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Non-Wood Forest Products:LU A Regional Expert Consultation
for English-Speaking African Countries
Arusha, TanzaniaCC 17 - 22 October, 1993
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CSC(94)AGR-21TP 306
Commonwealth Science Council
Food and Agricultural Organisationof the United Nations
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CSC(94 )AGR-21 TP 306
Non-Wood Forest Products:
A Regional Expert Consultation for English-Speaking African Countries
Arusha, Tanzania 17 - 22 October, 1993
PROCEEDINGS
Commonwealth Science Council
Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nat!ons
Series Number CSC(94)AGR-21
Technical Paper 306
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION
ON
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Arusha, Tanzania
17-22 October 1993
Organized by
Commonwealth Science Council
and
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
In co-operation vvith
Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania
Series Number CSC(94 )AGR-21
Technical Paper 306
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION
ON
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Arusha, Tanzania
17-22 October 1993
Organized by
Commonwealth Science Council
and
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (F AO)
In co-operation with
Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania
The designations employed and the presentation of material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on thepart of the Commonwealth Science Council and the Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of anycountry, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Commonwealth Science Council and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 Overview on Non-wood Forest Products
3 Country Reports on Non-WoodForest Products
4 Case Studies related to Non-WoodForest Products
Page
1
1
3
6
5 Major Issues related to Non-Wood 7Forest Products
6 Outcome of Group Discussions 9
7 Conclusions 19
8 Annexes 21
Expert Consultation Programme 21List of Participants 24Important Non-Wood Forest Benefits in 29Selected Countries in Africa
List of Reports 31
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1 Introduction 1
2 Overview on Non-wood Forest Products 1
3 Country Reports on N on-Wood 3 Forest Products
4 Case Studies related to N on-Wood 6 Forest Products
5 Major Issues related to Non-Wood 7 Forest Products
6 Outcome of Group Discussions 9
7 Conclusions 19
8 Annexes 21
Expert Consultation Programme 21 List of Participants 24 Important N on-Wood Forest Benefits in 29 Selected Countries in Africa
List of Reports 31
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REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING AFRICAN COUNTRIES
ARUSHA, TANZANIA, 17-22 OCTOBER 1993
1 INTRODUCTION
At the invitation of the Government of Tanzania, a Regional ExpertConsultation on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) for English-speaking African Countries was held in Arusha, 17-22 October 1993,with the following objectives: i) to discuss the current status ofproduction and utilization of NWFPs in the countries involved, theneed for improvement in their production, management, harvesting,processing and marketing and the development opportunities theyprovide for the benefit of rural communities, ii) to update availableinformation on the different aspects of NWFPs, iii) to suggest broadguidelines for the development of NWFPs and iv) to facilitateexchange of ideas regarding the need and feasibility of establishing aRegional Co-operative Network on Non-Wood Forest Products. (TheExpert Consultation Programme can bee seen in Annex I).
The expert consultation brought together some twenty-five experts andobservers from Lesotho, Malawi, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania,Zimbabwe and those representing the International DevelopmentResearch Centre, the International Union for the Conservation ofNature, the Natural Research Institute of the Overseas DevelopmentAgency as well as the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations. (The list of participants can be seen in Annexe II).
OVERVIEW OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Mr G P L Mbonde, Senior Forest Officer welcomed the participants tothe Regional Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products onbehalf of the Director of Forestry and Beekeeping of the Ministry ofTourism, Natural Resources & Environment of Tanzania.
Mr Mwaheleje, on behalf of the Minister of Tourism, NaturalResources & Environment of Tanzania, expressed a feeling of prideand honour for the choice of Tanzania as host to this Regional ExpertConsultation on NWFPs and extended his sincere thanks to CSC andFAO for organizing this important event. He further stated thatsustainable use of forests for environmental and bio-diversityprotection are key issues in the world following the adoption of
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING AFRICAN COUNTRIES
ARUSHA, TANZANIA, 17-22 OCTOBER 1993
1 INTRODUCTION
At the invitation of the Government of Tanzania, a Regional Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) for Englishspeaking African Countries was held in Arusha, 17-22 October 1993, with the following objectives: i) to discuss the current status of production and utilization of NWFPs in the countries involved, the need for improvement in their production, management, harvesting, processing and marketing and the development opportunities they provide for the benefit of rural communities, ii) to update available information on the different aspects of NWFPs, iii) to suggest broad guidelines for the development of NWFPs and iv) to facilitate exchange of ideas regarding the need and feasibility of establishing a Regional Co-operative Network on Non-Wood Forest Products. (The Expert Consultation Programme can bee seen in Annex I).
The expert consultation brought together some twenty-five experts and observers from Lesotho, Malawi, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and those representing the International Development Research Centre, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the Natural Research Institute of the Overseas Development Agency as well as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (The list of participants can be seen in Annexe II).
2 OVERVIEW OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Mr G P L Mbonde, Senior Forest Officer welcomed the participants to the Regional Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products on behalf of the Director of Forestry and Beekeeping of the Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources & Environment of Tanzania.
Mr Mwaheleje, on behalf of the Minister of Tourism, Natural Resources & Environment of Tanzania, expressed a feeling of pride and honour for the choice of Tanzania as host to this Regional Expert Consultation on NWFPs and extended his sincere thanks to CSC and FAD for organizing this important event. He further stated that sustainable use of forests for environmental and bio-diversity protection are key issues in the world following the adoption of
1
Agenda 21 at the United Nations Conference and Development(UNCED). Emphasising the need for involving local people in decisionmaking and implementation process, he pointed out the importance ofraising awareness and educating people on the multiple uses of forests.Mr Mwaheleje expressed the hope that the deliberations of thismeeting will pave the way for the development of NWFPs as animportant component of the sustainable and multipurpose managementof the forests in Africa.
Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products & Energy Branchof the Forest Products Division, welcomed the participants andexpressed his gratitude to the Government of Tanzania for havingagreed to host this meeting, which is jointly sponsored by the CSC andFAO. He pointed out that this meeting is the second of a series ofRegional Expert Consultations to bring together individuals of differentbackgrounds to discuss the current status of production and utilizationof NWFPs and to provide proposals for their development. A firstmeeting was held in Bangkok, Thailand, 5-8 November 1991 for theAsia and Pacific Region.
Dr J A J Perera greeted the participants on behalf of theCommonwealth Science Council. He stated that his organisation islooking forward for continued and increasing contribution atinternational and national levels, in support of activities to promoteNWFPs.
The meeting was organized in four parts. The first part providedglobal and regional overview of the situation relating to NWFPs. Thesecond part involved the presentation of Pilot Country Studies from theparticipating countries and special reports by observers. The third partwas devoted for discussions of main issues. The fourth part involvedgroup discussions on specific issues to elaborate broad guidelines andsuggestions to be incorporated in the proceedings of the meeting. Afield visit was organized to observe some activities related to thesubject of the consultation.
Dr C Chandrasekharan provided a global overview of the issuesinvolved in the development of the NWFPs while presenting his paperentitled "Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-WoodForest Products". Non-Wood Forest Products play economic, socialand cultural roles in the daily life of the local population throughprovision of food, fodder, organic matter, fibre, medicinal plants,gums, resins, thatching and raw materials for cultural products. Theypromote income generation, compatible with environmentalconservation. They support commerce and trade through supply ofraw materials for processing, for instance pharmaceuticals, flavours
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Agenda 21 at the United Nations Conference and Development (UNCED). Emphasising the need for involving local people in decision making and implementation process, he pointed out the importance of raising awareness and educating people on the multiple uses of forests. Mr Mwaheleje expressed the hope that the deliberations of this meeting will pave the way for the development of NWFPs as an important component of the sustainable and mUltipurpose management of the forests in Africa.
Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products & Energy Branch of the Forest Products Division, welcomed the participants and expressed his gratitude to the Government of Tanzania for having agreed to host this meeting, which is jointly sponsored by the CSC and FAO. He pointed out that this meeting is the second of a series of Regional Expert Consultations to bring together individuals of different backgrounds to discuss the current status of production and utilization of NWFPs and to provide proposals for their development. A first meeting was held in Bangkok, Thailand, 5-8 November 1991 for the Asia and Pacific Region.
Dr J A J Perera greeted the participants on behalf of the Commonwealth Science Council. He stated that his organisation is looking forward for continued and increasing contribution at international and national levels, in support of activities to promote NWFPs.
The meeting was organized in four parts. The first part provided global and regional overview of the situation relating to NWFPs. The second part involved the presentation of Pilot Country Studies from the participating countries and special reports by observers. The third part was devoted for discussions of main issues. The fourth part involved group discussions on specific issues to elaborate broad guidelines and suggestions to be incorporated in the proceedings of the meeting. A field visit was organized to observe some activities related to the subject of the consultation.
Dr C Chandrasekharan provided a global overview of the issues involved in the development of the NWFPs while presenting his paper entitled "Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of N on-Wood Forest Products". Non-Wood Forest Products play economic, social and cultural roles in the daily life of the local population through provision of food, fodder, organic matter, fibre, medicinal plants, gums, resins, thatching and raw materials for cultural products. They promote income generation, compatible with environmental conservation. They support commerce and trade through supply of raw materials for processing, for instance pharmaceuticals, flavours
2
and fragrances.
Mr J D Keita, Regional Forestry Officer, presented a paper entitled"Non-Wood Forest Products: an Overview in Africa". He pointed outthat early man's interaction with, and dependence of forest, wasexclusively centred on non-timber forest products. They are stillimportant for rural communities but their relevance is undermined bylack of technical information. Unfortunately, most forest managementplans have been based on principle of sustained yield of timberproduction where NWFPs are secondary. A change in the pattern offorest management entails change in the perceptions and anunderstanding of how the community is using the forest resources. Hestressed the need for meaningful research in order to develop forestmanagement systems which will ensure a sustainable flow of benefitsto local people, as well as the need for sharing the knowledge andexperience among countries and the regions.
