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No. 32 Winter 2000/2001 European Tropical Forest Research Network NEWS NON-TIMBER NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS FOREST PRODUCTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Organisations - Programmes 1 Research Cooperation Sought 84 Internet Features 85 Funding 87 Other News 88 Publications 90

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Page 1: NON-TIMBENON-TIMBERR FOREST PRODUCTFOREST PRODUCTSS · No. 32 Winter 2000/2001 European Tropical Forest Research Network NEWS NON-TIMBENON-TIMBERR FOREST PRODUCTFOREST PRODUCTSS TABLE

No. 32 Winter 2000/2001E

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NEWSNON-TIMBERNON-TIMBER

FOREST PRODUCTSFOREST PRODUCTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Organisations - Programmes 1

Research Cooperation Sought 84

Internet Features 85

Funding 87

Other News 88

Publications 90

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Editorial

ETFRN News 32/01

Dear Readers,

The year 2001 starts with a bumper issue of ETFRN-News. Being the guest editors of this special edition,Christiane and I are indebted to all authors for their contributions and excellent collaboration.

When the idea of an issue on NTFPs came up at the ETFRN Steering Committee meeting last year we wereall enthusiastic. But soon after starting the preparations a number of crucial questions arose: what specificthemes should be addressed, is a pre-structuring required, what about a regional approach, who could orshould be the authors and how to cope with the given time frame?

The reaction to our first call for papers was rather scanty. Unexpectedly our second attempt produced anoverwhelming response. This left us facing the dilemma of how to fit all the papers into a single issue withlimited space and funds for printing. As we did not want to leave out any, we urged all authors to reallycondense their contributions, to omit reference lists, figures and tables as far as possible. Various authorskindly left it to the editors to shorten their papers which is to be acknowledged.

In some cases the editors further shortened texts containing large amounts of detail and, exceptionally, whentables were omitted the main contents were inserted into the text. Of course, this may mean that someimportant information has not been included. We do regret this and hope for your understanding as the longversions would have led to an unsolvable situation.

The papers presented here provide a broad coverage of NTFP issues, both in thematic and regional terms.We have grouped the different contributions under a number of headings although these are not totallyappropriate for all papers. In any case, it is the contents that are important, and these provide a considerableamount of very interesting information, specific experiences as well as contradicting viewpoints which we hopewill encourage further discussions and exchange of ideas.

We wish all a pleasant reading.

Jochen Heuveldop and Christiane ThenInstitute for World Forestry, Hamburg, Germany

We are grateful to Jochen Heuveldop and Christiane Then for editing this bumper issue of the ETFRN News;and to Kate Schreckenberg for the final editing. Please note the themes and deadlines for the next issueson the back cover.

Jane ThornbackETFRN Acting Coordinator

The publication and distribution of this Newsletter has been partly supported by the United KingdomDepartment for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFID. ZF0152 Forestry Research Programme

ETFRN Coordination Unitc/o The Tropenbos FoundationPO Box 232, 6700 AE WageningenThe NetherlandsTel: +31 317 495516 Fax: +31 317 495521Email: [email protected]://www.etfrn.org/etfrn

Guest Editors: Jochen Heuveldop Christiane Then

Final editing: Kate Schreckenberg

Editorial assistance: Evelyn Whyte

Cover illustration: Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels( Wampee) Drawing by P Verheij-Hayes

Uses: The ripe fruit is often consumed raw. In South-EastAsia a kind of champagne is made by fermenting the fruitwith sugar and straining off the juice. In traditionalmedicine, the dried unripe fruits and dried sliced roots areused as a remedy for bronchitis. Ripe fruits are said tohave stomachic and cooling effects and to act as avermifuge. A decoction of the leaves is used as a hairwash to remove dandruff and to preserve the hair colour.

From: Prosea 2. Edible fruits and nuts. CD-ROME.W.M. Verheij and R.E. Coronel (Eds). (seePublications section)

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Organisations - Institutions - ProgrammesList of Articles

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PageRESEARCH TOPICS: FILLING THE GAPS; CONCEPTS AND STRATEGIES

NTFP Issues: The View from an International Centre 1Some recent activities of the NWFP programme of the FAO Forestry Department 3

CASE STUDIES: LESSONS LEARNED

Non-timber forest products.An instrument in sustainable development? 5Importance of Non-Timber Forest Products for the Betsimisaraka People of the Beforona Region, Eastern Madagascar: Findings of a Case Study 8The importance of non-timber forest products for local people in Burkina Faso 9Miombo woodland utilisation by small-scale farmers. Examples from four villages in Handeni-District, Tanzania 10

PRODUCTS AND MANAGEMENT GOALS

NTFP- use and sustainability: The example of Prunus africana in Cameroon 12Wild Edible Fungi, Miombo Woodland and Rural Livelihoods 14A review of current research activities being undertaken by The International Ecotourism Society 15Developing and Testing Criteria and Indicators for the Assessment and Evaluation of Ecotourism in Tropical Rain Forests 17

SOCIAL ASPECTS

Social Aspects of Tropical Forest Management 21NTFPs and forest fruits in South-east México 22Women and Forests: Does their Involvement matter? 25Gender knowledge about NTFP 27Women and the Babaçu Palm Forests 29

ECONOMICS

Nontimber Forest Products - Income for Rural Populations or Not? 31Non-timber forest products: economic and conservation potential in Central Africa 32Measuring the Socio-Economic Value of Non-Timber Forest Products on a Regional or National Level: Case Study for North-West and South-West Cameroon 35Creating Incentives from Conservation: Non-timber Forest Products and Poverty Alleviation 37Non-Wood Forest Products in East Kalimantan, Indonesia: An analysis of silvicultural and socio-economic aspects of their significance and development potential for the local people in a forestryconcession area 39Southern African Forests – the poor people’s safety net 41NTFP Commercialisation in Zimbabwe 42Ntfp Markets And Potential Degradation Of Forest Resources In Cameroon: The Case Of Garcinia Lucida 44Cross-border trade of Non-Timber Forest Products From the Korup Forest Area, Southwest Cameroon 45Constraints, potentials and perspectives of processing of non-timber forest products of Southern Kyrgyzstan 47Commercialisation of NTFPs: Factors Influencing Sucess 48

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ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS: INVENTORY FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Ecological and Economic Aspects of Non- Timber Forest Products 49Growth and physiology of Irvingia gabonensis seedlings at different environmental conditions 51Opportunities and constraints faced by resource-poor farmers in investing in the planting and improvementof indigenous trees for income generation 53Application of molecular marker technologies for the genetic characterisation of non-timber species 55Developing needs-based inventory methods for non-timber forest products 56Community- based wildlife population assessment in the Korup project Area, SW Cameroon 59Assessment of Non-Timber Forest Products in Community Forestry: Emerging Participatory Initiativesfrom the Hills of Nepal 60Analysis of the spatial distribution of non-timber forest products in the tropical forest of Ghana 62Epiphytic bromeliads as a non timber forest product: toward the sustainability of yield from natural populations in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico 64

PERSPECTIVES

Certification of Non-Timber Forest Products. An Emerging Field 67NTFP Certification: Challenges for Research 69Property in Non-Timber Forest Products 72The International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) Research Program and the Search for Communal Management of Forest Resources 73Forging (un)democratic resource governance systems from the relic of Zimbabwe's colonial past 75The role and dynamics of community institutions in the management of NTFP in Cameroon 77Non-timber forest products in the Bolivian Amazon: socio-economic impact in view of institutional deficiencies 79Non-timber Forest Products and Development Co-operation – Perceptions and Strategies of Decision Makers 81

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ETFRN News 32/01 1

NTFP ISSUES: THE VIEW FROM ANINTERNATIONAL CENTRE

By Wil de Jong, Brian Belcher

Thinking of Bali, the artistic and colourfulcarvings and masks sold at all the majortourist spots come quickly to mind. TheseBalinese souvenirs and art objects are themost important segment of the US$45 millionIndonesia earns each year from exportingwoodcarvings. As a major generator ofincome and employment, with a steady sourceof wood from cultivated species, this is inmany ways a forest product success story.

Just next to Bali, on the island of Timor, wefind an equally dramatic story of failure. Here,sandalwood, the fragrant wood of the cendanatree, was once a major export, attractingtraders from distant lands, bringing wealth tothe island. Today sandalwood has beenseriously depleted, collectors have lost animportant source of livelihood, and the localcarving and essential oils industries have beenvirtually wiped out.

There are innumerable examples of NTFPsused for a wide variety of purposes: for dailyneeds, cash income, as a “safety net” in timesof shortage, and as raw materials forindustries. Awareness of the importance ofNTFPs as one crucial benefit from forests,coupled with a desire to conserve forests whilemaking life better for millions of poor people,has made forest products the object of manyresearch and development interventions.

Considering these facts, what should be therole of the Center for International ForestryResearch (CIFOR), which is funded by theConsultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research? This consortium of 58public and private-sector donors supports 16research centres in bringing to bear scientificknowledge on agricultural and natural

resource issues on the problem of how toend hunger and poverty and increase foodsecurity in developing countries whileprotecting the environment. The 16 centresshare a mandate to produce ‘internationalpublic goods’, meaning that researchresults should be useful beyond theindividual research sites and a nationalcontext.

Toward systematic methodsNTFP researchers have been plagued by alack of coherence in the understanding ofthe potential role of NTFPs in developmentefforts. Most of the research so far hasbeen case-based, making it difficult to drawgeneralisable conclusions. Differences indata classification methods andresearchers’ perspectives can lead toconflicting results. To help bring order tothis chaos, CIFOR has developed amethodology for analysing diverse cases ofcommercial forest product use. Informationfrom about 50 cases from around the worldis recorded using a standardised set of 220descriptors. This will provide the basis for aclassification of these, and any other cases,and detect patterns that correlate with theirdevelopment and conservation outcomes.

Commercialisation trendsNTFP commercialisation is the primaryobjective of many developmentprogrammes, but this raises manyimportant questions. How will local use andmanagement of a forest product change asdevelopment progresses? What will happenif people succeed in increasing the sales offorest products and their incomes?Experience suggests that some productswill become quite important — the cases ofbamboo in China and India are goodexamples. Other products will remainimportant only in economic or ecologicalniches — wild-gathered rattan, for example,is economically viable only when land

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ETFRN News 32/012

pressure is low. Other forest products will beabandoned as better opportunities arise. Inmost cases pressure on the resource willincrease. When produced on common land,social controls may be needed to preventover-exploitation and encourage soundmanagement. Research should show us howinstitutions (local rules and norms) evolvewhen changes in the relative value of forestproducts occur.

Increasing productionCommercialisation of NTFPs often demandsintensified production. Feasible ‘production’models range from 'pure' extraction tointensified cultivation, such as plantations.Intermediate management within a forestenvironment merits greater attention becauseit has advantages in relation to biodiversityconservation and, sometimes, socio-economicdevelopment. Recently CIFOR co-organised aworkshop with FORRESASIA and EFTRN todefine the social, economic and ecologicalconditions under which intermediate systemsof NTFP management are viable. Anotherimportant issue is how to integrate timberproduction with supplies of other products,often for multiple users. Research may lead tonew silvicultural and institutional tools to aidthis kind of management. One way to increaseforest product production is to domesticatehigh-value trees for on-farm cultivation. TheInternational Centre for Agroforestry (ICRAF)is providing knowledge to improve thereproduction, growth and yield of promisingforest species.

Downstream issuesSuccessful development of forest productsdepends as much on the markets for theproducts as on ecology and production.Research has ignored this, although recentwork by FAO, RECOFTC, and others ishelping to close the gap. A methodologicalapproach identified as a “production-to-consumption system” addresses forestproduct issues like the need for sustained

supply, the distribution of income, ensuringmarkets and marketing channels, andinstitutional and policy problems. Althoughthe approach is generally well defined,more work is needed to incorporatepractical experience into the theory.

Benefiting the poorestNTFP commercialisation practitioners tendto ignore that many forest products areimportant because they are available topoor people. Development andconservation projects that make forestsinaccessible — economically or legally —to poor people can have severe economicand social consequences, especially in hardtimes. New tools and methods for forestmanagement need to take into account thetradeoffs of forest development, identifyingthe winners and losers. The poor, and notany well-connected elites, need to benefitfrom development assistance or policychanges. This requires strengthening usergroups that have limited power andinfluence, and their land and resourceproperty rights.

A role in priorities and policy changesCIFOR and the other CGIAR internationalresearch centres must make sure thatresearch has impact. One way to do this isto influence government policy.Governments increasingly recognise thereal and potential benefits of forest productsto poor people and are becoming moreamenable to policies favouring sustained,equitable use of forest products. There aremany examples of how bad policies havehad negative effects. In the case ofsandalwood in Timor, for example, thegovernment imposed regulations intendedto control the supply, leading to a virtualdepletion of the resource. On the otherhand, China’s investment and tradeliberations encouraged private production ofbamboo, boosting exports and contributionsto rural income.

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Conservation groups, development agenciesand NGOs are driving much of the currentinterest in NTFP development. CIFOR andProFound, a Dutch NGO, thought it useful tounderstand the project portfolios of suchagencies. Both organisations have started astudy to that extent. This will, among otherthings, help to design a research portfolio,which should produce results more useful totargeted beneficiaries.

Expectations are that our research willproduce knowledge that helps to solve real-lifeproblems, such as how to better target andachieve success in NTFP development efforts.In our vision, examples such as sandalwoodfrom Timor will be the exception rather thanthe rule and, 10 or 20 years from now, we willbe able to point to many more examples likethe woodcarvings from Bali.

Wil de Jong, Brian BelcherCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR)Bogor, IndonesiaWebsite http://www.cgiar.org/ciforPlease send comments to [email protected]

SOME RECENT ACTIVITIES OF THE NWFPPROGRAMME OF THE FAO FORESTRYDEPARTMENT

By Laura Russo

Since 1991 the Forestry Department of theFood and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO) has implemented aprogramme on "The promotion anddevelopment of Non-Wood Forest Products".Under this specific programme and other oneslinked to it, FAO carries out many activitiesaimed at addressing gaps in knowledge andfield application of best practices for NWFPs.Some of them are presented as examplesbelow.

Improving data on NWFPsSince 1997, FAO and the EuropeanCommission have started collaborativeprogrammes aimed at improving theavailability and quality of statistical data inthe forestry sector. Work under theseefforts encompasses both development ofmethodologies and actual gathering ofdata. The data thus collected are used asinputs to a Special Study on NWFPs for theGlobal Forest Resources Assessment 2000(FRA 2000).

Three projects on “Data collection andanalysis for sustainable forest management:linking national and international efforts” areongoing in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Under the one almost completed in Africa(1997-2000), quantitative and qualitativeinformation was gathered during 1998/99 onthe exploitation practices and productionlevels of major NWFPs in collaboration withrelevant specialists in 42 African countries.Information was collected on a countrybasis on major NWFPs, the plant or animalsources from which they are extracted (andpart used), the habitat in which they arefound/produced, their destination(subsistence/trade), main uses andeconomic value. The process also identifiedthe most important NWFPs in Africa, onwhich further development efforts should beconcentrated, including: gums, mushrooms,forest fruits, bushmeat and medicinal plants.

Developing methodologiesMethodological work in support of thegathering of available informationconcentrates on the informationrequirements for data collection of NWFPsat the national level, and on harmonizingdefinitions and classification for NWFPs.The latter area is one in which FAO isactively seeking the collaboration ofinternational organizations, such as IUFRO,for the organization of an international

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ETFRN News 32/014

meeting on this subject in the near future.

An FAO/EC project entitled “Sustainable forestmanagement in African ACP countries” (2000-2002) is looking at methodologies forassessment of NWFPs. Methodologies arebeing developed and will be tested incollaboration with national institutions(government and NGO) in sub-SaharanAfrican countries. The project has maintainedclose links with other initiatives in this field,such as the ZF0077 Forestry ResearchProgramme (UK DFID funded) pre-project toexamine the biometrics of current NTFPassessment methods (see Jenny Wong’sarticle in this issue). A publication based on theoutcomes of the FRP project will be publishedunder the FAO NWFP Series.

The FAO NWFP programme is presentlylooking for national and international partnerswho have field activities on NWFP inventoryand assessment in Africa and who would bewilling to join in this effort.

Disseminating technical knowledgeThe above activities all have a very strongorientation toward strengthening nationalcapacity to collect, analyse and disseminateforest information data. FAO also compilesand disseminates knowledge on goodpractices for NWFP production, managementand market trends and potential. This is donechiefly through the FAO NWFP series ofpublications.

At present, there are 12 publications in theNWFP series (see athttp://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/public-e.stm).

One of the future additions will be a publicationon wild edible fungi, under preparation, andexpected to be issued in early 2002. Thepublication, which will be coordinated by CABIBioscience, will document the contribution ofwild edible fungi to food security and will cover

aspects from forest management issues tomarket issues, as well as nutritionalaspects, and will include case studies fromvarious parts of the world.

Product analysis and developmentIn May 2000, an African regional networkfor natural gums and resins (NGARA) wasestablished. The main focus of the networkso far has been gum arabic (from Acaciasenegal and A. seyal), although gums andresins from other natural and plantedspecies will be considered. Membership ofNGARA is open to all countries in Africa thatwant to develop the use and markets ofnatural gums and resins. FAO’s continuedtechnical support to the network is alsofocusing on securing operational funds forthe network secretariat.

In December 2000, FAO called for aninternational expert consultation in Rome toaddress the issue of dwindling resources ofrattan, one of the most important NWFPs,the demand for which is increasing. Thisconsultation was jointly organized withSIDA (Sweden) and the InternationalNetwork on Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR)(see also announcement/ short note in thisissue).

Policy and technical adviceGiven its global mandate, FAO assistsgovernments in all regions of the world intheir efforts to develop comprehensive andcoherent forest strategies and policies insupport of the sustainable utilization,conservation and development of NWFPs.A recent example is the support given(since 1999) to the Iran initiative on lowforest cover countries (LFCCs). Thedevelopment of NWFPs is considered oneof the priority technical issues to beaddressed by the Teheran process. Animportant research theme is R&D for newproducts and economic and marketresearch, including strategic evaluation of

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market conditions and opportunities forNWFPs.

Marketing and trade issuesAnother particular focus of FAO’s work onNWFPs is marketing. Activities are directed atincreasing awareness of the importance ofmarketing in the NWFP sector, to provideinformation and understanding of the basicelements of marketing and the businessenvironment and to increase collaborationbetween public and private organizations inthis sector.

In October 2000, a seminar on NWFPmarketing was organized in Moldova. Theseminar was attended mainly byrepresentatives of Albania, Armenia,Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Kazakhstan,Kyrgystan, Romania, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,Ukraine and Uzbekistan.

An initiative on these subjects recentlylaunched by the FAO Regional Office for LatinAmerica and the Caribbean is a study on theexperiences of certification of NWFPs in LatinAmerica.

More information on the activities of the FAONWFP Programme can be found on theInternet at: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfp-e.stmThe website is in 4 languages (English,French, Spanish and Arabic) and also allowsaccess to NWFP publications online, includingthe bulletin Non-Wood News, the electronicnewsletter NWFP-Digest-L, and the databaseon NWFP organizations.

Laura RussoForest Products Division, FAOViale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome,ItalyTel: +39-06-57052044 Fax: +39-06-57055618 E-mail: [email protected]://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/

NWFP/nwfp-e.stm

NTFPs: AN INSTRUMENT INSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

By Wim Dijkman

Integrating C&DSince the late 1980s the Dutch internationalconservation and development communityhas had an interest in NTFP exploitation asan alternative to timber exploitation intropical rainforests. Following a study bythe Dutch Committee for IUCN on theeconomic importance of NTFPs inSoutheast Asia (De Beer & McDermott1989),several Dutch development agencieshave been supporting southern initiatives toimprove income generation for forestdependent people through NTFPexploitation.

One of these was a survey of NTFPs withan export market, carried out by the PrinceBernhard Centre for International NatureConservation of Utrecht University togetherwith IUCN, in several Latin Americancountries from 1990-92 (Broekhoven 1996).This survey highlighted several interestingproducts and regions with ampleinternational market opportunities (Brazilnuts, palm heart, tagua nuts, etc.) andenabled us to contribute to the Tropenbosresearch strategy (Ros-Tonen et. al. 1995).It also revealed that several keyassumptions underlying the hypothesis thatNTFP extraction is an effective strategy forintegrating conservation and developmentobjectives had not been tested. Theseincluded the assumption that NTFPextraction is a more sustainable land usethan timber exploitation, as it is consideredto have a lower impact on the structure ofthe forest and species composition. Asecond assumption is that NTFP extractionis more labour intensive and provides abetter and more constant income for forest

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dependent people. To test these assumptionsand try to extrapolate our results to NTFPextraction in general, we developed thePROMAB programme in northern Bolivia.

PROMAB (Programa Manejo de Bosquesde la Amazonía Boliviana)PROMAB is an international research, trainingand extension programme fostering thesustainable exploitation and management offorest resources in northern Bolivia. It is a jointeffort of the Instituto para el HombreAgricultura y Ecología, Bolivia, theUniversidad Técnica del Beni, Bolivia andUtrecht University in association with theCenter for International Forestry Research.Funding is provided through the DutchDevelopment cooperation, Utrecht Universityand CIFOR.

PROMAB facilitates forest exploitation throughtechnical assistance to a wide range ofstakeholders in the rainforests of the BolivianAmazon. The area is largely covered withrelatively undisturbed rainforest, mainly due tolow population pressure. Rural populationdensity is approximately 0.002/km2. The maineconomic centre is Riberalta. The area has aninteresting history of NTFP extraction, startingin the mid 19th century with quinine and – at alarger scale – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Therubber boom (1887-1917) resulted inimmigration of nearly one hundred thousandpeople from all over Bolivia and abroad. Therubber was extracted in barracas (forestestates) owned by a patron. The tappers weredependent on this patron through a debt-peonage system. Rubber exploitation declinedgradually during the 20th century and Brazil nut(Bertholletia excelsa) extraction emergedwithin the same system. These two productswere complementary as rubber was tappedduring the ‘dry’ season and nuts are collectedduring the ‘wet’ season. In the early 1980srubber extraction ceased and the main sourceof employment in the region nowadays is theBrazil nut industry, occupying 50% of the

workforce. Palm heart extraction (Euterpeprecatoria) only occurred for a short period(5 years) and has stopped. Timberexploitation for export is increasing. Severalother forest resources are exploited for thelocal and national market, such as Jatata(Geonoma sp.) leaves as roofing material.

Sustainable?PROMAB analyses the sustainability ofNTFP extract ion from dif ferentperspectives: ecological, economic andsocial. The ecological perspective includestwo components: (1) the impact ofextraction on biodiversity, and (2) themaintenance of the productivity of theresource. We focus on the impact ofextraction on fauna and the consequencesof the harvesting of the three importantproducts for population dynamics ofspecies providing these resources. Modelsfor population dynamics – matrix models –are used to evaluate the sustainability ofcurrent exploitation. Furthermore, theapplication of these models for woodyplants has been reviewed and an additionaltype of sensitivity analysis for matrixmodels presented (Zuidema 2000). Thesemodels provide data on productivity, thebasis for analysing economic profitability offorest product extraction. For the two mostimportant forest products, Brazil nut andtimber, we analysed the profits made in theexploitation process: from harvesting to theprocessed end product. Based on theresults, we can make recommendationssuch as the need for proper taxation of theforest resource through the government.Furthermore we have measured the impactof NTFPs on the economy of ruralhouseholds and analysed how extractivistsperceive farming and extraction of forestproducts. This has revealed how differentfarming styles depend on access to forestresources, life history of the extractivist,distance to urban centres, etc.

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What we have learnt so far...S Sustainable harvest levels and intensities

vary enormously, depending on the typeof (plant) product extracted from thepopulation. Harvesting seeds (Brazilnuts) has a far lower impact onpopulation growth rates than harvestingadult individuals (palmheart), forinstance. Sensitivity analysis revealedthat protecting the pre-adult phase in thelife cycle of Bertholletia excelsa has ahigh impact on future productivity of thepopulation.

S As Redford illustrated in his famouspaper ‘The empty forest’, we alsodemonstrated that fauna density is lowerin extraction forest than in undisturbedforest.

S The region’s economy currently dependstoo much on Brazil nut exploitation.

S The very low value per unit of land ofBrazil nut wild production implies a riskof deforestation and replacement ofBrazil nut with alternative uses such ascattle ranching or agriculture.

S A large number of actors benefit fromthis industry (at least 25,000 people) butonly a few attain levels of incomesufficient to cover their basic needs.

S Differences in income are high, beingconcentrated in favour of a small group:processing plant operators, brokers,moneylenders, etc.

S Middlemen in the forest obtain only amarginal profit.

S The collection of Brazil nuts is a largelyseasonal activity, encouraging seasonalmigration (for three months) from themain cities to the forest and vice versa.

S Farmers’ dependency on extractivism fortheir daily income is related to factorssuch as: access to forest resources aswell as land, distance to urban centres(i.e. market for agricultural products),etc.

S Subsistence use of NTFPs is veryimportant for food security;

S Where extractivists settle asindependen t fa rmers , theyincreasingly depend on farm outputfor their income, indicating the higherprofitability and/or status of the farmactivity.

Implementation in managementBased on the data we collected, we areadvising the Bolivian government on theimplementation of the Bolivian Forest Law.At local and provincial level we supportcommunities in writing forest managementplans for their concessions. Furthermore weprovide assistance to all the otherstakeholders in the forestry sector.

EvaluationUnder specific conditions NTFP extractioncan provide a reasonable income for forestdwellers and can take place without causingmuch damage to the forest structure. Brazilnut is a (rare) example of such a product.NTFP extraction is, however, part of aforestry transition process in which the opportunitycosts of forest management for forestproducts are still too high. Unless the(inter)national market is willing to pay forthe extra costs of this type of forestmanagement, people are eventuallytempted to convert the forest intoagricultural land. It is expected that Boliviawill produce the first certified NTFPs in2001.

Wim DijkmanPrince Bernhard Centre for InternationalNature ConservationPO Box 80084, 3508 TB UtrechtThe NetherlandsTel:+31 30 2536835, Fax:+31 30 2518366Email: [email protected]://www.bio.uu.nl/pbc

René BootPROMABCasilla 107

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RiberaltaBeni, BoliviaTel: +591 852 2996, Fax: +591 852 3243

Email: [email protected]://www.bio.uu.nl/pbc

IMPORTANCE OF NTFPs FOR THEBETSIMISARAKA PEOPLE OF THEBEFORONA REGION, EASTERNMADAGASCAR: FINDINGS OF A CASESTUDY

By Lala Razafy Fara

BaselineForests in Madagascar are known to containhigh levels of potentially useful biodiversity.Unfortunately, the importance of forestresources for local populations is oftenignored because of outsiders’ large-scaleeconomic priorities. The Beforona region ofEastern Madagascar is historically known tobe forested. The local Betsimisaraka peopledepend on forest resources such as humus,timber and non-timber forest products(NTFPs).

The importance of these NTFPs was studiedusing a holistic approach that included socialand economic surveys as well as floristicinventories. The Beforona region ischaracterized by steep slopes and a scarcityof cultivable land. The principal activity of theBetsimisaraka is itinerant slash and burnagriculture focused on the production ofmountain-rice. Given logistic constraints,Betsimisaraka households have at least threehuts, including one in the village forpermanent living, one near the forest fortemporary living, and one for food storagelocated in or near the village.

The socio-economic surveys were conductedin 11 villages encompassing 128 households.A common village selection criterion was itslocation bordering the forest. Socio-economicinformation was collected through informaland formal inquiries conducted at household

level. Biological inventories were conductedin the natural forest only, with an aim ofunderstanding the forest's potential fortimber and NTFP production.

Uses of NTFPsFor this study, NTFPs were classified intoproducts having nutritional, medicinal,social and commercial values.

Nutritional useFood-related NTFPs were subdivided intoanimal and plant products. Overall, NTFPsplay an important role in the diet of theBetsimisaraka people, with 76% ofhouseholds using NTFP foods. Some 2%eat only animal foods, while another 45%eat only plant foods, and 29% eat both.NTFP foods are used for direct subsistence.Animal NTFPs include mammals (23% ofhouseholds), birds (12%), larvae (7%),honey (5%) and aquatic food ( 53%) fromforest creeks. Plant products are of twomain types: liana tubers (Dioscorea spp)are collected by 55% of the households andpalm heart by 45%. Some fruit are gatheredin an opportunistic way as people walk inthe forest.

Medicinal useOnly 23% of Betsimisaraka householdsused medicinal plants, with most preferringto go to the regional health care centre. Ofthe 31 species used as medicinal plants, 12are from the natural forest. The others canbe collected in open areas. In most cases,the leaves and bark are used as adecoction for healing different diseases,most commonly: stomach-ache, intestinaldiseases, measles, flu, wounds, sores,overwork, malaria, dizziness, nausea andbleeding.

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Social usesSocial uses include house building andfurniture (which can be grouped as handicraftproducts exceptionally used in the house), andclothing. Construction is the most importantuse of NTFPs in Betsimisaraka life, withhouses consisting almost entirely of plantmaterials. The most commonly used NTFPs inconstruction are bark from the Sterculiaceaefamily (98 % of the households) and lianas(94%), generally used as ropes. Pandanusleaves (Pandanus spp) are used for walls (56%), roofs (20 %), doors and handicraftproducts, while the trunk of the tree fern(Cyathea spp) is used by a minority (1%) ofhouseholds as a weather resistant support inhouses and storehouses. Palm trunks(Ravenea spp, Louvelia spp, Chrysalidocarpusspp) are used by a minority as substitutematerial for walls and floors. The whole plantof Ravinala (Ravenala madagascariensis) isused for multiple construction uses (max.52%) as well as the whole plant of (Raphiaruffa) (2 %). Raphia leaf fibre is used to makeclothing (1%).

Commercial useA diverse range of NTFPs is commercialized,including potted tree ferns, orchids, pandanus,and aquatic products. Revenue obtained fromsales is used for subsistence. Selling orchidsand tree ferns requires special authorizationbut the need to make a living means that localpeople nevertheless sell some of theseproducts directly to retailers on the blackmarket.

ConclusionIn order of importance, the Betsimisarakamake greatest use of NTFPs for construction,followed by nutrition. Inventories in the naturalforest show that gathering NTFPs and woodleads to disturbance. NTFP availabilitydiminishes inside disturbed forests that aregenerally located near villages and temporaryhouses. A more sustainable use of NTFPsneeds to be promoted in the future.

For further information please contact:RAZAFY FARA LalaUniversity of Antananarivo School of Agronomy, Forestry DepartmentB.P. 175101 Antananarivo, MADAGASCAREmai l : fara la la@hotmai l .com [email protected]: + 261 20 22 316 09

THE IMPORTANCE OF NTFPs FORLOCAL PEOPLE IN BURKINA FASO

By Rüdiger Wittig and Karen Hahn-Hadjali

The use of wild plants to obtain food,medicines and many other vitalcommodities is of extraordinary importancefor the rural population of West Africa.Surveys conducted among the variousethnic groups in Burkina Faso (Mossi,Fulbe, Gulimancéba and Dagara) andBenin (Fulbe, Waama and Bétamaribé)have shown that more than two-thirds of allplant species are put to use (Wittig et al.2000). These plants are employedpredominantly to produce traditional herbalmedicines (78.6 %), as pasture (fodder)(43.6 %), and as food for human beings(41.9 %). To a lesser extent, they are usedas a source of tanning agents, dyes (7.7 %)and fibres (8.5 %) and in traditionalveterinary medicine (7.7 %) (Hahn 1996,Kéré 1998, Wittig & Martin 1995). In thiscontext, non-woody parts of trees andbushes (i.e. non-timber forest products)such as leaves, flowers, fruits, resin, sap,bark, seeds and roots also play a majorrole. Another factor that should not beforgotten is the importance of bushes forbeekeeping (cf. e.g. Guinko et al. 1992). Inthe eastern part of Burkina Faso (Tapoa,Gourma, Kompienga, Boulgou and GnagnaProvinces), such uses were documented for117 species, which is more than 80% of thetotal number of woody species. For most ofthese species, several uses were

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documented.

Great importance is attached to the medicinaluses of plants in this part of the world. Morethan 80 % of the population of Burkino Faso(Guinko 1984) rely on traditional medicaltreatments for common illnesses; the low costof herbal medicines is an important factorhere. People consult university trained doctorsonly for severe medical problems. For manydiseases, numerous species are used eitheralone or in combination with other species.The inhabitants of southeastern Burkina Fasomake use of 92 woody plants; in the majorityof plants (65.2%) the roots are used, followedby the leaves (46.7%) and bark (44.6 %). Toa lesser extent fruits (9.8 %), flowers (2.2 %)and seeds (2.2 %) are used, followed bythorns (1.1 %) and sap (1.1 %).

When woody plants are used as a source offood, it is usually the leaves which are eatenas vegetables or employed as seasoning. Inseveral cases, the flowers and/or fruit are alsoeaten.

We documented nine woody plants used as asource of tanning agents or dyes in theeastern part of Burkina Faso. Moreover, fibresare obtained from 10 species.

