non-destructive testing of some higher himalayan rocks in the satluj valley

ORIGINAL PAPER

Non-destructive testing of some Higher Himalayan Rocksin the Satluj Valley

Vikram Gupta

Received: 19 March 2008 / Accepted: 28 March 2009 / Published online: 30 May 2009

� Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract Satluj valley, located in the Higher Himalaya,

is undergoing rapid development, mainly because of its

high hydropower potential. The paper reports a study to

determine whether the engineering properties of the gran-

ites, gneisses, quartzites and marbles encountered in the

higher Himalayan terrain in the Satluj valley can realisti-

cally be determined using the Schmidt hammer and ultra-

sonic velocity. The results indicate a positive correlation

for the granites, quartzites and marbles, but not for the

folded, anisotropic gneisses.

Keywords Schmidt hammer � Ultrasonic velocities �Engineering properties � Satluj Valley � Himalaya

Introduction

The engineering properties of an intact rock are important

parameters for evaluating the engineering behavior of the

rock mass during construction and have a significant

influence on the project design and cost. They are greatly

affected by the mineralogy, texture and the anisotropy of

the material (Deere and Miller 1966; McWilliams 1966;

Merriam et al. Kim 1970; Onodera and Asoka Kumara

1980; Irfan 1996; Jeng et al. 2004, Sousa et al. 2005). Most

testing is destructive in nature, expensive and time con-

suming (Shalabi et al. 2007) hence a number of studies

have been carried out to evaluate the engineering properties

of the rocks indirectly using such methods as the Schmidt

hammer rebound (SHR) value (Deere and Miller 1966;

Aufmuth 1973; Singh et al. 1983; O’Rourke 1989;

Sachpazis 1990; Turgul and Zarif 1999; Katz et al. 2000;

Yilmaz and Sendir 2002; Yasar and Erdogan 2004), Shore

scleroscope hardness (Griffith 1937; Wuerker 1953; Deere

and Miller 1966; Atkinson 1993; Koncagul and Santi 1999;

Yasar and Erdogan 2004), point load test (Chau and Wong

1996) and ultrasonic velocity (King et al. 1995; Song et al.

2004; Sousa et al. 2005; Basu and Aydin 2006; Rao et al.

2006).

Satluj Valley in the Himachal Pradesh is undergoing

rapid development mainly due to its hydropower potential.

Many hydropower projects are either being planned or are

at the initial stage of their development and will require the

construction of roads, bridges, dams, underground cavities

and foundations on slopes. In the present study, SHR

values and ultrasonic velocities (both compressional and

shear) were used to interpret the engineering properties of

rocks. Both tests are easy to perform, cost effective, rela-

tively quick and non-destructive. Although a number of

relationships between engineering properties, the SHR

values and the ultrasonic velocities have been proposed, the

present study adds information from the rocks of the higher

Himalayan terrain, which are greatly affected by defor-

mation and tectonic activities.

Materials and methods

Four different lithologies were considered for the present

study: granites, gneisses, quartzites and marbles. Fresh

samples were obtained from part of the Higher Himalayan

Crystallines (HHC) and the Tethyan sequence in the upper

Satluj valley in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh,

India (Fig. 1). The various types of gneisses forming the

15–20 km thick HHC have been pushed over the Main

V. Gupta (&)

Geotechnical Laboratory,

Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,

Dehra Dun 248001, India

e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

123

Bull Eng Geol Environ (2009) 68:409–416

DOI 10.1007/s10064-009-0211-4

Central Thrust (MCT) which underlies the quartzite, mar-

ble and schist of the Tethyan metasediments; the geology

of the area is studied in detail by Sharma (1976), Tewari

et al. (1978), Bassi and Chopra (1983), Kakkar (1988),

and Gupta (1998). The various tectonic events have pro-

duced a wide variety of planar and linear features. It is to

be noted that it was not possible to take core samples from

the schists, hence they do not form part of the present

study.

A total of 50 Schmidt hammer measurements were taken

randomly across a freshly exposed surface at each site,

using the N type hammer, following the methodology of

Day and Goudie (1977). All the measurements were

taken with the hammer held horizontally and at right angles

to the intact test surface, at least 60 mm away from joints

or cracks and on the smooth, clean surface. To reduce

operator variation, all the measurements were taken by

the same individual. The ten lowest and ten highest

values were discarded and the mean of the remaining 30

calculated.

Block samples of the rock were drilled to obtain

25.4 mm diameter, 50–60 mm long cores. Both end sur-

faces of the core were made parallel and polished smooth

and the density (q) and bulk volume (m) of each oven-dried

test sample were established.