3 COUNTRY REPORTS ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The discussions at the meeting were supported by a number of PilotCountry Studies, prepared by National Experts and the authorspresented the main points of their study indicating the current countrysituation in terms of production and utilization of NWFPs, constraintsand opportunities for further development. In the following pages, abrief summary is presented. Important Non-Wood Forest Benefits inselected countries in Africa are listed in Annex III while Pilot CountryStudies and other Reports are included in Annex IV.
Lesotho: A number of Non-Wood Forest Products are used by ruralpopulations i.e. fodder, fruits, nuts, berries, wild spinach, honey,game meat, birds, insects, medicinal plants, tannin, ornamental trees.The major bottlenecks in the development of NWFPs includeinadequate legislation and national policy on forest conservation, lackof awareness, lack of technical information available to the people, andlack of statistical information for forest management planning Linesof action required to reduce these constraints include those to raise theawareness among foresters and policy-makers about the full value ofNWFPs, to involve rural populations in all the activities concerningthe development and promotion of NWFPs, and to establish villagenurseries in suitable sites to supply seedlings of plants providingNWFPs.
Malawi: Non-Wood Forest Products are in abundance in the countrybut are not properly managed. There are limited information on theirquantity and value. The exploitation of NWFPs varies with type, timeand location. Commercially bee products, mushrooms, caterpillars
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and fragrances.
Mr J D Keita, Regional Forestry Officer, presented a paper entitled "Non-Wood Forest Products: an Overview in Africa". He pointed out that early man's interaction with, and dependence of forest, was exclusively centred on non-timber forest products. They are still important for rural communities but their relevance is undermined by lack of technical information. Unfortunately, most forest management plans have been based on principle of sustained yield of timber production where NWFPs are secondary. A change in the pattern of forest management entails change in the perceptions and an understanding of how the community is using the forest resources. He stressed the need for meaningful research in order to develop forest management systems which will ensure a sustainable flow of benefits to local people, as well as the need for sharing the knowledge and experience among countries and the regions.
3 COUNTRY REPORTS ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The discussions at the meeting were supported by a number of Pilot Country Studies, prepared by National Experts and the authors presented the main points of their study indicating the current country situation in terms of production and utilization of NWFPs, constraints and opportunities for further development. In the following pages, a brief summary is presented. Important Non-Wood Forest Benefits in selected countries in Africa are listed in Annex III while Pilot Country Studies and other Reports are included in Annex IV.
Lesotho: A number of N on-Wood Forest Products are used by rural populations i. e. fodder, fruits, nuts, berries, wild spinach, honey, game meat, birds, insects, medicinal plants, tannin, ornamental trees. The major bottlenecks in the development of NWFPs include inadequate legislation and national policy on forest conservation, lack of awareness, lack of technical information available to the people, and lack of statistical information for forest management planning. Lines of action required to reduce these constraints include those to raise the awareness among foresters and policy-makers about the full value of NWFPs, to involve rural populations in all the activities concerning the development and promotion of NWFPs, and to establish village nurseries in suitable sites to supply seedlings of plants providing NWFPs.
Malawi: N on-Wood Forest Products are in abundance in the country but are not properly managed. There are limited information on their quantity and value. The exploitation of NWFPs varies with type, time and location. Commercially bee products, mushrooms, caterpillars
3
and medicinal plants are important. Game products seem to attractillegal practice despite the stringent effort of the Government toregulate their utilization. Management and utilisation of NWFPs, on asustainable basis, are needed in Malawi. Relevant policies andlegislation need to be revised and improved. The Government, NGO'sand international development agencies ought to co-ordinate theirefforts to draw up viable sustainable development strategies.
South Africa: The indigenous people derive a multiplicity of NWFPsi.e. fruits, nuts, spinach, fungi, honey, construction materials,medicine, forage, poison for arrows, tannin, fibre, raw materials forbasketry, handicrafts, ornamental articles, wild meat and fish.Legislation in South Africa is currently punitive. Research andinstitutions are adequately developed, but rural dwellers have had noreal benefit due to lack of extension. NGO's and national institutionscould adopt community participatory approach for the sustainabledevelopment and management of forest resources.
Tanzania: Forests of Tanzania, like those in other tropical countries,provide many Non-Wood Forest Products such as food, fuel, fodder,housing materials and medicine to the rural communities. Theseprovide income to the rural population, yet little research has beendone into improving the protection and management of these products.Far less is known about their role in conservation or about marketshare. With the exception of chincona bark, wildlife-based products,honey and beeswax, grading is usually not done. In general, there islittle processing and quality control requirements are not beingenforced for NWFPs. Most NWFPs are traded in raw forms. Themajority of the rural population live in and around the forests and aregreatly dependent upon NWFPs for their subsistence.
Production figures for NWFPs in Tanzania are mostly based onestimates. However with appropriate assessment methods, it would bepossible to determine the sustainable rate of extraction with minimumimpacts on the environment. The importance of the NWFPs inTanzania extends beyond local subsistence economy. In 1991, forexample, the value of wildlife based activities exceeded US$ 1.3million, wildlife based tourism contributed about US $ 94 million,honey and beeswax contributed about US $ 2.5, while gum arabiccontributed US $ 0.9 millions. The value of NWFPs lies not so muchas indicated in the above figures, but in that so many people in ruralTanzania rely on these products for their survival. Thus the challengeis to marry the concepts of natural and social sciences in order todesign methods that would allow the people living in and around theforests to manage and conserve, on a sustainable basis, the forestresources.
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and medicinal plants are important. Game products seem to attract illegal practice despite the stringent effort of the Government to regulate their utilization. Management and utilisation of NWFPs, on a sustainable basis, are needed in Malawi. Relevant policies and legislation need to be revised and improved. The Government, NGO's and international development agencies ought to co-ordinate their efforts to draw up viable sustainable development strategies.
South Africa: The indigenous people derive a multiplicity of NWFPs i.e. fruits, nuts, spinach, fungi, honey, construction materials, medicine, forage, poison for arrows, tannin, fibre, raw materials for basketry, handicrafts, ornamental articles, wild meat and fish. Legislation in South Africa is currently punitive. Research and institutions are adequately developed, but rural dwellers have had no real benefit due to lack of extension. NGO's and national institutions could adopt community participatory approach for the sustainable development and management of forest resources.
Tanzania: Forests of Tanzania, like those in other tropical countries, provide many Non-Wood Forest Products such as food, fuel, fodder, housing materials and medicine to the rural communities. These provide income to the rural popUlation, yet little research has been done into improving the protection and management of these products. Far less is known about their role in conservation or about market share. With the exception of chincona bark, wildlife-based products, honey and beeswax, grading is usually not done. In general, there is little processing and quality control requirements are not being enforced for NWFPs. Most NWFPs are traded in raw forms. The majority of the rural population live in and around the forests and are greatly dependent upon NWFPs for their subsistence.
Production figures for NWFPs in Tanzania are mostly based on estimates. However with appropriate assessment methods, it would be possible to determine the sustainable rate of extraction with minimum impacts on the environment. The importance of the NWFPs in Tanzania extends beyond local subsistence economy. In 1991, for example, the value of wildlife based activities exceeded US$ 1.3 million, wildlife based tourism contributed about US $ 94 million, honey and beeswax contributed about US $ 2.5, while gum arabic contributed US $ 0.9 millions. The value of NWFPs lies not so much as indicated in the above figures, but in that so many people in rural Tanzania rely on these products for their survival. Thus the challenge is to marry the concepts of natural and social sciences in order to design methods that would allow the people living in and around the forests to manage and conserve, on a sustainable basis, the forest resources.
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Uganda: Rural communities in Uganda rely on a multiplicity ofNWFPs for their livelihood, ranging from leaves, stems, roots andfruits, to bamboo and wild mammals. Local people are also involvedin beekeeping activities which provide food supplement and additionalincome. A large number of plants with medicinal properties are foundin the forests of Uganda, and rural communities rely on traditionalmedicines for the treatment of a variety of disease. Further research,scientific investigations, studies and surveys are required in order toassess Uganda's biological diversity and their development potential. Itis also necessary to design and implement an awareness campaignabout the importance of biological diversity and NWFPs in naturalresource management.
Zambia: The formal assessment of the economic role that forests playoften overlook the importance of non-wood forest products in the dailylives of the people who live in and around forests. This is often theresult of a biased idea that the major benefits derived from forests is inthe form of wood products. But in reality forests yield food in formof fruits, leaves, roots and mushrooms. They also supply building andconstruction materials in the form of fibre, bamboo, rattan. For mostrural people, medicinal plants from the forest provide the only form ofmedicines throughout their lives. The collection of these items supportpeople with employment and their sale supplements their income.
Of the different NWFPs in Zambia, the ones that are highly promotedand developed are those connected with beekeeping activities andbasket and mat making. Baskets and mats are made from bamboo,reeds or rattan. The income from these activities goes a long way toassist the rural populations. Statistical information on NWFPs isscarce or non-existent because the harvesting, processing andmarketing of these products are realized by individuals who keep norecords of their activities or are produced in small-scale informal units.A number of constraints which hinder the development of NWFPshave been identified: shortage of skilled labour, inadequate funding,poor infrastructure and under-developed economic structure.