Species diversity plays a less crucial role inpasture than in the use of plants for humannutrition. What is decisive for animal fodder isnot individual species, but groups of speciesoccurring with spatial and temporal proximity.During the dry period, a number of species –in particular, Afzelia africana, Khayasenegalensis and Pterocarpus erinaceus – arepruned.

Whereas the harvesting of flowers, fruits andthorns does not impair the vitality of the plantsfrom which they are taken, practices such asfrequently tearing off leaves to obtain food forhuman beings or animals and, in particular,chopping off entire branches as animal fodder

can damage trees, especially if thesepractices coincide with an unfavourableclimatic situation such as drought. Otherpractices, such as removing large pieces ofbark or digging out parts of roots, invariablyhave a detrimental effect and oftenculminate in tree death. For this reason,reforestation measures or efforts to plantgroups of individual trees should focus onthose species which are presently beingdepleted at an especially high rate at thelocations where they grow in the wild.

For the list of references please contact theauthor.

Prof. Dr. R. WittigGeobotanik und PflanzenökologieJohann Wolfgang Goethe-UniversitätD-60054 Frankfurt am MainGermany

MIOMBO WOODLAND UTILISATION BYSMALL-SCALE FARMERS. EXAMPLESFROM FOUR VILLAGES IN HANDENI-DISTRICT, TANZANIA 1

By Marion Karmann

Background of the studyMiombo woodlands cover about 48 % ofTanzania’s land surface and are asettlement area for small-scale farmers andcattle-breeders. The population is sparse,but the area covered by miombo isdecreasing rapidly. In many regionsdominated by miombo, deforestation ismainly caused by small-scale farmingtogether with the increasing activities ofprofessional charcoal miners and theestablishment of plantations or settlementareas. In the research area, Handeni,however, degradation mainly results fromforest fires connected with shiftingcultivation, hunting, and other factors.

Methods

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The principal objective of the study was toreach a better understanding of the utilisationof miombo woodlands in the research areathrough descriptive analysis. A derivedobjective was to describe the potentialdevelopment of the region to meetsubsistence needs and improved incomegeneration, as well as examining ergonomicfactors such as labour organisation andtraining.

The investigation was focused on theinhabitants of four villages from two differentecological zones in the miombo woodlands.Information relating to the utilisation of forest-resources by local people, especially thepotential use of NTFPs, was collected throughindividual interviews and group discussions aswell as field observations and key interviewswithin and outside the research area.

People and environmentThe villages Kang'ata, Kwamagome,Kwediboma and Mafisa, located in theHandeni District, Tanga Region, of Tanzania,all suffer from poor access. Most of the peoplebelong to the Zigua and Nguu ethnic groups,both of which basically depend on small-scaleagriculture for subsistence needs. At times,semi-nomadic cattle-rearing Maasai also livein this area. They depend on milk and othercattle products. Because their life style anddiet differs from that of the Zigua/Nguu, theirknowledge of useful NTFPs from the miombowoodland also differs. All three ethnic groupsare similar, however, in that they considerwoodlands to be primarily a resource foragriculture and cattle grazing.

Subsistence, and even basic survival, in thearea is entirely dependent on the availability ofa diverse range of products from thewoodlands: firewood is the only rural source ofenergy; timber, poles and branches are usedfor construction of houses, huts andenclosures; bark fibres provide ropes; andgrass is used for roofing. Wood and bark are

also used in the manufacture of furnitureand simple modes of transport. Wildlife andedible mushrooms offer an importantsource of protein, particularly where cattlehusbandry is not possible (e.g. in tsetse flyinfested areas). During the recurrent hungerperiods experienced in rural regions, foodfrom wild plants often provides a lastchance for survival. Medicinal plants maybe the only medicines available for thosewithout access to hospitals; they are alsoimportant for the health care of livestock.

Main use of NTFPsDuring the study, four woodland products(or groups of products) were identifiedjointly with the participants. These productsare used by different sections of thepopulation, and are seen as being suitablefor sustainable use and possible marketing.

Honey is mainly used for subsistenceconsumption, generally in fermented formas local beer, which plays a major role intraditional culture. Honey is collected eitherthrough environmentally sound bee-keepingtechniques with hives or through destructivehoney hunting. Harvesting and processingof honey can create jobs and income.Intensification of skilled bee-keeping wouldnot have any negative consequences forecological or social functions.

Bark from selected tree species and boleforms is used in large amounts for differentpurposes by men and women.

Food from wild trees and bushes is usedmainly during extreme dry seasons or toprepare certain local meals as asupplementary food. As their monetaryvalue is very low, they are rarely sold andare available to fulfil the rural population’sown needs. Compared to other regions ofthe country, only a small proportion of thepotential edible plants are used and fewstorage techniques are known.

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A wide range of edible mushrooms exists inthe miombo, but consumption by local peopleis limited. Compared to several other miombo-rich countries, the potential of mushrooms isvery underutilised.

ResultsParticipant observation and information fromlocal experts revealed discrepancies betweenthe extent of rural people’s knowledge of thepotential values of the forest and its productsand the extent of their actual use of forestresources, especially for the selectedproducts. Even though there is a largedemand for income sources, NTFPs areprimarily used to meet household needs. Moreextensive marketing is possible for someproducts and could be considered as anincentive for the conservation of thewoodlands. The acceptance levels for greaterpromotion of utilisation and marketing ofNTFPs varied between and withincommunities.

For subsistence economies, a greater use ofNTFPs can be recommended, except for thecase of bark spl i t t ing. Greatercommercialisation, on the other hand, is onlycautiously recommended because of the highrisks. The establishment of collaborativeprocessing and marketing would favour thecommercial possibilities of all productsinvestigated.

The key contribution of this study is theadditional knowledge and information itprovides about current utilisation of themiombo woodland and its social andecological consequences. The discussionsinitiated among the villagers concerning therelative importance of current uses, thepossibilities, and perspectives for sustainablemiombo management can be seen as a steptowards an increased appreciation of theresources of the woodlands.

1 Summary of the Dissertation: Karmann, M.:

Untersuchungen zur nachhaltigenMiombowald-Nutzung am Beispiel von vierDörfern im Handeni-Distrikt, Tansania. IV,302 S. . Ill., Kt.; (dt.) Freiburg, Univ., Diss.,1998

Marion KarmannHerdstr.458332 SchwelmGermanyTel: +49 2332 913892Email: [email protected]

NTFP USE AND SUSTAINABILITY: THEEXAMPLE OF PRUNUS AFRICANA INCAMEROON

by Jobst –Michael Schröder

IntroductionSince the early 1990s, non-timber forestproducts (NTFPs) have been assumed toeffectively contribute to the preservation oftropical forests and the improvement offorest dwellers’ economic situation byraising awareness of the value of naturalresources. This simple and promisingapproach was rapidly put into practice inmany forestry-related development projectsin tropical countries. The case of Prunusafricana in Cameroon prooves, however,that the highly advocated NTFP panacea isnot always positively effective.

The commodityThe bark of P. africana (family Rosaceae) isa well established pharmaceutical rawmaterial on the world market. The tree isindigenous to the afromontane mountainsfrom Madagascar to Sao Tomé and fromEthiopia to South Africa. The evergreen treecan reach heights of 30 m and a dbh of 150cm when mature. In Cameroon the treeoccurs naturally in three distinct areas ofthe evergreen moist forests on Mt.

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Cameroon at elevations between 800 and2000m asl. Besides timber utilisation the mostimportant value of the tree species is itspharmaceutical significance. This is due tomedically active ingredients in the bark of thetree. The European pharmaceutical market, inparticular, has required substantial quantitiesof raw and processed bark material fromCameroon. It is estimated that up to 3000metric tons of bark or bark products wereexported from Cameroon per year in the early1990s. The market value of the final product isestimated at US $220 million a year.

P. africana exhibits complete bark regrowthafter a careful debarking of small panelsleaving patches to nourish the tree and toproduce new bark. A new harvest is thenpossible after 5-7 years. Thus, the treespecies offers ideal prerequisites for asustainable use of a non-timber forestresource as long as the harvest is carried outcarefully and by skilled workers. The currentharvesting arrangement is a regional licencesystem, granting permits to a restrictednumber of bark merchants for a certainquantity of bark.

Because of economic hardship and a certaindissatisfaction with the licence system, partsof the local population around Mt. Cameroonbecame involved in uncontrol ledoverexploitation of Prunus bark, including treefelling for complete bark stripping. Aninventory carried out in the SW of Mt.Cameroon revealed in 1996 that the barkharvest exceeded sustainable utilisation by400 to 800%. Continued harvesting at thislevel was calculated to be possible for only 5to 7 years, after which local resources wouldbe exhausted and the tree species face localextinction.

Factors of failureTo understand the unfortunate process inregard to the state of P. africana around Mt.Cameroon, it is necessary to understand the

following factors:

S During the last two centuries the areawas subject to several waves ofimmigration by different ethnicgroups. Members of the indigenouspopulation also emigrated to otherareas. Both processes caused asubstantial destabilisation of socialties and traditional regulations.

S Under the traditional land tenuresystem, natural forests areconsidered a common propertyresource. Dignitaries see themselvesas guardians of the forests, holdingthe natural heritage in trust for futuregenerations. In contrast, most of thebark stripping teams active in thearea, came from other regions andwere regarded as strangers exploitinga locally owned resource.

S During colonial times the localpopulation was partly deprived oftheir land use rights. Recent forestlegislation further restricts the use offorests by local people. Forestdwellers therefore feel marginalisedfrom natural resources they considerto be their own.

These factors caused a widespread andincreasing dissatisfaction among thepopulation. Younger people epecially,perceived the forests as being a source ofquick and easy cash income. When theCameroonian currency suddenly devaluatedby 50% in the early 1990s, traditionalregulations were not able to adapt to copewith the intensified economic pressure.Villagers began to compete to strip all barkfrom Prunus trees, disregarding alltraditional control arrangements andsustainable harvesting practices.

Analysis

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Several factors caused the unsustainable useof a promising NTFP in the moist forestsaround Mt. Cameroon. The traditional controlsystem of sustainable forest utilisation workedwell as long as there were no externaldisturbances. Historical, social and legalconditions caused a substantial shift ofattitude towards natural resources among thelocal population. Triggered by economichardship, the possibility of gaining cashincome from the forests led to a carelessexploitation of a valuable resource previouslyprotected by local people. Examples fromother parts of the tropics and with differentNTFPs have come to similar conclusions.Communities experiencing a daily struggle tomeet their basic needs, cannot be expected toprioritise ecological concerns. The case of P.africana therefore suggests that pressure ontropical forests cannot always be eased by thecommercialisation and sustainable use ofNTFPs.

Dr. J-M. SchröderInstitute for World Forestry,Federal Research Centre for Forestry andForest ProductsLeuschnerstr. 9121027 Hamburg, GermanyTel: +49 40 73962 100Fax: +49 40 73962 480

WILD EDIBLE FUNGI, MIOMBOWOODLAND AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS

By Eric Boa and Gerald Meke

In 1999 we began a three year project toinvestigate the wild edible fungi associatedwith miombo woodlands. These woodlandsconsist of native tree species, many of whichdepend on fungus-root associations ormycorrhizae for their survival. An unusuallylarge number of these associations areectomycorrhizal and the fungus partnerproduces fruiting bodies above ground duringthe main rainy season. A significant number of

the fungal species are edible. Many of themare poorly known to science.

Miombo woodlands occur from Zimbabweto Tanzania and Mozambique to Angola.They are extensively used by local people.In Malawi and other countries in the region,wild edible fungi are an important source offood when traditional sources of nutritionare scarce. There are significant roadsidemarkets, predominantly for local trade, aswell as a limited movement of produce tomore lucrative urban markets, such asBlantyre and Lilongwe.

Wild edible fungi are perhaps the leastunderstood NTFPs from miombowoodlands. There are major gaps in dataconcerning the types and names of wildedible fungi, the size of harvests andwhether increased pressure on the miombowoodlands is leading to a decline inproductivity. Despite the extensive localknowledge about edible fungi that still existsin Malawi – as witnessed by the bewilderingvariety of local names – there is alsosuspicion and caution about poisonousvarieties that has been acquired fromEuropeans.

Another reason for the weak history ofresearch on wild edible fungi is the scarcityof specialists to identify them. CABIBioscience has been able to assist inidentifications through the help of Paul Kirkand Graham Piearce, who are slowlygetting to grips with the diversity of edibleand non-edible species. In the process, theyhave had to rethink the European conceptof some fungus groups. There remains,however, a great deal to be done inproviding taxonomic support in this area.

A renewed interest in NTFPs has led tomore research and information gathering. Itis vital that this research addresses theessential link between NTFPs and theneeds and concerns of rural communities.

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This is something that the Miombo EdibleFungi project has been striving to achieve.Originally conceived by Dr Jim Waller of CABIBioscience, and developed jointly by Eric Boatogether with the late Jimmy Lowore of theForestry Research Institute of Malawi, thisproject is funded by the UK Department forInternational Development . Its main aim is tostudy the importance of wild edible fungi tolocal people, investigate levels of productivityand determine the potential of these fungi toimprove livelihoods.

Work began in March 1999. During the firstfield season, plots were established in fourforest reserves in Malawi and regularlymonitored during the three month growingseason. Surveys of local markets were carriedout during the same period (January to April2000). A preliminary analysis of results fromLiwonde and Perekezi showed a total incomefor traded edible fungi of around US$2000 andUS$800 respectively. The weight of ediblefungi sold was approximately 5500 tons forLiwonde and 5000 tons for Perekezi. Theactual number harvested is likely to be muchhigher since we assume that a significantproportion is consumed directly by the pickers.

Liwonde and Perekezi are only two of themany areas in Malawi where fungi are sold bythe roadside. There are local markets inMozambique, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and othercountries with miombo woodlands but data onvolume and value are rarely available. Ourown research is helping to show that wildedible fungi are an important and valuableresource and we urgently need moreinformation so that we can help to improveand sustain rural livelihoods through theapplication of appropriate knowledge.

A priority for the present recording season isto tackle some of the taxonomic gaps that wesense will limit our ability to apply scientificknowledge for the benefit of ruralcommunities. We are currently gathering oursecond set of field data and looking generally

for closer links with organisations andresearchers interested in the topic of wildedible fungi. Ties have been establishedacross the border with the FAO project ledby Patrick Mushove in Nampula and welook forward to closer collaboration in thefuture.

We held a one day meeting in July 2000,attended by Malawi foresters, NGOs andresearchers. Eric Boa has produced adetailed proceedings which brings togetherdiscussions held at the meeting, otherreports on wild edible fungi and thepreliminary findings from the field andmarket surveys. There are also extensivebibliographies and an account by DrAnxious Masuka from Zimbabwe of hiswork there and in Mozambique. Copies canbe obtained from Dr Boa. We would bepleased to hear from others with an interestin any of the topics and issues raised in thisarticle.

This publication is an output from aresearch project funded by the UnitedKingdom Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) for the benefit ofdeveloping countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFID.[R7250 Flexibility Fund]

Dr Eric BoaCABI BioscienceBakeham LaneEghamSurrey TW20 9TYUnited KingdomTel: +44 1491 829044, Fax: 44 1491829100 Email: [email protected]

Gerald MekeForestry Research InstitutePO Box 270ZombaMalawi

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Tel: +265 522866, Fax: +265 522782Email: [email protected]

A REVIEW OF CURRENT RESEARCHACTIVITIES BEING UNDERTAKEN BY THEINTERNATIONAL ECOTOURISM SOCIETY

By Lynnaire Sheridan

In recent decades, ecotourism has emergedas a popular type of nature-based tourism.The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)defines this activity as "responsible travel tonatural areas that conserves the environmentand sustains the well-being of local people".Essentially, it is small-scale, ecologicallysustainable tourism that takes place in naturalareas, it encourages the environmentaleducation of tourists, contributes toconservation while promoting the economicand social well-being of the local hostcommunity. As such, ecotourism isdependent on natural areas, particularlynational parks and managed forests.

Ecotourism has attracted the attention ofprotected area managers because ecotouristsare fascinated by areas of high biodiversitybut, with good tour interpretation, can come toappreciate the intricacies of any ecosystem.Currently there are no European data onecotourists but North American researchindicates that these tourists contribute toconservation through entrance fees toprotected areas and also pay more for theirtours if there is a contribution to conservationby the tour operator (tour operators have evenestablished non-profit organizations to helpprotect the natural resource). Ecotouristsboost local economies with longer stays andsupport local values when they selectauthentic experiences over commercializedproducts.

TIES has a dynamic network of 1700members in 74 different countries that tries topromote the values of ecotourism. Our main

initiatives reflect the needs of our members,a diverse group comprised of ecotouroperators, protected area managers, academics andecotourists. This core group not onlysupports our work but many memberspractise it successfully on the ground.Current TIES initiatives include "Your TravelChoice Makes a Difference", MarineEcotourism Guidelines, EcolodgeGuidelines, "The Business of NatureLodges" and the Regional EcotourismAssessment Program (REAP). We are alsopreparing for 2002, the United NationsInternational Year of Ecotourism.

In 1999 TIES launched the "Your TravelChoice Makes a Difference" campaign toincrease consumer awareness of theenvironmental impact of poorly managednature-based tourism. Its focus is educatingtourists about sustainable nature tourismand creating awareness of the powerfulchoices a tourist can make for sustainabilityduring travel planning. There has beenconsiderable demand for the consumerbrochure (it is about to be reprinted) andthe TIES website (www.ecotourism.org)incorporates "Travel Choice" pages thatprovide helpful hints on choosing touroperators who support the values ofecotourism.

At the international level, TIES network hasset about developing global guidelines andencouraging best practice in differentaspects of ecotourism industry. The NatureTour Operator Guidelines were prepared viainternational review and released in 1993.They have received considerable industrysupport and encourage sustainablebusiness practices. In 2001, TIES willrelease the product of five years of researchand global consultation which haveculminated in the Ecolodge Guidelines andMarine Ecotourism Guidelines.

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The year 2001 will also see the publication of"The Business of Nature Lodges", the resultsof the first-ever study to investigate theeconomic viability of ecolodges. TIESmembers deemed it essential to research allaspects of ecotourism's sustainability;ecological, socio-cultural and economic. Thisresearch also addressed requests fromdevelopment funding agencies for "hard"figures that would enable assessment ofecotourism as a tool for conservation andpoverty alleviation.

The REAP research endeavor currently has apilot study being undertaken in Belize.Primarily intended for conservation anddevelopment agencies to assess the viabilityof ecotourism in a region, REAP will provide astandardized system for regional ecotourismassessment and, ideally, attract funding toprojects that will be ecologically, socially andeconomically viable with the aim ofmaximizing the value of ecotourism as aconservation tool.

The year 2002 will provide TIES with a uniqueopportunity to showcase our experiences overthe last ten years and promote the trueprinciples of ecotourism. The broader tourismindustry is growing at an unprecedented rate,ecotourism is only a niche within the largerindustry but ecotourism will encourage theconservation of our world's precious naturalresources and promote the well-being of ourcommunities.

For further information please contact:

Lynnaire Maria SheridanInformation SpecialistThe International Ecotourism SocietyP.O. Box 668Burlington, VT 05402USATel: +1 (802) 651-9818Fax: +1 (802) 651-9819Email: [email protected]: www.ecotourism.org

DEVELOPING AND TESTING CRITERIAAND INDICATORS FOR THEASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OFECOTOURISM IN TROPICAL RAINFORESTS

By Bernd Stecker

IntroductionEcotourism is the fasted-growing sector ofthe world’s largest industry, tourism.According to development and conservationorganisations, the potential of ecotourism toincrease the economic attractiveness ofconserving tropical rain forests should bepromoted. It is argued that with thiscomparatively “wise” form of forestresource use(1) negative environmental impacts on

the forest ecosystems can be keptlow,

(2) new and/or additional funds can bemobilized to support protected forestareas, and

(3) the living conditions of the localpopulation can be improved throughthe provision of alternative sourcesof income and employment.

This would lead to a greater interest by theparties concerned, in maintaining andpreserving protected tropical forests moreeffectively. But how can one determine ifthese ecotourism goals have been attainedin specific cases? In order to address thisproblem, criteria and indicators (C&I) weredeveloped as a tool for the assessment,analysis and evaluation of ecotourism inprotected rain forests.

MethodsFirst, a broad literature review wasconducted of the experiences made worldwide with tourism in natural areas. Duringthis process numerous parameters wereidentified and systematised. In a followingbrainstorming process all relevant

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parameters were classified either as acriterion or an indicator, resulting in a workingset of 70 C&I. With this set a comparable casestudy was carried out in two National Parks inMalaysia. Here it was found that some C&Iwere either not applicable, unsuitable ordifficult to assess. Thus, in an iterativeprocess, the C&I were constantly modified oreliminated according to practicability andefficiency, resulting in an end set of 38 C&I.

Indicators are the essential element of theassessment process and are based on theavailability of data. These were generated by(a) reviewing secondary data sources, (b)expert interviews, and (c) participatory ruralappraisal techniques (PRA) such as semi-structured interviews, direct and participatoryobservation and transect walks. Theevaluation was carried out by comparing theactual “measured” value of an indicator with areference value or a norm. As ecotourism is arelatively new concept, generally acceptednorms do not yet exist for most indicators.Thus, on the basis of the available literatureand the opinions of experts, three “trendcategories” were applied to express either afavourable (88) no clear (::) or an unfavourable(99) trend for each indicator towards thefulfilment of a criterion and subsequently ofcompliance with a goal.

The case study areas are located in WestMalaysia. Taman Negara National Park (TN)in the north-east covers an area of 4,000 km²and is the country’s largest protected lowlandrain forest area. About 8,000 Malay villagerslive within or adjacent to the park boundaries.The park is the most popular nature tourismdestination and experienced a boom intourism in the mid-1990s with 45,000 visitorsper year. Endau-Rompin State Park (ER) islocated in the south, contains lowland rainforest and is still home to 600 indigenousforest dwellers. The park covers an area of90,000 ha. With 2,000 visitors per year, thePark is still in the pioneer phase of tourismdevelopment; the infrastructure is minimal.

ResultsThe TABLE presents the final set of C&I.The right column contains the results of theC&I testing in the case study areas.Particularly with regard to criteria III to VI,which are the decisive ones for achievingthe goals connected with ecotourism, theresults in both parks reveal some differenttrends.

In Taman Negara the goals have not yetbeen reached. The over-use of highlyfrequented locations results inenvironmental damage such as erosion oftrails and river banks, water pollution,destruction of vegetation, loss of speciesand abnormal behaviour of wild animals.Although tourism is booming in the parkand considerable revenue is generated as aresult of the money spent by the tourists inthe park, 90% of this leaks out of the parkregion. Economic multiplier effects on ruraldevelopment are therefore minimal. Also,the revenue generated by the parkadministration from entrance, use andconcession fees does not even cover half ofthe management costs to provide thetourism opportunity. Insufficient educationand training of the local population restricttheir employment opportunities to the lesspaid and unskilled jobs. Furthermore, therevenue from tourism is unequallydistributed while, at the same time, risingprices and the increase of usage bans havea negative effect on local people’s means ofsecuring a livelihood. The reasons for thisare primarily to be found in the lack of acomprehensive and effective managementplan, inadequate control, monitoring andvisitor management techniques, diverginginterests of the parties involved and,particularly, the insufficient participation ofthe local population. This results in lack ofacceptance of the protected area andconstant use conflicts between the parkadministration and the local residents.

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By contrast, the ecotourism goals in Endau-Rompin are mainly being achieved. In orderto minimise negative environmental andsocio-economic impacts, a comprehensivedevelopment and management plan wasdrawn up before large numbers of touristswere allowed to enter the park. Also, from thebeginning a cooperative ecotourismmanagement concept was implementedinvolving park authorities, nature touroperators, NGOs and local residents. Due tothe limited infrastructure in the park,considerable income and employmentopportunities for the local population exist asthe tourists have to take up almost all servicesoffered by the local villagers. This has lead todecreasing ‘illegal’ resource use by the localpopulation while, at the same time, theacceptance of the protected forest area isincreasing. However, only a revision of theC&I testing after a certain period of time willreveal if this positive development can still beconfirmed once the tourism boom phase hasbeen reached.

ConclusionsFor both case study areas the proposed C&Iset was found to be basically suitable - anddoable in a justified amount of time - for theassessment, analysis and evaluation of thefundamental framework conditions and

preconditions for ecotourism as well as theecological and socio-economic impactsaccompanying. Looking at all C&I together,recommendations for action could be madefor those indicators showing anu n f a v o u r a b l etrend towards the fulfilment of a criterion.Development organisations could, forinstance, apply this instrument as a guiding‘checklist’ to assess and analyse thee l i g i b i l i t y of ecotourism for aid. Also, the C&I set canbe used as a basis for further evaluationapproaches, such as the development of aneco-label for protected areas utilised bytourism. Finally, although its role should notbe overestimated, it is recommended thatgreater importance be attributed to thepotential of ecotourism as a tool for theconservation of tropical forests.

For further information please contact:

Dr. Bernd Stecker, Faculty of Forestry Fachhochschule Eberswalde,Alfred-Moeller-Str. 116225 EberswaldeGermanyTel: +49-3334-65450Email: [email protected]

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF TROPICAL FORESTMANAGEMENT

By Carol J. Pierce Colfer and CIFOR’s ACMTeam

Between 1994 and 1997, the Center forInternational Forestry Research (CIFOR) wasinvolved in a project to test criteria andindicators for sustainable forest management.A part of that work focused on social criteriaand indicators, and the appropriate methodsneeded to assess such social conditions. Thesocial criteria and indicators, like CIFOR’sGeneric Template of C&I (see the 9 tools in

the CIFOR C&I Toolbox 1999), emergedfrom analysis of a number ofinterdisciplinary field tests in a number ofcountries. The three broad topics thatproved the most important for human wellbeing, within the context of sustainableforest management were:

S The maintenance or enhancement offair intergenerational access toresources and economic benefits,

S Acknowledged rights and means tomanage forests cooperatively andequitably, and

S The acceptability to all stakeholders

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Developing and Testing Criteria and Indicators for theAssessment and Evaluation of Ecotourism in Tropical Rain Forests

Bernd Stecker

C I: Integration into national policy and planning

Malaysia

Ind 1: Political stability/ threats to touristsInd 2: Tourism & nature conservation policyInd 3: Land use planningInd 4: IncentivesInd 5: Overall sector co-ordinationInd 6: Involvement of NGOsInd 7: Nature conservation personnelInd 8: Education and trainingInd 9: Marketing

↑↑↑↑↔↔↑↑↑↑↑↑↔↔↓↓↑↑

C II: Suitability of the forest area for ecotourism TN ERInd 1: Protection statusInd 2: Size of areaInd 3: Indigenous residentsInd 4: Natural attractionsInd 5: Visibility of wild animalsInd 6: Cultural attractionsInd 7: AccessibilityInd 8: Climatic conditionsInd 9: Health risks

↑↑↑↑--↑↑↔↔↔↔↑↑↔↔↔↔

↑↑↑↑--↑↑↓↓↔↔↔↔↔↔↔↔

C III: Integration into a comprehensive management planInd 1: Management Plan ↔↔ ↑↑C IV: Ecologically sound management of tourism activitiesInd 1: Environmental impactsInd 2: Monitoring and controlInd 3: Visitor managementInd 4: Environmental educationInd 5: Number of staffInd 6: Qualification of staff

↓↓↓↓↓↓↑↑↓↓↔↔

↔↔↔↔↑↑↑↑↓↓↔↔

C V: Revenue in support of the protected forest areaInd 1: Amount/distribution of tourist expenditureInd 2: Fee takings of the Park administrationInd 3: Revenue to support management costs

--↓↓↓↓

--↑↑↑↑

C VI: Participation of the local populationInd 1: Voice & rights in development decisionsInd 2: Income and employmentInd 3: Level of education and trainingInd 4: Capital availability

↓↓↓↓↓↓↓↓

↔↔↑↑↓↓↓↓

italic = most important indicator

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of the health of forest actors, cultures,and the forest.

At the same time, a series of activities hadbeen underway, looking at devolutionprocesses and how formal regulations playedout on the ground. Part of that workdocumented the complexity and utility ofindigenous systems, focusing on adaptation innaturally occurring systems of people-forestinteractions. We found growing evidence ofthe diversity, complexity, and unpredictabilityof how human and ecological systemsaffected forests (examples reported in Colferand Byron 2001). Local human systems, wealso noted, had important components of useto forestry more generally.

Although the identification and improveddefinition of what we meant by these issuesproved useful in alerting forestry professionalsand others to important social issues, ourconclusion at CIFOR was that this was simplynot enough. Real progress would not occuruntil a) we could see the conditions specifiedin the criteria and indicators evident in the realworld, and b) the potential contribution of localcommunities in forest management wasacknowledged and widely used as a valuablehuman resource. As we discussed ourfindings in our respective fields of research,we could not avoid the conclusion thatparticularly tropical forests were in a state ofcrisis. Non timber forest products were, ifanything, even more adversely affected thanwere timber resources - with correspondinglynegative impacts on the local people whodepended on those products. We concludedthat a more action-oriented approach wasneeded.

Bringing together scientists from two ofCIFOR’s previous programmes and identifyingsuitable partners in other countries, weplanned a programme - “Local People,Devolution, and Adaptive CollaborativeManagement of Forests” - to address forestmanagement problems in tropical forest

areas. We have entered into partnershipswith universities, NGOs, governments, andprojects, trying always to build on ongoingfieldwork in our countries of choice. Wehave developed a two-pronged approach,involving both collaborative experimentationwith management of those forest resourcesdeemed important locally, usingparticipatory action research, and asystematic effort to document and evaluatehow well this approach works.

In this research we seek to identifymechanisms that build on existing localforest management systems, starting withlocal communities residing in and aroundforests, and involving other stakeholders,such as timber, plantation, or miningcompanies, resettlement schemes, andconservation area managers, asappropriate. In our participatory actionresearch, we will examine strategies toinstitutionalize collaborative learning,seeking an iterative or adaptive approach tomanagement in particular forests.

The strengths of this effort include:S The commitment to building on

indigenous and other local systems,recognizing the knowledge, skills,and motivation of local stakeholdersto better manage local resources -particularly relevant for NTFPmanagement;

S Experimentation with the use ofadapted criteria and indicators as astarting point for institutionalizing anadaptive learning process in localmanagement;

S Serious efforts to identify or createlinks between local communities andforests on the one hand, andpolicymakers at various levels, onthe other;

S The scientific potential to be gainedfrom comparing multiple casesacross a series of dimensionsalready recognized as important

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within forest-people interactions.

Some of these dimensions include thefollowing: S Devolution status: In Nepal, local

people have recognized, legal rights toforest use; in Indonesia, traditional rightshave not been acknowledged legally.

S Level of conflict: This can vary from siteto site within countries, and we arecharacterizing our sites on thisdimension.

S Management type: In Cameroon,logging and conservation contexts areimportant, with varying implications forNTFP use; in the miombo woodlands ofZimbabwe, management is sharedbetween the people and the government.

S Forest quality: In Brazil, there are vastexpanses of high quality forest; whereasin the Philippines, our sites tend to becharacterized by degraded forests.

S Social capital: This, like level of conflict,can vary from community to communityand will have to be assessed on a siteby site basis.

Our comparative participatory action researchwork is already underway in Asia (Philippines,Nepal and Indonesia), in Africa (Zimbabwe,Malawi, Cameroon, and Ghana), and in SouthAmerica (Brazil and Bolivia). These action-oriented components are complemented byfocused research looking at devolution anddecentralization, institutions, and conflictmanagement. We are also experimentingwith various modeling frameworks, to reflectthe interactions we identify in the field, and tohelp us in communicating our findings in amanner that is more widely understandable oraccessible than conventional case studies.

For further information please contact:

Carol J. Pierce ColferCIFORPO Box 6596 JKPWBJakarta 10065, Indonesia

Tel: +62-251-622622, Fax: +62-251-622100, E-mail: [email protected] http://www.cgiar.org/cifor

NTFPS AND FOREST FRUITS IN SOUTH-EAST MÉXICO

Remi Gauthier and Nigel Poole – TH HuxleySchool, Imperial College at WyeAliza Mizrahi and Verónica Gómez –Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, México

IntroductionRecent enthusiasm concerning NTFPs asan important food and income source forforest margin households has beentempered by constraints to the developmentof forest economies. The extraction offorest products is not an inherentlysus ta inab le p rocess in e i thersocioeconomic or ecological terms, and thebenefits from commercialisation have notalways increased the incomes of the ruralpoor.

This article reports work undertaken toinvestigate the opportunities for enhancingforest fruit use. The focus of the research isforest margin groups in south-west Indiaand south-east México. Some tentative butinteresting results are emerging from theanalysis of the first data set from a Mayancommunity who live in the village of Majas,in the State of Yucatán, México.

The Mayan contextIt is believed that the ancient Mayasactively managed their forest ecosystems.Evidently, much of the traditionalknowledge has been conserved: thepeninsular flora is still used by theinhabitants of the Yucatán today formultiple purposes. There continues to be awell-informed Mayan silviculture,comprising protection of trees, cultivation,s e l e c t i o n a n d d o m e s t i c a t i o n ,transplantation, and introduction of new

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species.

