 234 ......................... 2.8 x lO -1 I I IR h 102 ......................... 210 I ISm 145 ......................... 340 I ISr87m ......................... 1.2 x 10-1 I I IT b 181 ......................... 7 I I IXh233 2.6 x lO -4 I I ISn121 ............................ 1.2 I I Iy 4 9 330 I IY 8 8 104 I IY b 189 .......................... 31 I IY b 177 .......................... 7.9 x lO -2 I I I

72


A p p e n d ix V I

L I S T O F R A D IO IS O T O P E S A R R A N G E D IN G R O U P S F O R T R A N S P O R T P U R P O S E S IN O R D E R O F IN C R E A S IN G A T O M IC N U M B E R

T A B L E X I I O F R E P O R T

GroupRadioisotope

Atom ic Number Name Sym bol

I 88 Radium-226 88R a 226I 89 Actinium-227 89AcmI 90 Thorium-228 90T h228

90 Thorium-230 90Th230I 91 Protactinium -2 31 91P a231I 93 Neptunium-237 93Np237I 94 Plutonium-238 94Pu238I 94 Plutonium-239 94Pu239I 94 Plutonium-240 »4Pu240I 94 Plutonium- 242 94Pu242I 95 Americium-241 , sAm“I 95 Americium-243 > “I 96 Curium-243 96Cm243I 96 Curium-244 96Cm244I 96 Curium-245 96Cm“I 96 Curium-246 (iCm2«I 98 Californium-249 98Cf249I 98 Californium-250 98Cf23»I 98 Californium-252 98C f262

II 38 Strontium-90 38Sr90II 58 Cerium-144 58Ce144

63 Europium-154 63E u« 4II 82 Lead-210 82P b210II 84 Polonium-210 84Po210II 86 Radon-222 „ R n 222II 88 Radium-223 88R a 223

88 Radium-224 88R a 224II 88 Radium-228 R a 228ggxva.II 89 Actinium-228 A r 228II 90 Thorium-227 90Th227II 91 Protactinium -230 91P a230II 92 Uranium-230 92U 23»II 92 Uranium-232 92U 232II 92 Uranium-233 92U 233II 92 *Uranium-234 92U 234II 92 Uranium-236 92u 238II 94 Plutonium-241 94Pu241II 96 Curium-242 ,,C m 24!II 97 Berkelium-249 97B k 249

III 1 Hydrogen-3 1H3III 4 Beryllium-7 4B e7

73


Appendix V I, Continued

GroupR adioisotope

A tom ic N um ber Nam e Symbol

I I I 6 Carbon-14 «C149 Flurine-18

I I I 11 Sodium-22 n Na!!I I I 11 Sodium-24 uN a24I I I 14 Silicon-31 14Si”I I I 15 Phosphorus-32 isP32I I I 16 Sulphur-35 i 6S36I I I 17 Chlorine-36 17C138I I I 17 Chlorine-38 17CI38I I I 18 Argon-37 iSAr3’ .I I I 18 Argon-41 i 8Ar“I I I 19 Potassium-42 19K 42I I I 2 0 Calcium-45 20Ca«I I I 2 0 Calcium-47 20Ca47I I I 21 Scandium-46 21Sc48I I I 21 Scandium-47 2iSc47I I I 21 Scandium-48 21Sc48

23 Vanadium-48 V48 23 v

I I I 24 Chromium-51 24Cr61I I I 25 Manganese-52 „M n“I I I 25 Manganese-54 26Mn64I I I 25 Manganese-56 26Mn66I I I 26 Iron-55 26Fe66I I I 26 Iron-59 26Fe69I I I 27 Cobalt-57 2,Co67I I I 27 Cobalt-58m 27Co68mI I I 27 Cobalt-58 27Co68I I I 27 Cobalt-60 27C0 »»I I I 28 Nickel-59 28Ni69I I I 28 Nickel-63 28Ni83I I I 28 Nickel-65 28Ni85I I I 29 Copper-64 29Cu84I I I 30 Zinc-65 3»Zn85I I I 30 Zinc-69m 3„Zn89mI I I 30 Zinc-69 a„Zn69I I I 31 Gallium-7 2 3iGa72I I I 32 Germanium- 71 32Ge71I I I 33 Arsenic-73 33A s 73I I I 33 Arsenic-74 33A s 74

I I I 33 Arsenic-76 33A s 78I I I 33 Arsenic-77 33A s 77I I I 34 Selenium-75 31Se75I I I 35 Brom ine- 8 2 35B r 82I I I 36 Krypton-85m 36K r 86“ -I I I 36 K rypton-85 38Kt96

74



GroupRadioisotope

A tom ic N um ber Name Symbol

I I I 36 Krypton-87 3SK r 8737 Rubidium-86 37R b 8e

I I I 37 Rubidium-87 37R b 87I I I 37 Rubidium naturalI I I 38 Strontium-85m 38S r86mI I I 38 Strontium-85 3fS r85I I I 38 Strontium -89 38S r89I I I 38 Strontium-91 38S r91I I I 38 Strontium-92 38S r92I I I 39 Yttrium -90 V 9039 xI I I 39 Yttrium -91m V9im 39 AI I I 39 Y ttrium -91 V91 39 xI I I 39 Yttrium -92 V 9239I I I 39 Y ttrium -93 V93 39 AI I I 40 ' Zirconium-93 4„Zr93I I I 40 Zirconium-95 4oZr95I I I 40 Zirconium-97 4oZr97I I I 41 Niobium-9 3m 41N b93mI I I 41 Niobium-95 41N b96I I I 41 Niobium-97 41N b97I I I 42 Molybdenum- 99 42Mo"I I I 43 Technetium-96m 13T c96mI I I 43 Technetium- 96 43T c96I I I 43 Technetium-97m 64T c97mI I I 43 Technetium-97 * 43T c97I I I 43 Technetium-99m 43T c99mI I I 43 Technetium-99 43T c"I I I 44 Ruthenium-97 44R u 97I I I 44 Ruthenium -103 44R u>»3I I I 44 Ruthenium -105 44R u 106

44 Ruthenium -106 44R u 108I I I 45 Rhodium-103m - 46R h 103mI I I 45 Rhodium-105 45R h 105 .I I I 46 Palladium-103 46Pd103I I I 46 Palladium-109 46P d 109I I I 47 Silver-105 47Ag105I I I 47 Silver-110m 47Ag110mI I I 47 Silver- 111 4,AgluI I I 48 Cadmium-109 48Cd1»9I I I 48 Cadmium-115m 48Cdll6m

48 Cadmium-115 48Cd11649 Indium -113m 49In 113m

I I I 49 Indium-114m 49In 11‘'mI I I 49 Indium -115m 49In 116mI I I 49 Indium -115")' In 11649