Zimbabwe: Importance of NWFPs is recognised in the forest-basedoperations of large and small scale sectors, commercial farm lands,forest lands, wildlife estates and tourism and hunting farms.Handicrafts, forest litter as farm manure and medicinal plants are theworthy contributors. Apart from organised tourism and game hunting,there are no institutions covering the full range of NWFPs. Extension,education and data system on NWFPs are still lacking. Legislation isrestrictive and tend to favour outsiders as opposed to localentrepreneurs.
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Uganda: Rural communities in Uganda rely on a multiplicity of NWFPs for their livelihood, ranging from leaves, stems, roots and fruits, to bamboo and wild mammals. Local people are also involved in beekeeping activities which provide food supplement and additional income. A large number of plants with medicinal properties are found in the forests of Uganda, and rural communities rely on traditional medicines for the treatment of a variety of disease. Further research, scientific investigations, studies and surveys are required in order to assess Uganda's biological diversity and their development potential. It is also necessary to design and implement an awareness campaign about the importance of biological diversity and NWFPs in natural resource management.
Zambia: The formal assessment of the economic role that forests play often overlook the importance of non-wood forest products in the daily lives of the people who live in and around forests. This is often the result of a biased idea that the major benefits derived from forests is in the form of wood products. But in reality forests yield food in form of fruits, leaves, roots and mushrooms. They also supply building and construction materials in the form of fibre, bamboo, rattan. For most rural people, medicinal plants from the forest provide the only form of medicines throughout their lives. The collection of these items support people with employment and their sale supplements their income.
Of the different NWFPs in Zambia, the ones that are highly promoted and developed are those connected with beekeeping activities and basket and mat making. Baskets and mats are made from bamboo, reeds or rattan. The income from these activities goes a long way to assist the rural populations. Statistical information on NWFPs is scarce or non-existent because the harvesting, processing and marketing of these products are realized by individuals who keep no records of their activities or are produced in small-scale informal units. A number of constraints which hinder the development of NWFPs have been identified: shortage of skilled labour, inadequate funding, poor infrastructure and under-developed economic structure.
Zimbabwe: Importance of NWFPs is recognised in the forest-based operations of large and small scale sectors, commercial farm lands, forest lands, wildlife estates and tourism and hunting farms. Handicrafts, forest litter as farm manure and medicinal plants are the worthy contributors. Apart from organised tourism and game hunting, there are no institutions covering the full range of NWFPs. Extension, education and data system on NWFPs are still lacking. Legislation is restrictive and tend to favour outsiders as opposed to local entrepreneurs.
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4 CASE STUDEES RELATED TO NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
4.1 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe:Experience and Outlook by Mr. Campbell, University ofZimbabwe
The focus on NWFPs has been at a primary stage, with analysisat a superficial level. The work at present is concentrated ondescriptive list of food, fibre and other plant products and broador general recommendations. The next logical step is to quantifythe value of these tree-based resources or non-wood forestproducts, but qualification in itself will not be sufficient. Ananalysis has to be differentiated by geographical scale (regional,national, local), by sectors (commercial or subsistence), bywealth status (rich or poor, small-scale farmers), by gender andby system components.
A significant understanding of all the interactions amongcomponents, including the historical developments of howproducts are used, collected and substituted, how traditional andnew systems influenced the roles of NWFPs and howcommercialisation and domestication occurs for developingNWFPs are very important in any attempt to value theseresources.
The paper covered various methods of monetary valuation, thesteps involved and their limitations. It was also noted thatmonetary valuation is not the only mean of quantifying the valueof tree-based resources.
4.2 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Product inAfrica by John J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute
Pines and Eucalyptus are widely planted throughout the world;they yield resins and oils as by products of considerableeconomic value. Around 850 000 tonnes of turpentine and rosinare produced annually from resin tapped from pine trees. Chinaaccounts for over half the total production. The main producersof turpentine and rosin in Africa are Zimbabwe, Kenya andSouth Africa. Their total production is about 4 000 tonnes ofcrude resin per year. The tree species which are tapped inZimbabwe, Kenya and South Africa are Pinus elliottii, P.caribaea and P. radiata.
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4 CASE STUDIES RELATED TO NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
4.1 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experience and Outlook by Mr. Campbell, University of Zimbabwe
The focus on NWFPs has been at a primary stage, with analysis at a superficial level. The work at present is concentrated on descriptive list of food, fibre and other plant products and broad or general recommendations. The next logical step is to quantify the value of these tree-based resources or non-wood forest products, but qualification in itself will not be sufficient. An analysis has to be differentiated by geographical scale (regional, national, local), by sectors (commercial or subsistence), by wealth status (rich or poor, small-scale farmers), by gender and by system components.
A significant understanding of all the interactions among components, including the historical developments of how products are used, collected and substituted, how traditional and new systems influenced the roles of NWFPs and how commercialisation and domestication occurs for developing NWFPs are very important in any attempt to value these resources.
The paper covered various methods of monetary valuation, the steps involved and their limitations. It was also noted that monetary valuation is not the only mean of quantifying the value of tree-based resources.
4.2 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Product in Africa by John J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute
Pines and Eucalyptus are widely planted throughout the world; they yield resins and oils as by products of considerable economic value. Around 850 000 tonnes of turpentine and rosin are produced annually from resin tapped from pine trees. China accounts for over half the total production. The main producers of turpentine and rosin in Africa are Zimbabwe, Kenya and South Africa. Their total production is about 4 000 tonnes of crude resin per year. The tree species which are tapped in Zimbabwe, Kenya and South Africa are Pinus elliottii, P. caribaea and P. radiata.
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World production of eucalyptus oil is around 3 500 tonnes peryear, of which 2 500 tonnes is medicinal type. The remainingproduction is of perfumery type. Africa's production ofeucalyptus oil is about 250 tonnes and it is divided betweenSouth Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe, however,provides only about than 10 tonnes. Most African production ofoil has been from trees planted specifically for that purpose,namely from Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Petford provenance). Itis possible that Tanzania will start production in the near future.
5 MAJOR ISSUES RELATED TO NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
While non-wood forest products have been in use from timeimmemorial, some of them have moved to the status of intensivelymanaged agricultural and horticultural crops, due to their obviousattributes. Others remained grouped as "minor products" of forests, inspite of their real and potential value. This resulted in the benignneglect of most non-wood forest products reflected in a serious lack ofinformation on almost all aspects. However, there has recently been anew and increasing awareness about the important contribution of non-wood forest products and benefits in ensuring sustainable forestdevelopment. This has further been underlined in the deliberationsand decisions of the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED).
There are several factors constraining the sustainable development ofNWFPs: lack of information, overemphasis on timber production,absence of inventory systems, inappropriate regulations, unplannedland use changes, lack of integration of wood and non-wood forestproducts in forest management, lack of processing and storagetechnology, market fluctuations, lack of serious research andtechnology development, lack of clear and appropriate legislation andpolicy support.
Based on a discussion of problems and potentials, the meetingconsidered six major issues related to further development of NWFPs:
Need for a clear definition and an internationally acceptedclassification of NWFPs. A precise definition and clearclassification is required to facilitate collection/collation andrecording of statistical data and provide information required forplanning development of NWFPs;
Need for the integrated management of natural forests and otherecosystems for wood and non-wood products/benefits where
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World production of eucalyptus oil is around 3 500 tonnes per year, of which 2 500 tonnes is medicinal type. The remaining production is of perfumery type. Africa's production of eucalyptus oil is about 250 tonnes and it is divided between South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe, however, provides only about than 10 tonnes. Most African production of oil has been from trees planted specifically for that purpose, namely from Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Petford provenance). It is possible that Tanzania will start production in the near future.
5 MAJOR ISSUES RELATED TO NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
While non-wood forest products have been in use from time immemorial, some of them have moved to the status of intensively managed agricultural and horticultural crops, due to their obvious attributes. Others remained grouped as "minor products" of forests, in spite of their real and potential value. This resulted in the benign neglect of most non-wood forest products reflected in a serious lack of information on almost all aspects. However, there has recently been a new and increasing awareness about the important contribution of nonwood forest products and benefits in ensuring sustainable forest development. This has further been underlined in the deliberations and decisions of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
There are several factors constraining the sustainable development of NWFPs: lack of information, overemphasis on timber production, absence of inventory systems, inappropriate regulations, unplanned land use changes, lack of integration of wood and non-wood forest products in forest management, lack of processing and storage technology, market fluctuations, lack of serious research and technology development, lack of clear and appropriate legislation and policy support.
Based on a discussion of problems and potentials, the meeting considered six major issues related to further development of NWFPs:
1- Need for a clear definition and an internationally accepted classification of NWFPs. A precise definition and clear classification is required to facilitate collection/collation and recording of statistical data and provide information required for planning development of NWFPs;
11- Need for the integrated management of natural forests and other ecosystems for wood and non-wood products/benefits where
7
systems would be designed and implemented to ensure resourcesustainability;
Need for domestication of NWFPs, wherever appropriate andfeasible, involving genetic improvement and intensive cultivationpractices. This is often considered as a means of ensuringcontrolled production and economic success of the ventures,apart from supporting conservation of genetic resources.Intensive cultivation can take place under monoculture, mixedcropping or agroforestry systems;
Need to develop appropriate systems for harvesting andprocessing. Harvesting of NWFPs, of both wild and cultivatedsources is different from wood harvest in terms of seasonality,cycle, use of tools, equipment, technology, and pre-harvest andpost-harvest treatment. Harvesting does not normally involve awhole tree or plant, but only parts thereof. Primary anddownstream processing of NWFPs adds value to the product,provides local employment and helps increasing the retention ofvalue in the country of origin;
Need to improve utilization, trade and marketing of NWFPs.Because of the multiplicity of NWFPs, ranging from food toaroma chemicals and pharmaceuticals, the markets showcorresponding variation: bartering in subsistence economy, localvillage markets, national markets (i.e. large cities) andinternational markets. Some NWFPs are not traded, butcollected and consumed. A large number of vendors are locallyinvolved in selling NWFPs. Many of them sell their ownproduction to supplement their income, others are supported bya network of merchants and several levels of buyers and sellersdown to the village.