Findings from MajasOur initial research results are consistent withmany of the common assumptions aboutforest margin communities. Even under‘modern’ patterns of land tenure, such as theMexican ejido system, there is a system ofcontrolled community forest management.The forest is important to all households inMajas as a source of both timber and non-timber products, which account for 18 % of allincome sources (agriculture: 27 %, paidlabour: 25 %, government support: 20 %).

Forest products for home consumptionApart from honey, NTFPs are not widelymarketed by the people of Majas. Forest fruitssuch as sakpaj (Byrsonima bucidaefolia) andzapote (Manilkara sapota) are collected everyyear by many households (>70%), but mostlyfor home consumption. All households use theforest every day for sourcing firewood and tocollect fruit and plants for medicinal and otherpurposes. Other forest resources are exploitedmainly by men, sometimes accompanied bytheir sons, on an occasional basis (monthly orless) or more frequently. This is true also forthatching and timber for construction andother purposes, and for hunting and trappingof wild animals for home consumption.

Commercial use of forest products

While all households collect and consumeforest fruits, it is the better-off families whouse them for commercial purposes. Onaverage, forest fruits account for a only asmall proportion of the income from forestproducts and an even smaller proportion oftotal household income. However, in thecommunity of Majas there is one familyw h ostand out as significant traders, not just offorest fruits, but of NTFPs in general, as thefollowing Table on the next page shows.

Enhanced commercialisation?This intriguing inverse relationship betweenpoverty and commercial use of forestproducts raises issues about theexploitation of forest resources in generaland forest fruits in particular. There is nodoubt that there are opportunities forenhanced commercialisation. For example,sakpaj is sold in the holiday resort ofCancún, where it is used as a bar snack.However, only six households in Majas soldsakpaj and one trader family were the majorbeneficiary. This suggests that there maybe marketing barriers that preventcommercial use of NTFPs by the Mayancommunities. Depending on the nature ofthese barriers, improved marketing mayimprove incomes for the poorest – or helponly the better-off families.

The trader family in Majas are anotherintriguing case. They buy forest fruits fromother households in the community and sell totraders mainly from nearby towns. They havea shop and a vehicle, both of which areincome sources to the household that are notavailable to most other households. A greaterunderstanding of this family will help refine ourunderstanding of the opportunities and threatsto developing the NTFP economy.

ConclusionThe preliminary analysis presented in thisarticle tends to support the premise thatcommercialisation may benefit the better-off members of the community, whilemaking explicit the need to examine thelinks between marketing barriers andincome status. NTFPs in general, andforest fruits in particular, play an importantrole in the subsistence of the household,despite their relatively modest contributionto household income. The above points

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NTFPs and Forest Fruits in South-east Mexico

Remi Gauthier

Mean per cent of income from different sources, by wealth ranking

Wealth ranking Number ofhouseholds

Per cent incomefrom NTFPs

Per cent incomefrom forest fruits

Well-off 1 27 3Slightly better-off 2 17 0Poor 14 6 <1Very poor 3 5 1

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highlight the need to test the often assumedlink between commercialisation of NTFPs andpoverty alleviation.

This publication is an output from a researchproject funded by the United KingdomDepartment for International Development(DFID) for the benefit of developing countries.The views expressed are not necessarilythose of DFID. [Project R7349, ForestryResearch Programme]

For further information please contact:

Dr. Remi GauthierLecturer in Environment and DevelopmentT H Huxley School of Environment, EarthSciences and EngineeringImperial College at WyeWye, AshfordKentTN25 5AHUnited KingdomTel: +44 20 759 42682 (Note New TelephoneNumber)Fax: +44 1233 812855Email: [email protected]: http://www.ic.ac.uk

WOMEN AND FORESTS: DOES THEIRINVOLVEMENT MATTER?

by Carol J. Pierce Colfer

I would answer the question with anunequivocal “yes”. I will focus on threesources of evidence on which I base thisconviction, each in turn: ethnographic,comparative, and analytical.

The first source of such conviction derivesfrom ethnographic observation over roughlyten years of residence among people inforested areas. I have conducted ethnographicresearch in an American logging community

on the Olympic Peninsula, among swiddencultivators in East Kalimantan and WestKalimantan and in West Sumatra; as wellas among peri-urban truck farmers in Riau,Sumatra. During the course of suchresearch, women’s active involvement inforest-related activities became clear. Thewomen with whom I lived tend to havedifferent roles from men in forestmanagement; they tend to have differentbodies of knowledge about forest and theirproducts than men; and they tend toparticipate in different institutionalarrangements relating to forests than men.

Uma’ Jalan Dayak women, from EastKalimantan, for instance, areS More likely to be involved in the

collection of plant foods from theforests than are men;

S More likely to know about medicinalplants than are men;

S More knowledgeable about plantsgrowing in earlier stages of secondaryregrowth than are men; and

S More likely to engage in and organizecooperative work parties, senguyun,than are men.

These women also participate in collectingparties, in search of forest fruits, bamboos,wrapping or other useful forest leaves,rattan, along with men; and, like men, theyengage in low-intensity silviculturalmanagement of selected trees and otherforest plants. Comparable patterns - ofdifferences in forest use by men andwomen - can be found in all the areaswhere I have worked on a long term basis.Nor is my own experience by any meansunique.

The second source of my conviction thatwomen are important for sustainable forestmanagement derives primarily from myinvolvement in a CIFOR project, calledAssessing Sustainable Forest Management:

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Testing Criteria and Indicators (Cf. Prabhu etal. 1996,1998). This project involvedinterdisciplinary and international tests ofvarious sets of criteria and indicators forsustainable forest management, in Cameroon,Brazil, Indonesia, Côte d’Ivoire, Gabon, theUnited States and Austria, paying specialattention to women’s roles in forestmanagement.

In these studies we learned about thecomplexity of measuring activities and quicklyassessing the nature of women’s involvementin forest management, although theirinvolvement was obvious - e.g. through thecollection and marketing of non timber forestproducts. Women tended to be busier thanmen, surrounded by children in many cases,less likely to speak the national language, andunused to interacting with strangers. Althoughtheir involvement was obvious, there was awhole host of behaviours, customs and beliefsthat interfered with our access to forestwomen.

The third source of my conviction that womenare important in sustainable forestmanagement comes from a more theoreticalanalysis of a series of connections betweenwomen and forests based on a conceptualmodel which considers human well being andecological integrity to be intrinsic parts ofsustainable forest management and focusingon principles, criteria, indicators and verifiers(C&I testing process, see above). I placeparticular emphasis on the fact that anyattempt to model any part of reality is asimplification.

I will focus on the effects of women on forests;in fact forest conditions also affect women’swell being.

Effects of women on forests:Health and Natural IncreaseS Birth rate goes up as health goes down.

People among whom child mortality is

high (one indicator of poor health) tendto produce numerous childrenvoluntarily, to ensure that one or morewill survive to care for them in old age- leading to natural increase. In mostcultures, women play important rolesin ensuring family health - throughcare-giving and through production ofnutritious meals.

S Repeated, particularly closely spaced,pregnancies have adverse effects onwomen’s own health and, byextension, on the health of those theycare for. An exhausted woman cannotprovide as much care to her family ascan a woman with fewer children -potentially leading in a vicious cycle toincreased child mortality and moregeneral morbidity within the family.

Women’s Income/Production and NaturalIncreaseS On a global basis there is a high

correlation between women’s incomeand decreased fertility. Women’sinvolvement in production, tendsempirically to reduce their availabilityfor reproduction.

S On an individual basis, directcontributions to family income increasea woman’s value to the family, and inmany cases gives her a greater voicein decision-making about reproduction,along with a greater motivation toreduce her number of pregnancies.

Education and Natural IncreaseS Globally, education for woman has

been shown to result in lower fertilitylevels (with the Middle East a notableexception).

S From an individual perspective, thisrelationship may occur because of thepostponement of marriage in order topursue education, increasingknowledge about family planning,and/or by increased interest in and

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qualifications for employment outside thehome. An educated woman, with fewerchildren to care for, may allow herdaughters to gain an education, whichreinforces the cycle of lower fertility.

Status and Natural IncreaseS Although status is harder to define there

is evidence that in areas where women’sstatus is higher, fertility rates decline.

S Individually, women with higher statusare likely, almost by definition, to have alarger voice in family decision-making,including in reproductive decision-making. Lower personal fertility levelsmay grant them access to opportunitiesthat would not otherwise have beenavailable (income generation, education)which may in turn reinforce decisions tolimit the number of children they bear.

Impacts on women’s well being:In-migration can badly affect women in forestcommunities - in logging areas, local womenmay be exposed to unwanted advances bystrange men (suffering themselves from agrossly unbalanced sex ratio), or to AIDS andother diseases that may follow the roads thatbring in the forest workers and bring out theforest products.

Typical is women’s lesser access to forestresources, vis-à-vis local men, and even moreso vis-à-vis external stakeholders like loggingcompany personnel and government officials.We could point out their lesser voice in formalforest management and often in localmanagement as well.

Carol J. Pierce ColferCIFORPO Box 6596 JKPWBJakarta 10065, IndonesiaTel: +62-251-622622, Fax: +62-251-622100, E-mail: [email protected] http://www.cgiar.org/cifor

GENDER KNOWLEDGE ABOUT NTFPs

By Salma N. Talhouk, Ingrid Lorbach andMarion Karmann

Forests play a vital role in global foodsecurity, providing food, fodder, fuel andmedicine, and women have historicallybeen the ones using these resources forsubsistence. Extensive knowledge offorests, developed through generations, hashelped women select specific forest foodsthat are an important source of income andnutrition for the family. As foodsupplements, forest foods may evenprevent hunger and famine whenconventional agricultural crops fail.According to an FAO study, communitiesliving in the wooded areas of Thailandderive 60 percent of their foods directlyfrom forests, with tree leaves being themost widely consumed forest foods. Casestudies from Usambara, Tanzania,indicated that 80% of all vegetablesconsumed and 50% of all meals includedleaves from trees (FAO/SIDA; Fleuret). Indry lands, where resources are especiallylimited, women collect wild foods from trees(example from Eastern and SouthernAfrica: Karmann & Lorbach).

Forests are also a major source of paidemployment for rural communities.Women depend more than men on NTFPsand small-scale forest industries forincome. More often than men, they work ascollectors and marketers of NTFPs. Incontrast, men work in commercial forestry,construction, and forest-based industries,and less in subsistence activities, except forhunting. Men are also generally responsiblefor cutting large trees, clearing land foragriculture, and extracting commercialtimber. In the few cases where women areinvolved in forest enterprises, they tend towork as wage labourers, and often faceserious discrimination (Jill Bowling, Isabelle

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Faugere, IFBWW; ILO).

This noted gender-based division of work isbased on both cultural traditions and socio-economic differences. Gender roles canchange over time and in response to changingcircumstances (George Martine & MarcelaVillarreal, FAO / UNFPA Chile). Gender rolesin harvesting of NTFPs are not alwaysstrongly pronounced. Unlike East Africa andAsia where hunting is restricted to men, inLatin America women often help men huntand trap forest animals for meat. In fact, insome parts of Latin America, men and womencollect wild fruits and hunt together (FrankBliss). Carol Grossmann describes IndonesianDayak societies where only men gatherNTFPs in primary forests because women donot venture through the forests on their own.However, when the men locate areas with highNTFP resources they seek their wives’ help.Pitamber Sharma summarises gender issuesin the Himalayas: although women areinvolved in the collection and basic processingof most NTFPs, their involvement is restrictedto low-return, labour-intensive activities.

The sustainable harvesting of NTFPs bywomen for subsistence use is shifting to anoveruse of the resources by men for incomegeneration. In some cases only men profitfrom the cash flow. For example, newinternational markets for medicinal plants likesandalwood roots are decreasing the localstocks that have been historically used in localtrade. In addition, men spend the generatedmoney on alcohol consumption, while womenhave to resort to other sources to secure theirfamily’s medical care.

Case studies from Brazil and East-Africaclearly show that migration and mobile traderscan exploit NTFPs for new markets in shortperiods. Examples from West Africa show thatwomen prefer to collect dry wood, from deadtrees and shrubs, as it is easier to collect,carry and ignite. With dwindling resources inthe vicinity of their villages, however, they

start to cut down trees, even thoseproviding important NTFPs, such as theshea butter tree. Because of their partialdependence on forests and tree productswomen seem to suffer more from forestdepletion than do men.

The sustainable use of forests requires theparticipation of all rural populations,including women. Although women's usesof forest resources often differ from those ofmen, many development programmes tendto overlook women's specific needsregarding forestry and NTFPs. This ismainly due to the lack of adequate data,information and methodologies to addressthis issue. This lack of gender awareness isa constraint to the development ofsustainable use and managementstrategies of forest ecosystems and NTFPsthroughout the world. In Kenya, trialsinitiated by women groups on farm alleycropping with Leucaena and Cassia failedto generate the desired mulch and fuelwoodbecause men trimmed the trees for poles orallowed browsing by goats. In contrast,when left to their own devices, men andwomen separately planted their chosenspecies at chosen sites for their chosenproducts. Once the specific gender divisionof land use and product demand isunderstood, then fieldworkers andpolicymakers may build upon this toreinforce complementarity, resolve conflictsand restore the balance between men andwomen in traditional or experimental landuse systems.

In this context recent efforts concerningcertification programmes for NTFPs needfurther refinement to meet local realitiesand should take into account gender issuesto ensure that the full benefits of NTFPcertification are felt.

Salma Thalouk, Associate ProfessorFaculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences

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The American University of BeirutP.O.Box: 11-0236Riad el Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, LebanonEmail: [email protected]

Marion KarmannHerdstr.458332 Schwelm, GermanyTel: + 49 2332 913892 Email: [email protected]

Ingrid LorbachHellbrook 9522305 Hamburg, GermanyTel: +49 40 6970 4979Email: [email protected]

For the list of references please contact theauthors

WOMEN AND THE BABAÇU PALMFORESTS

By Noemi Porro

In the current state of environmental affairs inBrazil, there are no long-term, effectivelyestablished public policies for sustainablemanagement of non-timber forest resources.Using the case of the ‘Quebradeiras de CôcoBabaçu’ (women who break open the fruits ofbabaçu palms and extract kernels), I arguethat such initiatives must necessarily combineeconomic, environmental, and technicalconcerns with political emancipation. Withoutcitizen ownership, they are fated to collapseinto the uncertainties of official programmes.

The babaçu palm forests, which cover twentymillion hectares in Northern and NortheasternBrazil, have been home to peasants involvedin agricultural and extractive activities sincethe 17th century. Women direct and workalong with children on the extraction of babaçukernels, which are domestically processed andconsumed, but mostly sold to oil industries.Men direct agricultural activities, in which

men, women, and children cultivate rice,beans, cassava, and maize. This agro-extractive system of production based on aspecific gender division of labourestablishes their cultural identity and socialrelations, both within the household and thevillage and between them and other sectorsof society. As descendants of enslavedAfricans, detribalized indigenous people,and immigrants expelled by theNortheastern latifundia, their access to anduse of land and babaçu forest resourceshave long sustained them as a socialgroup. There are, however, sectors ofsociety that seek to dominate them throughmarket relations established by antagonisticpublic policies.

In the 1970s, development policiesfavouring cattle ranching and landspeculation resulted in agrarian conflictsand the elimination of hundreds of villagesand thousands of babaçu palms.Throughout the 1980s, agrarian policiesintensified land concentration. In the 1990s,due to neo-liberal policies, national andtransnational consumer industries ofbabaçu oil began to import increasingamounts of palm oil from Malaysia. The1997 Asian crisis slowed these importsdown, but patterns of market trends forbabaçu oil have not yet stabilized. From1980 to 1995, prices were affected byirregularities in demand and babaçuproduction declined. Price and productioninstability further threatened babaçu forestconservation, since environmental laws andoccasional supporting programmes wereand are not sufficient to protect them. In thecurrent political climate, conservationmeasures in the Brazilian Forest Code itselfare in danger of being weakened.

Throughout history and despite the lack ofpublic support for their agro-extractiveeconomy, sectors of the peasantry living inbabaçu forests have developed grassrootsorganizations to assure relative control over

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their social and natural environments. Whileland concentration expelled many people, italso forced public recognition of those villagesthat managed to survive and overcome theconflicts through political mobilization. By the1980s and 1990s, some of these villagesachieved legal rights through an AgrarianReform programme. Throughout the babaçuregion, unions, cooperatives, associations,women’s groups, etc., have joined in projectsinvolving forest management proposed bygovernmental and non-governmentalagencies. However, while a few of theseprojects reinforced political emancipation,most facilitated processes of demobilization.

Based on a combination of economic andecological concerns and poli t icalemancipation, a movement was organized bya pool of grassroots organizations in theMearim Valley, in the state of Maranhãoincluding close to 3,000 families in fourmunicipalities. It began with discussions ofland tenure, credit and environmentalconservation issues. Developing andstrengthening local cooperatives andprocessing plants through administrativetraining has taken years. Nevertheless, sincethe mid 1990s, the cooperative has exportedbabaçu oil to Europe and run trade posts inseveral villages. Women’s groups arehandcrafting babaçu soaps wrapped inbabaçu paper, processing babaçu starch andfruits.

These economic actions were closely relatedto investment in political emancipation,especially of women. Along with thedevelopment of cooperatives, they founded acountryside middle boarding school, held adultliteracy classes and carried out workshops onhuman and reproductive rights. Theseinitiatives helped to launch a movement forconservation and free access to babaçupalms. In 1997, in spite of strong oppositionby the mayor and powerful landlords, amunicipal law was passed protecting the

babaçu and establishing free access topalms for community members. In 1999,two other municipalities approved the samelaw, and in 2000, some of their leaderswere elected as city counselors.

Based on systematic, long-term,ethnographic accounting, examining severalexperiences throughout the babaçu region,I argue that in the current Brazilian state ofenvironmental affairs, only experiences thatintegrate political emancipation and forestmanagement will provide for theconservation of non-timber forestresources.

For further information please contact:

Noemi Miyasaka Porro331 University Village South #6Gainesville - FL32603 USATel: +1 352 8465327Fax: +1 352 392 7682Email: [email protected]

NTFPs - INCOME FOR RURALPOPULATIONS OR NOT?

By Eva Wollenberg and Brian Belcher

After early enthusiasm about the potentialof nontimber forest products (NTFPs) toprovide sizeable incomes to local peopleand thereby reduce poverty and provideincentives for forest conservation (Peters etal. 1989), a number of limitations andconcerns about this potential haveemerged. In this article we summarizelessons learned about the contribution ofNTFPs to rural income from researchfacilitated by CIFOR, especially Neumannand Hirch (2000), Ruiz-Pérez and Arnold(1996), Townson (1995) and Wollenbergand Ingles (1998). We highlight that NTFPsplay important subsistence and safety-net

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roles in the rural economy, but only a smallsubset of forest products possesses potentialfor significant cash income and employmentgeneration. Moreover, the factors that limitforest product development are the very samestructural and political-economic conditionsthat have all along marginalized ruralpopulations.

The wide interest in NTFPs and theircontributions to income stems from the factthat many rural people use a large variety offorest products for foods, medicines, buildingmaterials and rituals. The majority of theseproducts have low cash values and are usedfor consumption, rather than for sale. Manyare important, especially to the poorest,because they are low cost, on commonproperty lands, and are used by peoplebecause they have no alternatives. NTFPsoften play critical roles as “safety-nets” byproviding food or income in times of shortage,as important dietary supplements, especiallyfor children, and as cultural symbols.Generally speaking, it is important torecognize these values, even if they aredifficult to quantify, and to protect them wherepossible. But, such products do not, in mostcases, provide a viable basis for improvingincome.

In contrast to these low value products, thereis a smaller number of NTFPs that cancontribute significantly to rural cash incomes.These include several rattan and bamboospecies, resins, birds’ nests, various fruits andnuts, and medicinal plants. Timber is one ofthe most valuable products, but the availabilityof timber-based incomes to local communitieshas been limited. Products have contributed toincomes most where specialization and theapplication of principles of agriculturalintensification have occurred. We shouldconcentrate efforts on these products toachieve the largest improvements in income.In many rural areas there are, however,important limitations to their development as

enterprises, including poor marketconditions, geographic and socialmarginalization, and limited capacities.Where benefits have accrued, morepowerful actors tend to appropriate them.The very reasons why people in forestareas are poor to begin with have been theconstraints that would also block enterprisedevelopment.

If we can address these constraints toenterprise development, we will beaddressing the fundamental elements ofpoverty. The optimism about the potentialfor NTFP-based development springs fromthe fact that forest products offer an entrypoint for these kinds of changes. Theavailability of forest resources accessible topoor people and with potential forcommercial development presents anopportunity to involve poor rural people inimproving their economic options. Throughinterventions that strengthen rights tomanage and harvest valuable resources,and that improve skills to manage andmarket those resources, poor ruralcommunities can be enfranchised. In thisview, NTFP development can be a‘stepping-stone’ to broader socio-economicdevelopment. The variability of conditionsrequired for enterprise developmentsuggest the need for careful and regularassessment of markets, policy conditionsand harvest impacts, with a willingness toadapt in response to new information.

Even where enterprise development issuccessful, there is still the question ofNTFP development as a tool forconservation. Here, it is important torecognize that, if NTFP-based developmentis successful, people may choose todiversify, and even abandon the originalactivity. If they can generate capital throughNTFP-based enterprises, they may bebetter off, at some point, to re-invest inother sectors (Ruiz-Pérez et al. 1999).Moreover, the role of NTFPs as a source of

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income is unlikely to provide a sufficientincentive for forest conservation because oftheir limited dependence on the larger forest.A single product can provide incentives forconservation of the species from which it washarvested, but rarely for the entire foresthabitat.

In conclusion, the income potential of NTFPsneeds to be re-thought in several ways. Themain lessons are:

1. Very large numbers of NTFPs areimportant for their subsistence and safety-netfunctions. These values are critical and needto be considered and protected indevelopment projects. But, most of theseproducts do not have good cash incomedevelopment potential.2. A small subset of products has potentialfor cash income development. Many of thesealready have commercial value. Suchproducts are especially valuable because theyoffer an entry-point for development in poorrural communities with limited alternatives.The constraints to the development of theseproducts are the same constraints that lead tounderdevelopment in the first place, includinglow capital (of all kinds). Populations livingunder the most economically marginalconditions, i.e. far from markets with poortransportation infrastructure, no electricity, noaccess to multiple trade networks, no socialsupport services — as many forest-dwellingpopulations do – are at particular risk. Unlessthese broader conditions change, the cashincomes from most NTFPs are not likely toprovide substantially increased benefits torural people. 3. Conservation objectives may not be welllinked to development objectives.

Eva Wollenberg, Brian BelcherProgram on Local People, Devolution andAdaptive Co- ManagementCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR)PO Box 6596 JKPWB

Jakarta 10065Tel:+ 62 251 622622, Fax:+ 62 251 622100Email: [email protected]@cgiar.orgFor the list of references please contact theauthors

N T F P s : E C O N O M I C A N DCONSERVATION POTENTIAL INCENTRAL AFRICA

By David S. Wilkie, Laurie Clark, RicardoGodoy

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) arefrequently touted as important to householdconsumption, and as a way to maintain orto increase the value of standing forest andthus discourage deforestation. In this articlewe assess the contribution of NTFPs to thehousehold and to forest conservation. Wedo so by reviewing some of the mostreliable and up-to-date quantitative studies,with a focus on Central Africa.

The value of NTFPs to householdsRecent research reconfirms that NTFPs doprovide sources of food, medicines, andincome to many households in CentralAfrica (Sunderland et al., 1999). Yet, thesestudies also confirm that the contribution ofNTFPs to local and national economies istypically small relative to agriculture. In fourforest villages in south-western Cameroon,NTFPs contributed 9% to the householdeconomy compared with 43% foragriculture. Similar figures are reported forhouseholds in south-eastern Cameroon(NTFPs 1.2%; agriculture 31%) and south-western Central African Republic (NTFPs10%; agriculture 51%). Harvesting of wildNTFPs is most important for poor familiesthat have limited or no access toagricultural markets. Wealthy householdsor those with access to agricultural markets(i.e. those that can sell cash crops) oftenconsume NTFPs, but seldom harvest them

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for sale.

In the south-west and north-west provinces ofCameroon the total value of NTFP productionand marketing exceeded US$19 million in1999, and contributed 2.8% to the regionaleconomy. In contrast, timber, in thispredominantly logged-over area, contributed5%, and agricultural crops 27% (Abwe et al.,1999). In areas of Cameroon where old-growth trees have yet to be harvested thevalue of logging is considerably higher.

Harvesting of wild NTFPs is dirty, arduous andat times dangerous work. Wild harvesting andprocessing of NTFPs usually requires highlabour inputs and is typically economicallyfeasible only when the opportunity costs oflabour are low or when prices for NTFPs arehigh. As a result, harvesting of wild NTFPs istypically a symptom of poverty rather than acure.

The relatively small contribution of NTFPs tohousehold economies in Central Africa ismirrored by the results of a recent review ofglobal forest valuation studies (Costanza etal., 1997). Average worldwide values(converted to 1994 dollars with an additionalcorrection for purchasing power) of tropicalforests for food production, raw materials, andintangibles (i.e. carbon sequestration,biodiversity conservation, and ecologicalservices) were $32, $315, and $1,660 perhectare per year respectively. Estimates of thedirect (i.e. tangible) value of the forest may,however, be exaggerated given the shortduration of most studies. When Godoy andhis colleagues (2000) directly measured andvalued forest resource consumption patternsof 32 indigenous families in Hondurascontinuously over 2.5 years, the direct value ofthe forest to local communities ranged from$18-24 per hectare per year, considerablylower than the global average of $347.

These studies suggest that tropical rain

forests are worth more for their globalrather than their local values (Chomitz andKumari, 1998), and that NTFPs may beless likely than previously thought toprovide economic incentives to conservetropical forests.

NTFPs do provide critical supplies of foodduring periods when agricultural crops failor are otherwise scarce. Yet one must becautious before attaching too much weightto the insurance value of the forest. Ruralpeople can protect themselves againstmishaps either by taking precautionarymeasures before shocks take place (e.g.inter-cropping, plot scattering) or by relyingon reciprocity, tolerated theft, or outmigration after shocks strike (Godoy andWong, 2000).

The sustainability of harvesting NTFPTo increase the relative contribution ofNTFPs to household economies, raise thevalue of intact forest, and discourage forestclearing, many have argued for increasedcommercialization of NTFP use. In thissection we review evidence for thesustainability of commercial NTFPproduction in Central Africa.Though NTFPs have been used formillennia, human population in the forestedregions of Central Africa is higher now thanit ever has been in history, and is likely todouble to over 60 million in 20 years. Aswith any wild plant or animal, if harvestingexceeds annual production then resourceswill progressively be depleted and becomelocally extinct. NTFPs prized for their leaves, roots or barkare particularly prone to unsustainable use,because harvesting either damages or killsthe parent plant. Commercial demand forGnetum and harvesting practices thatdestroy the parent plant, has driven wildpopulations of this leafy vine to localextinction in Nigeria and much of south-western Cameroon. Cameroon can supply

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approximately 200 tons annually of Prunusafricana bark on a sustainable basis. Yet over3,500 tons were harvested and exported in1999. Worse, for both Prunus africana andPausinystalia johimbe, current ‘sustainable’harvesting practices that partially strip barkfrom live trees exposes them to stem-boringinsects that can result in 50-90% post-harvesttree mortality (Cunningham et al., 2000).There is growing evidence that as NTFPsincrease in value there is a trend toward over-harvesting of wild resources, increased on-farm production, and exclusion of resourceusers by resource managers. Of the 20 mosteconomically valuable NTFPs in CentralAfrica, 11 are unsustainably harvested and 12are now cultivated (Wilkie, 1999). This trendsuggests that few if any commerciallyvaluable NTFPs can be harvested sustainablyfrom the wild, given present resource accessand ownership laws.

Two major options are available to manageNTFPs. The first, domestication and on-farmcultivation is appropriate when wild resourcesare being over-exploited and at risk of localextinction. In Cameroon, several NTFPs arealready grown within farmers’ fields (e.g.Irvingia, Dacryodes, Ricinodendron and Piper)and field trials are demonstrating the potentialfor on-farm cultivation of Gnetum and rattans.The second involves putting in place systemsto define who has access to wild NTFPresources in a given area, and to regulateharvest levels. This will require privatization offorest resources at the household orcommunity level – a complex political processthat has barely begun in Central Africa.

Without reforms in relation to who has accessto NTFPs, most commercially valuableN T F P s

will be over-harvested in the wild. On-farmcultivation will increase the economic valueo fNTFPs to landowner families, but willdecrease NTFP access for landlessf a m i l i e s .On-farm cultivation of high value NTFPsm a yreduce pressure to harvest from the wild,b u tmay increase incentives to clear forest tocultivate these new crops.

In summary, recent evidence stronglysuggests that NTFPs contribute little tohousehold economies relative toagriculture, and are thus unlikely to providean economic incentive for conserving intactforests.

David S. WilkieBoston College18 Clark LaneWaltham, MA 02451, USATel: + 1 781-894-9605 Email: [email protected]

Laurie ClarkP.O. Box 437Limbe, Cameroon, Central AfricaEmail: [email protected]

Ricardo GodoySustainable International DevelopmentProgramBrandeis University, 60 Turner St.Waltham, MA 02454-9110, USAEmail: [email protected]

For the list of references please contact theauthors

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MEASURING THE SOCIO-ECONOMICVALUE OF NTFPs ON A REGIONAL ORNATIONAL LEVEL: CASE STUDY FORNORTH-WEST AND SOUTH-WESTCAMEROON

By Mark van Dorp, Rudo Niemeijer and DonOffermans

IntroductionThis article stresses the need for socio-economic valuation of the NTFP sector on aregional or national level. It presents arecently developed method for NTFPvaluation, which has been extensively fieldtested in Cameroon. It appeared that forNorth-West and South-West provinces ofCameroon, the economic value of NTFPsamounted to US$ 19 million in 1998, oraround 3% of regional income. Major NTFPsincluded palm wine, bushmeat and bushmango (Irvingia gabonensis). It isrecommended to further develop and applythis method for improved decision making insustainable forest management andconservation.

The value of NTFP valuationImagine a traditional healer in Cameroonusing the fruits of the Ricinodendron heudelotiito treat a woman with pregnancy problems. Ifshe is cured, the value added of thistransaction can be expressed in two ways:through the market or non-market value of thegoods and services provided at low cost bythe ecosystem, and through the opportunitycost of modern medicines, which would havebeen necessary had the forest been destroyedfor alternative economic purposes.

This simple example shows the importance ofNTFPs to the economy, especially in poorcountries. However NTFPs are usuallyexcluded from national statistical databases(contrary to industrial timber) and,

consequently, do not feature in the GrossNational Product of a country. By assigninga monetary value to the NTFP sector as amajor source of food, medicines andincome for the poor, the value ofmaintaining the forest becomes apparent.This presents local communities andpolicymakers with a strong argument forforest conservation or wise use. Even in thecase of overexploited NTFPs, like bushmeatin Central Africa or Brazil nuts in theAmazon, it is important to know theeconomic value of the resource as asustainability indicator.

Description of the NTFP valuationmethodValuation of the NTFP sector is performedin three steps (Van Dorp et al. 1999):

1. Rapid Assessment – in which allrelevant general and NTFP data arecollected and geographical sample framesare designed, based on the NTFPmarketing chain.

2. Producer and Trader Surveys – in whicha community-based survey of producersand a market-based survey of traders arecarried out to collect and cross-check fielddata on product volumes, prices, sources,time allocation and cost structure.

3. Data analysis and conclusions – inwhich all data collected are aggregated toarrive at the value added by the NTFPsector to the economy (and of singleproducts).

Spatial analysis methods are used toreduce survey costs and enhance precision,while the scope of the survey and level ofdetail are adapted to local conditions andthe available budget. Ideally, a completenational survey consists of four samplingperiods per year to account for seasonal

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variation. In practice, this can be tackled byusing recall methods and field checks.Additional data are gathered on homeconsumption, gender and socio-culturalaspects of the NTFP sector.

Case study for North-West and South-WestCameroonThe NTFP valuation method was field testedin the North-West and South-West provincesof Cameroon during a six-month period(CERUT and AIDEnvironment 1999). Thestudy zone covers about 42,000 km2 with apopulation of around 2 million people.

After a period of intensive training and rapidassessment, two local teams of five peopleeach collected field data during hundreds ofinterviews with local producers and traders in86 locations. These locations ranged fromvillages deep in the forest to large urbanmarkets along the market chain. Data onNTFP collection, processing and trade wererecorded and later entered into an NTFPdatabase. On the basis of this database, theresults of the survey were analysed andreported.