The equipment used to obtain the compressional and

shear ultrasonic velocities is shown schematically in

Fig. 2. The Pulser–Receiver unit creates an electrical pulse

which is transformed into acoustic energy by a piezo-

electric transmit transducer. The acoustic energy travels

through the rock samples and is then converted back into

the electrical energy by a receiver transducer. The elec-

trical signal may be attenuated or amplified after it reaches

the input of the Pulser–Receiver. The signal is then dis-

played on the digital oscilloscope. The entire assembly

consists of high energy Pulser and Receiver, compres-

sional and shear wave transmitter and receiver transducers,

both having a frequency of 1 MHz and a digital oscillo-

scope. This is similar to the PUNDIT instrument often

used for the purpose. All the velocity measurements were

done at room conditions using the ‘time-of-flight ultra-

sonic pulse transmission technique’ described by Birch

(1960), Ramana and Rao (1974) and Rao and Prasana

Lakshmi (2003).

The initial readings of travel time are made in the ref-

erence signal which is obtained by directly coupling the

transmitter and receiver using machine oil and honey as

acoustic couplants for the transmission and reception of

compressional and shear waves, respectively. In the wave

form thus obtained, the travel time of the first received

pulse of the test signal is measured. The value of travel

Fig. 1 Location map of the

study area showing the

sampling sites

Fig. 2 A schematic diagram of the apparatus used for the measure-

ment of ultrasonic compressional and shear wave velocities in the

rock samples

410 V. Gupta

123

time was calculated using the time cursor of the oscillo-

scope as discussed by Rao et al. (2006). The velocities are

calculated from the sample length and the travel time

measurement using the formula velocity (v) = length of

the test sample/travel time. Each test was repeated three

times and the average value was recorded.

The value of Poisson’s ratio (t) and Young’s modulus

(E) were also computed and are presented in Table 1.

Poisson’s ratio (t) and Young’s modulus (E) are derived

from the velocity data of the rock samples using the

following standard equations:

2m ¼ðVp=VsÞ2 � 2n o

ðVp=VsÞ2 � 1n o24

35

and

E ¼qð1þ mÞð1þ 2mÞf gV2

p

ð1� mÞ

" #:

The UCS of the rocks was measured on the cylindrical

core samples used for the measurement of the ultrasonic

velocities (ISRM 1981).

Results

The result of the tests on the 7 samples of granite, 15

samples of gneiss, 3 samples of quartzite and 4 samples of

marble are presented in Table 1.

As seen in the table, there is a significant variation in the

density of the granites compared with the other lithologies.

Nevertheless, in general, there is a linear relationship

Table 1 Physical, ultrasonic and engineering geological properties of the granites, gneisses, quartzites and marbles belonging to the Higher

Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) sheet and the Tethyan metasediments

Rock types Sample no. Density

(kN/m3)

Vp (m/s) Vs (m/s) Poisson’s

ratio

Young’s modulus

(E) (Gpa)

SHR UCS

(MPa)

Granite Gr 1 25.07 4,618 1,602 0.4316 18.8 50 40

Gr 2 25.11 4,333 1,669 0.4129 20.1 51 42

Gr 3 25.09 4,299 1,498 0.4309 16.4 52 45

Gr 4 25.33 4,675 2,069 0.3782 30.5 55 50

Gr 5 24.96 4,141 1,392 0.4363 14.2 48 43

Gr 6 25.09 4,175 1,402 0.4364 14.4 42 35

Gr 7 24.73 4,319 1,443 0.4372 15.1 40 30

Gneiss Gn 1 27.12 4,570 2,819 0.1930 52.4 49 63.3

Gn 2 25.93 4,531 2,618 0.2494 45.3 49 60

Gn 3 25.98 4,225 2,200 0.3140 33.7 47 61.1

Gn 4 26.61 4,304 2,370 0.2822 39.1 48 55

Gn 5 26.43 4,864 2,796 0.2533 52.8 52 45.4

Gn 6 26.57 4,525 2,556 0.2657 44.8 50 52

Gn 7 26.39 4,584 2,752 0.2182 49.6 51 60

Gn 8 25.77 4,259 2,539 0.2241 41.5 46 40.1

Gn 9 25.65 4,501 2,714 0.2143 46.8 47 56

Gn 10 26.67 4,193 2,351 0.2709 38.2 46 56

Gn 11 26.77 4,642 2,571 0.2788 46.1 45 49

Gn 12 26.70 4,604 2,636 0.2561 47.5 49 50

Gn 13 26.28 4,378 2,378 0.2908 39.1 45 50

Gn 14 26.30 4,373 2,455 0.2699 41 47 58

Gn 15 25.39 4,223 2,261 0.2992 34.4 45 52.5

Quartzite Qzt 1 25.64 5,239 2,923 0.2741 56.9 46 67

Qzt 2 25.78 5,262 2,988 0.2621 59.2 50 70

Qzt 3 25.69 5,245 2,937 0.2717 57.4 51 70

Marble Mbl 1 26.58 6,242 3,200 0.3218 73.3 50 72

Mbl 2 26.41 6,172 3,153 0.3234 70.9 48 36

Mbl 3 26.27 6,307 3,375 0.2994 79.3 49 36

Mbl 4 26.00 5,868 3,000 0.3230 63.1 47 25

Non-destructive testing on Himalayan Rocks 411

123

Fig. 3 The relationship

between density and ultrasonic

compressional (P-) and Shear

(S-) wave velocities for granites,

gneiss, quartzite and marble

belonging to the Higher

Himalayan Crystalline (HHC)