75



GroupRadioisotope

Atomic Number Name Symbol

I I I 50 T in-113 60Sn113I I I 50 Tin-125 .»8n»*I I I 51 . Antim ony-122 siSb122I I I 51 Antim ony-124 HSb«*I I I 51 Antim ony-125 61Sb125I I I 52 Tellurium- 125m 52Tel25mI I I 52 Tellurium-127m 52Te127mI I I 52 Tellurium-127 ssTe*27I I I 52 Tellurium-129m 52Te129mI I I 52 Tellurium-129 52Te*29I I I 52 Tellurium- 131m 52Te131mI I I 52 Tellurium-132 62Te132I I I 53 Iodine-126 53I126I I I 53 Iodine-129 53I129I I I 53 Iodine-131 53I131I I I 53 Iodine-132 53I132I I I 53 Iodine-133 53I 133I I I 53 Iodine-134 53I134I I I 53 Iodine-135 53I 135I I I 54 Xenon-131m 54X e 131mI I I 54 X enon-133 64X e 133I I I 54 X enon-135 51X e 136I I I 55 Caesium-131 65Cs131I I I 55 Caesium-134m 55CS134t"I I I 55 Caesium-134 56CS134

55 Caesium-135 56CS136I I I 55 Caesium-136 65Cs136I I I 55 Caesium-137 55CS137I I I 56 Barium -131 66B a 131I I I 56 Barium -140 6«Ba»»I I I 57 Lanthanum - 140 5,L a14"I I I 58 Cerium-141 58Ce141I I I 58 Cerium-143 58Ce143I I I 59 Praseodymium-142 59P r142I I I 59 Praseodymium-143 59P r» 3I I I 60 Neodymium- 144f 60Nd144I I I 60 Neodymium-147 eoNd147I I I 60 Neodymium-149 eoNd>49I I I 61 Promethium -147 61Pm 147

61 Promethium -149 61Pm 149I I I 62 Samarium-147 62Sm 147I I I 62 Samarium-151 82Sm “ ‘I I I 62 Samarium-153 e2Sm 163I I I 63 Europium-152

(9.2 hr)63E u152 (9.2 hr)

7 6



GroupRadioisotope

Atomic Number Name Symbol

I I I 63 Europium-152 63®U162(13 yrs) (13 yrs)

I I I 63 Europium-155 63E u 155I I I 64 Gadolinium-153 64Gd163I I I 64 Gadolinium-159 64Gd1S9I I I 65 Tarbium-160 65T b 160I I I 66 Dysprosium -16 5 66Dy166I I I 66 Dysprosium-166 r,6»y168I I I 67 Helium-166 6,He166I I I 68 Erbium -169 68B r169I I I 68 Erbium-171 esBr171I I I 69 Thulium-170 J m 1’*I I I 69 Thulium-171 69Tm 171I I I 70 Y tterbium -175 70 Y b 175I I I 71 Lutecium -177 7] L u 177I I I 72 Hafnium-181 72H f181I I I 73 Tantalum -182 73T a182I I I 74 Tungsten-181 ,4W 181I I I 74 Tungsten-185 74W 185I I I 74 Tungsten-187 74W 187I I I 75 Rhenium -183 75R e183I I I 75 Rhenium-186 75R e186I I I 75 Rhenium -187 75R e187I I I 75 Rhenium -188 ,75R e188I I I 75 Rhenium naturalI I I 76 Osmium-185 70Os185I I I 76 Osmium-191m 780 s 191mI I I 76 Osmium-191 760 s 191I I I 76 Osmium-193 760 s 193I I I 77 Iridium -190 77Ir 190I I I 77 Iridium -192 77Ir 192I I I 77 Iridium -194 77I r 194I I I 78 Platinum-191 , 8P t191I I I 78 Platinum -193m ,.„Pt193mI I I 78 Platinum -193 78P t193I I I 78 Platinum -19 7m 78P t197mI I I 78 Platinum -197 78p t197I I I 79 Gold-196 79A u 196I I I 79 Gold-198 79A u 198I I I 79 Gold-199 79A u 199I I I 80 Silver-197m 80Hg197mI I I 80 Silver-197 80Hg197I I I 80 Silver-203 soHg203I I I 81 Thallium-200 81T1200I I I 81 Thallium-201 s1T1201

77



GroupRadioisotope

Atom ic Number Name Symbol

I I I 81 Thallium-202 81T1202 .I I I 81 Thallium-204 81t i 204I I I 82 Lead-203 82P b203I I I 82 Lead-212 82P b212I I I 83 Bism uth-206 83B i206I I I 83 Bism uth-207 83B i207I I I 83 Bismuth-210 83B i210I I I 83 Bismuth-212 63B i212

85 Astatine-211 85A t2UI I I 90 Thorium-231 90Th231I I I 90 Thorium-232 90T h232I I I 90 Thorium-234 90T h234I I I 90 Thorium natural Th Nat.

91 Protactinium- 233 9iPa233I I I 92 Uranium-235 92U 236I I I 92 Uranium-238 82U 238I I I 92 Uranium natural U Nat.I I I 93 Neptunium-239 83Np23»

* Uranium enriched in uranium -235 and containing uranium-234 is in Group I I I (R ef. Ch. in , 3.).

f Specific activ ity less th an 0.002 ptc/g; the current IA E A regulations do not require m aterial o f 0.002 jxc/g or less to be regarded, for purposes o f transport, as radioactive m aterial.


THE DERIVATION OF MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LEVELS OF RADIOACTIVE SURFACE CONTAMINATION OF TRANSPORT CONTAINERS AND VEHICLES

A. F a i r b a i r n

U n i t e d K i n g d o m

1. IN TROD U CTION1.1 Radioactive contam ination on inanim ate surfaces m ay give rise to the following health hazards:—

(i) E x te rnal radiation.(ii) Airborne contam ination if th e radioactive m aterial on such sur

faces is disturbed. (See para. 2.2 below.)(iii) Ingestion of radioactive m aterial either directly or indirectly. The severity o f the health hazard will depend upon the am ount of

surface contam ination present; b y m aking a num ber of assum ptions and using the recomm ended m axim um permissible levels for exposure to external radiation, exposure to airborne contam ination and the intake of radioactive m aterial, i t is possible to derive m axim um permissible levels of surface contam ination which will n o t give rise to a health hazard.

1.2. W hen defining m axim um permissible levels of surface contam ination for transp o rt containers of radioactive m aterial, th e considerations which require to be borne in m ind are twofold:

(i) The dispersal of contam ination from surfaces.(ii) The up-take of contam ination on hands which m ight lead to

irradiation of the hands and also to ingestion.Before th e m axim um permissible levels are defined, i t is first necessary

to derive surface contam ination levels based on bo th (i)-(ii). The problem of general external rad iation from a contam inated surface is no t considered to be of prim ary im portance in this context since it will be covered in the m easurem ents which are m ade to ensure th a t the rad iation level a t the container surface is w ithin the levels prescribed in the transp ort regulations.

1.3. The object of th is note is to outline the derivation of the m axim um permissible levels of surface contam ination for transp o rt containers as currently used by the U nited K ingdom Atomic E nergy A uthority.2. D ER IV A TIO N O F MAXIMUM PE R M ISSIB LE LEVELS

2.1. I t is im practicable to derive m axim um permissible levels for all radioisotopes and in th e following derivation the assessments are based on the m ost hazardous of radioisotopes in common use:—

79


(i) plutonium and rad ium as alpha em itters;(ii) strontium - 90 as a be ta em itter.

No account is taken of the variety of surfaces which m ight be involved.