In the study zone NTFPs make up anessential part of local income and householdconsumption, especially for women. In 1998the NTFP sector accounted for US$ 19 millionor around 2.8% of regional income for the twoprovinces covered (excluding the value ofagro-industrial plantations and cultivatedNTFPs). A total of 140 products harvested inthe wild were identified and regrouped into 16NTFP categories. The most important productcategories in terms of value added (in % oftotal value) are palm wine (26 %), bushmeat(11%) and minor animal products (11%)followed by forest conservation projects (10%) and diverse plant products, e.g. bushmango, kola nuts, spices, medicines andbuilding materials (4-8 %) (Van Dorp et al.2000). The gender analysis of the NTFP

sector showed remarkable differencesbetween different products: for instanceproduction and processing of palm winewere dominated by men, while themarketing chain for bush mango waspredominately in the hands of women (fromproduction to retailing). In general men hada larger share of total income from NTFPproduction (around 63%), while women hada larger share of total income from NTFPtrade (around 54%).

DiscussionNTFP valuation and marketing havebecome important aspects of both forestmanagement and local developmentprogrammes. The method presented hereoffers a standardised method for NTFPvaluation for wide application, includingimproved monitoring of NTFP extraction.Future application will enable the method toinclude both small-scale surveys of singleproducts and smaller study areas, andlarge-scale surveys encompassing wholenations. Further field-testing, developingand applying the valuation method asdescribed above, will extend the knowledgebase about NTFPs, eventually leading tomore balanced decision making. This canbe achieved through training programmesfor local policy makers and NGOs. This willfinally enable people to account andcompare the wealth of forests world-wide,and to take accompanying policymeasures.

AcknowledgementsThe field test in Cameroon was madepossible with the financial support of ICCO(Netherlands) as the main funding agency,as well as WWF Cameroon andCARPE/BSP (USA), and own contributionsby CERUT and AIDEnvironment.

Mark van Dorp, Rudo Niemeijer and DonOffermans

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AIDEnvironmentDonker Curtiusstraat 7-5231051 JL AmsterdamThe NetherlandsTel. +31 20 6868111, Fax +31 20 6866251Email: [email protected], Http://www.aidenvironment.org

For the list of references and a list of NTFPproduct categories in terms of value addedplease contact the authors.

C R E A T I N G I N C E N T I V E S F O RCONSERVATION: NTFPs AND POVERTYALLEVIATION

By R.J. Fisher

IntroductionAn incentives approach has been advocatedto create linkages between conservation andthe economic interests of local people. Thetheory behind this approach is that generationof income from local forests can provide apositive incentive for sustainable use and canthus contribute to conservation. This articlewill explore some experiences with thisincentives approach, applied to NTFPs, inAsia.

The Incentives Approach in AsiaThe incentives approach is being applied andsupported in various ways in Asia. For anumber of years, the Joint ForestManagement programme in India has placedconsiderable attention on income generationthrough NTFP production to encourage ruralpeople to participate in government forestconservation activities. IUCN, The WorldConservation Union, has NTFP projects in theLao PDR and Vietnam, which specifically aimto promote NTFP production and marketingas an incentive to forest conservation. AnAsia-wide NTFP Network coordinated byIUCN in Bangkok has encouraged and

facilitated sharing of experiences in theregion. A book on methodologies for NTFP-based income generation has beenpublished by CIFOR (Wollenberg andIngles 1998). The Regional CommunityForestry Training Center (RECOFTC) andthe Community Forestry Unit at FAO inRome have, along with IUCN and otherpartners, developed a methodologicalpackage called ‘Market Analysis andDevelopment (MA&D) for Community-based tree and forest product enterprises’.The methodology has been tested invarious projects in Nepal, Vietnam and theLao PDR and a field manual has just beenpublished (Lecup and Nicholson 2000).

Has the Incentives Approach BeenEffective?As far as conservation benefits areconcerned, there is so far little clearevidence either way, although lessons havebeen learned about conditions under whichsuccess can be possible. One internationalstudy (mainly in Asia, but also includingother regions) by the BiodiversityConservation Network (BCN) wasspecifically set up to test the incentivesapproach, which was field-tested in sevencountries, twenty different projects, thirty-nine sites and forty-eight differentcommunity-based projects over sevenyears. The BCN report concluded that “anenterprise strategy can lead to conservationbenefits, but only under limited conditions...and never on its own” (Salafsky et al. 1999:37). Among these limited conditions arethat the enterprise must be viable and thatthere must be a linkage between theenterprise and biodiversity such thatdeclines in biodiversity will affect theviability of the enterprise.

While ‘the jury is out’, there is obviouslysome potential for achieving conservationbenefits in some circumstances. However,

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the verdict on the effectiveness of incentivesapproaches to NTFP-based incomegeneration seems less promising.

In a review of literature including projectreports, I was able to find very little clearevidence of people receiving significanteconomic benefits from NTFP enterprisesassociated with outside interventions basedon the incentives approach. There wasliterature predicting positive outcomes forplanned or commencing projects, but I couldfind no example of a detailed cost-benefitanalysis of a completed project whichdemonstrated that project participants hadbenefitted from interventions overall.Accounts of income from one source, almostinvariably ignored loss of other benefits nolonger available after interventions. In otherwords people gain income from collecting oneproduct, but lose because other products areforbidden. Although there was no analysis ofthe overall economic impacts, there weredocumented cases of significant incomeresulting from improved production ormarketing of individual products, as in a caseof improved bamboo marketing in the LaoPDR, which led to a fourfold increase infamily income from bamboo in one village(Foppes and Ketphanh 2000).

There are also examples of community-initiated NTFP production and marketingactivities which are clearly dependent onconservation. One example is Pred Nai villagein Thailand where villagers collect and sellcrabs from a mangrove swamp. The villagersclearly recognise that they need to protect andregenerate mangroves in order to providefood for the crabs. Such cases of indigenous‘sustainable production’ systems are quitecommon throughout Asia, if not always wellrecognised.Externally sponsored projects may have beenmore successful in terms of incomegeneration linked with conservation than has

been documented. However, thedocumented success is certainly not veryimpressive.

Conclusion: The Potential of theIncentives Approach applied to NTFPsThere is little doubt that, on a world scale,a vast quantity of NTFPs are used by forestcommunities and that significant cashincome is generated. Nevertheless, forestcommunities generally remain poor and itmay be that both market realities and the‘political ecology’ of the context within whichthey live is not particularly likely to bechanged by interventions based on theincentives approach.

Income generation from higher value forestproducts (such as cardamom, yang oil orhemp) is not elastic. Wide promotion of aproduct is likely to reduce its market value.Consequently, focusing on a particularNTFP may benefit only small numbers ofpeople. However, the realities in terms of ‘politicalecology’ are perhaps the greatest limitation.As Dove (1993) points out, forestcommunities tend not to have legal accessto valuable forest products. Timber forexample, is almost always under the controlof forest departments and non-localinterests. The collection and sale of NTFPsby Asian communities is often illegal,although collection of low value products isoften tolerated. When a product becomesvaluable, new restrictions are imposed orexisting ones enforced.

The incentives approach attempts to breakthe poverty-forest degradation cycle byopening new forest-based opportunities forincome generation, mainly through NTFPs.It seeks to do this through introduction ofmarketing and business planning. Theproblem may be that valuable NTFPs arerarely available to communities.

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NoteThis paper is based on a longer paper (‘PovertyAlleviation and Forests: Experiences from Asia’)prepared for the Workshop ‘Forest ecospaces,biodiversity and environmental security’ at the IUCNWorld Conservation Congress in Amman, Jordan, 4-11 October 2000.

R.J. FisherRegional Community Forestry Training Centerfor Asia and the PacificRECOFTC, Kasetsart UniversityPO Box 1111Bangkok 10903, ThailandTel: + 662 9405700, Fax: + 662 5614889Email: [email protected]://www.RECOFTC.orgFor the list of references please contact theauthor

NWFPs IN EAST KALIMANTAN,INDONESIA: AN ANALYSIS OFSILVICULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMICASPECTS OF THEIR SIGNIFICANCE ANDDEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL FOR THELOCAL PEOPLE IN A FORESTRYCONCESSION AREA

by Carol M. Grossmann

Background Expectations that an intensified managementof NWFPs will increase the income of ruralpeople living near forests, as well asencourage conservation of natural forests, areincreasingly being criticised for being basedeither on insufficiently tested hypotheses orscientific studies with only unilateral sectoralanalyses.

Objectives(i) To elaborate a target group-oriented andinterdisciplinary research concept as acontribution to the development of atransferable methodology suitable for

analysing the role and developmentpotential of NWFPs in any region withnatural forests.(ii) To answer three fundamental questionsrelevant to the management of NWFPs in atimber concession area in East Kalimantan,Indonesia: - How is the supply of NWFPs from naturalforests influenced by selective commerciallogging? - How large does the area of natural forestneed to be to supply the local populationwith the types and amounts of NWFPscurrently used?- Do the inspected forest stands provide thepotential for local people to intensify marketoriented management of NWFPs that will,at the same time, enhance forestconservation?

Setting The concession area of the timber companyLimbang Ganeca in central EastKalimantan (Borneo) and two borderingvillages were selected as the research area.The originally predominant ecosystem isLowland-Dipterocarp-Forest, includingprimary and logged-over forest. The forestcover has been increasingly reduced byother forms of land use.

Methodology and resultsThe interdisciplinary concept coveredsilvicultural and socio-economic aspects.

The forestry component consisted of asample inventory with 340 0.4 ha plots. Thespecies, population densities andregeneration of perennial plants producingNWFPs were investigated. A primary and alogged-over forest stand were compared inorder to detect the impact of commerciallogging on the supply of NWFPs.

58 tree species, 34 rattan species, 8 otherpalm species and 4 liana species producing

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NWFPs were identified. On average, theywere represented by 0.3 to 19.7 adultindividuals per species and hectare. Selectivelogging had a significant impact on thepopulation of about half of these plantspecies, some benefiting and some beingnegatively affected.

The socio-economic aspects of the use ofNWFPs by local people were analysed usingthe following methods – monthly structuredand semi-structured interviews, productcounts, food diaries, and participatoryobservation. Thirty-one households providedquantitative data on the contribution ofNWFPs to their income and subsistence fromJuly 1995 to June 1996.

Five percent of the average monetaryhousehold income was derived from NWFPs.Of this 5%, about half was obtained throughthe sale of game at the village-level. Togetherwith income made from edible birds’ nestsand dried reptile skins, over 80% of cashearned from NWFPs was wildlife-related. Theremaining 20% of the NWFP-based incomewas derived from plants, mainly throughvillage-level sales of rattan articles.

Individual households demonstrated broadvariations of total cash income and of therespective contribution of NWFPs, rangingfrom zero to 100%. Differences in commercialuse of NWFPs could be connected to theeconomic status of the household and to theethnic affiliation and cultural homogeneity ofthe household members.

The importance of NWFPs for subsistencewas analysed by investigating the contributionof NWFPs to nutrition and the value ofdurable NWFPs in the form of articles of dailyuse, based on local market-prices. FaunalNWFPs (game) were identified as the secondmost important source of protein. VegetativeNWFPs were consumed only with 5.2% of the

meals. All households owned articles madepartly or completely of durable NWFPs.Their replacement value totals five timesthe amount of money earned by sellingNWFPs.

Conjunction of resultsAn area of 100,000 hectares of naturallymanaged forest was estimated to berequired to continuously supply the peopleof the research villages with all plant-derived NWFPs at their currentconsumption rate. This figure correspondswith the total management area (includingprimary and logged-over forest) of thetimber concession company LimbangGaneca and surpasses the usual area offorest-related activities by the villagepeople. To supply the need for mostNWFPs, but excluding rare and soughtspecies, a total area of about 4,000hectares of naturally managed forest mightsuffice.

131 NWFP-producing plant species wereidentified in the NWFP inventory, of whichonly 42 species were actually used duringthe research period; the products of a mere10 species were traded locally. An under-used market potential could be assumed, inas far as products provided by at least 25 ofthe locally recorded NWFP-producingspecies were traded in other regions ofBorneo. Several substantial economic andproduct inherent reasons were identified asto why so many theoretically usableNWFPs were not used at all and why morethan 60% of all NWFPs with market priceswere not sold commercially.

Conclusions and recommendationsBecause of these limitations, thedevelopment of an intensified managementof NWFPs in these natural forests by localpeople cannot be expected. Consequently,no significant incentives are being

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generated for the conservation of naturalforests.

Recommendations were formulated withrespect to four different developmentscenarios for the research area. A sectoralpromotion of the management of NWFPs innatural forests is not an issue in either ofthese options. Nonetheless, the data indicatean increasing demand for particular localNWFPs that, in turn, do have some degree ofmanagement potential outside of naturalforests, above all in improved traditionalagroforestry cultivation systems.The most important feature of this study liesin i ts in terd isc ip l inary researchconceptualisation, combining methods andresults of an inventory and of an in depthsocio-economic survey. As the studydemonstrated, either approach on its owncould have led to an overestimation of themanagement potential of NWFPs in theresearch area.

AcknowledgementsThis piece is based on a PhD dissertationfunded by the BMZ, written at the Universityof Hamburg, and hosted by the Indonesian –German Project “Promotion of SustainableForest Management in East Kalimantan”

Reference Carol M. Grossmann (2000): Nichtholz-Waldproduktein Ost-Kalimantan, Indonesien: Analyse derwaldwirtschaftlichen und sozio-oekonomischenAspek te ih re r Bedeutung und ih resEntwicklungspotentials für die Lokalbevölkerung ineinem Holzkonzessionsgebiet. Mitteilungen derBundesforschungsanstalt fuer Forst- undHolzwirtschaft (BFH) Nr. 199, Hamburg

For further information please contact:

Dr. C. M. GrossmannUniversity of FreiburgInstitute for Forest Policy, Markets and

Marketing SectionBertoldstr. 17D-79085 Freiburg, GermanyTel.: +49 761 203 3726Fax: +49 761 203 3729Email: [email protected]

MOPANE WORMS - A RICH SOURCE OFINCOME IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

By Jaboury Ghazoul

Southern Africa's rural households dependas much on their surrounding forests asthey do on their crops. William Cavendish'srecent study of Southern African rurallivelihoods, 'Empirical Regularities in thePoverty - Environment Relationship ofAfrican Rural Households', demonstratesthat Zimbabwe's rural families usehundreds of wild plants and animals forfood, medicine, fuelwood, buildingmaterials, furniture, baskets, livestockfodder, and other uses. Termite moundsand leaf litter provide a major source offertilizer. Livestock fodder, wild foods, andfuelwood contribute most to householdincomes, although, around three quarters ofall income comes from a wide range ofother natural products. Interestingly, it isthe poorest households that most dependon forest products even if, in absoluteterms, the richer households consumemore forest products.

One of these products, the caterpillar of anemperor moth that feeds almost exclusivelyon the mopane tree, hence mopane worm,has become the focus of a new 3-yearproject recently funded by the UKDepartment for International Development(Forestry Research Programme). Followingthe initiative of DFID-FRP, Will Cavendishand Jaboury Ghazoul, both of ImperialCollege, University of London, coordinated

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a consortium of research organizations,NGOs, CBOs, and private enterprises, to seekways of enhancing the potential for bothstable and sustainable income generation bysale of mopane worm in local and regionalmarkets. Traditionally, the mopane worm hasbeen harvested for domestic use by ruralhouseholds and has made a significantcontribution to rural diets, but more recentlyits potential for income generation hasbecome clear. The consortium is seekingways to promote the sustainable production ofmopane worm across mopane woodlands insouthern Africa. Through a cluster of studiesit aims to highlight the most appropriateopportunities available to poor farmers andlandless families to increase the returns fromthe mopane worm harvest while ensuring thatdemands for other woodland resources aremet. The research will examine the role andpotential of mopane worm to improvelivelihoods through expanding localconsumption and increasing returns fromlocal and regional trade, and will lead topractical actions that local communities cantake towards assessing mopane wormproduction, reducing harvesting impact on themopane woodland resources, improvingharvesting and processing techniques anddeveloping marketing networks.

An important goal of the socioeconomicresearch being carried out by Peter Frost(Institute of Environmental Studies,Zimbabwe), Owen Shumba (SouthernAlliance for Indigenous Resources,Zimbabwe) and Andrew Dorward (ImperialCollege) on mopane woodland products is toput the value of mopane worm use in thecontext of the broader household economyand to identify the opportunities andconstraints arising from interactions betweenNTFP based activities and other householdactivities.

Research on community-based mopane worm

farming has the potential to ensure regularand controlled harvests even in areaswhere the mopane worm seldom occur.Community-based commercial productionof mopane worm is being investigated byFrank Taylor of Veld Products Researchand Development in close collaborationwith Kgetsi ya Tsie women’s communitygroup in Botswana and MemberMushongahande (Forest Commission,Zimbabwe). Nigel Poole of Imperial Collegeis leading research on the associatedmarket opportunities for, and constraints to,the sale of mopane worm.

Mopane woodland ecology andmanagement will be the focus of researchconducted by Dirk Wessels (University ofthe North, South Africa) and MemberMushongahande with the aim of producingoptimal conditions for the semi-domestication of mopane worms whilemeeting other woodland uses demanded byrural households.

For a free electronic version of WillCavendish’s paper, write to him at:[email protected]

For further information about the MopaneWorm project, write to:Dr Jaboury GhazoulLecturer in Forest EcologyImperial CollegeSilwood ParkAscot, Berks. SL5 7PY, UKTel:+44 20 7594 2536, Fax:+44 20 75942308Email: [email protected]

NTFP COMMERCIALISATION INZIMBABWE

By Oliver Braedt and Bruce M. Campbell

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A study of the woodcraft sector in Zimbabwewas conducted to understand the potentialrole of NTFP commercialisation in ruralhousehold livelihoods. Zimbabwe experiencedan upsurge in the marketing of woodcarvingsand other craft articles during the 1990s.Possible social and ecological impactsoriginating from this informal commerce havealarmed environmentalists, governmental andnon-governmental institutions, and policymakers. Up to the time of the study no clearpolicy on the woodcarving sector wasapparent, with some institutions promoting itas a means to improving income, while otherinstitutions were involved in trying to halt thesector, using the current legislation to guidetheir actions.

Markets along the major roads in Zimbabwewere monitored and detailed market andhousehold surveys took place in thecommunal lands of Chivi District. Institutionalarrangements controlling tree use were alsoidentified. Participatory appraisal tools wereused with groups, semi-structured interviewswere held with groups and individuals, andformal questionnaires were conducted withhouseholds and key informants. To assessthe natural resource base a forest inventorywas carried out.

Results indicate that at the end of the 1990sover 200 craft markets existed in Zimbabwe.Since 1990 there has been a momentous risein the number of these markets, with 88% ofall markets surveyed being established in1990 or thereafter. Wood is the mostcommon material being found in 75% of themarkets. The expansion is in part a result ofthe increased demand by tourists and theneed by rural households to find cash incomesources. Since the beginning of the 1990s,tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily risen andthe role it plays is reflected in the currentspatial pattern of the markets, with marketsconcentrated on the key tourist routes. One

major reason for the increase in tourism isthe weakness of the currency, withdevaluation proceeding throughout the1990s. Structural adjustment, with itsemphasis on the decontrol of the currency,has thus probably played a key role indriving the upsurge in craft production.During this same period, poverty hasincreased and a number of cash incomesources have been reduced (e.g.remittances from urban areas).Originally the main tree species used inChivi District were Afzelia quanzensis andPterocarpus angolensis. With increasingnumbers of woodcarvers and a dwindlingresource, carvers shifted to other speciesand the distances travelled for the collectionof trees for carving increased. Tree speciesprefered by woodcarvers are ‘reserved’species, the cutting of which is prohibitedby state laws. Traditional rules also prohibittheir commercialisation. However,enforcement of both the formal andinformal rules is rare. At present an open-access situation prevails and there is adegree of confusion and disorderconcerning institutional arrangementscontrolling forest product use.Most participants involved in the craftsector are usually only sporadicallyinvolved, doing carving or trading in craftswhen other livelihood options fail, or inseasons when agricultural activities are low.Results reveal that 16% of households inthe study area obtain revenues through thecommercialisation of forest products, butthe total value was less than 6% of theannual cash revenue in the area. 43% ofthe participants are women, largelyrestricted to the final stages of carvingproduction - the finishing and selling of theproduct. Prior to 1980, women dominatedcraft production in the study area, largelyselling pottery. However, men, who focuson stone sculptures and woodcrafts,currently dominate the sector, and it is

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particularly young men that are involved. Inthe past, labour migration to earn money andremit some of it to the rural household wasfrequent, but this is no longer the case. Thedominance of the sector by young menreflects the current economic situation.There are clear entry points that may help todevelop the woodcraft production and trade,such that participants can continue to rely onit for at least part of their income from thissource. Addressing the legal contradictionsthat exist between local and national laws isone option. There is legislation to try andensure sustainable harvesting of woodlandresources in communal areas, but most of itis ineffective, as there are problems in itscontent, interpretation, and enforcement. Thecommercialisation of a finished woodcraft islegal, but the possession of a harvested log isgenerally illegal as almost no harvesters seekthe necessary permits. Local traditional rulesgoverning resource use from the commonsare also not respected. Enforcement isdifficult and local leaders use their positionsto their own advantage. Given the problems inthe national legislation and in the local rules,it is difficult to envisage how the resourcecould be managed on a sustainable basis.

The facilitation of alternative woods and woodsupplies is another central theme indeveloping the woodcraft sector. The selectiveuse of tree species for carving in Zimbabwe’scommunal areas is likely to drive somespecies to local extinction. Activemanagement of the current tree resources isat present unlikely and experiences from othercountries (e.g. Kenya, Malawi, Republic ofSouth Africa) indicate that the mostcommonly used tree species forwoodcarvings are close to extinction and canonly be found in areas far away from marketsselling craft products. Nonetheless, as participants in the woodcraftsector are mostly part-time, and ashouseholds have a suite of livelihood

activities, the variations in tourist numberswill result in households moving in and outof different income providing activities. Thisis probably the one constant phenomenonrelated to the woodcraft sector inZimbabwe. Providing the right support tothis commercial use of NTFPs will increasethe opportunities for some participants toderive a larger share for a longer period oftime.

This research was supported by theGerman Federal Ministry for DevelopmentCooperation (BMZ) and by CIFOR.

Oliver BraedtInstitute for World ForestryFederal Research Centre for Forestry andForest ProductsLeuschnerstr. 9121027 Hamburg, GermanyTel: +49 40 73962 100Fax: +49 40 73962 480Email: [email protected]

Bruce M. CampbellCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR)Bogor, IndonesiaEmail: [email protected]://www.cgiar.org/cifor

NTFP MARKETS AND POTENTIALD E G R A D A T I O N O F F O R E S TRESOURCES IN CAMEROON: THE CASEOF GARCINIA LUCIDA

By Ousseynou Ndoye, Manuel Ruiz-Perezand Antoine Eyebe

The growing economic and socialimportance of NTFPs in Cameroon is welldocumented in the literature (Ndoye et al.1999; Eyebe et al. 1999; Ruiz-Perez et al.2000). There is also a growing dependency

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of rural households on NTFPs due to variousfactors (Bikié et al. 2000). For example, thedevaluation of the CFA Franc in January 1994increased the price of beer and whisky, andthese were substituted by palm wine and localwhisky (Odontol), which is made by distillingfermented palm wine. The pressure on NTFPsincreased. One particular NTFP in whichtrade has increased recently is Garcinia lucidabark, which is used to ferment palm wine aswell as having medicinal and anti-poisonproperties. Garcinia lucida fruit are also soldin the market. While the bark providesvaluable alternative income-generatingopportunities for rural dwellers, harvestingpractices are not always sustainable. This isalso the case for NTFPs like Gnetum spp.,Garcinia kola, Prunus africana, and palm winefrom Elaeis guineensis.

According to Guedje (1996), who identifiedsites with more than 50% dead trees, G.lucida trees cannot recover if the bark isremoved over a large surface around thestem. Inventories show that there is a widevariation in available stocks of G. lucida.Ntamag’s (1997) survey showed G. lucidaonly in virgin forests at an average rate of 4trees per hectare. In an inventory of 11complete transects in Southern Cameroon,Van Dijk (1995) did not find a single Garcinialucida tree and suggested that this could bedue to high harvesting levels. Guedje (1997)found 6.86 trees per hectare and also foundthat Garcinia lucida grows in densepopulations with a preference for undisturbedforest habitats (Guedje 1996). She discovered that trees with diametersequal to or greater than 10 cm were exploited(debarked) most and estimates that theaverage sustainable yield per tree is 2.5 kg(Guedje, pers.comm.).

The number of G. lucida trees debarkedincreased from 7,003 in 1996 to 24,756 in1997. This was followed by a dramatic decline

to 13,378 in 1998, possibly due to areduction in availability of mature trees.Over the same period, the selling price ofone bag of G. lucida bark (18 kg) rose from6,200 to 7,100 CFA Francs, while estimatessuggest that the area affected by G. lucidadebarking doubled.

Garcinia lucida is governed by an openaccess regime, which makes the treesbecome more vulnerable to externalitiescreated by the opportunistic behaviour of afew forest dwellers resulting from highermarket demands for the bark. In a situationof economic crisis and an active search foralternative income-generating opportunities,private gains can override the sustainablesocial benefits that are obtained from G.lucida and lead to depletion of forestresources.

The domestication of G. lucida and itscultivation in multi-strata agroforestrysystems could be a means to reduce thepressure on forests. However, they arenecessary but not sufficient conditions toincrease the aggregate production of G.lucida. Other important conditions areimproved access to market information andinfrastructure, reduced transaction costs,and improved institutional support for forestdwellers and traders.

A reference list can be obtained from theauthors:

Ousseynou Ndoye and Antoine EyebeCenter for International Forestry Research(CIFOR)P.O. Box 2008 Yaounde, Cameroon Email: [email protected];

Manuel Ruiz Perez Department of EcologyAutonomous University of Madrid

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28049 Madrid, SpainEmail: [email protected]

CROSS-BORDER TRADE OF NTFPs FROMTHE KORUP FOREST AREA, SOUTHWESTCAMEROON 1

By Ruth Malleson 2

IntroductionEthnic and historical links, as well ascontrasting environmental, economic andsocial conditions, have encouraged tradebetween Cameroon and Nigeria. Rapidpopulation increase and forest degradation inNigeria has meant that the Nigerian demandfor non-timber forest products (NTFPs)outstrips national supplies. NTFPs from theKorup Forest Area (KFA) in Cameroon arenow major items of cross-border trade. Thestrength of the CFA Franc compared with theNigerian Naira and heavy taxes on importedgoods make smuggling profitable and theporous border encourages it. As a result themajority of the cross-border trade in NTFPs ispart of the ‘informal’ economy.

NTFPs and the Cross-border Trade NTFPs commonly harvested in SouthwestCameroon and transported to Nigeria include:bush mango kernels (Irvingia spp.) used toflavour and add a mucilaginous consistencyto soups; rattan cane (mainly Eremospatham a c r o c a r p a a n d L a c c o s p e r m asecundiflorum); chewstick species Massulariaacuminata and Garcinia mannii, used fordental hygiene; the leaf vegetable eru(Gnetum spp); bush pepper (Piper guineensis)and afofo, distilled palm wine.

The extraction and trade of most NTFPsexported to Nigeria are controlled andorganised mainly by Nigerian wholesalers.These traders hire people from their homeareas to extract NTFPs on their behalf rather

than buying them from local people. Theexception is bush mango, which is collectedby inhabitants of the KFA but sold on toitinerant Nigerian traders.

Being part of the ‘informal’ economy, it isobviously very difficult to collect reliablequantitative information about profits madefrom the NTFP cross-border trade.However, my research and other studieselsewhere in Cameroon (Ndoye et al 1998;Shiembo 1999 ) indicate that theseenterprises can be very lucrative. But mostof the profits benefit wealthy Nigeriansrather than local people.

Given the lucrative nature of the cross-border NTFP trade, it is important to explainwhy locals of the KFA have not tried toenter into it. Economic disadvantagesrelating to the fact that Nigerians dominateand control this trade deter local peoplefrom becoming involved. Most locals in theKFA argue that they are unable to enter intothis trade because they commonlyencounter at least one of the followingdisadvantages: lack of capital, hightransport costs, language constraintsand/or lack of connections with maintrading partners. Cameroonian policies relating to theresidency of foreigners, the Bakassi borderconflict between Nigeria and Cameroon,and swings in the CFA Franc-Nairaexchange rate have all contributed to wideand unpredictable fluctuations in incomefrom the cross-border trade of NTFPs fromthe KFA. For example, in 1993, few traderscame to buy bush mango because of therelatively high value of the Naira against theCFA franc (140 Naira to 1,000 CFA). But inJanuary 1994, the CFA Franc was devaluedand the exchange rate dropped to 65 Nairato 1,000 CFA. This led to a rush of buyersfrom Nigeria.

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The volatile economic and political conditionsin the region sometimes provide opportunitiesfor relatively poor people from the KFA toprofit from the cross-border trade of NTFPs.Much of the afofo produced in the southernend of the KFA is marketed in Nigeria byNigerians. But in late 1993, and throughout1994, the Bakassi border conflict preventedNigerian traders from transporting afofo toNigerian ports. Instead, local people wereable to make a profit by marketing it directlyto traders and retailers in KFA.

Implications for Forest ManagementMy research and that of other authors (see forexample Ndoye et al 1998; Sunderland andTchouto 1999; Yembi 1999; Sunderland andObama 1999; Shiembo 1999; Lapido 1999)have shown that some NTFPs are importantitems of cross-border trade in the humidforest zone of West and Central Africa. Withthe exception of a few species such as Prunusafricana (an internationally traded medicinalplant), very little is known about the currentharvesting levels of most commerciallyvaluable NTFPs in the humid forest zone ofCameroon. More research is needed into thistopic and the impact NTFP harvesting ishaving on forest conservation.

It is worth noting that many of the protectedareas in the humid forest zone of West andCentral Africa are located on or near nationalboundaries (Gartlan 1999: 243), in formerboundary wildernesses - areas between stateswhich were purposefully left undeveloped bygovernments for political-economic reasonsand depopulated by war (Richards 1996) orby epidemics, such as sleeping sickness(Sharpe 1998: 80). Until very recently (seeGartlan 1999), biodiversity conservationistshave often assumed that such areas areeconomically remote. But as the case of theKFA illustrates, in reality, the cross-borderenvironment may be very socially dynamic.These are often zones where contrasting

ecological, demographic and economicconditions meet and where significantcross-border interactions, such as informaltrade and population movements, havebeen taking place for generations.

Forest conservation and developmentprojects located in these areas have largelyfailed to acknowledge the importance of thistrade or to examine the potential to developand support cross-border synergies inrelation to forest management.Development NGOs are starting to look intothe potential to develop cross-bordersynergies for the benefit of local inhabitants- see Whiteside (1999) for example.Attention needs to be paid to assessing thesocio-economic and political trends andofficial policies that may have considerableimpact on local people’s livelihoods andspecifically on the cross-border trade ofNTFPs and other products. If trade in onedirection is hindered because of economic,political or strategic factors, this has aneffect on the trade in the other direction.Official policies, restrictive regulations andcorruption currently increase the costs ofthe NTFP trade to producers and traders.Conservation and development projectsneed to incorporate these constraints intotheir analysis of problems and proposedsolutions.

1 This report is drawn from my recentlysubmitted Ph.D. thesis entitled ‘Forestlivelihoods in Southwest Province,Cameroon: an evaluation of the Korupexperience’. University College London.The research was funded by the Economicand Social Research Council (UK) GlobalEnvironmental Change Programme, whosesupport is gratefully acknowledged.

For further information and a list of

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references please contact: Ruth MallesonThe Beech HutDunsmoreAylesbury, Bucks. HP22 6QJUnited KingdomTel: + 44 1296-696103Email: [email protected].

CONSTRAINTS, POTENTIALS ANDPERSPECTIVES FOR NTFP PROCESSINGIN SOUTHERN KYRGYZSTAN

By Gulmira Ismailova

Southern Kyrgyzstan is home to the lastremaining natural walnut forests on earth.They constitute a globally unique ecosystemcomprising such species as walnut (Juglansregia), apple (Malus spp.), pear (Pyrus spp.),hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), Sogdiana plum(Prunus sogdiana), dog-rose (Rosa spp.) andother plants. They represent an extremelyvaluable reserve of rich genetic biodiversity,containing over 180 tree and shrub species.The walnut forests produce a large number ofNTFPs including nuts, fruits and berries,honey and other bee-keeping products,medicinal plants and mushrooms. The naturalconditions of the forest area are particularlyfavourable for the development of bee-keeping and production of ecologically purehigh-quality honey with valuable medicinalproperties.

About 48,000 people live in the walnut forestarea. Their livelihoods depend directly on theuse of forest resources, including theharvesting of NTFPs.

In Soviet times, the main NTFPs wereharvested, processed and sold on the internalmarket of the Soviet Union. Some enterprisesspecializing in NTFP processing were located

in the walnut forests. In addition, NTFPswere processed by other enterprisesengaged in processing of agriculturalproducts or pharmaceutical enterpriseslocated elsewhere in the Kyrgyz republic,sometimes even outside it (especially formedicinal plants). Products manufacturedby these enterprises were sold in the wholeof the former Soviet Union. There were noproblems related to marketing as the saleof production was guaranteed by the statewithin a planned system of production andsale of manufactured production.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union andthe gaining of independence by Kyrgyzstan,economic ties with the other republics werebroken and the former markets lost. Manyprocessing enterprises were forced to stoptheir activities, some worked at below fullcapacity or, in response to market forces,changed their range of manufacturedproducts to producing mainly fruit andvegetable puree, different pickled vegetableproducts, etc. Their technical equipmentalso leaves much to be desired, with manyenterprises still reliant on Soviet equipmentfrom the 1970-80 era. At that time, manyforest areas were accessible for vehicles.Nowadays much of the forest can only beaccessed by horse, thus creating additionaldifficulties for NTFP processing.