sheet and the Tethyan

metasediments

Fig. 4 a Core sample of the

quartz mica gneiss depicting

folding of the quartz veins,

b photomicrographs of the

quartz mica gneiss showing the

close folding in the micaceous

minerals


between density and UCS for

granites, gneiss, quartzite and

marble belonging to the Higher



metasediments

412 V. Gupta

123

between the density and ultrasonic velocities (both com-

pressional and shear) for the different rocks (Fig. 3).

However, the strength of the relationship is more pro-

nounced in the quartzite (R2 = 0.99 for Vp and 0.98 for Vs)

because of its isotropic nature and uniform composition,

whereas in the case of gneisses, the poor relationship

(R2 = 0.16 for Vp and 0.11 for Vs) is due to their aniso-

tropic nature. Moreover, these gneissic rocks are highly

folded (Fig. 4).

Figure 5 shows a positive relationship between density

and the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for all the

rock types, although in the case of the gneiss, the R2 is only

0.02. This is mainly attributed to the highly folded nature

of the gneisses (Fig. 4).

Figure 6 presents the relationship between SHR and

UCS. Strong positive relationships were found for the

granites, quartzites and marbles but, as expected, there was

little correlation between the two variables for the gneisses

(R2 = 0.03).

The SHR was correlated with the compressional and shear

ultrasonic velocity (Fig. 7) and with Poisson’s ratio (Fig. 8). It

has been noted that for all the rocks, the ultrasonic velocities

increase linearly with the increase in SHR (Fig. 7) and the

Poisson’s ratio decreases with the increase in SHR (Fig. 8),

although the relationship is not very strong.

Figure 9 shows the correlation between UCS and

Young’s modulus. Again, the data for the gneisses are very

scattered.


between SHR and UCS for

granite, gneiss, quartzite and

marble belonging to the Higher



metasediments


between SHR and the ultrasonic

compressional (upper line) and

shear (lower line) wave

velocities for granite, gneiss,

quartzite and marble belonging

to the Higher Himalayan

Crystalline (HHC) sheet and the

Tethyan metasediments


123

Discussion and conclusions

Many studies have been carried out to establish the simple

and complex empirical statistical relations between SHR,

ultrasonic velocities and the various engineering properties

of rock (Deere and Miller 1966; Aufmuth 1973; Singh et al.

1983; Ghose and Chakraborti 1986; O’Rourke 1989;

Cargill and Shakoor 1990; Sachpazis 1990; King et al.

1995; Turgul and Zarif 1999; Katz et al. 2000; Yilmaz and

Sendir 2002; Yasar and Erdogan 2004; Song et al. 2004;

Sousa et al. 2005; Basu and Aydin 2006; Rao et al. 2006;

Shalabi et al. 2007). The present study was carried out on

the gneisses of the HHC sheet, the quartzites and marbles

of the Tethyan metasediments and the intrusive granite.

Linear regression was performed and empirical equations

established in order to assist in the quick assessment of the

rocks during preliminary studies for the development of

hydroelectric schemes. These are presented in Figs. 3, 5, 6,

7, 8 and 9. The schist present in the area is thinly laminated

and highly fissile and hence coring was not possible to

perform the required tests. For this reason where possible

areas of schist should be avoided for any development

activities. The following conclusions were drawn:

(1) Although the gneisses show similar trends when their

engineering properties are correlated with other


between SHR and Poisson’s

ratio for granite, gneiss,






between UCS and Young’s

modulus for granite, gneiss,





414 V. Gupta

123

parameters, the strength of the relationships is very

poor compared with the granites, quartzites and

marbles. This is mainly due to the folding and the

anisotropic nature of the gneisses.

(2) Quartzites and marbles, being monomineralic, are

isotropic in nature and show a high coefficient of

regression.

(3) There is an increase in the ultrasonic velocity with

increase in density and SHR for all the rock types,

although the strength of the relationship varies for the

different rocks.

(4) The granites have the lowest density and the marble

the highest ultrasonic velocities. The density of the

gneiss ranges from 25.39 to 27.12 kN/m3.

Acknowledgments The author thanks the Director, Wadia Institute

of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun for providing all the facilities to

carry out the work. A part of the work has been carried out in the

‘Ultrasonic Laboratory’ created with the DST funded project titled

‘‘Rock Properties Laboratory… A National Facility’’ at Wadia

Institute of Himalayan Geology. Thanks are also due to Dr M. P. Sah

for help in the field and to Ms Ruchika Sharma for help in the

laboratory.

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non-destructive testing of some higher himalayan rocks in the satluj valley

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