2.2 The dispersal of contam ination from surfacesW henever a contam inated surface is disturbed by handling, brushing

or by th e wind, some contam ination is dispersed into the air and m ay in consequence be inhaled. The air level of contam ination thus caused will depend on both the ra te a t which the contam inant is rem oved from the surface and th e ra te of air flow in the vicinity. Some experim ental work has been carried ou t in th e U K A EA in order to estim ate the relation between the ac tiv ity on a contam inated surface and the airborne activ ity in the im m ediate environm ent when the surface has been disturbed. In a confined space w ith conditions arranged to sim ulate very du sty operations 1 un it of ac tiv ity per square m etre gave rise to 4 x 10-5 un its of activ ity per cubic m etre of air. Similar experim ents carried out in th e open air gave an air level reduced by a factor of 20 com pared to th a t in a confined space w ith dusty operations. I t is proposed to use the first figure and as th is is based on very dusty conditions, it will clearly incorporate a substantial safety factor when applied to the low contam ination levels on transp o rt container surfaces.

2.3 Maximum permissible levels of air contam inationThe m axim um permissible levels of air contam ination for occupa

tional exposure of 40 h/week, 50 weeks/yr and over a period of 50 years as recomm ended by the IC R P (1958) for the m ost hazardous alpha and b eta em itters in common use are :—

(i) F o r plutonium -239 (alpha em itter) 2 x 10~12 jj.c/ccor 2 x 10-6 (xc/m3

(ii) F or strontium -90 (beta em itter) 3 x 10-10 fxc/ccor 2 x 10-4 [xc/m3

I t is proposed to use the above occupational figures since the exposure of tran sp o rt workers will a t the m ost be in term itten t. Then applying th e above m entioned figure for the dispersal of contam ination from a surface of air, the levels of surface contam ination a re :—

(i) F o r alpha activ ity 2 x 10-6 4 x 1 0 -5

= 0 .5 x 10 -1 [j.c/m2= 5 x 10~6 jxc/cm2 (1)

8 0


(ii) For beta ac tiv ity 3 x 10~4 4 x 10-5

=0.75 x 10 (xc/m2= 7 .5 x 10-4 jxc/cm2 (2)

2.4 The transfer of contam ination to the handsThe figures recomm ended by th e N ational H ealth Service H ospitals

Code of Practice* for hand contam ination are 10-5 (xc/cm2 and 10-4 fjtc/ cm2 for alpha and beta em itters respectively and these figures are based prim arily on the risks of irradiation of the basal layer of the skin asthe levels so derived are more lim iting th an those based on intake tothe body. In radiochem ical laboratories and other sim ilar occupational areas it is considered satisfactory to allow inanim ate surfaces to become contam inated to 10 tim es the m axim um perm issible levels for hands. I t is considered th a t the same factor can be applied in o ther areas where th e incidence of contam ination is very m uch lower th a n in controlled areas. The m axim um permissible levels for surface contam ination based on the above are then :

(i) For alpha em itters 10~4 (ic/cm2 (3)(ii) For be ta em itters 10-3 jxc/cm2 (4)

2.5 Maximum permissible contam ination levels for transport containersFor the more toxic alpha em itters the lim iting level is 5 x 10~6 fxc/cm2

based on inhalation of contam ination dispersed from surfaces (1). This is more lim iting th an the level of 10~4 fxc/cm2 (3) derived on the basis of irradiation of the skin. I t is proposed th a t the former figure be rounded up to 10~5 |xc/cm2 because of the pessimistic assum ptions m ade in its derivation.

Thus: For alpha 10~5 (xc/cm2 (5)In the case of beta em itters the level 10-3 ;xc/cm2 (4) based on the

irrad iation of the basal layer of the skin is slightly larger th an the level based on the dispersal of contam ination, 7.5 x 10-4 [xc/cm2 (2). However, it is proposed to use a figure 10~4 (xc/cm2 since there is no deliberate safety factor in the figure for be ta irradiation of the hands, and because the accuracy of these estim ates does no t justify a more precise specification of the figure th an to an order of m agnitude.

T h u s: For beta 10~4 | xc/ cm2 (6)

* Code of Practice for the Protection of Persons Exposed to Ionising Radiations, H. M. Stationery Office— 1957.

6 81


3. CONCLUSION3.1. The alpha level (5) is based on the m ost hazardous radioisotopes

of plutonium , radium , etc. and it is considered reasonable to relax this level by a factor 10 for alpha em itters of lower toxicity. The following m axim um permissible levels of surface contam ination are then ob ta ined :

(i) For plutonium , radium , actinium , polonium 10-5 fxc/cm2 (7)(ii) F or other alpha em itters 10~4 [Ac/cm2 (8)

(iii) For all beta em itters 10-4 jxc/cm2 (9)F or practical purposes i t is considered th a t the above levels are per

missible when averaged over an area of 300 cm2 (the whole area of the average hand).


APPROPRIATE TESTS FOR CONTAINERS FOR TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

A. G r a n g e

U n i t e d K i n g d o m1. IN TRODU CTION

In the transp ort of ordinary goods consignors and consignees accept the fac t th a t packages and contents m ay be dam aged or lost in tran sit and the ex ten t of precautions against such m isfortunes is determ ined by the balance in the cost of the precautions against the value of the goods. However, when dispatching dangerous goods, the safety of the public overrides preservation of the goods. W ithin this category, the standard of packaging of radioactive substances for transp o rt m ust be such th a t the safety of other goods, th e health of transp ort workers and members of the public is adequately safeguarded under bo th norm al and accident conditions and the testing of transp o rt packages m ust be related to such expected conditions.

U nder norm al conditions the only potential hazard is th a t due to external radiation, and this is controlled by the imposition of maxim um permissible dose rates both a t the surface of the package and a t some fixed distance from th is surface. In addition segregation distances for undeveloped film and for persons are postulated ( i a e a Annex 1)*.

In the event of an accident during transp o rt there are additional po ten tia l hazards. In such cases the radioactive m aterials in the packages which m ight escape could lead to contam ination of persons and damage to property. The subsequent radiation hazard to persons would depend on a num ber of factors including :

(a) the design of the container, with special reference to resistance to mechanical im pact and fire,

(b) th e radiotoxicity of th e substance it contains,(c) the quan tity and physical form of the radioactive substance in the

container.The purpose of th is paper is:(1) To consider the implications of the IA EA Regulations for the

Safe T ransport of Radioactive Substances on the design of containers w ith respect to accident conditions.

(2) To suggest tests for containers th a t would assist com petent au thorities in evaluating the adequacy of containers and advise shippers of th e in ten t of the regulations.

* All i a e a references refer to Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials (1961).

6* 83


2. VARIOUS STANDARDS FOR PACKAGING

2.1. Radioactive m aterials in general ( i a e a 1.1.6)The regulations in effect recognize four standards of packaging.2.1.1. Packages of low specific activity m aterials ( i a e a 14) contain

ing na tu ra l uranium ores and concentrates, unirradiated natu ra l uranium and thorium under certain conditions, and small quantities of in term ediate products, or of residues and wastes of low specific activ ity . Such packages m ust w ithstand the norm al conditions of transport excluding accidents. These m aterials m ay also be carried in bulk, w ithout packaging, up to the lim its quoted when applied to the whole vehicle, wagon or com partm ent.

2.1.2. Packages of higher specific activity m aterials, exempt from certain of the regulations, owing to smallness of content or non-dispersibility of the m aterial ( i a e a 13.2. and 13.3). This includes in stru m ents and other m anufactured articles em bodying the m aterial in a non-readily dispersible form. These packages also m ust w ithstand norm al conditions of transport excluding accidents.