Traders and merchants are the main intermediaries who buyNWFPs cheaply from collectors in cases where the products aresold outside the locality where they are collected and sell it toexporters or processors at high prices. Because of the absence ofappropriate organizations of collectors, market and priceinformation are almost non-existent. Traditionally, the supply ofNWFPs has involved networks of local collectors andintermediaries bound by long-term, often debt-basedrelationships. It is a trader dominated system and it is notconducive for the birth and growth of enterprises. Therefore, thesystem is, to some extent, exploitative and non-supportive ofsustainable development.
8
systems would be designed and implemented to ensure resource sustainability ;
111- Need for domestication of NWFPs, wherever appropriate and feasible, involving genetic improvement and intensive cultivation practices. This is often considered as a means of ensuring controlled production and economic success of the ventures, apart from supporting conservation of genetic resources. Intensive cultivation can take place under monoculture, mixed cropping or agroforestry systems;
1V- Need to develop appropriate systems for harvesting and processing. Harvesting of NWFPs, of both wild and cultivated sources is different from wood harvest in terms of seasonality, cycle, use of tools, equipment, technology, and pre-harvest and post-harvest treatment. Harvesting does not normally involve a whole tree or plant, but only parts thereof. Primary and downstream processing of NWFPs adds value to the product, provides local employment and helps increasing the retention of value in the country of origin;
v- Need to improve utilization, trade and marketing of NWFPs. Because of the multiplicity of NWFPs, ranging from food to aroma chemicals and pharmaceuticals, the markets show corresponding variation: bartering in subsistence economy, local village markets, national markets (i.e. large cities) and international markets. Some NWFPs are not traded, but collected and consumed. A large number of vendors are locally involved in selling NWFPs. Many of them sell their own production to supplement their income, others are supported by a network of merchants and several levels of buyers and sellers down to the village.
Traders and merchants are the main intermediaries who buy NWFPs cheaply from collectors in cases where the products are sold outside the locality where they are collected and sell it to exporters or processors at high prices. Because of the absence of appropriate organizations of collectors, market and price information are almost non-existent. Traditionally, the supply of NWFPs has involved networks of local collectors and intermediaries bound by long-term, often debt-based relationships. It is a trader dominated system and it is not conducive for the birth and growth of enterprises. Therefore, the system is, to some extent, exploitative and non-supportive of sustainable development.
8
It is necessary to develop a market orientation rather than simpleaccent on production. Production emphasis on has the effect ofcreating increased supply, with or without sustainable level ofproduction, thus reducing price and profitability. A successfulmarket orientation of NWFPs should increase demand, thusallowing more of the products to enter the market withoutreducing the overall price of the commodities. Product andmarket developments as well as market research are aspectsrelated to this approach.
vi- Need for strengthening institutions. Inadequacies of institutionsare often responsible for failures of efforts to develop NWFPs.Institutional aspects cover forest policy and strategy, legislationand regulations, legal right and arrangements, incentives, humanresources development, health and safety considerations, accessto information and streamlined support of public administration.In most forest policies, NWFPs get a mention in passing, butwithout clear objectives, targets and development strategies.
6 OUTCOME OF GROUP DISCUSSIONS
A session was devoted to address issues related to NWFPs. In order todiscuss and propose broad guidelines for future development ofNWFPs, participants were divided in three groups. The three groupsdealt with 1) Definition and Classification, 2) Integrated Managementof Natural Forests and Other Ecosystems; Domestication; andHarvesting and Processing, and 3) Utilization, Trade and Marketing,and Institutions. Following are the results of the group deliberations.
6.1 Definition & Classification
6.1.1 Definition:
The Group proposed that Non-Wood Forest Products bere-tilted as Non-Wood Forest Benefits and defined as "Allvegetal and faunal products and services derived fromforests and other wooded land and trees outside the forest.Excluded are industrial roundwood, wood used forenergy, horticultural and livestock products".
The term "Non-Wood Forest Products" may be defined asabove but excluding services.
9
It is necessary to develop a market orientation rather than simple accent on production. Production emphasis on has the effect of creating increased supply, with or without sustainable level of production, thus reducing price and profitability. A successful market orientation of NWFPs should increase demand, thus allowing more of the products to enter the market without reducing the overall price of the commodities. Product and market developments as well as market research are aspects related to this approach.
Vl- Need for strengthening institutions. Inadequacies of institutions are often responsible for failures of efforts to develop NWFPs. Institutional aspects cover forest policy and strategy, legislation and regulations, legal right and arrangements, incentives, human resources development, health and safety considerations, access to information and streamlined support of public administration. In most forest policies, NWFPs get a mention in passing, but without clear objectives, targets and development strategies.
6 OUTCO:ME OF GROUP DISCUSSIONS
A session was devoted to address issues related to NWFPs. In order to discuss and propose broad guidelines for future development of NWFPs, participants were divided in three groups. The three groups dealt with 1) Definition and Classification, 2) Integrated Management of Natural Forests and Other Ecosystems; Domestication; and Harvesting and Processing, and 3) Utilization, Trade and Marketing, and Institutions. Following are the results of the group deliberations.
6.1 Definition & Classification
6.1.1 Definition:
The Group proposed that N on-Wood Forest Products be re-tilted as Non-Wood Forest Benefits and defined as "All vegetal and faunal products and services derived from forests and other wooded land and trees outside the forest. Excluded are industrial roundwood, wood used for energy, horticultural and livestock products" .
The term "Non-Wood Forest Products" may be defined as above but excluding services.
9
6.1.2 Classification:
The basis of discussion for the group has been theclassification proposed at the Regional Expert Consultationon Non-Wood Forest Products for the Asia and PacificRegion, held in Bangkok, Thailand, November 1991. TheGroup proposed few modifications so as to take intoaccount the African context and to removed certainanomalies such as the placement of fodder and grassesunder fibres. Where there are uncertainty about theplacement of an item, reference was made to the StandardInternational Trade Classification (SITC - revision 2 and3) to assist in placement.
The Group proposed the following classification:
1 PRODUCTS
a Food
Animal feedHuman food
Plant foods: flowers, bark, bulbs, roots, nuts,leaves, vegetables, shoots, fruits, seeds, spices &flavourings, fungi, beverages, etc.
Animal foods: bushmeat, honey, eggs, insects,nests, fish, snails, etc.
Medicinal and Other Bio-Active Products
Medicinal products (plants & animals)
Insecticides (moluscides, termiticides)
Toxins (venin)
Stimulants (Catha leaves)
Extractive Products (other than A or B)
Gums, Resins, Latexes, Fixed and Essential Oils,Colorants, Tannins, Lacs, Dyes
10
6.1.2 Classification:
The basis of discussion for the group has been the classification proposed at the Regional Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products for the Asia and Pacific Region, held in Bangkok, Thailand, November 1991. The Group proposed few modifications so as to take into account the African context and to removed certain anomalies such as the placement of fodder and grasses under fibres. Where there are uncertainty about the placement of an item, reference was made to the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC - revision 2 and 3) to assist in placement.
The Group proposed the following classification:
1 PRODUCTS
a Food
Animal feed Human food
* Plant foods: flowers, bark, bulbs, roots, nuts, leaves, vegetables, shoots, fruits, seeds, spices & flavourings, fungi, beverages, etc.
* Animal foods: bushmeat, honey, eggs, insects, nests, fish, snails, etc.
b Medicinal and Other Bio-Active Products
Medicinal products (plants & animals)
Insecticides (moluscides, termiticides)
Toxins (venin)
Stimulants (Catha leaves)
c Extractive Products Cother than A or B)
Gums, Resins, Latexes, Fixed and Essential Oils, Colorants, Tannins, Lacs, Dyes
10
d Other Animal & Animal Products (other than A. B or C)
Live Animals
Animal Products: Feathers, Fur, Horns, Teeth, Hide,Skins, Silk, Trophies
e Other Plant & Plant Products (other than A, B, C & D)
Live and Ornamental plants
Materials for making crafts, household utensils and items,agricultural equipment, ropes, games and housingcomponents (includes thatch, fibre, cork, bamboos,rattans)
Wrapping materials (beedi and palm leaves)
Chewing Sticks
Mulch
2 SERVICES
Environmental Services
Bio-DiversitySoil ProtectionWater Quality and QuantityClimatic Effects
Social and Cultural Services
Recreation
Non-ConsumptiveConsumptive (Hunting & Fishing)
Historical Importance
Spiritual Values (sites for burial, rain making)Trees of Cultural Value (meeting place, boundarytrees)Heritage Value
11
d Other Animal & Animal Products (other than A, B or C)
Live Animals
Animal Products: Feathers, Fur, Horns, Teeth, Hide, Skins, Silk, Trophies
e Other Plant & Plant Products (other than A, B, C & D)
2 SERVICES
Live and Ornamental plants
Materials for making crafts, household utensils and items, agricultural equipment, ropes, games and housing components (includes thatch, fibre, cork, bamboos, rattans)
W rapping materials (beedi and palm leaves)
Chewing Sticks
Mulch
Environmental Services
* Bio-Diversity * Soil Protection * Water Quality and Quantity * Climatic Effects
Social and Cultural Services
* Recreation
Non-Consumptive Consumptive (Hunting & Fishing)
* Historical Importance
Spiritual Values (sites for burial, rain making) Trees of Cultural Value (meeting place, boundary trees) Heritage Value
11
The group also suggested that the NWFPs categories listed in thisclassification, be cross-referenced to the SITC where possible.