Many NTFPs, particularly fruits andmedicinal plants, are now no longerharvested or processed. Local peopleharvest forest products only for their ownconsumption. Many wild-growing fruits areleft to rot in the forest. The forests inKyrgyzstan are state property but neitherthe Leshozes (State forestry body) nor localpeople have any knowledge of processing,business management or marketing.

In 1997, with the support of the WorldConservation Union, the Government of the

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Kyrgyz Republic and the Swiss Government,elaborated a Walnut Forest Action Plan toensure the conservation and sustainable useof this unique forest ecosystem. The ActionPlan consists of 11 projects including one on“Processing and marketing of non-timberforest products”. To implement the project,the collaborators of the Kyrgyz-Swiss ForestrySupport Program, LES-IC, have supported anumber of different NTFP processing andmarketing activities. These include theestablishment of several mini-enterprises(private persons or groups of people) engagedin producing jam and dried fruits from wild-growing fruits and berries, harvesting anddrying medicinal plants, development andprocessing of bee-keeping products,extraction of walnut kernels, packaging andgrading, obtaining walnut oil and ensuringsales. Service centres have been establishedto provide consulting and marketing services,conduct training of interested persons inmanagement of production, processing,marketing, etc.

Research is being carried out to identifyproducts having the greatest market potential,sale markets, criteria for defining quality andmarketable state of forest products. Theecological purity of the products of the walnutforests is, of course, their main potential salesadvantage.

For further information please contact:

Gulmira IsmailovaResponsible for project “Processing andmarketing of non-timber forest products”LES-IC office, Novoselov street 1, SputnikJalal-Abad, 714611 Kyrgyzstan Tel/fax +996 3722 53169; +996 3722 50241E-mail: [email protected]

COMMERCIALISATION OF NTFPs:FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS

By Elaine Marshall

Why is it that commercialisation of NTFPsdoes not consistently contribute to povertyalleviation? A new 3-year project is beingfunded by the Forestry ResearchProgramme of the UK Department forInternational Development to analyse theopportunities and constraints tocommercialisation of NTFPs at thehousehold and community level, throughcomparative analysis of case studies.Market structure will be analysed forselected NTFPs, to identify interventionsn e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u lcommercialisation. Gender issues andcommunity perceptions of success willreceive particular attention. Outputs willinclude (i) a manual developed and testedwith rural communities, to provide tools forsuccessfully developing NTFP resources,and (ii) an Expert System for use bydecision-makers to evaluate the potentialfor successful NTFP commercialisation.

The main collaborators on this project arethe UNEP World Conservation MonitoringCentre and the Overseas DevelopmentInstitute in the UK; Grupo de EstudiosAmbientales, Grupo Mesófilo, MethodusConsultora, Estudios Rurales y AsesoríaCampesina (ERA), SEMARNAP andPROCYMAF in Mexico; Universidad Nur,Care-Bolivia and the SuperintendenciaForestal in Bolivia; and Fauna & FloraInternational in Nicaragua.

We are bringing participants from the fieldof NTFPs to present both successful andunsuccessful case studies at our projectinception workshops in Mexico, March2001, and Bolivia, April 2001. We feel wehave as much to learn from case studieswhich have been successful as those whichhave failed. During our workshops, we will

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undertake a collaborative analysis of NTFPcase studies, and facilitate project stakeholderdiscussion in an attempt to reach consensuson defining and measuring success atcommunity level. Our research methodologyfor measur ing successfu l NTFPcommercialisation, will build upon previousresearch undertaken by CIFOR (1999).Specifically, we hypothesise that success isassociated with:

(i) positive state-sponsored regulations thatoffer clear rights to people(ii) a harvesting intensity / technique that doesnot put excessive pressure on the resource(iii) a transparent market(iv) well-organised gatherers(v) existence of external support groups

The links between these conditions areunclear, and their relative importance has notbeen evaluated. Based upon the workshopfindings, we will further develop and refine ourresearch methodology and collaborativelyexplore the relationship between thesefactors, and their respective influences onachieving successful commercialisation atinter and intra community levels, during the2nd and 3rd year of the project. Field datacollected will be used to evaluate the researchhypotheses from our workshop, in twodifferent areas each of Mexico and Bolivia. Inparallel to these activities we will collect dataalong the market chain, on selected tradedNTFPs, to explore the potential for marketintervention strategies.

This publication is an output from a researchproject funded by the United KingdomDepartment for International Development(DFID) for the benefit of developing countries.The views expressed are not necessarilythose of DFID. [Project R7925, ForestryResearch Programme]

For further information contact:

Miss Elaine Marshall, Project Co-ordinator,UNEP-WCMC, 219 Huntingdon RoadCambridge CB3 0DL, United KingdomTel: +44 1223 277314Fax: +44 1223 277136Email: [email protected]

ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMICASPECTS OF NTFPs

By Gerald E. Wickens

Unfortunately there is a conflict betweensustainable development of the world'snatural resources to meet an everincreasing global population and that ofsustainable conservation to safeguardgenetic resources for the future. Thedeveloped countries expect the lessdeveloped countries to maintain flora andfauna forest services regardless of the localeconomy. The situation is not helped wherethe less developed countries occur inregions inherently poor in naturalresources, especially in the arid and semi-arid tropics.

These arid ecosystems well illustrate theproblems that inevitably arise betweenmanaging the environment and socialneeds. Improved health care from the1930s onwards has led to a dramaticincrease in human and livestockpopulations which were formerly held incheck by wars, famine and disease. Thishas resulted in ever increasingrequirements for locally grown food, grazingand fuelwood and has led to over-cultivation, over-grazing and deforestation,i.e. desertification, a situation that has beeneven further aggravated by droughtassociated with climatic change. Over-cultivation results in lower productivity.

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"Whereas 30 years ago farmers were able togrow sufficient crops for subsistence plus asurplus for sale, they are now often cultivatingfrom three to five times as much land in theuncertain hope of a yield that will provideenough for their subsistence" (Cross &Barker, 1993, cited in Wickens, 1997). Laterand poorer sexual maturity, fertility and meatproduction from livestock arise from over-grazing, leading to more and more animalsbeing required in order to meet the demandsfor meat.

Deforestion has forced people to travel furtherand further afield for their fuelwood and othertree products. All three factors have led toincreased wind and water erosion, lower watertables, etc. It is a degradation cycle that thepresent population pressure and economy isunable to control.

The changing use of NTFPs by the Mbeere ofEmbu District, Kenya, between 1970 and1987 has been documented by Riley andBrokensha (1988). It is a scenario thatrepresents the changes also found in otherdeveloping countries. Over-utilization and thedegradation of the vegetation, soils, waterresources, etc., have imposed changes on theuse of NTFPs and even their substitution by,for example, imported products including theirchemical analogues in medicine, dyes, pestcontrol, etc.

The use of NTFPs follows the rule of supplyand demand. Supplies depend on seasonal orannual availability in terms of quantity andquality and the presence of suitablealternatives. Since the dawn of agriculture,cultivation has been the response to wildsources being unable to meet demand. Forexample, 2 tons of fresh leaves fromCatharanthus roseus (Madagascanperiwinkle) are required to produce 1 g of theanticancer alkaloid needed to treat a leukemiapatient for 6 weeks. Supplies are now from

cultivated plants (Sukh Dev. 1989; Robbins,1995).

While demand can be related to actualneed, a product is not necessarily utilizedthroughout its distribution range. Forexample, the field mushroom, Agaricuscampestris, is often the only edible funguspeople will gather in the UK and even thenit is eaten with extreme caution, yet inEurope a wide range of wild fungi areconsumed. For example, in the Garfabnanaregion of Tuscany the local people use 19species for food (Pieroni, 1999). Many ofthese edible European fungi also occur inthe UK and are readily eaten whenimported. The reasons for such differentattitudes to wild fungal food sources areobviously complex and poorly understoodbut certainly involve education, urbanisationand local customs.

For the list of references please contact theauthor.

Gerald E. WickensThe TriangleBuxton RoadAylsham, Norfolk NR 11 6JDUnited Kingdom

GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGY OFIRVINGIA GABONENSIS SEEDLINGSUNDER DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS

By Christiane Then and Wolf- UlrichKriebitzsch

IntroductionIrvingia gabonensis (Irvingiaceae) or bushmango is an arbuscular mycorrhizal tropicalrain forest NTFP- producing tree which iswidely distributed and abundant all overCentral Africa. The fruits are used by local

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communities for subsistence and for sale onlocal and regional markets.

As pressure on natural resources has beenincreasing, attempts have been made toinclude this species into programmes fordomestication or for enrichment plantinginside the forest. To ensure success, basicinformation on the species’ light and nutrientdemands, as well as the drought resistance ofthe seedling stage, are needed. In thisgreenhouse experiment we germinated seedsfrom Irvingia gabonensis from SW Cameroonand grew seedlings in a poor sandy soil (pH4.8) under controlled conditions. Threedifferent light intensities and fertiliser levelswere used:• 2%, 17%,100% of greenhouse radiation

which is equivalent to 1%, 8.5% and 50%of natural radiation

• control (K), fertiliser mix withoutphosphorus (-P), and with phosphorus(+P)

The response of the plants to the varioustreatments was evaluated by gas exchangeand growth parameters.

Characterization of Irvingia gabonensisThis species has very large leaves andgenerally produces extremely high leaf areas(LA). The total dry weights (DW) as well asthe DWs of leaves, shoots and roots are alsohigh. In the shade (2%) this is already visible,but total DW is tripled in slight shade (17%).In full light (100%), total and leaf DWs andtotal leaf area (LA) decrease significantlybecause of leaf fall caused by light damage.In fact, both leaf damage and numbers offallen leaves rise from slight shade to light.Actual leaf number as well as the totallyformed leaf number (including fallen leaves)follow the same patterns as the DWs. Onlythe +P treatment increases leaf number at100%, by providing, among other parameters,better resistance against leaf fall. At 100%

light there is a decrease of the totallyformed leaf number with time. This provesthat the decrease in DWs from slight shadeto light, mentioned above, are not onlycaused by leaf fall but by a growthpreference for the 17% light intensity. Thisfinding is supported by shoot-DW, as wellas height growth and internode lengths,which are significantly higher with +P, andhave their growth maxima at 17%decreasing to 100%. As a consequence, theshoot/root (S/R) ratio is greatly reducedfrom shade to light. This means animproved water uptake from the soil.Specific leaf areas (SLA) and branchingpatterns react the same way. The generallylow specific leaf area in all three lighttreatments indicates a good adaptability ofI. gabonensis to dry conditions. In thiscontext the abscission in light must beconsidered as a protection against highwater loss.

The species demonstrates generally lowmaximum photosynthetic capacity rates(Pnmax) – typical for shade adapted plants– with an increase from shade (2%) toslight shade (17%) by 20%, and a decreaseto light (100%). In comparison to otherinvestigated rainforest species, however,Pnmax is relatively high. In conjunction withthe high leaf area mentioned above, thisallows for fast biomass production in theseedling stage. Pnmax is tendentially higherwith –P. Quantum efficiency (Q) valuesprove that I.gabonensis can make use ofvery low light intensities - a characteristicadaptation for seedlings on the very shadyforest floor. Values typically rise from lightto shade, with maximum at 17%. MaximumPnmax at 17 % and the high quantum use isalso reflected by a high productivity of DWsand LA especially at this light level (seeabove). +P nutrient supply increases thelight demands of the plants as proved, forexample, by the light saturation point (IS)

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which is significantly enhanced with +P.

Transpiration rates (Tr) are particularly lowand tendentially higher at 17% shade. Wateruse efficiency (WUE) also tends to increasewith light. Relatively high Pnmax rates togetherwith low water losses produce a high WUE,which results in particularly effective biomassproduction relative to water loss. Trsignificantly increase with the fertilizertreatments. The increase of photosynthesiscaused by a higher nutrient supply raiseswater use efficiency (WUE) values in thefertiliser treatments which are tendentiallyhighest with +P.

As for drought resistance, water demands arehigh. Drying out experiments to examine thedevelopment of Pnmax under water shortageover several days, show a positiverelationship between increasing light and theinitiation of drying out, survival rate andrecuperation. Experiments indicate that thedanger of drying out is most pronounced atthe 17% light level and lowest for 100%. Thissuggests that I. gabonensis is limitingtranspiration – in addition to leaf abscission –by closing stomata at higher light levels toavoid water loss. The closing of stomata isalso indicated by the decrease in Pnmax andDWs from 17% to 100%. A negative fertilizereffect is most pronounced for +P and –Pwhereas the controls are less susceptible todrought. This may be a consequence of wideropened stomata for the fertilizer treatmentsthan for the controls as also indicated byPnmax (see above).

ConclusionsWe resume that all investigated parametersshow a great impact of irradiance on I.gabonensis seedling development. Seedlingsof I. gabonensis are very well adapted to theshady conditions in the understory ofrainforest. Water demands are high and thereis a good adaptability to dry conditions. I.

gabonensis is distinguished by a highproductivity, which is conform with the highnutrient and water demands.

RecommendationsBased on the above results, we recommendpartial shading similar to our 17% treatment(which corresponds to 8.5% of naturalradiation) for this species at the seedlingstage to achieve optimal growth and leafdevelopment. Regularly applied fertilizerincluding +P would be useful but is costly.We recommend arbuscular mycorrhizalinoculation as experience points not only toincreased growth and nutrient uptake butalso to improved water supply (asindicated, for example, by higher SLA). Thiswould stimulate even further the above-mentioned high adaptability to dryconditions.

For further information and available dataplease contact:

Christiane ThenInstitute for World ForestryLeuschnerstr. 9121031 Hamburg, GermanyTel:+49 40 73962136, Fax: +49 40 73962 480Email: [email protected]

Wolf- Ulrich KriebitzschTel: +49 40 73962- [email protected]

OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTSFACED BY RESOURCE-POOR FARMERSIN INVESTING IN THE PLANTING ANDIMPROVEMENT OF INDIGENOUS TREESFOR INCOME GENERATION

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By K. Schreckenberg, RRB Leakey and Z.Tchoundjeu

The domestication of indigenous trees for theproduction of non-timber forest productswithin agroforestry practices has beensuggested as a sustainable means ofpromoting the reduction of poverty in tropicalcountries (Leakey and Simons, 1998). ThisDFID-funded project was established inCameroon and Nigeria, to:-• Understand the contribution of on-farm

indigenous trees to rural livelihoods,C Analyse the constraints to, and

opportunities for, the greater managementand use on-farm of Dacryodes edulis(African Plum / Safou) and Irvingiagabonensis (Bush Mango / Dika Nut),

• Identify appropriate development andresearch interventions.

Project sites (4 in Cameroon and 2 in Nigeria)were selected to represent a range ofagroecological condit ions, speciesabundance, market access, populationpressure and land availability. Biophysicaland socio-economic studies were carried outat each site and market studies implementedin adjacent or other relevant markets.

The socio-economic team implementedcommunity level work in the Camerooncommunities and household interviews in allsix communities. The principal findings arethat out of the average of 80 fruit trees per 3-6ha farm, D. edulis is the most commonlyplanted species, accounting for 65 % of allplanted trees. Half of the planted species areindigenous, the vast majority being locatedwithin other perennial tree crops (eg. cocoaand coffee), with indigenous exceeding exoticspecies. Land tenure, which is commonlyperceived to be a constraint to planting treecrops, was found not to be and preliminarydata analysis found no clear differences

between the tree stocks of wealthy or poorfarmers, although male headed householdshad twice the numbers of female-headedhouseholds. Labour was not found to be amajor constraint for tree planting ormaintenance, but bottlenecks may occur atharvest time.

Income from indigenous fruits was theprimary source of income for 11% ofhouseholds, especially in August – October,when other income is scarce. It is also seenby farmers as an important buffer againstother financial risks and against fallingprices for major commodities, like cocoaand coffee.

The biophysical studies were particularlytargeted at an understanding of thevariability of fruit and kernel characteristics.Thirteen different characteristics (fruit, nutand kernel mass; fruit length and width;flesh taste and fibrosity; skin and fleshcolour, fat content of kernels, and theviscosity and elasticity (drawability) of foodprepared from kernels) were measured. Therelationships between tree height and dbhshowed that the population structures of D.edulis were similar in both countries, bothwere populations planted on farm, while theI. gabonensis population in Cameroon wasa mature relic of a natural population andthat in Nigeria a relatively young plantedpopulation.

As expected, very considerable tree-to-treevariation was found, indicating theappropriateness of a village-based treedomestication programme (beingimplemented by ICRAF / IRAD), that alsoconforms to the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, by promoting the rights offarmers over their indigenous knowledgeand germplasm. For example, a few I.gabonensis trees in Nigeria were found tobe considerably bigger than those in

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Cameroon, while in Cameroon, a few treeshad better kernel traits. From the results sofar, it is possible to identify the traits thatshould be selected for cultivar development inboth species. In I. gabonensis in particular itwill be important to select a combination oftraits that form either a fresh fruit ideotype, ora kernel ideotype in response to consumerpreferences.

In an attempt to quantify the extent ofdomestication already achieved by farmers'own tree selection activities, there is evidencethat in both species traits of little importanceto farmers are normally distributed, as in wildpopulations, and that others of importance tofarmers may form a separate sub-populationoutside the curve formed by wild populations.This illustrates the way in which such datacan be used to identify the best individualtrees for cultivar development usingvegetative propagation, so taking thedomestication process forward more rapidly.

For farmers to really benefit from the furtherdomestication of these species, it is importantthat the trade recognises the genetic variationbetween cultivars in terms of the market price.Attempts to ascertain market preferenceshave identified that traders favour skin colouras a trait in D. edulis, while consumers prefertaste. The odour of I. gabonensis kernelsseems also to be a factor of importance toconsumers. The market analysis to date hasnot yet, however, taken into account theapparent differences between therequirements of wholesalers and retailers.

A recent stakeholder workshop in Cameroon,was very enthusiastic about the results of theproject and the new emphasis being placedon the domestication of the traditionallyimportant, and previously-ignored, indigenousfruits. In particular the results were seen to bea major contribution towards the work of

ICRAF and IRAD to develop land usesystems that also provide a step towardspoverty reduction and sustainablelivelihoods.

Outputs from this project will include 4already submitted MSc theses, 10-20 peer-reviewed research papers (the first ispublished), policy guidelines, a synthesis inbook form, posters and mediapresentations.

This publication is an output from aresearch project funded by the UnitedKingdom Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) for the benefit ofdeveloping countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFID. [ProjectR7190, Forestry Research Programme]

For more information, please contact theauthors at:

Dr. Kate SchreckenbergOverseas Development Institute111 Westminster Bridge RdLondon SE1 7JD, UKEmail: [email protected]

Dr. Roger LeakeyCentre for Ecology and HydrologyBush Estate, PenicuikMidlothian EH26 0QB, ScotlandEmail: [email protected]

Dr. Zac TchoundjeuInternational Centre for Research inAgroforestryPO Box 2123, Yaoundé, CameroonEmail: [email protected]

APPLICATION OF MOLECULARMARKER TECHNOLOGIES FOR THEGENETIC CHARACTERISATION OFNON-TIMBER SPECIES

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By Marie Baucher, Sylvia Burssens, and MarcVan Montagu

The stability of an ecosystem is largelydetermined by the intraspecific geneticdiversity of the different interacting species,because this diversity holds a reservoir ofpotential adaptations to changingenvironmental conditions. A low geneticvariability as a consequence of biodiversityloss may lead to the disappearance ofendangered species. Although measurementsof visual traits reveal the existence of geneticvariation, they do not give a good indication ofthe structure of diversity within populations orhow this population is maintained.

Biotechnological advances in the analysis ofgenetic variation can revolutionise our abilityto conserve and improve forest species byaccelerating knowledge gathering. The use ofmolecular markers technology, such asAmplified Fragment Length Polymorphism(AFLP) (Vos et al., 1995), associated with themeasurement of quantitative characters,enables the measurement of the geneticvariation of a species or a population. As DNAanalysis allows for the direct visualisation ofgenetic information, independent ofenvironmental factors, tissue development ordevelopmental stage, these methods can beused for species identification and thedevelopment of general sets of molecularmarkers with which to assess geneticdiversity. Furthermore, the genetic mapping ofquantitative traits closely linked to molecularmarkers is a very efficient tool to analyse theoutcomes of crosses in marker assistedbreeding programmes.

The Institute of Plant Biotechnology forDeveloping Countries at the Department ofMolecular Genetics, Ghent University, isparticipating in an INCO-DEV project,

supported by the European Communitysince 1999, to assess the levels anddynamics of intra-specific genetic diversityof tropical trees with molecular tools. Inaddition to studying the biodiversity within10 different species from Central America,Costa Rica, French Guiana, BrazilianAtlantic rain forests and the CarribeanIslands, the aim of the project has been toassess human impact on the geneticdiversity of tropical trees. For example, theAFLP technique was used to studybiodiversity within and among threeneighbouring natural populations(Guaritiba, Grumari and Barra) of Eugeniauniflora (pitanga), each of which hasexperienced different degrees of humanimpact (Margis et al., in preparation). E.uniflora is a colonizing plant speciesendemic to the Brazilian Atlantic rain forest.It plays an important role in themaintenance of the woody coastalecosystem, especially in disturbed sites. Itsecological importance is reinforced by thefact that pitanga fruit are a feeding sourcefor a wide variety of birds and mammals.Because of the sensitivity and highresolution of the AFLP method, significantgenetic variation could be detected betweenpopulations which are geographically veryclose together. Intra and inter geneticdiversity analysis showed that more than86% of diversity resided on the intrapopulation component, suggesting thatgene flow among the populations is intense(Margis et al., in preparation).The same partners plan a continuation ofthe project, focusing on the impact ofdifferent human activities (e.g. logging,fragmentation and land degradation) on thegenetic diversity and gene flow withinseveral tropical plant species in LatinAmerica.

Thanks to the development of

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methodologies such as HPLC, capillaryelectrophoresis and mass spectrometry, it isnow possible to obtain information onmetabolite levels in individuals of a population(Fiehn et al., 2000). These high throughputtechnologies allow the study of the effect ofthe genetic background, but also ofenvironmental conditions, on the productionof secondary metabolites in medicinal plantsand can be applied to capture the value ofbiodiversity of tropical forests. Otherapplications of the use of molecularapproaches in non-timber species are geneengineering of desired traits, such as themodification of particular phytomedicinalpathways. This might include manipulation ofboth the quantity and quality of metabolitesproduced through the introduction of targetedgenes.

For references and further information pleasecontact:

Marc van Montagu and Sylvia BurssensInstituut Plantenbiotechnologie voorOntwikkelingslandenK L. Ledeganckstraat 359000 GentBelgium. Tel: + 32-9-2648727Fax: +32-9-2648795Email: [email protected]

Marie Baucher, Université Libre de BruxellesLaboratoire de Biotechnologie Végétale1850 chaussée de Wavre1160 BruxellesBelgium

DEVELOPING NEEDS-BASED INVENTORY

METHODS FOR NTFPsReport of the ETFRN research workshopheld 4-5 May 2000 at FAO in Rome

By Jenny Wong

The ETFRN workshop was one of theactivities in a pre-project supported by theForestry Research Programme of theUnited Kingdom Department forInternational Development. The pre-projectwas intended to examine the biometricbasis of current resource assessmentmethods used for NTFPs. The backgroundpaper for the workshop represented areview of English language NTFP literature.The workshop was asked to comment onthe review and to assist in the identificationof key areas where biometric research isneeded.

Biometrics can be defined as the'application of statistical methods andprinciples to the study of biologicalorganisms'.

Not all disciplines use the term 'NTFPs' andso the criterion for including a study wasthat it should be concerned with humanharvesting of some forest-based plant oranimal resource. Resource assessmentwas here interpreted as the quantification ofsome characteristic of the resource, e.g. itsabundance, growth rate or yield or as adescription of quantitative monitoringmethods. In all, 126 case studies wereidentified from a wide range of disciplinaryapproaches (see Table 1).

In order to examine the biometrics of thesestudies it was first necessary to establish aset of criteria to define biometric quality.These are all concerned with statisticalaspects of the design of the studies andare:

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Table 1. The biometric qualities of the reviewed studies Jenny Wong

Study type Number Protocols(%)

Biometric(%)

Biodiversity3

66 0

Often subjective but justifiable?

Demographic9

44 22

Often based on single study plots or stands

Ethnobotany10

50 20

Including quantitative ethnobotany

Experiments5

80 80

Insufficient replication of treatments

Harvesting5

80 60

studies Insufficient replication of treatments

Resource42

69 57

inventory Insufficient plots

Mapping3

0 33

Biometrics not a major concern?

Market studies2

50 0

Econometric criteria apply

Methodology11

64 55

Often use pseudo-replication

Monitoring12

50 25

Different biometric criteria apply

Rapid1

100

0

assessment Rapidity and rigour not compatible?

Remote sensing2

0 0

No sampling protocols reported for groundtruthing

Use of6

10 17

secondary data Did not report original protocols

Social surveys2

50 50

Sociometric criteria apply

Yield studies13

46 8

Often sampling is subjective

TOTAL126

56 38

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• objectivity in sampling design - the plotsshould be selected using a designdesigned to be objective (i.e. random,systematic etc. sampling); subjectivechoice of a plot to 'represent' an area offorest cannot be considered biometric,

• number of plots used - to be able toperform statistical tests and generatesampling errors there needs to be aminimum of 5 plots and preferably morethan 30 plots sampled,

• independence of plots - the plots need tobe well spaced so they represent separateobservations of the resource, this meansthat plots should not touch (the use oftouching plots as if they were independentis termed pseudo-replication).

In addition, in order to be able to judge thesecriteria it is necessary for the protocol used tobe clearly reported, so this was included as afurther factor. The results of the evaluationare shown in Table 1.

Generally, it would appear that most (60%)NTFP studies have some biometricshortcomings. Many of the 56% that did notreport their protocols could, of course, be welldesigned studies but without the details it isimpossible to judge. Also, to be fair, some ofthese studies may not need to bebiometrically rigorous. As in all forms ofinventory the methods used should bematched to the information needs of themanagement system and need not bebiometrically rigorous as long as objectivesare met.

What is perhaps of more concern is that 43%of resource inventory and 90% of yield studiesfailed in some way. These are studies thatusually have quantification as a primaryobjective and it seems clear that there is a

serious problem in the methods currentlyused for NTFP resource quantification.

The review concluded that the principaldifficulties with NTFP quantification are: • The variety of life forms and population

distributions of forest products meanthat traditional forest inventorytechniques cannot be easily adaptedand may not always be appropriate foruse with NTFPs.

• There is a lack of properly researchedNTFP-specific sampling designs.

• There is little guidance available ondevelopment of appropriate NTFPmeasurement (mensuration) techniques.

• There has been little or no application toNTFPs of sampling designs tailored tomonitoring needs.

• Lack of a strong theoretical basis toNTFP resource management.

• There has been little application of novelsampling strategies to NTFPs.

• There has been little cross-disciplinaryexchange of ideas and methods suitablefor use with NTFPs.

• There is no service that provideseffective communication of advice tofield workers and communities.

The workshop itself was concerned withidentifying priority research areas from theperspective of different 'needs' for NTFPquantification.

At the species level, information is neededto guide appropriate management ofindividual products. Here the maindifficulties are technical as little is knownabout the best methods to use to sample,measure, monitor and analyse (includingyield determination) individual products.Research is needed into all of these

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aspects for most products though emphasiswas given to resource inventory as otherstudies build on sound initial inventory of theresource.

At the community level any improvedmethods for studying a specific product willneed to be participatory in that they shouldenhance and build on local knowledge to beeffective. Much NTFP management istraditional and based on local knowledge butoften this is not formally acknowledged byregulatory authorities. The workshop identifiedan urgent need for the development ofparticipatory techniques which are accessibleand meaningful to local communities andwhich will produce results acceptable toregulators, that is, usually, governmentagencies.

At the macro level the difficulties of studyingindividual species are compounded by theexpense of undertaking studies on individualspecies forcing the use of a single design fora range of products. This severely restrictsthe ability to tailor designs to the peculiaritiesof individual products and there needs to besome investigation of the implications of thisin the context of multi-purpose resourceinventory. A further consideration is that thereneeds to be some means of integratinginformation from all NTFP studies within acountry. Such information is required forgovernment level strategic planning for theregulation of harvesting, issuing of exportpermits, incentives for NTFP livelihoods etc.

The workshop concluded that there is a needfor focused research on NTFP biometrics. Inparticular, the urgent need for a source ofbiometric advice for fieldworkers and forbetter reporting of protocols by thosepublishing NTFP resource studies wereemphasised.

For further information and to download theworkshop review paper and proceedingsvisit the workshop web page at:http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/ntfp

This publication is an output from aresearch pre-project funded by the UnitedKingdom Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) for the benefit ofdeveloping countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFID. [ZF0077Forestry Research Programme]

Jenny Wong Ynys UchafMynydd LlandegaiBangor, Gwynedd LL57 4BZUnited KingdomTel: +44 1248 602124Email: [email protected]

COMMUNITY-BASED WILDLIFEPOPULATION ASSESSMENT IN THEKORUP PROJECT AREA, SWCAMEROON

By Lien, M Waltert, K Faber, K vonLoebenstein, M Mühlenberg

The Korup Project Area (KPA) is made upof the Korup National Park (1260 km²) andthe Support Zone (5360 km²), whichincludes three Forest Reserves (Ejagham,Nta Ali and Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve)situated to the north, east and south of theNational Park, respectively. The humanpopulation is 45,000 people in about 180villages. The global objective of the KorupProject is to conserve the biodiversity of theKPA. Its purpose is that the different actorsshould protect, develop and use the naturalresources in an ecologically andeconomically sustainable and sociallyacceptable way.

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The majority of the people living in andaround the protected areas depend on animalwildlife, which is one of the main sources ofprotein. Vertebrates also play an active role inthe ecology of the forest, e.g. as importantseed dispersers. Moreover, the Support Zonestill harbours populations of some highlyendangered and range-restricted species suchas Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) and Preuss’sRed Colobus (Piliocolobus preussi). Up untilnow, there have not been enough data toassess the sustainability of human pressure(hunting and poaching) on animal wildlife orthe impact of logging activities and changesin land use. Based on experiences from IvoryCoast, the Korup Project, in collaboration withthe Centre for Nature Conservation (CNC,Göttingen University, Germany), has thereforedeveloped a methodology involving the localcommunities in the assessment of wildlife.This programme intends to assess thedensities of key species in selected areas andtheir changes over time. The focal species areduikers (four species), primates (sevenspecies) and three groups of birds (hornbills,touracos and selected understorey birdspecies). The key species are surveyed frompermanent line transects covering theforested parts of five village areas, in thenorthern and eastern part of the SupportZone. In the near future, a similar programmewill be carried out in parts of the NationalPark.

Transects are surveyed by carefully selectedand trained local staff. Direct observationsand indirect cues (tracks, dung) are recordedboth for diurnal and nocturnal key species.The personnel of the programme consist of 15Eco-staff divided into five teams (three staffper team), one field supervisor, one co-ordinator, one advisor and non-permanentconsultants. Data collection and analysisfollow standard Distance Samplingprocedures. The collection of data started inFebruary 1999. In one year of biomonitoring,

four teams have covered 379 km duringmorning observations, 311 km during nightsurveys, and 350 km during footprintsurveys, collecting 9827, 185 and 4294data-sets, respectively. For most focalspecies this has provided sufficient data forcalculating densities.

The community-based approach ensureslong-term monitoring and is financiallyaffordable. It also increases the level ofawareness on conservation issues of localcommunities and some key stakeholderssuch as the Government of Cameroon. Theprogramme is a member of the CameroonBiomonitoring Network (CBN), the objectiveof which is to exchange experiences amongits members.

For further information, contact:

LienBiomonitoring Co-ordinatorKorup ProjectB.P. 2417 DoualaCamerounTel./Fax: +237-43.21.71Satellite Tel.: 00873761627170Email: [email protected]

Dr. M. WaltertCentre for Nature Conservation (CNC)University of GöttingenVon-Siebold-Straße 237075 GöttingenGermanyTel.: +49 551 392313Fax.: +49 551 399234Email: [email protected]://www.gwdg.de/~ubns/mw.htm

ASSESSMENT OF NTFPs INCOMMUNITY FORESTRY: EMERGINGPARTICIPATORY INITIATIVES FROMTHE HILLS OF NEPAL

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By Hemant R Ojha

IntroductionNepal has a very rich floral and faunaldiversity due to its topographical, climatic andedaphic variations. About 100 NTFPs areextracted for trade, and 800 more findsubsistence uses as foods, spices, herbalmedicines, incenses, oils, fibres andconstruction materials (Edwards, 1996).Increasing subsistence as well as commercialexpectations from non-timber forest products(NTFPs) has necessitated more carefulassessment of the resource base andsustainable harvesting schemes in the hills ofNepal. This paper reviews some participatoryNTFP resource assessment initiatives withcommercial medicinal herbs and fibre-yieldingshrubs.