2.1.3. Type A packages ( i a e a 5.1.3. and 6) containing quantities no t large enough to cause serious danger if accidentally released. Such packages m ust w ithstand both norm al conditions of transp ort and minor mishaps, such as falling off a vehicle when loading. (Traffic accidents are excluded).

2.1.4. Type B packages ( i a e a 5.1.3. and 6) containing quantities too large to be released w ithout serious danger. Such packages m ust w ith stand both norm al conditions of transport, and also the m axim um credible accident appropriate to the specified means of transp o rt (see below for fissile materials).

2.2 Pyrophoric radioactive m aterials ( i a e a 6.2.1.2)These m ust always be carried in Type B packages, unless they can

qualify for carriage in “exem pt” packages (2 above). (Explosive rad ioactive m aterials m ay be carried only under special arrangem ents approved by the com petent authorities ( i a e a 6 .2 .1 .3 . and 1 7 )).

2.3 Fissile materials ( i a e a 6.2.2 and 15)Except in lim ited quantities, dilute aqueous solutions, or other

d ilute solutions of equivalent (hydrogen: fissile) ratio , and subject to the lim its applicable to the first three packaging standards, fissile consignm ents in Classes I (safe from neutron interaction) and I I (safe

8 4


up to a limited number) and I I I (special arrangements) must always travel in Type B packages. However, fissile consignments not in Classes I and II , which therefore fall into Class I I I , must meet requirements of Section 17 ( i a e a )

2.4 Package approvalThe Regulations (5.1.4) require the designs of packages of Type B

only, to be approved by the “competent authority” of the country in which shipments originate. This requirement is repeated in the various international and national regulations now being drafted. Where approval is necessary the sponsor of the design must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the authority concerned, by an agreed method, e.g. by calculation, by tests of models, prototypes, or sub-assemblies of the actual package or by tests of the package itself, that containers manufactured to the design will withstand the normal conditions of transport, minor mishaps or the appropriate maximum credible accidents, as applicable.

3. SA FETY REQUIREM ENTS IN PACKAGING RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORT

3.1 GeneralThere are broadly seven main safety requirements in packaging

radioactive materials:Prevention of release (containment)Limitation of radiation (shielding)Safety from criticalitySafety from fire and safe dissipation of heatSafety from explosionMechanical safetyAbsence of unsuspected hazards after an accident.These safety requirements must be met by packages of each of the

four standards described above to the extent indicated in the following subsections.

3.2 Prevention of release; containm entThe hazards consequent on failure to contain the material are limited

by restrictions on specific activity, total activity or physical form appropi'iate to each standard of packaging.


Specific requirements:Low specificactivity packages: Leakproof ( i a e a 14.2; see also 14.5).Exempt packages: No leakage under normal transport conditions

( i a e a 13.2.2). Manufactured articles to be in strong packages ( i a e a 13.3).

Packed so as to impede escape; leakproof, securely closed ( i a e a 5.1.1). Adequate to prevent loss or dispersal under normal conditions of transport and in minor mishaps ( i a e a 5.1.3).Liquids: Leakproof receptacle and container, no

build-up of pressure sufficient to disrupt the receptacle ( i a e a 5.1.5.1).

Packed so as to impede escape; leakproof; securely closed ( i a e a 5.1.1). Adequate to prevent loss or dispersal under normal conditions of transport and in the maximum credible accident ( i a e a 5.1.3). Fire resistant metal shell for shielding material ( i a e a Annex I, Packaging Note: 1, 2 & 3). Liquids: Leakproof receptacle and containers; no

build-up of pressure sufficient to disrupt the receptacle ( i a e a 5.1.5).

Radioactive contamination of the accessible surface of the package must not exceed the limits of Annex 1 , Table X . of the IAEA regulations ( i a e a 11.1, 13.2.4, 13.4.2, 14.3).

Ease of decontamination must be catered for ( i a e a 5.1.2).

3.3 Lim itation of radiation; shielding:Although there is inevitably some escape of radiation from the major

ity of radioactive materials, it must not exceed the limits laid down in Sections 4.2, 7, 13.2.3 or 16.2 3 of the i a e a regulations.

Specific requirements:Low specificactivity packages: Packaging such that personnel will not be exposed

above i c k p levels ( i a e a 14.4 and 4.2).

Type A :

Type B (incl. large sources):

Exempt packages: External radiation to be within the w h i t e category ( i a e a 13.2.3 and 7.1).


Type A : E xternal rad iation to be w ithin the w h i t e ory e l l o w categories ( i a e a 5.1.1 and 7).To retain shielding efficiency in norm al conditions and in minor m ishaps (5.1.3).

Type B (incl.large sources): E xternal rad iation to be w ithin the w h i t e or y e l

l o w categories (5.1.1 and 7).To re ta in shielding efficiency in norm al conditions and in the m axim um credible accident ( i a e a 5.1.3). Shielding for gam m a or X -radiation no t to lose its efficiency in a fire ( i a e a Annex I. Packaging Note 1).

3.4 Safety from criticalityThe load, of which the package is a part, shall no t become critical

and interaction with o ther loads and w ith other m aterials shall be taken into consideration.

Specific requirements:Low specificactivity packages: No specific requirem ent because hazard is lim ited by

restrictions on nature of contents and specific activ ity of fissile content ( i a e a 14.1).

Exempt and Type Apackages: No specific requirem ent because hazard is lim ited

by restrictions on nature of contents and concentra tion or weight of fissile content ( i a e a 6 . 2 .2 ) .

Type B (incl. large sources):General: Condition of criticality impossible in conditions of

transport, ( i a e a 15.3.1). Consignments are classified by the procedure required for criticality safety as follows:

Class I Shipments( i a e a 15.2.1) Critical assem bly will no t be formed when any

num ber of such packages are stacked together in any m anner in normal conditions of transport (IA E A 15.2.1).

Class I I Shipments N uclearly safe in any arrangem ent in limited( i a e a 15.2.2) num bers ( i a e a 15.2.2).

87


Class I I I Shipments( i a b a 15.2.3) Nuclearly safe under conditions established for

carriage of such packages ( i a e a 15.2.3.2). Unsafe configuration not attainable in the absence of a double contingency ( i a e a 15.3.2.1). Packages to be safe to immerse in water and, if not watertight, safe if partially or completely filled with, or surrounded by, water ( i a e a 15.3.2.2). Packages shall be safe from criticality due to interaction between packages or similar shipments in adjacent vehicles, or with shipments having neutron reflecting and moderating properties greater than those of water ( i a e a 15.3.2.3).

3.5 Safety from fire and safe dissipation of heat

The package must not initiate a fire.

Specific requirement:Low specific activity andType A packages: Not to carry pyrophoric radioactive materials

(IA E A 6.2.1.2).Heat generated by the package must be dissipated in a safe manner. Specific requirement:Type B, largesources: Heat generated in the package due to radioactivity

of the materials must not affect the efficiency of the container under normal conditions of transport; the accessible surface temperature must not at any time during transport exceed 82° C (180° F) (IA E A 16.2.4).

3.6 Safety from explosion

In the ultimate event of failure of containment, the mode of failure must be such as not to add significantly to the mechanical hazards, e.g. by projection of fragments'

Specific requirements:Liquid, radioactivematerials in Type .4: No build-up of pressure sufficient to disruptunder normal conditions the receptacle (ia ea 5 .1 .5 .1).