6.1.3 Suggestions/Guidelines
The following broad guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that each country undertake to identify main NWFPsand assign priority for their development;
that each country work out effective conservationand utilization strategies for the main NWFPs;
that necessary institutional arrangements and/orstrengthening be undertaken and capacity building inthe sector promoted, as necessary;
that necessary exchange of information betweencountries be promoted and facilitated by FAO andother International Agencies through appropriatemeans;
that FAO encourage and enable the establishment ofadequate statistical data base at the national andinternational levels and help to disseminate themwidely;
that the countries in the region carry out thenecessary research on NWFPs in order to guaranteesustainable production as well as to improve thestandard of living of the local people;
that appropriate networks on NWFPs be encouragedand promoted; and
that the International Donor Community providesappropriate assistance to develop and promoteNWFPs in the Region.
12
The group also suggested that the NWFPs categories listed in this classification, be cross-referenced to the SITC where possible.
6.1.3 Suggestions/Guidelines
The following broad guidelines were suggested by the group:
that each country undertake to identify main NWFPs and assign priority for their development;
that each country work out effective conservation and utilization strategies for the main NWFPs;
that necessary institutional arrangements and/or strengthening be undertaken and capacity building in the sector promoted, as necessary;
that necessary exchange of information between countries be promoted and facilitated by FAD and other International Agencies through appropriate means;
that FAD encourage and enable the establishment of adequate statistical data base at the national and international levels and help to disseminate them widely;
that the countries in the region carry out the necessary research on NWFPs in order to guarantee sustainable production as well as to improve the standard of living of the local people;
that appropriate networks on NWFPs be encouraged and promoted; and
that the International Donor Community provides appropriate assistance to develop and promote NWFPs in the Region.
12
6.2. Integrated Management of Natural Forests and OtherEcosystems
6.2.1 Background:
The group assumed that traditional and modern systems, ifproperly applied, could support sustainable development.However, the multiplicity of products coming fromintegrated systems of management tends to make it moredifficult i.e. the more the products, the more difficult it isto manage the system. A definition of integratedmanagement has first to be outlined for specific situationsand conditions, especially as it applies to ruralcommunities. The problems are compound by the fact thatwe do not understand or know what traditionalmanagement systems exist (or existed) in various areas;and it is essential to find out and study these managementsystems in order to understand them and assess theirefficacy and shortcomings. Information on localcommunity participation in the management of naturalforests/ecosystems is lacking, and will therefore need tobe addressed through surveys and appraisals (for example,using Rapid Rural Appraisal Methodologies).
The main issues, in this context, are local management ofnatural forests and other ecosystems as well as itssustainability.
6.2.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that inventory and assessment of existing traditionalmanagement systems in the different countries becarried out in order to evaluate their sustainabilityas well as the extent of participation of localcommunities. This will entail:
outlining the various components of existingsystems;
outlining the local social and administrativestructures geared towards the management ofnatural forests and other ecosystems;
13
6.2. Integrated Management of Natural Forests and Other Ecosystems
6.2.1 Background:
The group assumed that traditional and modern systems, if properly applied, could support sustainable development. However, the multiplicity of products coming from integrated systems of management tends to make it more difficult i.e. the more the products, the more difficult it is to manage the system. A definition of integrated management has first to be outlined for specific situations and conditions, especially as it applies to rural communities. The problems are compound by the fact that we do not understand or know what traditional management systems exist (or existed) in various areas; and it is essential to find out and study these management systems in order to understand them and assess their efficacy and shortcomings. Information on local community participation in the management of natural forests/ecosystems is lacking, and will therefore need to be addressed through surveys and appraisals (for example, using Rapid Rural Appraisal Methodologies).
The main issues, in this context, are local management of natural forests and other ecosystems as well as its sustainability .
6.2.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by the group:
that inventory and assessment of existing traditional management systems in the different countries be carried out in order to evaluate their sustainability as well as the extent of participation of local communities. This will entail:
*
*
outlining the various components of existing systems;
outlining the local social and administrative structures geared towards the management of natural forests and other ecosystems;
13
identifying wood and non-wood productsderived from natural forests and otherecosystems;
assessing the impact of the above on resourcesustainability.
that modifications be made on existing systems oralternatives systems be developed based oninformation gathered from the inventory andassessment exercise;
that national policy and legal systems be reviewedand modified and/or strengthened as far as it relatesto the management of natural forests and otherecosystems.
6.3 Domestication
6.3.1 Background:
Is it necessary to domesticate species providing NWFPs ?Although domestication of NWFPs resource base is notnecessary in situations of subsistence economies of lowpopulations and/or high resource availability, suchsituations do not prevail in Africa today. Due to therapidly increasing population and the diminishing resourcebase, especially in Africa, domestication has to be seen asbeing potentially necessary in order to counter the currentpressures on the land, and the need to feed the multitudes.
Domestication provide a number of benefits as follows:
conservation and maintenance of bio-diversity;improved quality of NWFPs;increased quantity and supply of NWFPs;reliable and sustainable supply of NWFPs, ensuringfood, medicine, and environmental securityimproved socio-economic benefits for the ruralcommunities;better management of the resources base.
Different types of domestication, i.e. mono-cropping,multi-cropping and agroforestry systems, exist with theiradvantages and disadvantages. Domestication of wildlifeshould also be considered for meat production, especially
14
*
*
identifying wood and non-wood products derived from natural forests and other ecosystems;
assessing the impact of the above on resource sustainability .
that modifications be made on existing systems or alternatives systems be developed based on information gathered from the inventory and assessment exercise;
that national policy and legal systems be reviewed and modified and/or strengthened as far as it relates to the management of natural forests and other ecosystems.
6.3 Domestication
6.3.1 Background:
Is it necessary to domesticate species providing NWFPs ? Although domestication of NWFPs resource base is not necessary in situations of subsistence economies of low populations and/or high resource availability, such situations do not prevail in Africa today. Due to the rapidly increasing population and the diminishing resource base, especially in Africa, domestication has to be seen as being potentially necessary in order to counter the current pressures on the land, and the need to feed the multitudes.
Domestication provide a number of benefits as follows:
conservation and maintenance of bio-diversity; improved quality of NWFPs; increased quantity and supply of NWFPs; reliable and sustainable supply of NWFPs, ensuring food, medicine, and environmental security improved socio-economic benefits for the rural communities; better management of the resources base.
Different types of domestication, i.e. mono-cropping, mUlti-cropping and agroforestry systems, exist with their advantages and disadvantages. Domestication of wildlife should also be considered for meat production, especially
14
in situations of protein deficiency as well as for breedingwith a view to re-stocking and re-introduction in depletedareas.
The main issues involved are appropriate technology fordomestication, maintenance and conservation of bio-diversity, adequately trained human resource, market andmarketing as well as land tenure.
6.3.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that special inventories and assessments be carriedout in order to:
identify important species providing NWFPsand ascertain their status-i.e. threatenedand/or endangered;
identify species of potential economicimportance;
establish the marketability of NWFPsidentified as being of potential importance.
that research be carried out on aspects ofdomestication through on-station and on-farm trials,and results disseminated by establishing extensionmechanisms;
that small-scale production and processingenterprises be promoted and adequate supportprovided to local entrepreneurs;
that land use and land tenure issues be resolved inorder that the communities involved are providednecessary incentives.
15
in situations of protein deficiency as well as for breeding with a view to re-stocking and re-introduction in depleted areas.
The main issues involved are appropriate technology for domestication, maintenance and conservation of biodiversity, adequately trained human resource, market and marketing as well as land tenure.
6.3.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by the group:
that special inventories and assessments be carried out in order to:
*
*
*
identify important species providing NWFPs and ascertain their status-i.e. threatened and/or endangered;
identify species of potential economic importance;
establish the marketability of NWFPs identified as being of potential importance.
that research be carried out on aspects of domestication through on-station and on-farm trials, and results disseminated by establishing extension mechanisms;
that small-scale production and processing enterprises be promoted and adequate support provided to local entrepreneurs;
that land use and land tenure issues be resolved in order that the communities involved are provided necessary incentives.
15
6.4 Harvesting and Processing
6.4.1 Background:
Harvesting and processing add value to the resource ofNWFPs by making them suitable for consumption. Theyalso provide employment and income to rural communitiesand support technology-based development.
6.4.2 Suggestions/Guidelines: Harvesting
The following broad guidelines on harvesting weresuggested by the group:
that the harvesting practices and tools for differentNWFPs assessed and improved;
that the pre-transportation storage facilities andtransportation methods be improved;
that consideration be given for gender issues andthat harvesting of NWFPs be made efficient,sustainable and scientific;
that appropriate training programmes, appropriatefor harvesting of different NWFPs be designed andimplemented.
6.4.3 Suggestions/Guidelines: Processing
The following general guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that the existing technology and methods ofprocessing of different NWFPs be assessed andimproved;
that the linkages of primary, secondary anddownstream processing be strengthened in respect ofthe different types of NWFPs, particularly thosewhich are important to rural communities; dueconsideration be given to gender issues in theprocessing of NWFPs;
that the need for improving and maintaining productbe emphasized;
16
6.4 Harvesting and Processing
6.4.1 Background:
Harvesting and processing add value to the resource of NWFPs by making them suitable for consumption. They also provide employment and income to rural communities and support technology-based development.