Currently most of the operational plans (OPs)for managing community forests (CF) lackprovisions for NTFPs. However, Forest UserGroups (FUGs) are not authorized to use andmanage NTFPs unless they are included inthe OP. Growing awareness of the value ofNTFPs has now highlighted the need forbetter NTFP resource assessment and theirincorporation into OPs.

The fundamental parameters that need to beassessed while planning sustainablemanagement of NTFPs at operational levelare: existing growing stock, productivity,quantity of sustainable yield that can beprescribed for harvesting, and sustainableharvesting techniques. In Nepal, very limiteddocumented knowledge on species as well asecosystem level is a major constraint inseeking appropriate answers to thesequestions. In view of this, FUGs and forestersare increasingly required to work together togenerate more information, often usingindigenous knowledge and beliefs as apreliminary basis.

Case ExamplesBinayak FUG in Bajhang in the westernhills of Nepal was formed in 1995 and apatch of 25 hectares of community forestwas handed over primarily for the fulfilmentof timber and fuelwood needs. In 1999, theAsia Network for Small Scale Bioresources(ANSAB) assisted the FUG to expand thecommunity forest area to include NTFPs.The participatory planning exerciseidentified Lokta (Daphne spp.) as one of themain commercial products. Lokta (a 3-4mhigh shrub) is one of the main sources oftraditional Nepali handmade paper, and hasan attractive local as well as internationalmarket.

The participatory resource assessmentstarted with preliminary mapping of Loktaresources in the forest. The forest wasdivided into various blocks followingboundary survey and area calculation.Sample plots were then laid systematicallyin each of the blocks, and counting of Loktaplants by diameter class was done and thetotal growing stock was projected. Usingsecondary information, cutting cycle andthe minimum size for cutting weredetermined to estimate annual sustainableharvest levels.

Bhitteri Pakha FUG in Dolakha district incentral Nepal offers another example ofNTFP assessment. Argeli (Edgeworthiagardeneri), which is a fast growing shrubwith a unique triangular branching pattern,was identified as the main commercialNTFP. Whiteskin is extracted from Argelistems and exported to Japan, where it isconverted to a high quality paper that isalso used for currency making.

As argeli is not uniformly distributed in thecommunity forest, habitat mapping wascarried out to determine the sampling

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frame. From this, an estimation of number ofclumps as well as stems was made. It wasvery time consuming to count individualstems as a clump contained as many as 80stems. To expedite the process, stemdiameter distribution was assessed from asample of 1000 stems across several clumps,and the estimated number of clumps wascombined with a diameter distribution curve toestimate the number of stems across variousdiameter classes. Participatory wisdomsuggested 30% mortality from one class toanother, and based on this, population sizewas projected for 10 years. Annualsustainable yield was calculated on the basisof a predetermined minimum size of cutting.

In the western Himalayan district of Humla,communities had long experiences ofcollecting plant products for local as well ascommercial use. ANSAB staff wanted to verifywhether indigenous harvesting practices wereoptimal in terms of productivity andconservation impact. To address this, ANSAB(1999) designed a participatory actionresearch plan to identify best harvest intervalsand collection methods for four commerciallyharvested medicinal plants, includingJatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora). This isan erect perennial rhizomatous herb growing10-60cm long and used both locally formedicines and commercially for medicinesand perfumery.

For the purpose of quick assessment, patchesharvested in 1993/94, 1994/95, 1995/96 werediscernible, and two more patches wereidentified for subsequent harvest treatments.By applying the same level of harvesting, thefive patches were harvested on a five, four,three, two and one year rotation. Yields offresh Jatamansi roots and rhizomes fromthese harvests were recorded. The resultswere analysed to assess the effect of harvestintervals across the two habitat types. Aharvest interval of five years was found to be

optimal.

Experience with Jatamansi and other highvalue NTFPs in Humla has indicated newdimensions of sustainability andmanagement of medicinal plants. Inaddition to quantity of harvest, methods,seasons and techniques of harvesting werefound to be equally important.

Discussions and ConclusionA wide range of assessment techniques forNTFPs has to be considered to addressvariations in terms of plant form, life cycleand product type. The examples presenteddemonstrate that Lokta and Argeli, althoughsimilar shrubs, were assessed using twodifferent techniques. Methods ofassessment have to be site and productspecific. Understanding ecologicalregularities of species as well asecosystems can facilitate speedy inventoryof NTFPs. Mapping Argeli habitatsminimised the sampling frame, and hencethe costs, while maintaining accuracy.Indigenous knowledge may provide a basisfor scientific inquiry as well as forprovisional harvesting plans. Thus both theJatamansi experiments, and determinationof the cutting cycle and mortality of Argeliwere achieved through participatorywisdom. The diversity of techniques neededfor NTFP assessment can be designed,tested and refined through the use of localas well as scientific knowledge.

For further information please contact:

Hemant R OjhaANSABP O Box 11035, Kathmandu, NepalTel: +977 1 497547Fax: +977 1 487916Email: [email protected]

ANALYSIS OF THE SPATIAL

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Figure 1 Example of a variogram.

Nugget

Range

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DISTRIBUTION OF NTFPs IN THETROPICAL FOREST OF GHANA

By Emmanuel Tabi-Gyansah

IntroductionIn Ghana, NTFPs are an important source ofincome to the majority of rural dwellers. Mainproducts are cane (Calamus spp.), rattan(Lacosperma spp.) and chewsticks (Garciniaafzelii). These products contribute 2 % (incomparison with the forestry sector’s 6%) tothe country’s GDP. Furniture production andother processing activities from cane andrattan have expanded. Cane-processingenterprises were actively promoted. Although the development of NTFP-basedindustries has helped economic development,it has also caused an increased demand forraw materials. The growing depletion of forestresources has generated interest inconservation-oriented projects, but thesecannot successfully be implemented withoutknowledge of the current status and rates ofchange in the spatial distribution of theprincipal species.

In Ghana, ‘conventional’ forest inventoriesgenerally have been based on stock surveysof compartments. Such inventory data areessentially non-spatial. At best, the resultsare combined with remote sensing data todisplay forest patterns and produce forestmaps. Because the smallest mapped unit is acompartment (often several hundreds ofhectares in area), detailed information on thelocal spatial distribution within map units isnot presented in maps. Recent research(Acharya, 1999) has shown that geostatisticsoffers a promising method for characterisinglarge and small scale variations of bothspecies richness and forest structureparameters. This paper describes furtherresearch to investigate whether geostatistical

methods can be used to produce reliableinformation about the spatial distribution ofNTFPs - cane, rattan, and chewstick - inpart of the Subri River Forest Reserve, oneof the largest forest reserves in Ghana(Tabi-Gyansah, 2000).

GeostatisticsMost people know intuitively that two valuesthat are close together in space tend to bemore similar than those far apart. Suchvariables are known as regionalizedvariables. A regionalized variable y(x) isconsidered at all pairs of location x and x +h, i.e. at locations separated by thedistance vector h. Geostatistics allow thecorrelation between any two valuesseparated in space to be quantified andused to predict the values at unsampledlocations. Geostatistics are therefore apowerful tool for the study of spatialdistributions.

In geostatistics, a so-called variogram isused to model the way two values arespatially correlated. The spatial varianceusually increases with distance, and levelsoff at a certain distance beyond whichobservations appear independent (Figure1). This is the so-called range, beyondwhich the variogram value remainsconstant. Between locations separated by adistance smaller than the range, theregionalized variables are dependent.When the variogram is extrapolated back tozero distance, it may approach a non-zerovariance or non-zero y-intercept. This isknown as the nugget variance, andrepresents unexplained spatial dependentvariation or purely random variance.

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Table 1. Schematic presentation of the proposed method to identify populations of bromeliads that may be exploited with sustainability ofyield. After Wolf & Konings (in press), reproduced with permission of the editor.

ReconnaissanceSelect a group of species of host trees, of similar bark characteristics, that support dense bromeliad populations.Map the area.Lay out several parallel transects, covering the total area.Establish at least 35 random sampling points on the transects.

InventorySelect the four nearest trees to each sampling point, one per quarter, with DBH >5 cm, (point-centred quarter method).Record for each tree: Mean Distance, MD, to sampling point (cm), species, DBH and no. of branching pointsRecord for the bromeliads: species, no. of rosettes >20 cm tall (in some cases smaller species may also be included), and the no. of rosettes in thelower forest stratum, i.e. up to a height of six m or ± 1/3 of the canopy height.

AnalysisCalculate the host tree density per ha, TD; TD = 10000/((MD/100)*(MD/100)).Calculate per bromeliad species the average occupation, O, per host tree; O = total no. of rosettes/number of trees.Calculate the standard error of the average occupation; SEO = standard deviation/square root number of trees.Calculate per bromeliad species the average density per ha, BD; BD = TD*O.Calculate the lower limit of the 95% confidence interval of the bromeliad density, LLBD; LLBD = TD*(O-SEO*1.96)

IF LLBD <10.000 THEN STOPStandardise for all trees the DBH and the no. of branching points; standardised X = (X-mean)/standard deviation.Plot Tree Size (= sum of standardised DBH and no. of branching points) against no. of rosettes.Define low sustaining trees, LS, that support <50% of expected maximum no. of rosettes IF LS >50% THEN STOPExclude low sustaining trees from the analysis.Calculate Index of Spatial Homogeneity, ISH; ISH = squared correlation coefficient between Tree Size and square root of no. of rosettes. IFISH <0.90 THEN STOP

ExploitationHarvest bromeliads in the understory, up to six m, in a four year –depending on the species- rotation cycle.Implement a monitoring program, applying the described method.

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Some general resultsA multi-level sampling design was used tocollect data on various tree parameters andon the abundance of NTFPs in 500 m² sampleplots along 1200m transects on either side ofa predetermined base-line. Subsequentanalysis involved two main steps: i) analysisof the observations, without considering theirspatial locations, and ii) estimation ofvariograms and contour mapping to provideinformation on spatial dependence andvariations in the distribution of timber andNTFPs.

In summary, the research revealed thattimber and NTFPs have some inherentlydifferent spatial characteristics:

• timber was found to have a relatively longrange of spatial dependence and spatialvariation, confirming the locally-homogeneous nature of the tropical forest

• the spatial distribution of NTFPs wasfound to be very erratic, with relativelyshort scale variation.

ConclusionAlthough further work is required, thisresearch suggests that geostatistics may playa useful role in the survey of NTFP resourceswhich, by their very nature, can only bestudied on the ground. Not only maygeostatistical methods help forest resourcemanagers to better understand the spatial

distribution of NTFPs but they may alsosupport the selection of appropriatesampling designs to inventory thisincreasingly scare resource.

Further informationThe research described in this paper wasundertaken in partial fulfillment of therequirements for an MSc degree inGeoinformation for Forest and TreeResources Management at the InternationalInstitute for Aerospace Survey and EarthSciences (ITC), in the Netherlands. Thework was supervised by Prof. Dr. A. de Gierand Dr. M. Weir, and is one of severalresearch projects dealing with applicationsof geostatistics carried out by ITC's ForestScience Division. For further information,contact: [email protected].

For the list of references, please contact:

Emmanuel Tabi-GyansahForestry CommissionPO. Box M434Accra, Ghana.Email: [email protected]

EPIPHYTIC BROMELIADS: TOWARDTHE SUSTAINABILITY OF YIELD FROMNATURAL POPULATIONS IN THEHIGHLANDS OF CHIAPAS, MEXICO

By Jan H.D. Wolf* and Cornelis J.F.Konings

Direct economic benefits of conservationefforts may be attained when forestproducts can be harvested for commercialpurposes while at the same timemaintaining the ecological integrity of theforest. Recently, a concept known ascanopy farming© has been proposed for

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this purpose. Vascular epiphytes are just oneof the potential NTFPs in the canopy and ofthese the bromeliads are often the mostabundant, particularly in areas with apronounced dry season.

Bromeliads are traditionally used byhighlanders of Mayan origin in Chiapas,Mexico, for ceremonial purposes and for thedecoration of sacred sites. The western worldhas only recently ‘discovered’ the potential ofbromeliads for (home-) decoration, andspecies in the genus Tillandsia are nowregarded as a valuable cash-crop in severalcountries. Thus, between 1993 and 1995,Guatemala exported 14.5 million Tillandsiaplants annually. Rauh, a specialist inBromeliaceae, estimates that at least 75% ofthe plants in Tillandsia farms are collectedfrom the wild and holds such activitiesresponsible for a decline of bromeliads,casting doubts upon the sustainability of thisharvesting practice.

In a study in pine-oak forest of the highlandsof Chiapas we aimed to obtain criteria for thesustainable harvesting of a natural populationof bromeliads. For details, we refer to Wolf &Konings (under review).

Two approaches may be followed to attainsustainability of yield. By means ofdemographic and/or genetic studies andmodelling we may attempt to establish theminimum viable population size and proposemanagement interventions accordingly, basedon population viability analysis. A reliableanalysis, however, requires observations overa long period of time and has no universalvalue. For the immediately threatened forestsand bromeliads in Chiapas we thereforesuggest an empirical approach in which westart with an arbitrary definition, though basedon generally accepted principles, of the moststrict criteria for sustainable removal.Exploited species must then be monitored

over time to see whether the initiallystringent thresholds may possibly belowered. We propose that harvestingshould only be permitted from populations(i) with a high population density, (ii) thatare evenly distributed in space, and (iii) forwhich the reproductive potential will not beaffected by the removal.

Harvesting from a small population mightnegatively affect the local survival of aspecies, since small populations mayexperience reduced offspring fitness and aloss of genetic variability throughinbreeding or genetic drift. In addition, theyare considered to be more vulnerable todemographic and environmentalstochasticity, and to natural catastrophes.We suggest the use of a minimalpopulation density limit for exploitation of10.000 large rosettes/ha, a threshold tentimes higher than that applied in a stableTillandsia circinnata population in Florida.

We consider that populations that arespatially evenly dispersed within ahomogeneous habitat are at carryingcapacity, for which the extinction risk is alsosmaller. We presume that for three-dimensional epiphytic populations atcapacity this implies that over the entireforested area the abundance of epiphyteson trees of a larger inhabitable size isnearly proportionally greater than theabundance on smaller trees. On the basisof a pilot study in three forest stands at ‘LaFlorecilla’ along a disturbance gradient, wepropose to employ the squared correlationcoefficient (r2) of a linear correlation of TreeSize against epiphyte abundance as anindex of spatial homogeneity (ISH) of thepopulation. The variable Tree Size is alinear combination of DBH and number ofbranching points. At the least disturbedstand, the ISH was 0.901 and accordinglywe suggest that at La Florecilla harvesting

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should be limited to populations with an ISH>0.90 (p<0.001).

To assure that the removal of rosettes doesnot affect the reproductive capacity of thepopulation, we propose exploiting only thatpart of the bromeliad population that grows inthe lower stratum of the forest, including theforest floor. Population densities in the lowerstratum of the forest are likely to depend on aseed supply from the canopy. In contrast,canopy colonisation by wind dispersed seedsfrom lower strata seems unlikely and plantsthat grow near the forest floor are not likely toplay an essential role as providers of progenyfor populations of bromeliads that seem bestadapted to survive in the canopy.

For a second study at ‘La Florecilla’ wedeveloped a user-friendly transect methodthat aimed to identify populations ofbromeliads that may be harvested sustainably(Table 1). We found one species, Tillandsiavicentina, with both a satisfactory averagepopulation density of about 24,000 rosettes ofover 20 cm/ha on oaks and an ISH of 0.91,after excluding oaks (40%) that sustained fewTillandsia plants. We allow the exclusion of upto half of all host trees that support fewbromeliads, since in the structurallyheterogeneous forest we expect a highvariability between trees due to the randomsampling design. Less than 20% of thepopulation occurred in the lower stratum ofthe forest, up to a height of 6 m. Incompliance with the proposed prerequisitesand taking into account certain qualityconsiderations, we estimate that it is possibleto sustainably harvest about 700 rosettes ofT. vicentina /ha/yr from the understorey andforest floor, in a 4-year rotation cycle;equivalent to an annual yield of 112,000rosettes from the entire forest at La Florecilla.The implementation of a monitoringprogramme that makes use of the transectmethod is a necessity for any management

plan. We hope that the exploitation ofbromeliads as an alternative NTFP willcontribute to community economicdevelopment and conservation of both thebromeliads and the forests they grow in. AcknowledgementsWe are grateful to the community of LaFlorecilla and the Hermanas MisionerasClarisas for their co-operation and forgranting us access to their forests. Wethank Prof. Dr R.A.A. Oldeman forpermitting free use of the term CanopyFarming©.

For further information, contact:

Jan H.D. Wolf* and Cornelis J.F. Konings El Colegio de La Frontera Sur,C.P. 29290, San Cristóbal de Las CasasChiapasMéxico

*Present addressUniversity of AmsterdamInstitute for Biodiversity and EcosystemDynamicsHugo de Vries-laboratoryP.O. Box 940621090 GB AmsterdamThe NetherlandsTel: + 31 20 5257840Email: [email protected]

CERTIFICATION OF NTFPs : ANEMERGING FIELD

By Patrick Mallet and Marion Karmann

Certification is a market-based tool that isbecoming a hot topic in many natural

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resource sectors. A certification logo or labelenables potential customers to differentiateproducts, based on the social andenvironmental ‘qualities’ of the commoditythey decide to buy. This market opportunity ismotivating many producers to adapt theirmanagement practices to meet certificationcriteria.

The harvest of non-timber forest products(NTFPs) is coming under increasing scrutinyfrom certification programmes because of thekey role that it plays in the sustainablemanagement of community agriculture andforest resources worldwide. NTFPs arepresenting many new challenges andopportunities in certification due to the widerange of management practices and difficultyin monitoring their harvest and processing.

While NTFPs have been certified throughorganic certification and, to a lesser extent,under fairtrade systems, the primary focus ofrecent work to develop certification has beenthrough the Forest Stewardship Council(FSC). FSC promotes well-managed forestsby applying criteria that address ecological,social and economic issues. The NTFPWorking Group of the FSC has beenundertaking field trials and interpreting theFSC Principles and Criteria to make themmore appropriate for the harvest of NTFPs.

The following categories of criteria areincluded within the FSC and are useful inmeasuring the sustainability of all types ofproduction systems: S management plan, monitoring,

evaluation;S ecological harvesting and management

activities;S biodiversity conservation;S regulating the use of chemicals;S tenure and customary use rights;S fair returns, adequate benefits;S safe and healthy working environment;

S impact on local and indigenouscommunities; and

S economic viability.

While FSC is most closely associated withNTFPs, it is also the most expensivecertification programme to implement. Inaddition, the FSC system is difficult toapply to the vast majority of informalcommunity-based NTFP operations thatconstitute the bulk of NTFP harvestingworldwide. FSC is beginning to look at newmodels of community-based certificationwhere a number of harvesters are certifiedas a group or where a resource manager iscertified to oversee multiple harvestingoperations. Despite this recent progress,FSC certification is probably still mostappropriate for large scale industrial NTFPoperations.

For small scale NTFP operations, as is thecase for most food and medicinal productharvesting, organic agriculture certificationprovides a reasonable alternative. Therange of criteria addressed under organiccertification is narrower than under FSC,with an explicit focus on building soil fertilityand crop management techniques.However, organic certifiers are beginning tolook at landscape level issues as well associal concerns. Given the relatively lowcost of certification and strong consumerrecognition for organics, this certificationmay be most appropriate for many NTFPharvesting operations.

Fair trade is also an option for NTFPcertification although only for southernproducers. Fair trade is beneficial for smallproducers since its primary focus is onensuring that they receive a fair deal fortheir products. Secondly, the costs ofcertification are borne by the retailer andconsumer rather than by the producer. Thecurrent scope of products covered under

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fairtrade only includes a few agroforestryproducts although it is likely that this productbase will grow to include NTFPs.

One issue on which all certificationprogrammes can agree is that certificationspecific to NTFPs is still very recent andlargely untested. However, the recent work ofthe FSC NTFP Working Group has gone along way to refining certification for NTFPs.Trial certification assessments for specificNTFPs like chicle gum, Brazil nuts, andchestnuts have resulted in product specificinterpretations of the FSC Principles andCriteria. In another case, SmartWood, anFSC-accredited certifier has developed ageneric addendum to their criteria that will beused as the basis for all their future NTFPassessments. Finally, IMAFLORA, anorganisation in Brazil is assessing thepossibility of certifying a forest region fromwhich a wide range of medicinal plants areharvested, based on the individualmanagement plans developed for eachspecies.

There are a number of challenges facingNTFP certification. Among the most criticalare the following:

S Lack of ecological knowledgeabout individual species, includingbaseline data, sustainableharvesting levels and resiliencylevels. This knowledge is oftenonly relevant to specific ecologicalniches and is held in part by localharvesters. The threat tosustainable harvesting comeswhen a market value is attached tothe individual species andharvesting rates increase.

S Possible negative impacts of certificationon small producers and subsistenceusers, including their need to prove or

formalise customary tenure andaccess rights and even the potentialloss of subsistence use rights due toincreased market demands.

S Difficulty in realising market benefitsfrom certification. Markets forcertified products are not welldeveloped and tend to occupy nichemarkets for high quality products.Often quality control measures inNTFP harvesting / processing needto be developed. Additionally, it hasyet to be shown whether certifiedNTFPs are able to command ahigher price in the marketplace.

S Lack of overall experience withNTFP certification including absenceof skills in assessing thecharacteristics of specific NTFPs,lack of standard policies and thedifficulty with integrating timber andNTFP certification.

The primary goal of certification is to bringabout positive environmental and socialchange in resource stewardship.Certification criteria can be used byproducers and harvesters everywhere as amodel for best practices. It must beremembered that the time and financialcosts associated with undergoing acertification assessment often outweigh thebenefits derived from being certified. Whenconsidering NTFP certification, the bestoption may be not to pursue a formalassessment.

Certification is only one tool among manyto move towards more sustainableproduction systems. It will take furtherrefinement of certification programmes tomeet local realities, more producers andharvesters willing to test the certificationmarket, and increased demand by

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consumers for certified products before thefull benefits of NTFP certification are felt.

For more information, please contact:

Patrick MalletCertification and Marketing ProgramFalls Brook CentreEmail: [email protected]://www.web.net/~fbcja

Marion KarmannHerdstr.458332 SchwelmGermanyTel: + 49 2332 913892Email: [email protected]

NTFP CERTIFICATION: CHALLENGES FORRESEARCH

By Jelle Maas and Mirjam A.F. Ros-Tonen

Background: the emergence of NTFPcertificationVarious organisations have taken up the issueof NTFP certification (Dürbeck, 1999). Thisissue has gained a more pronounced place onthe international agenda since the NTFPCertification Workshops organised by theFalls Brook Centre (Canada) in Oaxaca,Mexico. Although there are only a fewofficially certified NTFP products to date, anincreasing number of initiatives are beingtaken to develop standards for NTFPcertification. Mallet (1999) distinguishes threetypes – or fields – of NTFP-relatedcertification initiatives.

Sustainable forestryCertification of sustainably managed forestsis mainly based on principles for SustainableForest Management. Many sets of criteria andindicators prepared for timber certificationcould partly be applied to NTFPs. Specific

sets for the management of NTFPs fromnatural forests are those of the ForestStewardship Council’s (FSC) NTFPWorking Group and the RainforestAlliance/Smart Wood (Rainforest Alliance,1998; Shanley et al. 1998). Within thisgroup of sets, an important issue is thedefinition of NTFPs and the distinctionbetween products from forests andanthropogenic (human-made) vegetationtypes. Organisations such as the Institute ofForestry and Agricultural Management andCertification (IMAFLORA, Brazil), theConsejo Boliviano para la CertificaciónVoluntária (CFV), Estudios Rurales yAsesoria (ERA, Mexico) and the WWFMediterranean Programme in Greece areundertaking field tests of standards forNTFP certification (FBC, 1998; Mallet,1999; Lintu, 2000).

Certification of forest management in adefined area is based on performancerequirements. Another option is to certifythe environmental management system(EMS) of a forest organisation, which istypically made according to the respectiveinternational standards (ISO 14001/14004).EMS does not lead to product labelling(Demidova and Alhojarvi, 2000).

Organic agricultureCertification systems for NTFPs fromhuman-altered vegetation types are partlybeing developed by organisations in thefield of organic agriculture. The mostimportant among these are the InternationalFederation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM),the Organic Crop Improvement Association(OCIA) and ECOCERT International, whichdeals with the EC2092/91 regulation fororganic agriculture. These certificationschemes mostly focus on principles oforganic production, addressing othercriteria to a lesser extent.

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Fair-tradeFair-trade based criteria sets mainly focus onsocio-economic criteria, with only generalemphasis on ecological and managementissues. The Fairtrade Labelling Organization(FLO) coordinates 17 national Fair-tradesystems.

In addition to these basic types ofcertification, there are a number of otherinitiatives and procedures developed or underdevelopment among which AnalogueForestry. Analogue Forestry is a type ofcomplex agroforestry developed by the NeoSynthesis Research Centre (NSRC) in SriLanka. The system encourages farmers tomimic the structure and ecological functionsof the local natural forest ecosystem usingspecies that provide them with a range ofproducts for personal consumption or sale inthe marketplace. Farmers benefit from thediversity of products that they harvest whilealso restoring the natural environment andsupporting key ecological processes like soilretention and water purification (Senanayakeand Jack, 1998).

Research priorities in NTFP certification While most of the aforementionedorganisations focus on the development andtesting of standards for certification, NTFPcertification-related research is still in itsinfancy. Worth mentioning are the research-oriented activities of the Rogue Institute forEcology and Economy (RIEE) in Ashland,Oregon, USA, and the NTFP Network forSustainable Forest Management in theMediterranean by the WWF MediterraneanProgramme Office. The RIEE is focussing itsresearch efforts on the education and trainingof NTFP harvesters in the USA and hasdeveloped a manual of sustainable harvestingguidelines for 27 NTFP species in Oregon(RIEE, 2000). The WWF project aims at theconservation of important Mediterraneanforest areas through the promotion of rural

community development in and aroundthese areas and sustainable NTFPproduction (FBC, 1998).

As was indicated during the meetings inOaxaca, Mexico (FBC, 1998), and in theliterature (Pierce, 1999), many aspects ofNTFP certification require specific research.The outline below, which builds on onepresented in Maas (2000), is an attempt tocategorise these needs. It follows the threemain objectives of NTFP researchdistinguished by Ros-Tonen (1999), i.e.forest conservation, participatory naturalresource management and improvedlivelihoods. A forest-oriented approach,aimed at forest conservation, focuses onthe development of an ecologicallysustainable extraction system. From apeople-oriented perspective, researchshould be supportive to participatory forestmanagement and improved livelihoods. Theintroduction of certification has a significantimpact on the social structures of acommunity (emancipation of specificgroups like harvesters or traders), but willalso influence the availability of the certifiedproduct on the local market. Arnold andPérez (1998) mention the importance ofsome kind of balance between subsistenceneeds and the commercialisation of NTFPresources.

The following makes clear that there is achallenge ahead for continued collaborativeNTFP research for the benefit of tropicalrainforests and the people who depend onthem for their livelihood.

1. Forest-oriented approach 1.1 Forest conservation• Identification of suitable products• Identification of suitable forest

areas/forest types• Identification of key ecological

information for sustainable

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extraction methods• Identification of key ecological

information for sustainable harvestinglevels (inventories)

• Development of tools to monitor thesustainability of the extraction atspecies and ecosystem level

2. People-oriented approach2.1 Participatory management• Recovery of traditional knowledge on

which to base management decisions• Development of “easy to understand

and apply” management tools• Provide scientific data for the

development of criteria for “culturallyappropriate” management of NTFPresources

2.2 Improved livelihoods• Market feasibility studies• Development of market monitoring

tools for NTFP products (“chain ofcustody”)

• Provide scientific data for thedevelopment of criteria for “socially just”NTFP extraction (fair returns, equitablelabour and trade relationships, etc.)

• Assessment of the impact of NTFPcertification on the stakeholders’ socialand economic environment

• Insight into the legislation relating toNTFP certification (taxes; intellectualand other property rights)

• Insight into appropriate and “ecologicalfriendly” domestication, propagationand yield raising methods andtechniques of potential commercialattractive NTFP and their integrationinto (human modified) forestry systemsas a scientific basis for thedevelopment of criteria for NTFPresource management

For references please contact the authors

Jelle MaasProgramme UnitTropenbos FoundationPO Box 232, 6700 AE WageningenThe NetherlandsTel: +31-317-495506Email: [email protected]://www.tropenbos.nl/tropenbos/tropenbos.home.html

Mirjam Ros-TonenGoethelaan 463533 VS UtrechtThe NetherlandsEmail: [email protected]

PROPERTY IN NTFPs

By Louise Fortmann

In this, the briefest of discussions ofproperty and NTFPs, I discuss whatproperty is, complexity, and thebeneficiaries of property rights. If you havespecific questions, please contact me at theaddress below.

What is Property?To understand property in NTFPs we needto dispel four commonly held assumptionsabout property. First, we often think ofproperty as being things – our house, ourclothes, our bicycle. This commonsensenotion is misleading. Property is actually asocial relationship among people. It is anenforceable claim to rights in something.That is, my cattle are my property becauseother people (or the state) recognize myright to them and will enforce my propertyrights against would-be cattle rustlers. Asecond common mistake is to think that theproperty rights regimes in the North areuniversal. To the contrary, there issignificant variation in what can be claimedas property and what sorts of things are

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bundled together in a single property right. Inparticular, people often think that every thingthat is found on a piece of land – water, trees,plants, wildlife, minerals – is owned alongwith the land. In fact, property rights in treesand so on are not infrequently held separatelyfrom the land. Third, we often assume that ifyou own something, no one else has rights toit. Actually, multiple people can have rights todifferent uses of the same object. Forexample, I may own the timber in a pine tree,but you have the rights to all the needles andcones until I harvest the tree. Finally, we tendto think that property is what the governmentsays it is; that property rights have to berecognized by the state. To the annoyance ofmany governments, local people create theirown enforceable property regimes all thetime.

Property Rights in NTFPs Can BeComplex!NTFPs take at least three different forms –products of trees, e.g., firewood, fruit, bark,roots; products from the understorey, e.g.,grass, berries, mushrooms; and fugitiveresources that live in or move through aforest/tree – wildlife, insects, birds. Thus,thinking about property in NTFPs raises threekinds of questions about what property rightsgive rise to other property rights. Who ownsthe trees and does s/he therefore own allparts of the tree, everything in or on it, and/orthe land on which it is growing? Who ownsthe land and does s/he therefore own all thetrees, everything in the understorey, and/oreverything passing through? Who owns thefugitive resources and does s/he thereforeown the land and/or trees on/in which theseresources are found? We must also ask, what, in the absence of atitle from the government, creates what kindsof property rights? And for all rights to NTFPswe must ask under what circumstances dowhat categories of people have what rights,

where, for how long? Obviously for anyaggregation of trees, be it a forest, awoodlot, or small numbers of individualtrees, there is potential for a complex arrayof overlapping rights in NTFPs.

Just Who Benefits from NFTPs ?Property rights are important because theyincrease the likelihood that a person cansecure a livelihood from an NTFP.Discussions of livelihoods and livelihoodstrategies often focus on residenthouseholds This makes the often erroneousassumption that all members of thehousehold benefit equally from householdassets including NTFPs. In somecircumstances, women and children aresignificantly less likely to benefit than men.Focusing on residents excludes regularmobile users from the picture.

In terms of household inequity, afundamental problem lies in the distinctionbetween access, ownership and control.This is most often a problem for women.The economist Bina Agarwal has shownthat male family members may control landeven though legally it is owned by a womanin the family. The same principle applies toNTFPs – access or ownership withoutcontrol reduces the likelihood that a womancan earn her own livelihood from the NTFP.An independent livelihood is not onlyimportant for providing subsistence, butalso affects a person's status and powerwithin a household, including for a womanwhether or not she is likely to be beaten byher husband. Another example comes fromthe geographer, Dianne Rocheleau. Menand women used the same tree, men forswine food and women for handicraftmaterials. But since women did not own orcontrol the trees, when swine food was nolonger needed, men cut the trees down,destroying a resource that women needed.

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The question of intra-household entitlementsalso arises for NTFPs managed as a commonpool resource particularly in the case ofdivorce or death of a household head.Decisions about the management of NTFPcommons may also exclude the seasonalusers such as nomadic pastoralists, migratorymushroom pickers. This has two implicationsfor the migratory users. First, they may beexcluded from access to the NTFP altogether.Second, for any number of reasons,management by resident users may notmaintain an adequate level or quality of theNTFPs.

A Final CautionProperty rights are rarely a tidy set of rules.Property rights have histories that haveeffects in the present. Property rights changeas informal arrangements emerge that may ormay not be formalized but that, nonetheless,have clear effects on the ground. Thinkingclearly about property rights in NTFPsrequires a careful eye on the past and how itaffects the present, a clear understanding ofthe different kinds and seasonalities of usersand uses, as well as a grasp on thedistribution of benefits.