8 8


Liquid radioactivematerials in Type B : No build-up of pressure sufficient to disrupt(incl. large sources) under conditions of transport.Even under the maximum credible accident

3.7 Mechanical safety

The package must not cause any mechanical injury or damage during normal handling (e.g. there must be no dangerous projections and suitable handling and, where appropriate, anchoring arrangements must be provided).

Specific requirements:Types A and B(incl. large sources): Heavy packages must be designed so that

they can be properly secured to the conveyance ( i a e a 5.3.1). Normal handling of heavy packages must be facilitated ( i a e a 5.3.2).

Type B(incl. large sources): A seal must be provided so that the pack

age cannot be opened without defacing it (IA E A 5.1.4).

Type B, large sources only: Size must be within the capacity of theloading equipment at selected transfer points ( i a e a 16.2.2).

3.8 Absence of unsuspected hazards after an accident

After an accident a package should not present unsuspected hazards to responsible persons handling or opening it under precautions that would appear reasonable in such circumstances (i.e. it must not constitute a “booby trap”, e.g. a receptacle may have a rubber bung kept in position by the lid of the sealed inner container. Under normal transport conditions no chance of gassing of the contents is possible, but after an accident involving fire an internal pressure may be built up sufficient to blow the bung out of the receptacle on removal of the inner container lid. Such a hazard is regarded as a “booby trap”). :This could happen to Type A but should not happen to Type B.

89


Specific requirements:Types A and B(incl. large sources): Outerm ost container whenever possible to

carry trefoil and skull and crossbones plainly m arked by embossing, stam ping or o ther means, in such a way as to be resistan t to fire and w ater ( i a e a 8.1.2.) (Although no t in IA EA regulations, U .K . regulations require outerm ost fire resistant container of Type B to be perm anently m arked “ R adioactive M aterial” so as to rem ain legible after a fire).

4. TESTIN G OF CONTAINERS4.1 Standard testingMost countries have tes t standards for packing and containm ent of

goods in transport. These are usually of two types:(a) Prepared so as to give th a t measure of safety (to goods) which is

considered economically sound.(b) For warlike stores and others where loss or damage during transit

can be vital.S tandards of th is la tte r type, as applicable to the load and to the mode

of transp o rt are a suitable basis for the norm al tests for radioactive m aterial containers.

I t is w orth m entioning here th a t a heavy container m ay have such a high na tu ra l frequency th a t by calculation it will be possible to state th a t a v ibration test will be unnecessary.

4.2. TR A N SPO RT ACCIDENT CONDITIONS4.2.1 Introduction: the need for statisticsThe inform ation needed i§ the relative frequency of accidents, per

mode of transp o rt w ith the various conditions of shock, im pact, tem perature, rup tu re and physical sta te of goods and carriers before and after the incident. W ith such inform ation it would be possible to assess the risks versus th e economy of design, although it would still be a very difficult task to stipu late w ith accuracy the dissem ination of radioactive m aterials involved. The inform ation contained in accident reports usually sta tes the num ber of vehicles involved, the num ber of people killed or injured, w ith an appraisal of how it was caused plus one or two photographs. U nfortunately the d a ta available from records of

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accidents th a t can be used to compare evidence of severity are, as far as has been ascertained, non-existent.

In the U nited S tates of A m erica a valuable a ttem p t has been made, by collation of the existing reports and assessm ent from photographic records, to determ ine the accident ra te per mode of transport.*

In view of the present lack of statistics the approach in the U nited K ingdom of G reat B ritain and N orthern Ireland has been to study the possible effects of probable accidents and on the basis of inform ation available from the various tran sp o rt interests, to reach an agreem ent on a common specification for additional tests of Type B containers, so as to m eet the definition of a m axim um credible accident: I t will be seen th a t these tests m ay be an extension of the s tandard tests and where th is occurs the extended te s t would replace the standard te s t ; although care m ust be taken to ensure th a t a serviceability test will no t be replaced by a safety te s t; e.g. a serviceability drop test would still be required although a larger safety drop was in the schedule.

4.2.2 General discussion

In giving consideration to the fac t th a t accidents can, and do, happen and to the possible disastrous effects of such accidents when applied to radioactive m aterials, i t would be desirable as a first approach to look for a reasonable test- perform ance schedule to m eet requirem ents. The second approach is to study the economic repercussions of such tests.

Taking a broad view, serious accidents result from im pacts due to collision, or drop, or fire. The maxim um credible accident ( i a e a 1.1.4) is the com bination of some, or all, of these factors which are taken into account in the design of the container having regard to the natu re of the m aterial, its mode of tran sp o rt and, in the case of Type B large source packages, th e rou te of operation.

This paper assumes th a t a m axim um credible accident is a resu ltan t incident involving two sim ultaneous and unconnected dam age-producing events. The p robab ility of more than two serious incidents occurring sim ultaneously is felt to be too rem ote to be taken into account, I t is also assum ed th a t a container is designed to w ithstand one m axim um credible accident and is satisfactory if no health hazard is present after th a t accident.

Of the possible causes of accidents, the m ost likely to cause dam age ai'e an im pact followed by fire and are m ost likely to occur in th a t order.* Cost and Safety Consideration in the Transport of Radioactive Materials,

by H. A. Knapp (E xtract from T .I.D . 7569).

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To take an example of the above, assume two road transport vehicles are involved in a crash at a road-dip section, one carrying radioactive materials and the other a petrol tanker. At the last moment the radioactive-carrying vehicle attempted to swerve clear and the tanker ploughed into the side of the load; in the crash the tanker was ripped and fire started. This is a combination of two uncgnnected events. A third probability, which would not be considered, is the possibility of the drainage from the low road section being blocked and holding some 3000 gallons of petrol as a pool to feed the fire.

4.2.3 Crash considerationsVehicles on the road travel at any speed up to say 60 mph (100 km/hr).

In the majority of accidents some form of slowing down takes place in the odd seconds of warning but, without depending on that too much, head-on collisions are not the type of accidents that are likely to be the most serious in affect to the loads. Crushing of the vehicles sends a shock to the loads which is very much attenuated from the crash niomentum. This shock, however, may be sufficient to move the load from the vehicle and the damage likely to occur depends upon the situation of the roadway. The most likely accident for immediate damage would occur at crossroad junctions where a vehicle Can have a direct broadside hit at speeds not likely to exceed 30 mph (50 km/hr) from a vehicle of equivalent weight, and there will be virtually no protection of the containers comprising the load, from the impact. Similar damage is likely from slew-skidding into brick abutments or other solid structures.

On railways higher speeds of travel are encountered but here again momentum is expended in crushing vehicles and shock is all that is transmitted to the containers. Slewing loads causing glancing blow accidents are likely to be the most serious damage apart from actual drops.

On both rail and road there is a possibility that an initially fairly moderate accident may result in the container being toppled over an embankment or a cliff. A fall from a viaduct is likely to result in a drop into water or a glancing blow followed by rolling into water. Embankment or cliff falls are again most likely to be glancing blows followed by rolls. There is, however, an ever-increasing number of road and rail flyovers where free fall onto road or rail, usually 25—30 ft (8—9.2 m) but could be larger, can be encountered. The worst accident of this type in the United Kingdom seems to have been the Tay Bridge disaster in 1879.