6.4.2 Suggestions/Guidelines: Harvesting
The following broad guidelines on harvesting were suggested by the group:
that the harvesting practices and tools for different NWFPs assessed and improved;
that the pre-transportation storage facilities and transportation methods be improved;
that consideration be given for gender issues and that harvesting of NWFPs be made efficient, sustainable and scientific;
that appropriate training programmes, appropriate for harvesting of different NWFPs be designed and implemented.
6.4.3 Suggestions/Guidelines: Processing
The following general guidelines were suggested by the group:
that the existing technology and methods of processing of different NWFPs be assessed and improved;
that the linkages of primary, secondary and downstream processing be strengthened in respect of the different types of NWFPs, particularly those which are important to rural communities; due consideration be given to gender issues in the processing of NWFPs;
that the need for improving and maintaining product be emphasized;
16
that appropriate training programmes for processingof NWFPs be designed and implemented.
6.5 Utilization, Trade & Marketing
6.5.1 Background:
Trade and marketing are means by which a product ismade available to the consumer for use or utilisation.Efficiency in utilisation is an important aspect in ensuringsustainability. The group expressed the view that beforepromoting market for a product the implication of it onsustainable resource management should be investigated. Itis also necessary to institutes continuous monitoring of theresource base of marketed non-wood forest products.
6.5.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that appropriate market information systems beestablished in order to provide basic information onall aspects of trade, marketing, including domesticconsumption;
that local organisations in the form of membershiporganisations or associations be promoted to theextent feasible in the production, trade andmarketing of NWFPs;
that the role of middlemen in theproduction/collection and trade of NWFPs, whereever found necessary, be rationalised;
that lessons may be drawn on mechanisms of tradeand marketing of NWFPs from experiences in otherregions and/or countries.
6.6 Institutions
6.6.1 Background:
Strong institutions and institutional instruments are crucialto support development of NWFPs. However, the NWFPssector is afflicted by lack of adequate institutional support.
17
that appropriate training programmes for processing of NWFPs be designed and implemented.
6.5 Utilization, Trade & Marketing
6.5.1 Background:
Trade and marketing are means by which a product is made available to the consumer for use or utilisation. Efficiency in utilisation is an important aspect in ensuring sustainability. The group expressed the view that before promoting market for a product the implication of it on sustainable resource management should be investigated. It is also necessary to institutes continuous monitoring of the resource base of marketed non-wood forest products.
6.5.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following broad guidelines were suggested by the group:
6.6 Institutions
that appropriate market information systems be established in order to provide basic information on all aspects of trade, marketing, including domestic consumption;
that local organisations in the form of membership organisations or associations be promoted to the extent feasible in the production, trade and marketing of NWFPs;
that the role of middlemen in the production/collection and trade of NWFPs, where ever found necessary, be rationalised;
that lessons may be drawn on mechanisms of trade and marketing of NWFPs from experiences in other regions and/or countries.
6.6.1 Background:
Strong institutions and institutional instruments are crucial to support development of NWFPs. However, the NWFPs sector is afflicted by lack of adequate institutional support.
17
6.6.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following general guidelines were suggested by thegroup:
that a Board or Council be established in eachcountry in order to coordinate the developmentstrategy and programmes on NWFPs. Such a Boardor Council may include various Ministries involvedin the management of natural resources, as well asNon-Governmental Organizations, private sector andother NWFP users. The functions of such aBoard/Council could include, among others, thefollowing:
Reviewing, periodically, legislation andpolicies, particularly those concerned withland tenure;
Identifying constraints and proposing remedialmeasures;
Coordinating the formulation of developmentstrategies and activities;
Supporting social and environmental impactassessment studies on a regular basis;
Ensuring that consultation takes place at grassroot levels, and that every level of NWFPusers are able to participate in the decision-making and implementation process.
that additional information be generated on theresource bases and use patterns. (A good startwould be case studies using Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA) Methodologies);
that technical information on sustainablemanagement of NWFPs and appropriatemethodologies be generated and disseminatedsuitably;
that statistical information on NWFPs includingquantitative and qualitative indicators be developedand disseminated;
18
6.6.2 Suggestions/Guidelines:
The following general guidelines were suggested by the group:
that a Board or Council be established in each country in order to coordinate the development strategy and programmes on NWFPs. Such a Board or Council may include various Ministries involved in the management of natural resources, as well as Non-Governmental Organizations, private sector and other NWFP users. The functions of such a Board/Council could include, among others, the following:
*
*
*
*
*
Reviewing, periodically, legislation and policies, particularly those concerned with land tenure;
Identifying constraints and proposing remedial measures;
Coordinating the formulation of development strategies and activities;
Supporting social and environmental impact assessment studies on a regular basis;
Ensuring that consultation takes place at grass root levels, and that every level of NWFP users are able to participate in the decisionmaking and implementation process.
that additional information be generated on the resource bases and use patterns. (A good start would be case studies using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Methodologies);
that technical information on sustainable management of NWFPs and appropriate methodologies be generated and disseminated suitably;
that statistical information on NWFPs including quantitative and qualitative indicators be developed and disseminated;
18
that methodologies for surveys, assessments andprospecting of specific NWFPs be developed;
that projection and outlook studies on NWFPs becarried out, to provide a basis for developmentplanning;
that up-to-date bibliographies on NWFPs beprepared;
that research on NWFPs, especially those withsocio-economic themes, be incorporated into theexisting forestry research programmes, with specialemphasis on applied research and extension ofresearch results;
that researchers working on NWFP issues beprovided incentives in the form of fellowships forspecialisation;
that NGO's, at national and regional levels, beinvolved in activities to promote NWFPs;
that Regional and Sub-Regional Networks onNWFPs on the basis of Technical Co-operation forDeveloping Countries (TCDC) be developed andpromoted.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Improved food security and better nutrition for the rural people,increased employment opportunities and income in rural areas,availability of a range of products vital for human welfare, increasingparticipation of people in forest management activities and enhancedmarket opportunities are just but a few benefits which can be derivedfrom the sustainable production of NWFPs.
Under natural conditions, NWFPs can be managed along with timberin an integrated manner, thus increasing overall forest productivity andvalue. Selected NWFPs can also be grown as pure or mixed cropsunder aggro-forestry and or community forestry systems. NWFPs canbe harvested from an ecosystem in quantities and ways that do notalter its basic reproductive functions. NWFPs have strong linkages andcomplementarities with component activities of environmentallysustainable development.
19
7 CONCLUSIONS
that methodologies for surveys, assessments and prospecting of specific NWFPs be developed;
that projection and outlook studies on NWFPs be carried out, to provide a basis for development planning;
that up-to-date bibliographies on NWFPs be prepared;
that research on NWFPs, especially those with socio-economic themes, be incorporated into the existing forestry research programmes, with special emphasis on applied research and extension of research results;
that researchers working on NWFP issues be provided incentives in the form of fellowships for specialisation;
that NGO's, at national and regional levels, be involved in activities to promote NWFPs;
that Regional and Sub-Regional Networks on NWFPs on the basis of Technical Co-operation for Developing Countries (TCDC) be developed and promoted.
Improved food security and better nutrition for the rural people, increased employment opportunities and income in rural areas, availability of a range of products vital for human welfare, increasing participation of people in forest management activities and enhanced market opportunities are just but a few benefits which can be derived from the sustainable production of NWFPs.
Under natural conditions, NWFPs can be managed along with timber in an integrated manner, thus increasing overall forest productivity and value. Selected NWFPs can also be grown as pure or mixed crops under aggro-forestry and or community forestry systems. NWFPs can be harvested from an ecosystem in quantities and ways that do not alter its basic reproductive functions. NWFPs have strong linkages and complementarities with component activities of environmentally sustainable development.
19
These attributes of NWFPs have led to increasing awareness on therole and socio-economic importance of NWFPs. This Expertconsultation was a further attempt at re-enforcing that awareness andto promote action aimed at development of NWFPs at national,regional and international levels. In that regard the consultation hasproposed broad guidelines covering the different aspects on NWFPsdevelopment.
20
These attributes of NWFPs have led to increasing awareness on the role and socio-economic importance of NWFPs. This Expert consultation was a further attempt at re-enforcing that awareness and to promote action aimed at development of NWFPs at national, regional and international levels. In that regard the consultation has proposed broad guidelines covering the different aspects on NWFPs development.