Louise FortmannDepartment of Environmental Science, Policyand ManagementUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA 94720-3313, USATel: +1 510 642 7018, Fax: +1 510 643 1815Email: [email protected]

THE INTERNATIONAL FORESTRYRESOURCES AND INSTITUTIONS (IFRI)RESEARCH PROGRAM AND THE SEARCHFOR COMMUNAL MANAGEMENT OFFOREST RESOURCES

By Amy R. Poteete

The International Forestry Resources andInstitutions (IFRI) research program is anetwork of collaborating research centres inAfrica, Asia, Europe, Latin America, andNorth America. Members of the IFRInetwork use standardized methods tocollect data on a common set ofbiophysical, socioeconomic, andinstitutional variables. Researchers returnto forest sites every three to five years toconduct repeat studies. By building aninternational database of comparablerepeat studies, IFRI scholars gain the abilityto draw comparisons across a largenumber of cases and over time.1

IFRI studies suggest that the perceivedvalue of a resource is the most importantfactor affecting the emergence and successof institutions for self-governance. The useof forest resources shapes perceptions offorest value and condition. Non-timberforest products (NTFPs) loom large inassessments of forests by local users offorest resources. The IFRI researchprotocols are sensitive to the multiple waysin which people interact with forests. Wecollect data on the use of a wide range offorest products including trees, bushes,grasses, leaves on the ground, climbingleaves (e.g., vines), soils, stones, minerals,and wildlife. Of the pairings of user groupsand forests in our database, nearly all(87.4%) use at least one non-tree forestproduct. In fact, the most commonly usedforest products for our study sites aregrasses (70.5 %) rather than trees(compare parts of trees: 67.2 %; parts ofbushes: 56.5 %; leaves on the ground: 35.9%; climbing leaves: 32.2 %; soils, stonesand minerals: 34.9 %; wildlife: 34.6 %)! Theavailability of NTFPs clearly influencesassessments of forests by the people whouse them, and thus affects their willingnessto take action to protect their forestresources.

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The ease with which the condition of theresource can be determined also influencesperceptions of values associated with theforest (Gibson, McKean and Ostrom 2000).Reliable indicators of not only the condition ofthe forest, but also of links between the forestand its indirect services, are especiallyimportant. IFRI studies in several countriesfind that local people fail to take the actionsneeded to protect their forest resources whenthey are not aware of intangible forestservices (e.g., watershed protection) that areat risk (Becker 1999; Becker and León 2000;Gibson 2000). The information that IFRIresearchers collect on changing forestconditions and their consequences can beused to help increase local awareness ofindirect forest services, and thus bolster localefforts at forest conservation (Becker 1999).

Recognition of a forest’s value provides amotivation for working collectively to protectit, but does not guarantee collective action orits success. Collective action is costly. Inaddition to obtaining information, actors mustovercome coordinat ion problems,distributional struggles, and the incentiveproblems associated with shared resources.Characteristics of groups, such as their sizeand degree of homogeneity, gain importancebecause they influence the severity ofcoordination problems and distributionalstruggles. External recognition and support forlocal self-governance are also importantfactors. If the benefits of mobilization are highenough, a community may develop rules forresource management in the absence ofexternal support. Official recognition of localautonomy lowers the transaction costs of self-governance.

Once established, institutions alter theimportance of conditions that affect theirsurvival. Institutions limit the effects ofpopulation pressure (Agrawal and Yadama1997), population growth (Varughese 2000),

and variable proximity to forest resources(Varughese and Ostrom, 2001).

By paying attention to biophysical,socioeconomic, and institutional factors,IFRI furthers our understanding of forestsystems. We better understand the role ofperceptions of forest value and condition,the importance of institutions in mediatingthe effects of social and economic changes,and the conditions for successfulorganization for forest management by thepeople who use forest resources. Ofcourse, many questions remain. As ournetwork grows and the number of repeatstudies in our database accumulate, IFRIbrings increased leverage to on-goingefforts to untangle the relationships amongpeople, their institutions, and forestresources.

1 As of December 2000, there are fourteenIFRI collaborating research centers intwelve countries. The first were establishedin 1993. Revisits have begun in Nepal,Uganda, and the USA. For morein fo rma t i on , see ou r webs i t e(http://www.indiana.edu/~ifri).

A complete set of references is availablefrom the IFRI website:http://www.indiana.edu/~ifri/publications.htm

o r as a separa te PDF f i le :http://www.indiana.edu/~ifri/poteetereferences.pdf

For further information please contact:

Amy PoteeteWorkshop in Political Theory and PolicyAnalysisIndiana University513 North ParkBloomington, IN 47408 USA

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Tel: +1 812-855-0441Fax: +1 812-855-3150Email: [email protected]

FORGING (UN)DEMOCRATIC RESOURCEGOVERNANCE SYSTEMS FROM THERELIC OF ZIMBABWE'S COLONIAL PAST

By Alois Mandondo

This article reviews natural resourcegovernance in Zimbabwe's peasant sectorfrom colonial to post-colonial times, withspecial emphasis on woodland resources.Governance is considered within theframework of power, process and practiceand how these have shaped access, controland use of natural resources.

Zimbabwe's policy thrust seeks to empowerpeasant communities through decentralizedentrustments to the use and management ofnatural resources. A careful examination ofwhat is being decentralized to whom, how andwith what effect shows that decentralizationcan have very little to do with democratizationof forest management despite rhetoricimplying decentralized structures andarrangements and democratic governance.For instance, founded upon the expropriationof land, resources and power from indigenouscommunities the colonial system ofdecentralized indirect rule of chiefs and allied"traditional" institutions, which were presidedover and controlled by native commissionersto impose colonial administration, was verymuch about extending the power of thecentral state. This was justified in terms notunlike those advocating decentralizationtoday, e.g. respect of local cultures; fiscalaccountability; and giving people a voice intheir own governance. Colonial naturalresource governance systems were crafted inthe context of conquest and subjugation andthe extension of the power of the central state

resulting in over-centralization of naturalresource governance systems. Centrally-directed legislative controls wereimplemented in a highly authoritarianmanner resulting in restricted access ofpeasant communities to natural resources.

Much of the colonial legislation wasinherited piecemeal into post-colonial times.Although local government reform in thepost-colonial period was purportedlyadopted to give a democratic orientation inplanning for local development, suchreforms neither genuinely decentralized nordemocratized local government. Instead,such reforms appear designed to ensureone-party political domination. Post-colonialamendments to over-centralized controls onpeasant access and use of naturalresources to date have largely deracializedthe colonial acts and policies withoutdemocratizing them – most acts still featurethe criminalizing, and command and controlpostures and approaches of their colonialantecedents. Natural resource governancesystems have thus, by and large, resultedin weakening of the peasant stake inaccess, use and control of naturalresources, from colonial through to post-colonial times.

V a r i o u s s t r a n d s o f p e a s a n tdisempowerment are evident. The first formis reflected through structures that denypeasant communities accountable forms ofrepresentation. For instance, the"traditional" chiefly institutions werefounded on the undemocratic principle offusion of legislative, executive and judiciarypowers. Although the creation andreinforcement of such structures ran underthe pretext of building on the legitimacy ofexisting structures, their design enhancedracial domination and the ascendancy ofcolonial administration, resulting in adecentralized despotism. Over the years

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chiefly institutions have been used tolegitimize external (mostly state) agendas thatfurther weakened the peasantry, including theextension of the state's influence or revivingits political mileage. The chiefly institutionsexisted in tandem with new institutionscreated by the state in the immediate post-independence period, ostensibly todemocratize the process of planning for localdevelopment, but these also served to furtherthe interests of one-party political domination.

The second form of disempowerment hasbeen practised through the over-centralizationof power and decision making inenvironmental regulation systems. A trendtowards concentrating power in the executive,especially the presidency and bureaucraciesunder executive direction, was entrenchedfrom colonial through to post-colonial times.In spite of aspiring to extend far-reachingcontrol, the state and its bureaucracies lackthe resources and capacity to effectivelyenforce most controls Third, over-centralization was justified through yetanother form of disempowerment associatedwith discourses of "science" that justified acommand and control approach toenvironmental regulation. The peremptoryapproach to environmental regulation wasinherited piecemeal into post-colonial times,in which later amendments to colonial acts fellfar short of democratizing the regulationsystems. A fourth, and procedural form ofdisempowerment occurs through the use ofalienating languages in local governmentbodies that are characterized by decision-making frameworks that override the visionsof lower constituencies. Fifth there is fiscaldisempowerment through urban biases ininvestment priorities, externalization of locally-collected revenues and also through theburdens imposed upon tax-payers by amultiplicity of bloated organizationalhierarchies. Lastly there is a generalizeddisempowerment associated with presence at

the local of many organizations, essentiallysharing the same broad goals but withdifferent and often “predetermined” visionsof how, when, for whom and through whomto achieve them.

Lastly, pioneering efforts at decentralizingentrustments over use and management ofresources to the peasant communities havelargely resulted in recentralization at thedistrict level, where such efforts are stillpractised in the top-down manner. This is inpart because the policy thrust seeking toempower the peasant communities issupply-led, and thus defined according tothe terms and processes of external agents,including funders of projects and centralgovernments and their functionaries. Mostforms of disempowerment reflect thedangers of supply- led decentralization inwhich states enjoy a free reign in defininggovernance systems, and the nature andextent of the entrustments to be devolved tolocal communities. There appears to begeneral reluctance on the part of the stateto decentralize meaningful entrustments tol oca l commun i t i es . Supp l y - l eddecentralization, therefore, needs to becomplemented by demand-drivendecentralization, conceivably championedby civil society to ensure genuinedemocratization and empowerment innatural resource management.

Incremental strategies could, because of ageneral absence of a vibrant civil society orsocial movements, particularly from thelocal settings, provide the initial front ofengagement including advocacy fortransparency and accountability withinsupply-led decentralization. As civil societyand advocacy movements gain strength theagenda could be broadened to includeadvocating for reforms in governancestructures and arrangements. Tactically,meaningful entrustments already secured

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for the community should be consolidated ,whilst advocating for the expansion of theexisting sets of entrustments. Mostdecentralization initiatives, including theCAMPFIRE programme, Zimbabwe’s flagshipfor peasant empowerment in natural resourcemanagement, are nevertheless beingimplemented within a broader nationalpolitical economy of racial inequities in thedistribution of land. They therefore carry thestigma of "delaying tactics" or "diversionarypursuits" to the more fundamental question ofland redistribution, which representspotentially the most important directiontowards genuine empowerment of localcommunities. The major challenge of theunfolding land drama to civil society is thehigh polarization and the politically chargednature of the issue.

Community-based or CAMPFIRE-typeapproaches are also premised on the deepgreen ethos and values of a global (western)environmental discourse and scientific culture– part icipation for environmentalconservation. Decentralization conceptualizedwithin the framework of that culture is supply-led – guided by the values of that culture, andinherently top-down. That culture offerslimited room for community empowermentwithout instrumentalizing it just forparticipation for environmental conservation.The challenge to civil society is to demanddecentralization on the terms and definitionsof beneficiary communities.

For further information please contact:

Alois MandondoInstitute of Environmental StudiesUniversity of ZimbabweP.O. Box M.P. 167Mount Pleasant, HarareTel: + 263-4-302693Fax: + 263-4-332853 Email: [email protected]

THE ROLE AND DYNAMICS OFCOMMUNITY INSTITUTIONS IN THEMANAGEMENT OF NTFPs INCAMEROON

By Jolanda van den Berg, Han van Dijk,Guy Patrice Dkamela, Yvette Ebene andTerence Ntenwu

IntroductionMost ongoing research on NTFP productionfocuses on the potential for natureconservation, particularly in terms ofeconomic and ecological sustainability.Less attention has been given to thedynamics of indigenous NTFP managementsystems, although it is widelyacknowledged that the capability ofcommunities to manage and control NTFPexploitation is of major importance forsustainable extraction. Indigenousmanagement systems tend to beresponsive to external factors such asdemographic, economic, political andecological change, which may lead to anincrease of tenurial insecurity and todestructive harvesting practices.

The studyThis study aimed to gain insight into therole and dynamics of community-basedinstitutional and regulatory frameworksrelated to NTFP resource exploitation andmanagement in the humid forest zone ofCameroon. It was focused on the relationsbetween increasing commercial value ofNTFPs and exploitation and managementintensities, on the one hand, and the socialsustainability of community-based NTFPmanagement institutions on the other hand.A comparative study on six pre-selectedNTFP species was undertaken. Threeresearch sites were selected: Dja BiosphereReserve, Lékié district and the Tropenbos-Cameroon site. These are comparable with

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regard to ecological conditions and localutilisation of these species, but different inrespect to four factors that can have animpact on the intensity of NTFP resourceexploitation and management: (a) availabilityof NTFP resources; (b) market access; (c)population density and (d) presence of non-governmental and private agencies (e.g.development and conservation organisations,logging companies). In each site, threerepresentative villages were chosen. Theselected NTFP species were expected tooccur commonly and to be used andmarketed in at least two of the three sites.They had to be extracted from varioushabitats (ranging from natural forests toplantations) and their exploitation had torepresent different levels of risks forunsustainable harvesting. The following NTFPspecies were included in the study:

(1) Irvingia gabonensis(2) Elaeis guineensis (3) Baillonella toxisperma(4) Garcinia lucida(5) Garcinia kola(6) Coula edulis

The survey included interviews with individualvillagers based on questionnaires. In total 237villagers (109 men and 128 women) wereinterviewed. The questions covered NTFPutilisation and its purposes, the relative andabsolute importance of the selected NTFPspecies, and the construction of different setsof property rights to these NTFP species.Also, information was gathered on socio-economic conditions and the social andpolitical organisation. The fieldwork took placeend 1999.

Main resultsNo cases were recorded where exploitation ofthe selected species was legitimised orconstrained by external regulatoryframeworks. Customary tenure in NTFP

resources in south Cameroon can bedepicted as a variable combination of grouprights to manage or control access to,exploitation and production of NTFPresources on the one hand, and individualuser rights on the other. Four factors wereidentified that determine the distribution ofsuch property rights, as well as the socialunit in which these rights are established:(1) land types; (2) the way land wasacquired (inherited versus self-acquiredthrough forest clearance or purchase); (3)the nature and intensity of improvements toland or resources; and (4) the type ofresource concerned.

In all areas, land right holders are limited bysecondary user rights to NTFP resourceson their land. The distribution of secondaryuser rights differs between and within theresearch areas, but the group of peopleholding user rights to NTFP resources isalways larger than the group who holds theright to control and manage access,exploitation and production, except for oilpalm (Elaeis guineensis). In cases of self-acquired land resources, particularly cashcrop plantations, the group of user rightholders is the most restricted. PlantingNTFP trees creates the most individualrights, including exclusive user rights.Among Badjoué people in the Dja area, forall land use types involved, user rights arethe most widely distributed.

There exists considerable variation in NTFPutilisation, commercialisation, exploitationand management practices and tenurebetween different areas in southernCameroon as well as between the selectedNTFP species. In the most denselypopulated and most accessible area(Lékié), there is a tendency to abandon theexploitation of commonly used NTFPs andto buy these products instead. However, thelevel of NTFP commercialisation is higher

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compared to the other areas. There is also ashift in production areas from natural forestswith predominantly communal NTFPmanagement and broad distribution of userrights to NTFP resources, to man-madeproduction systems with more individuallybased management and use of NTFPresources. But a broad distribution of userrights during peak production periods in theLékié area suggests a strong resilience ofcustomary property perceptions and relations.Moreover, the level of application ofmanagement techniques in this area is as lowas in other areas. This is in contrast with theexpectation that increasing exploitationpressure and reduction of suitable foresthabitats will lead to more intensivemanagement in modified forest-like systems.

ConclusionsThe study did not reveal that the extent offorest degradation and related decrease inavailability of wild NTFP resources, or thepresence of favourable economic conditions,influences the level of applied NTFPmanagement techniques. The variationbetween particular NTFP species in terms ofmanagement practices and intensities, callsfor the establishment of species-orientedNTFP development approaches and not onlya production system approach. Furtherresearch is needed to evaluate the importanceof land use conditions (in particular landavailability and tenure security) and culturalfactors (in particular local perceptions ofNTFP management and ownership) in relationto specific resources in order to optimise theimpacts of NTFP based development efforts.

This study was made possible by the CentralAfrican Program for the Environment(CARPE), with support from the BiodiversitySupport Program (BSP), a consortium ofWorld Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancyand World Resources Institute with funding bythe United States Agency for International

Development (USAID). The viewsexpressed in this article, are those of theauthors, and are not necessarily shared byCARPE.

For further information please contact:

Jolanda van den BergWageningen University, Law andGovernance GroupP.O. Box 81306700 EW Wageningen, The NetherlandsTel: + 31 317 484633Fax: + 31 317 484763Email: [email protected]

Han van DijkWageningen University, Forest Policy andManagement GroupP.O. Box 3426700 AH Wageningen, The NetherlandsTel: + +31 317 478017Fax: + 31 317 478078Email: [email protected]

NTFPs IN THE BOLIVIAN AMAZON:SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT IN VIEW OFINSTITUTIONAL DEFICIENCIES

By Dietmar Stoian, Carmen Gottwald,Sergio Ruiz, Wil de Jong, Michel Becker &Alan Bojanic

Since 1996, the Institute of Forest Policy(IFP), Markets and Marketing Section, ofthe University of Freiburg has beencollaborating with CIFOR in a researchproject on NTFPs in the northern BolivianAmazon, co-funded by the German FederalMinistry of Cooperation and Development(BMZ).

The first phase of the joint project focussedon the socio-economic impact of northernBolivia's Brazil nut and palm heart

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Organisations - Institutions - Programmes

ETFRN News 32/0182

industries on regional development.Employing a livelihoods perspective, it couldbe demonstrated that the gathering,processing, and marketing of Brazil nut andpalm heart is an indispensable source ofhousehold income in both rural and peri-urban areas. Contrary to what the literaturesuggests, NTFP extractors are not generallymarginalized in the extractive economy.Rather, the benefits captured by those at thevery beginning of the marketing chain aresubject to considerable variation; thesedepend on access to the resource base,transportation and market information, as wellas the contractual arrangements governingthe extraction process and the family labouravailable.

Though also subject to variation, benefitsharing in the palm heart industry is evenmore in favour of the extractors: gatherers,intermediaries and processing plant operatorsgain typically 40%, 22% and 38% of theF.O.B. price, respectively. In sum, NTFPgatherers in northern Bolivia's extractiveeconomy pocket the highest profits perproduction unit, followed by owners of largeestates or processing plants, the plants'labourers, itinerant traders, and contractors.

It was found that rural households carefullybalance the trade-offs between extractivism,agriculture and wage labour. Rural dwellers inmore remote settlements emphasizeextractive activities whereas those in theproximity of town gear a larger share of theiragricultural produce to the market. Thepersistence of NTFP extraction is thus rootedin a varied NTFP portfolio and flexibleresponses to market opportunities anddecline, rather than the deliberatemanagement of NTFP resources with a long-term view for sustained production.Extraction-based livelihood strategies furtherentail seasonal or circular migration inaccordance with times of low or high demand

for labour, e.g. residence in (peri-) urbanareas from where they set out to the forestonly in times of the Brazil nut or palm heartseason. A strong rural-urban nexusunderlies various extractive activities,without which neither the extractiveeconomy nor (peri-) urban livelihoods couldbe sustained.

The ultimate rubber decline in the early1990s led to a further diversification of theregional economy: along with increasedagricultural activities, the region's Brazilnut, palm heart and timber industries havebeen notably expanded. Given the region'spoor soi ls, scarcely developedinfrastructure, low market access, lack ofcapital and human resources, and generalpolitical neglect, it is anticipated thatnorthern Bolivia will have to rely on theexploitation of (non-timber) forest resourcesfor a long time to come.

The research revealed that the institutionalarrangements governing their extraction arepoorly understood. To address thisshortcoming, a second phase will highlightthe institutional arrangements, constraintsand conflicts in northern Bolivia's extractiveeconomy. One of the hypotheses is thatadequate institutional arrangements are ofmajor importance in promoting sustaineduse and benefit capturing in extractiveeconomies. It is presumed that presentinst i tut ional arrangements needmodification to work toward this end.

The theoretical framework will draw on theconcept of New Institutional Economics(NIE), whereby institutions are understoodas the rules of the game in a society or,more formally, the human devisedconstraints that shape human interaction; inconsequence, institutions structureincentives in human exchange, whetherpolitical, social, or economic (North 1990).

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NIE is an interdisciplinary approach to explainphenomena which have not been adequatelyaddressed by Neoclassical Economics. Itimplies aspects such as property rights,transaction costs, asymmetric informationand power relations. In addition to NIE, theanalytical framework will draw on theconcepts of Political Ecology and SocialCapital.

Institutional analysis in the case of northernBolivia will emphasize the profound legalreforms the country has experienced in thelast decade with a wide impact on naturalresource use. At local level, there is also arange of institutions other than laws (e.g., asystem of advance payments called habilito,or customary rights related to land tenure)which play a crucial role in the extractiveeconomy. Being informal or private, theseinstitutions complement or, in some cases,conflict with formal institutions such as laws.Thus it will be crucial to distinguish betweende jure and de facto institutionalarrangements when analysing the institutionalunderpinning of (non-timber) forest use.

Research is coordinated by Dr. Wil de Jong(CIFOR) and Prof. Dr. Michel Becker (IFP).PhD students in the first phase are AlanBojanic (University of Utrecht) and DietmarStoian (IFP) and, in the second, CarmenGottwald and Sergio Ruiz (both IFP).

For references and further information, pleasecontact:

Dietmar StoianInstitute of Forest PolicyMarkets and Marketing SectionBertoldstr. 1779085 FreiburgGermanyTel: +49-761-203 8500Fax: +49-761-203 8502Email: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Michel Becker, IFP, University ofFreiburg, Germany Email: [email protected] Bojanic, University of Utrecht:, TheNetherlands Email: [email protected]. Wil de Jong, CIFOR, Indonesia Email: [email protected] Gottwald, IFP, University ofFreiburg, Germany Email: [email protected] Ruiz, IFP, University of Freiburg, Germany Email: [email protected]

NTFPs AND DEVELOPMENT CO-OPERATION – PERCEPTIONS ANDSTRATEGIES OF DECISION MAKERS

By Jochen Statz

International discussions see the promotionand marketing of Non-timber ForestProducts (NTFPs) as a promising approachto reconcile the dual aim of protectingtropical forests and promoting societaldevelopment. Yet, in practice, use andtrade of NTFPs still plays a subordinate rolein the field of development co-operation. Agrowing number of NTFP-related studiesdocument a wealth of positive aspects ofthis form of forest use. It remains uncertain,though, how these isolated aspects cancontribute to a development that integrateseconomic, social and ecological aspects.

A PhD-study published recently at theUniversity of Freiburg/Germany looks intopotential benefits of NTFP-based forestuse. In two South American countries itanalyses how decision-makers involved innational development policy andinternational development co-operationperceive this potential.

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Decision makers working in development co-operation determine how prominent a roleNTFPs play in forest based development co-operation. It is therefore crucial to understandhow they perceive the potential for the useand trade of NTFPs. To answer this question60 experts (15 in Paraguay and 45 in Bolivia)representing the research sector, policymaking, administration and trade, as well asdevelopment co-operation, were interviewed.They were asked about their developmentparadigms and their assessment of thepossible contributions of NTFP-based forestuse to development. Furthermore, they wereasked to outline strategies for the promotionof NTFPs use in accordance with theirindividual understanding of development.

These interviews were semi-structured andtook between one and two hours each.Statements made during the interviews weregrouped thematically. Key hypotheses aboutthe successful promotion of NTFP use andtrade were derived in a second step.Subsequently, a reference group of theexperts discussed and further refined thepreliminary findings, leading to a set of fivekey approaches to successful NTFPpromotion. They comprise: 1) intensifyingNTFP related research; 2) promoting theconcept of sustainable development at thenational level, 3) sustaining substantialeconomic returns from use of NTFPs 4)gaining support of the private sector and 5)promoting NTFP trade stepwise (withmarketing of selected products first locally,then regionally and at a later stageinternationally). Potential benefits of each ofthese strategies are not cumulative, i.e.combining as many approaches as possiblewill not automatically lead to ever moresuccessful strategies.

For further analysis of the verbal data, aQualitative Comparative Analysis was carriedout, an analytical tool developed for

comparative social science research byRAGIN. As a result key features ofstrategies to promote NTFP trade weredetermined and then combined with eachother. The interviewed experts saw anumber of combinations as promising forthe promotion of NTFPs, each being a veryspecific combination of the strategicelements listed above. Amongst them,economic success in the marketing ofNTFPs appears to be crucial, yet only ifaccompanied by a political and economicsetting committed to “sustainabledevelopment”.

The analysis of the verbal data reveals thatnone of the five approaches is seen assufficient or necessary in itself for asuccessful promotion of NTFPs. All of themcan lead to success if combined withcertain other characteristics, yet can lead toundesirable results if combined with others.To cite an example, introducing NTFPs tointernational markets is not seen asbeneficial per se. It is rather the specificcombination with other approaches (insome cases even their absence) that isexpected to result in societal development.

Strategies developed for Paraguay andBolivia differ in some key traits: whileapplied research combined with a marketoriented approach is seen as promising inBolivia, experts in Paraguay fear that anintensified marketing of NTFPs might leadto further depletion of forest resources. ForParaguayan experts, intensified forest useis not justified until “sustainabledevelopment” is well established in thecountry.

According to the interviewed decision-makers, two prominent key positionscommonly held in the international debate(“conservation through commercialisationof NTFPs” and “development through

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empowerment of NTFP users”) only proveadequate under very specific conditions.

In translating the results of the studies intoconcrete strategies it needs to be born inmind that the general approach todevelopment co-operation has shifted from“transitive development assistance throughprojects” to “support for reflexive,autochthonous init iat ives pursuingdevelopment”. In line with today’s conceptionof development assistance this processshould not be unilinear and teleological (i.e.bound to a predefined purpose) but ratheropen as far as the specific outcomes of suchinitiatives are concerned.

Furthermore, a universal approach to thepromotion of NTFP-based forest use andsocietal development is elusive due to thevery diverse natural, economic and socialconditions in the various regions of bothcountries.

Strategies derived in this study can serve asa point of departure for the promotion ofNTFPs, but they are only preliminary. Bearingin mind that development is more a processthan a target, constant reflection andr e v i s i o n

of development strategies based on the useand trade of NTFPs will be required. To thisend, the QCA applied in the study cans e r v eas a monitoring tool.

The dissertation concludes with a set oftheses regarding the “Promotion of NTFPsi ndevelopment co-operation” which gob e y o n dthe narrow geographical focus of the study.

Please contact the author with commentso rfor a copy of the dissertation (written inGerman):

Dr. Jochen StatzInstitute of Forest PolicyMarkets and Marketing SectionBertoldstr. 1779085 FreiburgGermanyEmail: [email protected] or [email protected]

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Research Cooperation Sought

ETFRN News 32/0184

GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF BAMBOO ANDRATTAN RESOURCES

Over 1,000 known bamboo and rattanspecies grow over wide areas of Africa, Asia,the Caribbean and Latin America andcontribute to the livelihoods of millions ofpeople. Despite its economic significance,statistics on bamboo and rattan resources,especially in natural stands, are very poor.Classified as "non-timber forest products",bamboo and rattan are not routinely includedin resource inventory. A good andtransparent estimate of bamboo and rattanresources has yet to be developed.

As a first step to improve the informationavailable, the International Network forBamboo and Rattan (INBAR) and the UNEPWorld Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC) are jointly initiating a projectto estimate the magnitude and distribution ofbamboo and rattan resources within naturalstands. In the first instance, the project willcombine information on the distribution ofindividual taxa with floristic data and globaldata on forest cover to generate a globaldistribution and estimated total area of forestcontaining bamboo and rattan. For thisreason, we are seeking advice and

information about bamboo and rattanoccurrence and distribution. We would begrateful for any information you might beableto provide concerning:

A the species of bamboo and rattanp r e s e n tin your area;

A physical factors that determine theirdistribution;

A the abundance of bamboo and rattanresources;

A the abundance of bamboo and rattanwithin particular forest types;

A additional sources of information orcontacts we should make.

Please contact us with comments andquestions:

Nadia Bystriakova and Valerie KaposUNEP - WCMC219 Huntingdon RoadCambridge CB3 0DLUnited Kingdom

Telephone: +44 1223 277314Fax: +44 1223 277136Email: [email protected] [email protected]

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Internet Features

ETFRN News 32/01 85

By Jelle Maas

In the Directory of information resources for non-timber forest products, compiled by David Russo, anarray of information is made available on NTFPs in thel i t e r a t u r e a n d o n t h e w e b .http://www.conservation.org/library/books/pdf/ntfpdir.pdf

The promotion and development of Non-Wood ForestProducts (NWFP) is a priority area of the FAO ForestProducts Division. At their homepagehttp://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfp-e.stm) informationon their publications and activities can be retrieved aswell as an electronic version of their newsletter (Non-Wood News). Very interesting are the database oninstitutes involved in NTFP matters, includingresearch, their bibliographic database and the linkagewith the Forest Resource Assessment 2000 (FRA)which, for the first time, includes NWFPs in itsassessment.

At http://www.ntfp.org ProFound advisors indevelopment present their definition of NTFPs, as wellas a bulletin of the NTFP exchange programmeSoutheast Asia newsletter with interesting articlestitled 'Voices from the Forest'.

The research programme of the TropenbosFoundation has a significant NTFP component.Several research projects concentrated on NTFP inCameroon, Guyana, Colombia, Côte d'Ivoire andIndonesia. This resulted in various publicationsavailable from Tropenbos offices in the countries andTropenbos Head Office in Wageningen, theNetherlands. Orders can also be placed through theInternet: http://www.tropenbos.nl

The International Network for Bamboo and Rattan(INBAR) is an international organization created by 21Member States of the United Nations, and hasHeadquarters in Beijing, China. INBAR is dedicated toimproving the social, economic, and environmentalb e n e f i t s o f b a m b o o a n d r a t t a n(http://www.inbar.org.cn/)

Plant Resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) isa p p r o a c h i n g i t s f i n a l s t a g e(http://www.bib.wau.nl/prosea/home.html), but theapproach was found so useful that a new initiative hasbeen developed 'Plant Resources of Tropical Africa' or

PROTA (http://www.prota.org)

APFT, Avenir des Peuples des Forêts Tropicales,is a multi-disciplinary project sponsored by theEuropean Community which aims to investigateand document the future of the peoples of therainforest. Started in 1995 the project runs for fiveyears, and involves over 30 EU and ACPresearchers (senior and trainee) in three principalareas: the Caribbean, central Africa and the Southwestern Pacific.http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Rainforest/.

PROMAB, Programa Manejo de Bosques de laAmazonía Boliviana, is a research programme ofUtrecht University in the Netherlands in closecooperation with Universidad Tecnica del Beni,Bolivia and Instituto para el Hombre, Agricultura yEcologia, Bolivia and University of Freiburg,Germany in association with CIFOR. The focus ison NTFPs such as palm heart, Brazil nut andRubber, which are the major products of theRiberalta region in Northern Bolivia. For morei n f o r m a t i o n :http://www.bio.uu.nl/promab/promab.htm

The NYBG Institute of Economic Botany (IEB)focuses a portion of the Garden's researchenterprise on applied botanical questions of greathuman concern. The field of economic botany, withits allied discipline ethnobotany, involves the studyof the relationship between plants and people.Economic botanists pursue research projects onuseful plants, from a variety of interdisciplinaryperspectives. Information on their current projectsand working countries is available at: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/ieb/

For more information on Economic Botany theS o c i e t y f o r E c o n o m i c B o t a n y(http://www.econbot.org/) is a useful source withmany links to organisations, people andpublications. Amongst the publications is the journal'Economic Botany' published by the New YorkBotanical Gardens.

The Royal Botanical Gardens of Kew participate inseveral projects involving Economic Botany(http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/ecbot.html). One of these projects isthe People and Plants Initiative, in close cooperationwith UNESCO and WWF International.

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(http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/).

For a full overview of sites on economic botany orethnobotany please refer to the Internet directory forB o t a n y a thttp://www.helsinki.fi/kmus/botecon.html.

The Institute for Culture and Ecology (IFCAE) in theUS has a special site on NTFPs maintained by Eric TJones (former editor of the NTFP-biocultural digest).This website contains conservation and developmentinformation on commercial, recreational, andsubsistence extraction of NTFPs. Areas coveredinclude cultural, ecological, economic, geographic,a n d p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s .http://www.ifcae.org/ntfp/index.shtml

The Falls Brook Centre in Canada pays attention tothe Certification of NTFPs. They play an active role inthe discussions and meetings organised on thissubject by FSC in Oaxaca, Mexico.http://www.web.net/~fbcja/programs/certmark/certmark.html

The Centre of Minor Forest Products is geared towardpromoting sustainable NTFP development with anemphasis on India. The website lists manypublications on NTFPs and contains other usefuldatabases.http://www.angelfire.com/ma/MinorForestProducts/

The Special Forest Products Website - Virginia Tech(USA) is a national clearing house focused primarilyo n N T F P p r o d u c t s a n d m a r k e t s .http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/

Medicinal NTFPsAt http://www.cieer.org/ the Centre for

I n t e r n a t i o n a lEthnomedicinal education and research has as p e c i a linterest in medicinal plant products(http://www.cieer.org/backup_index.html). Another organisation involved inmedicinal plant research, but specifically in relationt otrade and conservation is TRAFFIC(http://www.traffic.org).