A t sea, collision hazards are som ewhat difficult to define. For insurance purposes the probability of collisions being a serious hazard is som ewhat discounted. Collisions in the open sea are most likely where the sea lanes converge into ports, e.g. the English Channel, b u t even there they are reasonably clear of population centres. I t is thought th a t a collision th a t would breach a large Type B package w ith walls 2 in (5 mm) or more thick, would sink the ship.

In the air, freight is usually lashed to w ithstand 4 j g. In a crash these holdings will fail. Since the chances of a plane crashing a t right angles on a ta rget are very small, the containers will take off a t an angle to the plane, crash through the bulkhead and after flight through the air, will come to earth m ost likely again at a glancing angle. Crash recorders for civilian aircraft have a design criteria of 100 g/-2- sec. From this i t is assum ed th a t the maxim um deceleration of a plane on landing crash is thought to be 100 g.

The following figures are quoted for reference:A direct im pact a t 30 m ph (50 km /hr) is equivalent to a 30 ft drop

(9.2 m).A direct im pact a t 40 m ph (70 km /hr) is equivalent to a 67 ft drop

(21.5 m)A direct im pact a t 50 m ph (80 km /hr) is equivalent to a 84 ft drop

(27 m)A glancing im pact a t 60° to norm al a t 45 m ph is equivalent (75 km /hr)

to a 17 ft drop (5.5 m)A glancing im pact a t 45° to norm al a t 45 mph (75 km /hr) is equivalent

to a 34 ft drop (10.9m )Weighing up all the above inform ation it is felt th a t a direct drop of

30 ft (9.2 m) on a hard surface which is representative of glancing blows of 60 m ph (100 km /hr) a t 60° to the norm al or 45 m ph (75 km /hr) at 45°, is a reasonable test. (Deceleration figures of 2000/3000 g are re corded on actual drops). No account has been taken of m id-air crashes. Really crash-proof containers are immovable objects.

4.2.4 Fire considerationsThe B ritish S tandards Institu tion have issued a standard tem perature-

tim e curve for fires. The following figures are taken from th is curve.538° C a t 5 min 740° C a t 10 min 843° C a t 30 min 927° C a t 1 hr

1010° C a t 2 hr

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Additionally (1) The tem peratu re m ust no t exceed 870° C in the first 10 m in of the test.

(2) The tem perature m ust n o t vary from the standard by more th an ± 167° C.

(3) The area of the tem perature-tim e curve m ust no t vary from th a t of the standard curve by more th an 15%.

In accidents on U nited K ingdom railways, the Commission has reported th a t aluminium panels have been p artly m elted (MP 660° C), glass has sagged (sagging tem perature ca. 650° C, MP 1000° C), while steel has never m elted (MP 1500° C). They consider th a t tem peratures up to 1000° C m ight be obtained. The w orst fire was in 1931 when two 3000 gallon tan k waggons were wrongly placed nex t to the guard’s van. The w eather was foggy and a light engine was allowed into the same line b u t was stopped. A coal tra in was also allowed on the same line; being heavily loaded it failed to stop and pushed the light engine through the guard ’s van. B oth tankers overturned, ripping the side of one tank and displacing the manhole on the other. Some 1390 gal (imp) of petrol escaped covering an area of 100 ft x 35 f t (32.5 m x l l m ) and ignited.

The fire is variously reported to have lasted 1-|- and 3—4 h. Zinc (MP 419° C) was melted.

I t is well to rem em ber th a t in actual fires torching can occur to produce high local tem peratures bu t whose overall effect is small.

The Commission has also pointed out th a t owing to the increase in the use of complete tra in s of inflammable m aterial the risk of m ajor fire m ay also increase. They m ention the possibility of fires involving 24000 gal of petro l and have suggested th a t the m axim um credible accident should be taken as arising from collision w ith a tank train .

An accident of th is na tu re would actually breach some tanks. The fuel would spread over a large area; in the ensuing fire o ther tanks would be likely to explode due to heating, and burning fuels would be flung over the area. However, the radioactive containers would only suffer to the sam e ex ten t as in any other fire in which they were involved.

Two serious accidents involving fire have been reported in recent years from th e U nited S tates of America; both involved fuel tankers.

There are no records of tem peratures reached in ship fires. Cargos have been know n to smoulder for days, whereas intense fires can sink th e ship in one day. For practical purposes the B ritish S tandard curve is apparen tly accepted. H azardous packages m ay be carried either as deck cargo or in the h o ld ; in the event of fire in the former case je ttisoning action could be taken and in the la tte r flooding would be the m ost practical m easure.

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A ircraft fires usually follow crashes. R eports of experim ents from various sources suggest th a t the tem perature in an aircraft fire is generally around 700° C, b u t if magnesium alloys are ignited the tem peratures m ay rise to 1000° C.

In th e ta il region m elting of light alloys sometimes occurs (MP around 600° C) b u t unless m agnesium is ignited copper com ponents do not m elt (MP 1080° C). The duration of aircraft fires is p u t a t 10—20 m in w ith im m ediate fire fighting b u t if unattended to peak period m ay last 30—45 min. F light crash recorders are understood to be designed to w ithstand 1000° C for 1 h.

Two separate tests in the U nited K ingdom with mock road vehicles involving 25 gal (imp) of petrol and care being taken to ensure th a t the container was involved in the heart of the fire gave results of burning tim e 12— 15 min and a m axim um outside tem perature of the container around 700° C.

The te s t proposed of 800° C for half an hour is felt to be as searching as the B ritish S tandard curve for one hour. (This is on account of the shock heating a t the beginning of the test and the wide tolerances of the B ritish S tandard curve).

4.2.5 Container size considerationsIn all forms of transp ort the trea tm ent received by packages varies

w ith the weight. L ight packages have a tendency to be throw n. Heavier packages generally receive more careful handling as the additional weight increases the effort required by the handler. As the weight in creases further and mechanical aids are required, less chance of damage occurs.

This is also true in regard to precautions against accidents; the heavier the load, the b etter provisions are m ade to secure it. R adioactive m aterial containers vary in weight between a few pounds and some 50 tons. Such heavy containers have to be carried in vehicles specially designed for the type of container and, as such, are an integral p a r t of the vehicle. L ighter containers b u t still in the ton class are transported in vehicles specially designed w ith grid floors to perm it a range of fixing positions. I t is thus possible to class th is type also as p a r t of the vehicle, especially as all these vehicles usually have speed restrictions.

There is obviously no need to subject such containers to the additional tests for Class B as these containers will go with the vehicle in any form of accident.

The dividing line between these two classes appears to be one half to ! one ton. This is the stage when mechanical aids are essential and when

95


a designer naturally becomes worried about possible load shifts. The proposed tolerance is wide because there are likely to be cases where it would be undesirable to arrange for permanent fixtures, e.g. containers designed specifically for air transport.

I t is for consideration that the dividing line should be left open, the criteria then become one of different tests whether the container was approved as part of the vehicle or whether it could move independently. Obviously even the lighter heavy containers, requiring a special vehicle, will be somewhat restricted in movement.

4.3. PROPOSED ADDITIONAL TESTS

4.3.1 Additional tests for Type B containers (Proposal A)A Type B container must be so designed as to retain the effectiveness

of containment and shielding after a maximum credible accident as represented by a drop of 30 ft (9.14 m) on to a hard surface, followed by a furnace test at a temperature of 800° C for a half hour (see Annex I for details).