20
ANNEX I
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOODFOREST PRODUCTS FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING
AFRICAN COUNTRIES, ARUSHA, TANZANIA17-22 OCTOBER 1993
Programme
Sunday, 17 October, 1993
18:00 - 19:00 Registration
19:00 - 21:00 Informal Dinner
Monday, 18 October, 1993
08:30 - 09:00 Registration
09:00 - 09:30 Opening Ceremony
Mr G Mbonde, Ministry of Tourism,Natural Resources and Environment
Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch,Forest Products Division, FAO
Dr J A J Perera, Project OfficerCommonwealth Science Council
Mr A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of TourismNatural Resources and Environment
9:30 - 10:00 Coffee Break
10:00 - 10:40 Issues Involved in the Sustainable Developmentof Non-Wood Forest Products byDr C Chandrasekharan
21
ANNEX I
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS FOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING
AFRICAN COUNTRIES, ARUSHA, TANZANIA 17-22 OCTOBER 1993
Sunday. 17 October. 1993
18:00 - 19:00
19:00 - 21 :00
Monday. 18 October. 1993
08:30 - 09:00
09:00 - 09:30
9:30 - 10:00
10:00 - 10:40
Programme
Registration
Informal Dinner
Registration
Opening Ceremony
Mr G Mbonde, Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment
Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, NonWood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, F AO
Dr J A J Perera, Project Officer Commonwealth Science Council
Mr A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of Tourism Natural Resources and Environment
Coffee Break
Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of N on-Wood Forest Products by Dr C Chandrasekharan
21
10:40 - 11:10 Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: AnOverview by Mr J D Keita
11:10 - 12:10 Pilot Country Study: Lesotho by Mr Maliehe
12:10 - 14:00 Lunch
14:00 - 15:10 Pilot Country Study: South Africa byMr Maliehe
15:10 - 15:50 Gum Arabic from Sudan by Mr Wasila
15:50 - 16:20 Coffee Break
16:20 - 17:10 Pilot Country Study: Tanzania by Mr Chihongo
Tuesday, 19 October, 1993
08:30 - 09:15 Pilot Country Study: Malawi by Mr Nyirenda
09:15 - 10:10 Pilot Country Study: Zimbabwe by Mr Campbell
10:10 - 10:40 Coffee Break
10:40 - 11:10 Statistical Information on Non-Wood ForestProducts by Mr Padovani
11:10 - 11:40 Programme and Project Review of theInternational Development Research Centre(IDRC) by Mr Seward
11:40 - 12:10 Programme and Project Review of theInternational Union for the Conservation ofNature (IUCN) by Mr Broekhoven
12:10 - 14:00 Lunch
14:00 - 15:00 Pines and Eucalyptus Sources of Non-WoodForest Products in Africa by Mr Coppen,Natural Resources Institute
15:00 - 15:30 Coffee Break
22
10:40 - 11:10
11:10 - 12:10
12: 10 - 14:00
14:00 - 15: 10
15:10 - 15:50
15 :50 - 16:20
16:20 - 17: 10
Tuesday, 19 October, 1993
08:30 - 09: 15
09: 15 - 10: 10
10: 10 - 10:40
10:40 - 11:10
11 : 10 - 11: 40
11:40 - 12:10
12: 10 - 14:00
14~00 - 15:00
15:00 - 15:30
Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: An Overview by Mr J D Keita
Pilot Country Study: Lesotho by Mr Maliehe
Lunch
Pilot Country Study: South Africa by Mr Maliehe
Gum Arabic from Sudan by Mr Wasila
Coffee Break
Pilot Country Study: Tanzania by Mr Chihongo
Pilot Country Study: Malawi by Mr Nyirenda
Pilot Country Study: Zimbabwe by Mr Campbell
Coffee Break
Statistical Information on N on-Wood Forest Products by Mr Padovani
Programme and Project Review of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) by Mr Seward
Programme and Project Review of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) by Mr Broekhoven
Lunch
Pines and Eucalyptus Sources of N on-Wood Forest Products in Africa by Mr Coppen, Natural Resources Institute
Coffee Break
22
Wednesday, 20 October 1993
08:30 - 12:30 Plenary Session: Discussions of Issues related toNWFPs:
Defintion and ClassificationIntegrated Management of Natural Forests andother EcosystemsDomestication
12:30 - 14:00 Lunch
14:00 - 17:00 Harvesting and ProcessingUtilization, Trade and MarketingInstitutions
Thursday, 21 October, 1993
08:30 -12:30 Group Session: Discussions on theIssues
12:30 - 14:00 Lunch
14:00 - 17:00 Group Session: Discussions on theIssues
Friday, 22 October, 1993
08:30 - 11:15 Plenary Session and Adoption of the RegionalExpert Consultation Report
11:15 - 11:30 Closing Remarks by J.D. Keita on behalf onFAO and Dr. Perera on behalf of theCommonwealth Science Council
11:30 - 18:00 Lunch and Field Trip to ArushaNational Park
23
15:30 - 16:30 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources inZimbabwe: Experience and Outlook byMr Campbell
15:30 - 16:30 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experience and Outlook by Mr Campbell
Wednesday, 20 October 1993
08:30 - 12:30
12:30 - 14:00
14:00 - 17:00
Plenary Session: Discussions of Issues related to NWFPs:
Defintion and Classification Integrated Management of Natural Forests and other Ecosystems
· Domestication
Lunch
· Harvesting and Processing Utilization, Trade and Marketing
· Institutions
Thursday, 21 October. 1993
08:30 -12:30
12:30 - 14:00
14:00 - 17:00
Friday. 22 October. 1993
08:30 - 11:15
11:15 - 11:30
11 :30 - 18:00
Group Session: Discussions on the Issues
Lunch
Group Session: Discussions on the Issues
Plenary Session and Adoption of the Regional Expert Consultation Report
Closing Remarks by J.D. Keita on behalf on F AO and Dr. Perera on behalf of the Commonwealth Science Council
Lunch and Field Trip to Arusha National Park
23
24
-sia
-It-"¡vk
A
Some of the participants who attended the meeting in Arusha, Tanzania
Seated from right:Dr Chandrasekharan, Mr Mwaheleje, Mr Mbonde, Dr Perera
First row standing from rightMr Chihongo, Mr Mushi, Mr Padovani, Mr Maliehe, Mr keita, Mr Kamweti,Mr Kimishua
Second row standing from rightProfessor Ishengoma, Mr Seward, Professor Campbell, Mr Wasila, MrBroehoren, Mr Copen, Mr Leger
Some of the participants who attended the meeting in Arusha, Tanzania
Seated from right: Dr Chandrasekharan, Mr Mwaheleje, Mr Mbonde, Dr Perera
First row standing from right Mr Chihongo, Mr Mushi, Mr Padovani, Mr Maliehe, Mr keita, Mr Kamweti, Mr Kimishua
Second row standing from right Professor Ishengoma, Mr Seward, Professor Campbell, Mr Wasila, Mr Broehoren, Mr Copen, Mr Leger
24
25
ANNEX II
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOODFOREST PRODUCTSFOR ENGLISH-SPEAKINGAFRICAN COUNTRIES, ARUSHA, TANZANIA,
17-22 OCTOBER 1993
List of Participants
NAME, TITLE & ADDRESS
1 Banana, A Y Senior Lecturer,Department of Forestry,Makarere UniversityP 0 Box 7062Kampala, Uganda
2 Broekhoven, J CoordinatorEastern Africa Forest Conservation
ProgrammeEastern Africa Regional OfficeIUCN, The World Conservation UnionP.O. Box 68200Nairobi, KenyaFax: 2542 608026
3 Campbell, B LecturerDepartment of Biological SciencesUniversity of ZimbabweP.O. Box MP 167Harare, ZimbabweTel: 263-4-303211Fax: 263-4-795075
4 Chandrasekharan, C ChiefNon-Wood Products & Energy BranchForest Products DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO)Viale delle Terme di CaracallaRome, ItalyFax: 5225 5137
1
2
3
4
ANNEX II
REGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTSFOR ENGLISH-SPEAKING AFRICAN COUNTRIES, ARUSHA, TANZANIA,
17-22 OCTOBER 1993
List of Participants
NAME, TITLE & ADDRESS
Banana, A Y Senior Lecturer, Department of Forestry , Makarere University POBox 7062 Kampala, Uganda
Broekhoven, J Coordinator Eastern Africa Forest Conservation
Programme Eastern Africa Regional Office IUCN, The W orId Conservation Union P.O. Box 68200 Nairobi, Kenya Fax: 2542 608026
Campbell, B Lecturer Department of Biological Sciences University of Zimbabwe P.O. Box MP 167 Harare, Zimbabwe Tel: 263-4-303211 Fax: 263-4-795075
Chandrasekharan, C Chief Non-Wood Products & Energy Branch Forest Products Division Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Rome, Italy Fax: 5225 5137
25
10 Keita, J D Regional Forestry OfficerRegional Office for AfricaFood and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO)P.O. Box 1628Accra, GhanaTel: (233.21) 666851-4Fax: (233.21) 668427
26
5 Chihongo, A W Senior Forest Research Officer,Tanzania Forestry Research Institute(TAFORI)P.O. Box 1854Morogoro, TanzaniaFax: 3725
6 Coppen, J J W Senior Scientist Officer,Natural Resources InstituteCentral Avenue, Chatham MaritimeKent ME4 4TB, U.K.Tel: 0634 880088Fax: 0634 880066/77
7 Dugushilu, M Senior Scientific OfficerCommission on Science & Technology
(COSTECH)P.O. Box 4302Dar es SalaamTanzania
8 Ishengoma, R C ProfessorWood Utilization DepartmentSokoine University of AgricultureP.O. Box 3014Morogoro, Tanzania
9 Kamweti, D M Programme AdvisorInternational Development Research
Centre (IDRC)Box 61297Nairobi, KenyaFax: 254-4-225829