The Amazon Conservation Team (ACT) isd e d i c a t e dto pioneering new conservation strategies bycombining indigenous knowledge with Westernscience to understand, document and preserve thebiological and cultural diversity of the Amazon.h t t p : / / w w w . e t h n o b o t a n y . o r g / o rhttp://www.amazonteam.org/

The EthnoMedicinals Home Page: A pagededicated to the transfer of information on the useof herbs and other natural products in biochemistry,pharmacology, and traditional medicine.http://walden.mo.net/%7Etonytork/

Rainforest Medical is a Dutch NGO with a focus onmedicinal resources from tropical rain forests(http://www.xs4all.nl/~rainmed/).

PLANTLAX in Mexico has an emphasis on organicherb products under sustainable management.PLANTLAX aims to conserve our wild flora throughits rational exploitation and its ecological recovery. Itcultivates species with high national andinternational demand for the organic, herbal,pharmaceutical, nutritional and cosmetic market.http://www.geocities.com/florbach/red.htm

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Funding

ETFRN News 32/01 87

THE INTERNATIONAL FOUNDATIONFOR SCIENCE - CALL FORRESEARCH GRANT APPLICATIONSFROM DEVELOPING COUNTRYSCIENTISTS

The International Foundation for Science(IFS) provides support to young scientistsof merit in developing countries byawarding research grants and providinggrantees with additional services such astravel grants and purchasing assistance.

Research grants are awarded up to amaximum value of USD 12,000 for aperiod of one to three years and may berenewed twice. They are intended for thepurchase of equipment, expendablesupplies, and literature. Applicants mustbe citizens of, and carry out the researchin, a developing country. They shouldalso work at a university or nationalresearch institution in a developingcountry (countries in Europe, includingTurkey and Cyprus, or the former SovietUnion do not qualify for support). Asw e l l

as being under the age of 40 (under 30for applicants from China) and at thestart of their research career,candidates must possess a higheracademic degree, which should be atleast an MSc or equivalent.

The IFS supports projects dealing withthe management , use, andc o n s e r v a t i o nof biological resources. The Foundationorganizes its activities into sixR e s e a r c hAreas, viz Animal Production, AquaticResources, Crop Science, FoodS c i e n c e ,Forestry/Agroforestry, and NaturalProducts.

For further information and applicationforms in English and French write to:

IFSGrev Turegatan 19114 38 Stockholm, SwedenFax: +46-8-54581801Email: [email protected]: http:// www.ifs.se

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Other News

ETFRN News 32/0188

I N T E R N A T I O N A L E X P E R TC O N S U L T A T I O N O N R A T T A NDEVELOPMENT

FAO's Forest Products Division, in closecooperation with the International Network onBamboo and Rattan (INBAR), has invited apanel of internationally renowned experts toRome to seek their advice and guidance todevelop a "Plan of action towards thesustainable development of the rattan sector".

This "International Expert Consultation onRattan Development" took place from 5 to 7December 2000 at FAO HQ and attendancehas been restricted to 20 experts fromgovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations, and private sector agencies.

The FAO Expert Consultation will provide aunique forum where representatives of keystakeholders in the rattan sector and expertsin the field can meet to discuss and proposea plan of action to steer a more sustainabledevelopment of the rattan sector.

The first Agenda item will be an overview ofthe rattan resource, its uses and presentaction programmes. Papers will be presentedon how rattan is a versatile raw material forthe 21st century and INBAR and CIFOR willmake presentations on their rattanprogrammes.

This overview will be followed by threesessions:Session 1: Status of rattan resources anduses in Asia and AfricaPresentation and discussions on countrypapers from: Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, Indo-China, Thailand, SouthAsia and Central and Western Africa Session 2: Review of Policy, Institutionaland Socio-economic Aspects governingthe Rattan Sector Rattan in the 21st century - an OutlookRequired Policy and Institutional Framework

for a sustainable use of rattanSocio-economic and ecolog ica lopportunities and constraints to sustainablemanagement of wild rattanSession 3: Identification and discussionon required actions to enhance thesustainable development of the rattansector Presentation of discussion paper on "Keyissues for required actions" Discussions onrequired actions and by whom, andelaboration of a draft action plan (andincluding investment/funding proposals).

The Expert Consultation will conclude withan Agreement on the Recommendations fora Rattan Action Plan.

FSC NTFP WORKING GROUPWorkshop on NTFP Guidance toCertifiers. Oaxaca, Mexico, Nov. 2000

As part of its international Certification andMarketing program, Falls Brook Centre tookthe opportunity of the second FSC AnnualMeeting to bring together members of theFSC Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP)Working Group, and other interestedindividuals, to discuss common issues.The focus of the one day workshop was toreview recent progress and concerns in thedevelopment of certification for NTFPs andto provide guidance to FSC-accreditedcertifiers on how to interpret the Principlesand Criteria more consistently whenassessing NTFPs.

Twenty-five participants took part in theevent, including many who have beenactive in the NTFP Working Group andothers who are active in the field toimplement certification for NTFPs. Themotivation for the workshop was that theFSC Secretariat had asked the NTFPWorking Group to use its collectiveexperience in NTFP certification to developadditional guidance for certifiers that would

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Other News

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enable objective and consistent evaluation ofNTFPs. New developments and key issuesare highlighted in the summary report of theworkshop. Recommendations and follow-upactions are included at the end of the report,as is participant contact information.

For further information and copies of thesummary report please contact Patrick Malletat: [email protected]

SECONDARY FORESTS IN ASIA - ANUPDATE

A satellite meeting to initiate the formation ofa network on tropical secondary forests inAsia was held at the IUFRO Congress inKuala Lumpur,August 2000. The meeting wasattended by scientists, forestry departmentofficials, the private sector, and bilateral andinternational agencies. It was decided thatDr. Appanah, FORSPA, Bangkok, wouldhead a task force to initiate the formation ofthe network. To this end, FORSPA willfacilitate a meeting in which the practicalitiesfor the Network will be decided.

We plan to publish the papers arising fromthe secondary forest workshop as a specialissue of a journal and are working towardsthis goal. Thanks to all who worked on themanuscripts. There will be 18 chaptersincluding an introduction, a conceptualframework paper, 11 country papers, 4regional syntheses papers for the commonsecondary forest types, and conclusions. Wewill keep you informed on the progress. Unna ChokkalingamResearch FellowCIFOR P.O. Box 6596 JKPWBJakarta, IndonesiaTel: +62 251 622622, Fax: +62 251 622100Email: [email protected]

FORESTS AND L IVELIHOODSNEWSLETTER

Forests and Livelihoods is a journal for theforestry sector in Nepal to be publishedfrom April 2001 in English and distributednationally and internationally. It is publishedby Forest Resources Studies and ActionTeam, Nepal (ForestAction) in collaborationwith the Agricultural Extension and RuralDevelopment Department of (AERDD) ofthe University of Reading, UK. TheNewsletter is being launched to improveforests and rural livelihoods through thepromotion of pluralistic approaches in themanagement of forest resources and theconservation of biodiversity. It provides aninteractive forum to policy makers,foresters, social scientists, forestry projects,NGOs, university teachers, researchers,forestry entrepreneurs, and other actors inthe forestry sector. The Newsletter focuseson themes related to forestry sector policy,community forest management, biodiversityconservation, agro-forestry, private forestry,watershed management, Terai forestry,NTFP management and marketing, andNational Parks and indigenous people.Priority will be given to original articleswritten specifically for it using systematicprocesses of inquiry in the subject. Articlesmay be submitted in English or Nepali, andshould be around 1500 words in length. Theauthors may submit short abstract beforesending the full paper. First three issues inthe first year will be distributed for free, andsome prices will be levied beginning thesecond year for sustainability.

For further information please contact:Hemant R OjhaANSABP O Box 11035, Kathmandu, NepalTel: +977 1 497547Fax: +977 1 487916Email: [email protected]

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Publications

ETFRN News 32/0190

By Peter Sips

MONOGRAPH ON THREATENED AFRICANMEDICINAL TREE - PRUNUS AFRICANA

By Emma Youde

Prunus africana or Pygeum, also knowncommonly as the African Cherry, is anevergreen forest species, limited essentially tomontane regions of Africa. Its distribution isdisjunct, made up of isolated populations inthe mountain areas of Central and EasternAfrica, from the Gulf of Aden to South Africa,with outlying populations in West Africa andMadagascar.

The bark, leaves and fruit of the species havea long history of use by traditional healers forthe treatment of infections, fever and urinarytract problems. It is for treating the last ofthese that extracts from the bark of Prunusafricana have been developed to meet aninternational herbal market demand as aremedy for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, adisease causing non-cancerous enlargementof the prostate in older-aged western men.

Bark harvesting rates have reached highlevels in countries where Europeanpharmaceutical companies are involved incommercial processing and transportation,namely Cameroon, Madagascar and, morerecently, Kenya. Although traditional methodsof harvesting bark were non-destructive, theinternational market demand has led to illegaland destructive harvesting. Productcertification, domestication, and community-based management initiatives are activelyreceiving consideration as ways to alleviatethe current unsustainable pressure on the wildresource.

A comprehensive monograph on the speciesis now being produced. Chapters in this

monograph have been contributed byvarious organisations concerned withPrunus africana research and management,including the University of Wales, Bangor,the International Centre for Research inAgroforestry, The Mount Cameroon Project,Birdlife International, and the KenyaForestry Research Institute.

The monograph provides an overview ofhow the resource is being used and of thepolicy and regulatory frameworks in thedifferent Range States. The ecology andbiology of the species is described(including a definitive distribution map), andcurrent management practices anddomestication potential are discussed.Recommendations for sustainablemanagement and use of Prunus africana inrelation to each of these aspects areprovided, making the monograph a usefulresource for professional agriculturalists,foresters, rural development staff and policymakers. Extension materials and policybriefs will also be available as outputs fromthis project.

The monograph on Prunus africana is thelatest in a series produced at the Universityof Wales, Bangor, on multi-purpose treespecies. The other monographs in theseries cover Acacia seyal, Balanitesaegyptiaca, Parkia biglobosa, and Vitellariaparadoxa. A monograph is now beingprepared on Sclerocarya birrea, thewidespread Marula tree of greatsignificance in maintaining rural livelihoodsthroughout Africa, and especially insouthern Africa. This will be available in2001.

To obtain a copy of the forthcomingmonograph on Prunus africana or forinformation or copies of any of the othermonographs named above, please contactEmma Youde at the University of Wales,

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Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UnitedKingdom. Tel: +44 1248 382631, Fax: + 44 1248 382832, Email: [email protected]

The monographs on Prunus africana andSclerocarya birrea are outputs from aresearch project funded by the UnitedKingdom Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) for the benefit ofdeveloping countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFID.[R7227Forestry Research Programme].

THEME STUDIES SERIES

The Theme Studies Series discussesinnovative forest-related themes which arehigh on the international agenda. The purposeof the series is to collect and synthesiseinformation and knowledge on these themes,and to present concrete directions for policydevelopment and implementation in theframework of international co-operation. Theyare intended for anyone involved ininternational co-operation in the field offorests and nature management.

The Theme Studies Series is published jointlyby the International Agricultural Centre (IAC)and the National Reference Centre for NatureManagement (EC LNV) under the aegis of theForests, Forestry and Biological DiversitySupport Group of the Ministry of Agriculture,Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) ofthe Netherlands. The themes were developedat the combined request of the Department forNature Management of LNV and theDirectorate General for International Co-operation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Theme Studies No. 1-5 have been reprintedand are still available:

1. “Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs);

their role in sustainable forestmanagement in the tropics” by Jeanette van Rijsoort (see below)2. “Natural forest management by localgroups in the humid tropics” by ArendJan van Bodegom

3. “National forest programmes; frompolitical concept to practical instrumentin developing countries” by Herman Savenije4. “The challenge of including forestsas sinks within the clean developmentmechanism” by A.J. van Bodegom, H.J.F.Savenije and G. van Tol5, “The Management of Bufferzones” byArthur Ebregt & Pol de Greve

These reports can be downloaded forf r e e f r o m t h e I n t e r n e t a t :http://www.minlnv.nl/inm

Hard copies can be ordered from:EC LNV Information Desk, P.O. Box 30,6700 AA Wageningen, The NetherlandsTel: +31-317-474801, Fax: +31-317-427561, Email: [email protected]

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS(NTFPs): THEIR ROLE IN SUSTAINABLEFOREST MANAGEMENT IN THETROPICS

Jeannette van Rijsoort, 2000 Theme Studies Series 1 of the Forests,Forestry and Biological Diversity SupportGroup. National Reference Centre forNature Management (ECLNV) andInternational Agricultural Centre (IAC),Wageningen, the Netherlands

The exploitation and management of “Non-Timber Forest Products” (NTFPs) isincreasingly proposed as a potential meansof ensuring sustainable management of

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forests and of biodiversity. Up to now,however, no overview has been available ofthe experience, the practicalities and theimpracticalities of such use, although it hasbecome increasingly clear that it represents adiverse and complex matter. The aim of thisdocument is to provide such an overview. It isintended for policy-makers and thoseimplementing government and non-government policy – both in the Netherlandsand elsewhere – who are involved inidentifying, formulating, assessing, monitoringand evaluating forest conservation and NTFPactivities.

Section 1 includes a description of theconcept of NTFPs and a specification of justwhat it includes. NTFPs are taken to mean allproducts removed from forests, except forindustrial timber: foodstuffs, medicines,roofing materials, aromatic substances,flavourings and colourings, and animals astrophies and for international trade. Peoplemake use of these products to supportthemselves and for healthcare purposes, andthey also constitute a source of income andemployment. Some NTFPs even play animportant role in the national economy.International trade in NTFPs is estimated atUSD 11bn. The European Union, the US andJapan together account for 60% of world-wideimports of NTFPs. Besides their socio-economic importance, it is often stated thatharvesting NTFPs has no influence on thestructure and function of forests. Thisassumption is the basis for the belief that theuse and management of NTFPs in forests canpotentially contribute to sustainable forestmanagement and to combating poverty. Inthis context, combating poverty is also takento mean improving capacity and control withrespect to the management of naturalresources (“empowerment”).

The document then goes on to provide anoutline of policies (both Dutch andinternational) on forest management in

general and on NTFPs in particular. Section2 deals with a number of categories ofNTFPs and indicates the differencesbetween the use and management ofNTFPs in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Sections 3, 4, 5, and 6 outline currentexperience in the use and management ofNTFPs in tropical forests from theecological, socio-economic, socio-cultural,and political-institutional perspectives. Suchexperience varies significantly, dependingon a large number of factors specific to thelocation and species concerned. Severalgeneral lessons are drawn and the reader isencouraged to fill in the details according toregion and situation. Although the subject istreated from a variety of differentperspectives in separate sections, itbecomes clear that only an integratedapproach can be succesful. For example,marketing NTFPs can only provide asustainable source of income and thusmake the forest a more valuable resource ifit is based on an ecologically sustainableextraction system. Furthermore, withoutuser and property rights to NTFPs, none ofthose involved will be motivated to supportthe long-term conservation of forests. Italso becomes clear that women play amajor role in harvesting, processing andmarketing NTFPs. The success of NTFPextraction systems will therefore be greatlyenhanced if women are actively involved intheir development.

Section 7 discusses the potential for theuse and management of NTFPs as aninstrument for sustainable forestmanagement, as well as their limitations,on the basis of experience already outlined.A number of areas are suggested whereNTFP use has the greatest potential:bufferzones around protected areas; floodplains; mountainous areas; forest fringes;and degraded forest. A proposal is alsomade for further investigation of the

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potential for the combined extraction ofNTFPs and timber in sustainably managedforest concessions.

Finally, section 8 (Conclusions) presents anumber of components which should beincluded in projects and programmes for thedevelopment of NTFPs in sustainable forestmanagement. Given the diversity of NTFPsand situations, the document makes no claimto completeness. It should be seen as aninitial attempt, one that can provide a basiswhich can then be worked out and put intopractice for each particular region andsituation.

This text can be downloaded for free from theinternet at: http://www.minlnv.nl/inm

Orders: EC LNV Information desk, PO Box30, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands. Tel: +31-317-474801, Fax: +31-317-427561,Email: [email protected]

RECENT NTFP-RELATED PUBLICATIONSFROM PROSEA

PROSEA 2. EDIBLE FRUITS AND NUTS,CD-ROME.W.M. Verheij and R.E. Coronel (Eds)

This CD-ROM testifies to the great wealth anddiversity of fruits and nuts in South-East Asia.The appreciation of the fruits and nuts isreflected in the many ways they are put to useand in their role in cultural tradition. Presentyields are low, but developments in South-East Asia suggest that traditional skills canprovide the necessary clues for abreakthrough towards much higher yields. Inaddition to information presented in theoriginal book, many colour photographs havebeen added to illustrate the species dealt with.Moreover, navigation of the content is easyand a hyperlinked and illustrated glossary

makes this CD-ROM an attractive productwith the usual high standard of PROSEApublications.

Prosea 2. Edible fruits and nuts. CD-ROM,Macintosh & Windows Version 1.0. ETI,Amsterdam, the Netherlands/SpringerVerlag, Berlin, Germany. 1999. ISBN 3-540-14845-0 (Macintosh & Windows).

PROSEA 5: TIMBER TREES, CD-ROML.T. Hong, R.H.M.J. Lemmens, S.Prawirohatmodjo, I. Soerianegara, M.S.M.Sosef & W.C. Wong

The multimedia databases in this CD-ROMhold detailed information on 400 generaand 2900 timber-yielding species of South-East Asia, including full descriptions oftrees, silvicultural aspects, timberproperties, photos and botanical drawingsof trees, and high-resolution woodanatomical photographs. An enhancedsearch facility for wood properties has beendeveloped for this CD as well as aninteractive wood anatomical identificationsystem for all genera treated. Fast andeasy access to the databases is warrantedby powerful search engines. A hyperlinkedillustrated glossary of technical terms and areference database are part of the system.The 2100 printed pages of the 3 PROSEAHandbook volumes are now fullysearchable and available in 1 CD-ROM.

PROSEA 5: Timber trees. CD-ROM. ETI,Amsterdam, the Netherlands/SpringerVerlag, Berlin, Germany. 1999–2000. price€ 229.95, ISBN 3-540-14773-X (Macintosh)and 3-540-14771-3 (Windows).

PROSEA 6 & 7. RATTANS ANDBAMBOOS, CD-ROMJ. Dransfield, N. Manokaran (EditorsProsea 6 Rattans), S. Dransfield and E.A.Widjaja (Editors Prosea 7 Bamboos).

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This CD-ROM regroups two particularcommodities from South-East Asia: rattansand bamboos. Rattan in South-East Asiarepresents the most important forest productafter timber. It is used for the cane-furnitureindustry and for a wealth of minor purposeslocally. Bamboos have for centuries been ofgreat importance in rural communities, beingused intensively as a sustainable resource fornumerous purposes. Being largely under-estimated in the past, in recent years thecommercialization of bamboos shoots,bamboo boards, chopsticks, pulp for paperand bamboo handicrafts, has caused anincrease in the demand for the raw material.Two videos from IDRC will be included in thismultimedia publication, apart from the manycolour photographs of the different species.The CD counts a total number of 129 rattanand 77 bamboo species.

Prosea 6 & 7. Rattans and Bamboos. CD-R O M . E T I , A m s t e r d a m , t h eNetherlands/Springer Verlag, Berlin,Germany. (In print).

PLANT RESOURCES OF SOUTH-EASTASIA NO. 16 : STIMULANTSH.A.M. van der Vossen and M. Wessel, 2000

This volume deals with the plants of South-East Asia that are cultivated or collected fromthe wild for their stimulating properties. Threetypes of stimulant plants may bedistinguished, based on their general use:plants used to make beverages, masticatoryplants and plants for smoking. The beverageplants include coffee, tea, cocoa and maté;their dried or processed seeds or leaves areused to make infusions. Most people drink teaor coffee, or both, on a daily basis to banishfatigue and refresh the mind, but South-EastAsians drink more tea than coffee. Themasticatory plants include areca nut and kola:the stimulating effect is obtained by chewing

the fresh or dried seed. These plants areprimarily of regional importance and oftenalso have cultural and social functions.Finally, there are plants for smoking, suchas tobacco: its leaves are dried andprocessed for smoking. Although oppositionto tobacco consumption is growing inEurope and North America, because of thepotential harm to public health, tobaccoconsumption is still on the increase in Asia.

In this volume, 20 major stimulant speciesare treated in 17 papers and there are briefdescriptions of 34 species of minorimportance. A further 250 species with asecondary use as a stimulant or inassociation with stimulants are also listed.

Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 16.Stimulants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden,the Netherlands. 201 pp. ISBN 90-5782-053-6.

PLANT RESOURCES OF SOUTH-EASTASIA NO. 18 : PLANTS PRODUCINGEXUDATESE. Boer and A.B. Ella, 2000

Exudates are generally obtained by tappingtrees (latexes, resins, gums). A few ofthem, such as rubber and pine resin, areeconomically very important: in South-EastAsia, rubber is a major source of income forwell over 1 million households. Otherexudates, however, have not been able tocompete with synthetic substitutes andhave declined in importance or have fallenout of use. Of the exudates that are stillcommercially important, resins are appliedin paints and varnishes, yield essential oilsand are transformed chemically into avariety of products, whereas latexes yieldrubber, prized for its elasticity, and gutta-percha, a non-elastic but thermoplasticproduct. In this volume the former, currentand potential uses of plant exudates are

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discussed, in the hope that this may revitalizeproduction systems that include exudate-producing plants. In the introductory chapter,in addition to the botany, ecology andmanagement of exudate-producing species,the different tapping techniques arehighlighted and put into perspective. After theintroduction 15 papers deal in detail withindividual species, including those yieldingcopal, pine resin, damar, elemi, benzoin,gurjun balsam, sepetir wood oil, jelutong,rubber, and gutta-percha. About 40 minorspecies producing exudates are treatedbriefly.

Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 18.Plants producing exudates. BackhuysPublishers, Leiden, the Netherlands. 189 pp.ISBN 90-5782-072-2.

Orders: PROSEA Handbook volumes can beordered from: Backhuys Publishers, P.O.Box321, 2300 AH Leiden, The Netherlands. Tel: + 31 71 5170208, Fax: + 31 71 517 1856, Email: [email protected]

PROSEA CD-ROMs can be ordered from:ETI, University of Amsterdam, Mauritskade61, 1092 AD Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel: +31 20 5257239, Fax: + 31 20 525 7238,Email: [email protected]

For information on prices, discounts fordeveloping countries and ordering PROSEAC D - R O M s : v i s i t http://www.eti.uva.nl/Products/Products.htmland on ordering PROSEA books: visithttp://www.euronet.nl/users/backhuys/

MANAGING THE DRY AFRICAN SAVANNA.OPTIONS FOR CONSERVATION ANDSUSTAINABLE USE

Hans H. de Iongh and Herbert H.T. Prins(2000)

This volume contains 9 papers presented atthe seminar "Managing the dry Africansavanna. Options for conservation andsustainable use", held on the 19th ofSeptember 1998. Papers deal with researchand management, wildlife utilisation andmanagement by local communities and theprivate sector, livestock, nomads andpastoralists, and conflict management.Some general conclusions drawn at theseminar are:-savanna area and savanna wildlife aredecreasing rapidly;-growing population increases pressure onsavannas (e.g. growing livestock,overgrazing, deforestation);-conservation and management of wildlifecan improve the livelihood of ruralcommunities;-wildlife management seems best feasiblethrough ranching for tourism and safarihunting.

Mededelingen No. 36. 70 pages. ISSN:0923-5981. Orders: Centre forEnvironmental Science Leiden, PO Box9518, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands.Tel: +31 71 5277 431, E-mail:[email protected]

FINANCIAL COSTS AND BENEFITS OFREDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN THEEASTERN AMAZON

P. Holmes et al. (2000)

The study provides a detailed comparisonof the costs and revenues of a typicalreduced impact logging (RIL) systemrelative to a conventional logging (CL)system. The analysis focuses on financial,operational, and technical aspects of CL inrelation to RlL techniques and procedures.

RIL uses techniques and guidelines thatadapt best harvesting techniques to existing

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ecological and economic conditions. Thesetechniques include: pre-harvest inventory andmapping of trees, pre-harvest planning ofroads and skid trails, pre-harvest vine cutting;directional felling; cutting stumps low to theground; efficient utilization of felled trunks;constructing roads and skid trails of optimumwidth; winching of logs to planned skid trails;constructing landings of optimal size; andminimizing ground disturbance and slashmanagement. Some of the findings of thestudy are:S Wood wasted in CL operations

represented about 24% of the recoveredharvest volume, compared to only 8% inRIL operations;

- For every 100 trees felled on a CL block(100 hectares), 38 trees (commercial orpotentially commercial) were fatallydamaged, compared to only 17 trees in aRIL block;

S Ground area disturbed per tree harvestedwas about 60% greater on the CL blockrelative to the RIL block;

- Tractor and log storage productivityincreased dramatically for the typical RILoperation and led to a 37% reduction incost relative to the CL operation;

- Better recovery of potential marketabletimber volume on the typical RIL sitedecreased direct cost associated withwaste by 78%, and decreased stumpagecosts by 16%.

Orders: Tropical Forest Foundation, 225Reinekers Lane, Suite 770, Alexandria VA,22314, USA. Tel: +1 703 518 8834, Fax: +1 703 518 8974, Email: [email protected],Http: www.tropicalforestfoundation.org

ICMAP NEWS

The newsletter of the International Council forMedicinal and Aromatic Plants (ICMAP) aimsto be an international interdisciplinary forum

for medicinal and aromatic plants. Thenewsletter contains several sectionsincluding country reports; projects; reportson meetings; articles and forthcomingevents and information sources.

For more information and/or free copiescontact: ICMAP, c/o Boulevard deMontmorency, 75016 Paris, France, orcheck the website at: http://www.icmap.org

SEED MANAGEMENT OF 100 TREESPECIES FROM LATIN AMERICA(VOLUME 1)

R Salazar, C Soihet and J Miguel Méndez

The "Proyecto de Semillas Forestales(PROSEFOR)" promotes and supports thecapacity and technical assistance offorest(ry) institutes in Central America,Panamá and the Dominican Republic. Itaims to improve the physical and geneticquality of seeds and their distributionamong reforestation programmes in theregion.

PROSEFOR has to date published 116Technical Notes on Forest Seeds. Thesesummarize basic information on seeddistribution, botanic characteristics, as wellas production and management. Thisinformation is very important to assure bestresults on seed management.

This publication includes the first 100technical notes. Per species the book givesa botanical description and a drawing. Itprovides information on distribution andhabitat, flowering and fruits, seed collectionand processing, germination, growth anddiseases in the nursery.

Orders: Serie Técnica, Manual Técnico No.41. ISBN: 9977-57-3492. CATIE,PROSEFOR, 7170-137, Turrialba, Costa

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Rica. Tel: + 506 556 1933, Fax: +506 5567766, Email: [email protected]

FIFTY YEARS OF ASIA-PACIFICFORESTRY COMMISSION

Jörg Balsiger (2000)

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission(APFC) was created in 1949 as one of the sixFAO Regional Forestry Commissions andthus is now in existence for over 50 years.APFC is a forum for advising and takingaction on key forestry issues to promoteenvironmentally sound and economicallyefficient technologies and to encourageimplementation of appropriate policies in linewith changing trends in forestry, focussing onaspects pertinent to the Asia-Pacific region.APFC’s objectives are to:S provide advice on forest policy

formulation;S review and coordinate implementation of

forest policy at the regional level;S exchange information on suitable practices

and solutions for technical problems; andS develop appropriate recommendations, for

member governments and FAO, onforestry-related issues.

Some major activities are:S the facilitation of the transition from large-

scale corporate/government forestry to amore balanced approach including small-scale community-based and developedforest management systems;

S the facilitation of discussions amongnational forest programme coordinatorsand donors to induce investments forintegrated forestry development,supporting livelihood strategies andalleviating rural poverty withoutcompromising the environmental integrityof the region’s forests;

S promotion of sustainable forestrydevelopment by involving various

stakeholders in environmentalconservation, and enhancing incentivesin economic, social and ecologicalproducts and services derived fromforests;

S the development of a code of practicefor forest harvesting in order to reducethe negative impact of harvesting andenhance sustainability of forestresources;

S execution of the forestry sector outlookstudy, assessing the current state offorest utilization and conservation, andproviding insight into likely keydevelopments in the sector until theyear 2010.

Taking a chronological approach, the book“FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission:the first fifty years” describes the InauguralSession, the period 1950-1960 (movingforestry to a regional plan), the period1960-1970 (changing forestry priorities), the1990s (pursuing sustainable development),and the constraints and opportunities for2000 onwards.For more information on the APFC contact:Patrick B. Durst, Regional Forestry Officer,FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra AthitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand, Tel: +66-2-281-7844, Fax: +66-2-280-0445,E-mail: [email protected]

THE EFFECT OF INDONESIA’SECONOMIC CRISIS ON SMALLFARMERS AND NATURAL FORESTCOVER IN THE OUTER ISLANDS

W D Sunderlin, I A P Resosudarmo, ERianto, and A Angelsen (2000)

A random sample survey of 1,050households was conducted in five outerisland provinces (Riau/Jambi, Lampung,West Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Central

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Sulawesi) to obtain insights into the effects ofthe economic crisis on the wellbeing of forestvillagers and on their agricultural and forestclearing practices.

Some key-findings of the research are: (1)two-thirds of the study households reportedthey were worse off, one-fifth reported thatthey were better off during the crisis than inthe year before the crisis; (2) this happened inspite of the fact that three-quarters of studyhouseholds had export commodity income;(3) clearing of forest land increased in the firstyear of the crisis and greatly in the second;(4) land was cleared increasingly for exporttree crops; and (5) those who perceivedthemselves as worse off or better off weremore likely to have cleared land during thecrisis, and have cleared a larger area, thanthose who felt their wellbeing did not changesignificantly.

CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 28(E). 36 pp.ISSN: 0854-9818. Orders: CIFOR, PO Box6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia.Phone: +62 (251) 622 622, fax: +62 (251) 622100, E-mail: [email protected], website:http://www.cgiar.org/cifor

THE HESITANT BOOM: INDONESIA’S OILPALM SUB-SECTOR IN AN ERA OFECONOMIC CRISIS AND POLITICALCHANGE

Anne Casson (2000)

From 1967 through to 1997, oil palm was oneof the fastest growing sub-sectors of theIndonesian economy. However, the enormousgrowth has posed an increasing threat toIndonesia’s natural forest cover and localcommunities. This publication describes thereasons behind the slowdown in the palm oilarea expansion, the prospects for renewedgrowth and the impact on the forest cover.

Unless fundamental changes are beingimplemented in the way forest land isallocated, the further expansion of the oilpalm sub-sector will pose an increasingthreat to Indonesia’s nataural forests andlocal communities.

CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 29. 50 pp.ISSN: 0854-9818. Orders: CIFOR, PO Box6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia.Phone: +62 (251) 622 622, fax: +62 (251)622 100, E-mail: [email protected], website:http://www.cgiar.org/cifor

FAO GLOBAL FOREST PRODUCTSOUTLOOK STUDY : OUTLOOK FORWOOD SUPPLY FROM FORESTPLANTATIONS TO THE YEAR 2050

As part of FAO's Global Forest ProductsOutlook Study, FAO has just produced anoutlook for wood supply from forestplantations to the year 2050.

This paper is the result of a concentratedeffort to collect reliable forest plantationstatistics for all of the countries withsignificant forest plantation resources (morethan 20,000 ha of forest plantations), tocritically review the data and makecorrections where necessary, and to makeit available in a form that is comparablewith all of the existing information aboutforest plantations held by FAO. Themodelling of potential roundwoodproduction from forest plantations is also asignificant advance on previous efforts inthis field. The study includes informationabout over sixty countries that, combined,account for about 98% of the global forestplantation resource.

Orders: Electronic and printed copies of thereport can be obtained from: AdrianWhiteman, Forestry Officer (Sector

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Studies), FAO, Room D423, Via Terme diCaracalla, 00100 Roma, ITALY. E-mail:[email protected]

IMPLICATIONS OF THE KYOTOPROTOCOL FOR TROPICAL FORESTMANAGEMENT AND LAND USE:PROSPECTS AND PITFALLS

Koskela, J., Nygren, P., Berninger, F. &Luukkanen, O. (2000)

A copy of this document, produced by theUniversity of Helsinki, Finland, is available

i np d f f o r m a t a t :http://honeybee.helsinki.fi/tropic

A limited number of free hard copy versionsi salso available from: Tropical Silviculture UnitPB 28, FIN-00014 University of HelsinkiFinland. Fax: + 358-9-19158646; Email: [email protected] or [email protected]