4.3.2 Additional tests for containers integral with Carrier (Proposal B)An impact test used in the United Kingdom for containers weighing

over 1000 lb (500 kg) requires impact against a strong beam at 5 ft/ sec (1.5 m/sec). (See Annex I I for details.) In addition to this test there should be proof of integral fixings. This would appear to require a strength sufficient to withstand 50 g. (This figure is based on the speed of the impact and a nominal impact time of 6 m/sec).

I t is proposed that the above tests replace the “additional tests for Type B containers” for containers integrated with the carrier.

4.4. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

At first sight the tests proposed may appear stringent and hence would make containers more expensive and heavy than they are already. However, tests carried out to date in the United Kingdom have shown that containers designed to requirements laid down in the existing IAEA regulations (and itemized earlier) will withstand these proposed tests satisfactorily. Two examples are shown in Annex III . These were chosen as being at the two ends of the scale of ruggedness of design. Both containers have passed the impact and fire test satisfactorily.

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4.5. CONCLUSIONAn a ttem p t has been m ade in this paper to evaluate the accident

conditions thought “credible” . There are m any aspects where more inform ation is desirable and which, in fact, is essential if a b e tter appraisal of th is difficult field of ac tiv ity is to be made. A ctual working experience is required, especially detailed reports of the accidents th a t occur. Those engaged w ithin th is field should be stim ulated to publish their findings for the benefit of others and the establishm ent of good regulations.

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTSThe w riter wishes to acknowledge the work of the U KA EA Transport

Container Advisory Panel for help in collection of d a ta for th is paper.

A N N EX IA DD ITIO N A L TESTS FO R T Y PE B CONTAINERS

A. Drop test.(1) The package will be exactly or as near as possible, to transp o rt

conditions.(2) The container will be dropped onto a solid ta rg e t I f t (305 mm)

wide and a length a t least 1 ft (305 mm) wider th an the length of the container.

(3) The height of drop m easured from the surface of the target to the lowest point of the container will be 30 f t (9.2 m).

(4) I t will be allowed to fall free on its m ost vulnerable face. (Because of th e necessity of exam ination between th e first and second tests and the fitting of thermocouples, it m ay no t be advantageous to drop it on to the m ost vulnerable face. U nited K ingdom practice in such instances is to drop onto the m ost suitable face and if necessary carry ou t a further drop after the second test).

(5) Still photographs of the package and com ponent parts will be taken from identical viewpoints bo th before and after the test.

(6) The inner leak-proof container m ust re ta in its integrit.y throughout the test.

Note: An existing facility for this test for containers up to I t .weight has a steel plate 8 ft x 4 ft. x 5 in thick (2.5 m x 1.25 m x 127 mm) floated on a concrete bed. with a 1 ft wide beam mounted on the upper face. (The steelplate was used in lieu of mass concrete because of site conditions.)

7 97


B. Fire test(1) E xcept where there are overriding requirem ents, a therm ocouple

will be arranged to measure continuously the tem perature inside the innerm ost container. Provided it is of m etal no t exceeding

in (12 mm) th ick , the tem perature of the external surface of th is container m ay be taken as equivalent to the interior tem perature . Innerm ost containers of non-metallic m aterial will be ignored for th is purpose.

(2) Tem perature recording pain t will be p u t on the outer surface of all containers as far as practicable.

(3) The package will be placed in a furnace in its m ost stable orientation.

(4) The tem peratu re of the furnace will be continuously recorded.(5) The furnace tem perature will be controlled to 800° C ± 20° 0

throughout the test.(6) The package will be a t its norm al tran sit tem perature (including

the effect of self-heating) im m ediately before insertion in the furnace.

(7) The package will rem ain in the furnace for 30 min.(8) A fter rem oval from the furnace the package will be allowed to

cool natu ra lly in nom inally still air a t room tem perature.(9) Tem perature readings will be taken in the furnace and inside the

container throughout the heating and cooling periods until the in terio r tem peratu re has started to fall.

AN N EX I IA D D ITIO N A L TESTS FO R T Y PE B CONTAINERS IN TEG R A L

W ITH C A R R IERA. Im pact test

(1) W hen th e package is standing on its base it shall be subjected to an im pact across each end. The im pact shall be made when the package has reached a uniform velocity of 5 ft/sec ± 0 .75 ft/sec (1.54 m/sec ± 0 .2 3 m/sec).

(2) The im pact shall be obtained w ith the aid of a fixed horizontal beam w ith the base of the package 1 f t (305 mm) high and of a length sufficient to exceed the w idth of the container by no t less th an 1 ft (305 mm).

(3) The beam shall be straigh t and of sufficient stiffness so th a t a deflexion no t more th an 0.01 in (0.25 mm) shall occur a t the

98


centre of the length used for tests when i t is loaded statically a t the centre w ith 50 t. A steel girder w ith a 12 in (305 mm) flange is essential.

B. Integral test(1) B y calculation it m ust be shown th a t the .holding fixtures are

sufficient to w ithstand a load of 50 g or(2) A sta tic loading te s t should be performed.


Fig. 2Container, heat-insulated Type B , for fluids.

(See key on p. .102)

101


K e y t o F i g . 1 (p . 1 0 0 )

Item M aterial Item M aterial

1 Lock 10 Polythene2 Seal 11 Rubber jo int3 Cowl-mild steel 11 A, 11B Air Release Valve4 Cover-mild steel 12 Dust membrane5 Stainless steel 13 Mild steel6 Can-tinned steel 14 Cadmium7 Cover-stainless steel 15 Wood8 Tinned steel 16 Mild steel9 Stainless steel

K e y t o F ig . 2 (p. 101)

Item Material Thickness Specification

1 Mild steel sheet ii « ln

_2 Exfoliated vermiculite -|- in grade —3 Alum, alloy in diam. U S Spec. 3 5 64 Expanded polyurethane

packing“T- —

5 Gasket, rubber -f- in square —6 Screws -|- in unf. 3 0 off Mild steel7 Eyebolt -|- in X I I unc. — Steel8 Cowl-M.S. Sheet • 0 6 4 in W ith “full” & “empty”

flap9 Approved lock

Hoke valve—

10 — P .T .F .E . seat11 Vacuum valve -- All metal, bellows

sealed.12 Screws -j- in unc. 8 off Steel13 Stainless steel •067 in 3 0 4 L14 Aluminium alloy T i “ U S Spec. 3 5 615 Mild steel sheet • 128 in —16 Expanded polyurethane

sheet1 in

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AN EX A M PLE OF ASSESSMENT OF E X PO SU R E FO R TRA N SPO RT PER SO N N EL (See Safety Regulations 4.3)

A RADIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF BRITISH EUROPEAN AIRWAYS CARGO WAREHOUSE AND PERSONNEL-

LONDON AIRPORT, 1958*1. Introduction

■ A substantial proportion of the ou tpu t from th e Radiochem ical Centre a t Amersham is despatched b y air to various destinations in Europe. This traffic of packaged radioisotopes is handled by BEA and passes th rough their cargo warehouse a t London A irport. By 1958 the traffic had so increased th a t BEA sought the assistance of the U K A EA to conduct a. radiological survey of their warehouse and personnel to assure themselves th a t the external rad iation doses being received by the ir employees were n o t increasing beyond those considered to be safe. This survey was carried o u t in two parts, M ay to June, 1958, for the premises, and Septem ber to October, 1958, for the men. This paper is a sum m ary of the procedure and the results. The B EA reports were adap ted for publication by Mr. K. J . Aspinall of the UKAEA.

2. WarehouseThe warehouse concerned was a large steel-fram ed asbestos-clad

s truc tu re w ith a reception bay a t one end and a despatch bay a t the o ther. Open racks, to a height of 12 to 15 f t ran lengthw ays down the building and, norm ally, goods were stacked on these racks according to destination. As an exception, however, all radioactive m aterials were stored together on a small set of steel shelves in the corner of th e building which was fu rthest from th e norm al working areas.

3. Staff involvedThe warehousemen worked on a shift basis, there being tw o day shifts

o f 16 m en each and a n igh t shift of 8 men. W ith the ex tra m en to cover contingencies the to ta l was 52, and in addition there were 5 warehouse supervisors. In the area beyond th e warehouse wall against which th e* Published by courtesy of B E A and U KAEA.

103


radioactive bay was located there worked the m ail section staff, comprising a mail officer, 10 mail section clerical staff and 9 mail section warehousemen.

4. Radioactive trafficAll consignments passing through the warehouse were packaged in

accordance w ith the following lim its:—Curie content—2 c,E x te rnal rad iation a t the package surface—200 m r/hr,E xternal rad iation level a t 1 m — 10 m r/hr.For the m onth prior to the survey the level of traffic in the warehouse

was a m ean aggregate of 20 to 30 radiation un its in any one day. Most of the packages rem ained in the warehouse for less than one day.

5. MethodFrom the outset i t was considered to be of g reat im portance th a t the

objects and the mechanics of the survey should be discussed w ith the men. This proved to be wise both in allaying any suspicions and fears, and in securing the ir co-operatiori. I t was decided to do the survey in three p a r ts :—

(a) A survey of rad iation levels w ithin the warehouse:—(i) by installed films over a period of a fortnight or so to obtain

m ean dose rates, and(ii) by instrum ents to derive spot levels; and

(b) A survey of personnel doses by the issue of personnel film badges. I t is interesting th a t it was no t proposed to proceed with (b) if the

results of (a) were considered to be sufficiently reassuring, b u t th a t, following the discussions m entioned above, the men themselves were very keen th a t (b) should be carried out in any case.

6. W arehouse levels (Film survey)The films used were each half covered w ith a cadmium filter. Twenty-

five pairs of a P.M. 1 film (for low dose) and a P.M. 3 film (for high dose) were installed in the area close to the radioactive bay, and a further 25 P.M. 1 films were used to cover the reception and despatch bays and th e general working area. Film s were fixed w ith sellotape to walls, shelves, stanchions, etc. and were left in position for three weeks.

The results enabled the m ean dose rates above norm al background (about 0.010 m r/hr) to be charted on a p lan of the warehouse so th a t the situation could be assessed. The highest levels were 20 m r/h r a t the

104


back of th e radioactive rack itself, and 11 m r/h r im m ediately in front o f the rack. These levels quickly tapered off to 2 or 3 m r/h r very near to th e rack. In the general working area m ean levels of from 0 to 0.24 m r/h r were recorded; and in th e reception and despatch bays, levels of 0.02 to 0.05 m r/h r and 0.14 m r/h r respectively. From these figures it was an tic ipated th a t none of the employees could be receiving doses approaching the lim it of 1500 m r/y r which is th a t recomm ended by the IC R P for adu lt male non-radiation workers.

7. W arehouse levels (Instrum ent survey)A t the tim e of the instrum ent survey the packages in the radioactive

b ay to talled 21.8 rad iation units, m ainly from radiogold (16 units) and radioiodine (4 units) and rad iation levels (including background) were m easured to be from 13 m r/h r a t 0.5 m in front of the radioactive shelves down to 0.017 m r/h r a t 25 m from the shelves.

8. Personnel m onitoringPrior arrangem ents were m ade to record in detail the du ty spells and

absences of all the personnel concerned, throughout the period of the survey, and the staff were instructed in the procedure to be followed as to the wearing of films and their storage during off d u ty times! Films were issued to :—

57 warehouse staff (see para. 3);10 mail section staff (see para. 3); and

6 mail cargo clerical staff (not concerned w ith radioactive m aterial and used as a control).

These films were worn for four weeks. During th is period 6 of the w arehouse staff lost the ir films and a to ta l of 76 films were recovered for processing.

One film worn by a mail section warehouseman showed 175 m r/4 weeks. This was so outstandingly high th a t investigation was made. I t transp ired th a t on a t least two occasions the wearer had left his film badge over n igh t in his working coat which was hung up in a locker near the radiation bay. This was the only instance of a failure to co-operate with the instructions.

Ignoring th is one exception, the exposure levels were found to range from 0 to 55 m r/4 weeks ( = 0 to 770 m r/yr as com pared w ith the IC R P recomm ended m axim um of 1500 m r/yr). I n fact, the average exposure was only 14 m r/4 weeks ( = 182 m r/yr). These levels were considered to be perfectly safe.

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WEST PAKISTAN _Karachi Education Society Haroon Chambers, South Napier Road P.O. Box No. 4866, Karachi, 2

PARAGUAY Agencia de Librerfas de Salvador Nizza Calle Pte. Franco No. 39-43, Asuncion

PERULibrerfa Internacional del Perif S.A.Boza 879 (Casiila 1417), Lima

PHILIPPINES The Modern Book Company 508 Rizal Avenue, Manila

POLANDDistribution Centre for Scientific Publications Polish Academy of Sciences Palac Kultury i Nauki, Warsaw


PORTUGAL Livraria Rodrigues 186, Rua do Ouro, 188, Lisbon 2

SOUTH AFRICA Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty) Ltd. Libri Building, Church St.(P.O. Box 724-), Pretoria

SPAIN Librerfa Bosch11, Ronda Universidad,Barcelona

SWEDEN C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel Fredsgatan 2, Stockholm 16

SWITZERLAND Librairie Payot 40, rue du Marche, Geneva

SYRIAGeorges N. Coussa, Imm. Chanan, rue Khan-el-Harir (B .P . 779), Aleppo

TURKEY Librairie Hachette469, Istiklal Caddesi,Beyoglu, Istanbul

UKRAINIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC Same agent as for USSR

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga Kuznetsky Most, 18, Moscow G-200

UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

Her Majesty's Stationery Office P.O. Box 569, London S .E .l

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA National Agency for International Publications, Inc. 801 Third Avenue, New York 22, N.Y.

YUGOSLAVIA Jugoslovenska Knjiga Terazije 27, Belgrade

IAEA publications can also be purchased retail at the United Nations Bookshop at United Nations Headquarters, New York, at the news-stand at the Agency's Headquarters, Vienna, and at most conferences, symposia and seminars organized by the Agency.

Orders and inquiries from countries where sales agents have not yet been appointed may be sent to:

Distribution and Sales Unit, International Atomic Energy Agency Karntner Ring, Vienna I, Austria


International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna 1961

Price (B): North America: US$1.50: Elsewhere: Sch 31.50 (9s. stg; N F 6 r; D M 4,80)