5 Chihongo, A W Senior Forest Research Officer, Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) P.O. Box 1854 Morogoro, Tanzania Fax: 3725
6 Coppen, J J W Senior Scientist Officer, Natural Resources Institute Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime Kent ME4 4TB, U.K. Tel: 0634 880088 Fax: 0634 880066177
7 Dugushilu, M Senior Scientific Officer Commission on Science & Technology
(COSTECH) P.O. Box 4302 Dar es Salaam Tanzania
8 Ishengoma, R C Professor Wood Utilization Department Sokoine University of Agriculture P.O. Box 3014 Morogoro, Tanzania
9 Kamweti, D M Programme Advisor International Development Research
Centre (IDRC) Box 61297 Nairobi, Kenya Fax: 254-4-225829
10 Keita, J D Regional Forestry Officer Regional Office for Africa Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) P.O. Box 1628 Accra, Ghana Tel: (233.21) 666851-4 Fax: (233.21) 668427
26
15 Makupa, E 0 K
16 Maliehe, T M
Forestry Student (M.Sc.)Wood Utilization DepartmentP.O. Box 3014Morogoro, Tanzania
Rural Development Officer(Agriculture)
Lesotho Highlands Development AuthorityP.O. Box 7332Maseru, LesothoFax: (09266) 310050
27
11 Kigenifi, F W Assistant Commissioner of ForestryForestry HeadquartersP 0 Box 7124Kampala, UgandaTel: 258 198Fax: 241682
12 Kimishua, A Y CoordinatorArusha Beekeepers AssociationBox 2005Arusha, TanzaniaTel: 3568Fax: 8242
13 Kitambi, G A DirectorForest Utilization ResearchTanzania Forestry Research Institute
(TAFORI)P.O. Box 1854Morogoro, TanzaniaFax: 3725
14 Léger, C D Associate Professional OfficerNon-Wood Products & Energy BranchForest Products DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO)Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
Rome, ItalyFax: 5225 5137
11 Kigenifi, F W
12 Kimishua, A Y
13 Kitambi, G A
14 Leger, C D
Rome, Italy
15 Makupa, E 0 K
16 Maliehe, T M
Assistant Commissioner of Forestry Forestry Headquarters POBox 7124 Kampala, Uganda Tel: 258 198 Fax: 241682
Coordinator Arusha Beekeepers Association Box 2005 Arusha, Tanzania Tel: 3568 Fax: 8242
Director Forest Utilization Research Tanzania Forestry Research Institute
(TAFORI) P.O. Box 1854 Morogoro, Tanzania Fax: 3725
Associate Professional Officer Non-Wood Products & Energy Branch Forest Products Division Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
Fax: 5225 5137
Forestry Student (M.Sc.) Wood Utilization Department P.O. Box 3014 Morogoro, Tanzania
Rural Development Officer (Agriculture)
Lesotho Highlands Development Authority P.O. Box 7332 Maseru, Lesotho Fax: (09266) 310050
27
17 Mbonde, G P L
18 Mushi, J A
19 Mwaheleje, A R
20 Nyirenda, R W S
21 Padovani, F
22 Perera, J A J
Senior Forestry OfficerMinistry of Tourism, Natural Resources
EnvironmentP.O. Box 476Dar es SalaamTanzania
Senior Forest Research OfficerMinistry of TourismNatural Resources & EnvironmentMoshiTanzaniaTel: 055-54446 8 ext. 13TLX: 43009 REGCOM T2
DirectorAdministration & PersonnelMinistry of Tourism, Natural Resources
& EnvironmentP.O. Box 9372Dar es SalaamTanzania
Deputy Chief Forestry OfficerDepartment of ForestryP.O. Box 30048Lilongwe 3MalawiFax (265) 784268
Forestry OfficerForest Statistics BranchForest Policy & PlanningFood and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO)Viale delle Terme di CaracallaRome, ItalyFax: 5225 5137
Project OfficerScience & Technology DivisionCommonwealth SecretariatMarlborough HousePall Mall, London, U.K.Tel: 071 747 6215Fax: 071 839 0827
28
17 Mbonde, G P L
18 Mushi, J A
19 Mwaheleje, A R
20 Nyirenda, R W S
21 Padovani, F
22 Perera, J A J
Senior Forestry Officer Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources
Environment P.O. Box 476 Dar es Salaam Tanzania
Senior Forest Research Officer Ministry of Tourism Natural Resources & Environment Moshi Tanzania Tel: 055-54446-8 ext. 13 TLX: 43009 REGCOM T2
Director Administration & Personnel Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources
& Environment P.O. Box 9372 Dar es Salaam Tanzania
Deputy Chief Forestry Officer Department of Forestry P.O. Box 30048 Lilongwe 3 Malawi Fax (265) 784268
Forestry Officer Forest Statistics Branch Forest Policy & Planning Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Rome, Italy Fax: 5225 5137
Project Officer Science & Technology Division Commonwealth Secretariat Marlborough House Pall Mall, London, U. K. Tel: 071 747 6215 Fax: 071 839 0827
28
23 Seward, R
24 Singunda, W T
25 Wasila, 0 E
Network CoordinatorForestry Progranune, East & South AfricaInternational Development Research Centre
(IDRC)10, Hilary RoadAsbrittle, Mt. PleasantHarareZimbabweFax: 263-4-706245
Senior Forest OfficerMinistry of TourismNatural Resources & EnvironmentP.O. Box 3012Arusha, TanzaniaTel: (057) 3568TLX: 420035 RDD T2
Agroforestry Expert(Gums & Non-Wood Based ProductsManager)
Forests National CorporationP.O. Box 658KhartoumSudan
29
23 Seward, R
24 Singunda, W T
25 Wasila, 0 E
Network Coordinator Forestry Programme, East & South Africa International Development Research Centre
(IDRC) 10, Hilary Road Asbrittle, Mt. Pleasant Harare Zimbabwe Fax: 263-4-706245
Senior Forest Officer Ministry of Tourism Natural Resources & Environment P.O. Box 3012 Arusha, Tanzania Tel: (057) 3568 TLX: 420035 RDD T2
Agroforestry Expert (Gums & Non-Wood Based Products Manager)
Forests National Corporation P.O. Box 658 Khartoum Sudan
29
3030
ANNEX HI
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS INSELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
31
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAIVI ZIMB
FOOD/ANIMAL FEED
Fodder 1
-
3 2 1 3
FOOD/HUMAN FOODPlant Foods
Bamboo(shoot/stem)
2
Beverages 2 3
Condiments 3
Fruits 1 1 1 3 2 1 1
Leaves 2 3 3 3
Mushroom 2 3 2 1 3
Seeds 3
Spices 2
Oils 3
Nuts 3 3 2 3
Roots 2 3
Stem 3
Tuber 3 2 3
Flower 3 3
Wild Spinach 1
Animal Foods
Eggs 3 3
Fish 1 1 1 1
Game meat 2 1 1 3 1 3
Invertebrate 1
Insect 2 2 2
Frog meat 3
Honey 2 1 2 1 1 3
Mopane worms 2
Ostrich meat 2
PRODUCT
FOOD/ ANIMAL FEED
Fodder
FOOD/ HUMAN FOOD Plant Foods
Bamboo (shoot/stem)
Beverages
Condiments
Fruits
Leaves
Mushroom
Seeds
Spices
Oils
Nuts
Roots
Stem
Tuber
Flower
Wild Spinach
Animal Foods
Eggs
Fish
Game meat
Invertebrate
Insect
Frog meat
Honey
Mopane worms
Ostrich meat
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
LST MLW SAF TAN UGD
1 3 2 1 3
2
2 3
3
1 1 1 3 2
2 3
2 3 2
3
2
3
3 3
3
1 1
3
1 1 1
2 1 1 3
2
3
2 1 2 1
2
2
31
ANNExm
ZAM ZIMB
1 1
3 3
1 3
2 3
2 3
3
2 3
3 3
3
1 2
1 3
1
2 2
1 3
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS INSELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
32
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM ZIMB
MEDICINAL &OTHER BIO-ACTIVE PROD.
Medicines 2 2 3 1
Azadirachta indica
Cinchona bark 1
Caesalpiniadecapitala
2
Crotonmegalocamus
3
Agave sisalana 2
Carica papaya 3
Eugeniacaiyophyllata
1
Faidherbia albida 2
Acacia mellifera 2
Alchorneacordifolia
2
Annonasenegalensis
2
Bridelia micrantha 2
Byroscaipusorientalis
2
Combretum molle 2
Entada abyssinica 2
Maytenusbuchananii
2
Rauvolfia caffra,
2
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM
MEDICINAL & OTHER BIO-ACTIVE PROD.
Medicines 2 2 3
Azadirachta indica 2
Cinchona bark 1
Caesalpinia 2 decapitala
Croton 3 megalocarpus
Agave sisalana 2
Carica papaya 3
Eugenia 1 caryophyllata
F aidherbia alb ida 2
Acacia mellifera 2
Alchornea 2 cordifolia
Annona 2 senegalensis
Bridelia micrantha 2
Byroscarpus 2 orientalis
Combretum molle 2
Entada abyssinica 2
May tenus 2 buchananii
Rauvolfia caffra 2
32
ZIMB
1
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS INSELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
33
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM ZIMB
MEDICINAL &OTHER BIO-ACTIVE PROD.
Trema orientalis 2
Trichilia emetica 2 2
Artemisia afra 1
Aloe ferox 2
Protea caffra 2
Acacia karroo 2
Eucomis spp. 2 1
Euclea spp. 2
Buddleja salviifolia 1
Tarconanthuscamphoratus
2
Warburgiasalutarias
1
Ocotea bullata 1
Betulina agathosma 1
Tetradenia riparia 1
Boweia volubilis 1
Acaciaxanthophloea
1
Casinetransvalensis
1
Terminilia sericea 2
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM
MEDICINAL & OTHER BIO-ACTIVE PROD.
Trema orienta lis 2
Trichilia emetica 2 2
Artemisia afra 1
Aloeferox 2
Protea caffra 2
Acacia karroo 2
Eucomis spp. 2 1
Euclea spp. 2
Buddleja salviifolia 1
Tarconanthus 2 camphoratus
Warburgia 1 salutarias
Ocotea bullata 1
Betulina agathosma 1
Tetradenia riparia 1
Boweia volubilis 1
Acacia 1 xanthophloea
Casine 1 transvalensis
Terminilia sericea 2
33
ZIMB
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS INSELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
35
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM ZIMB
OTHER ANIMAL& ANIMAL PROD.
Hides 3 2
Horns 2 3
Skins 3 2 1 3
Tusks 3 2
Feathers 3 3 3
Furs 1
Shells 3
Live Animals 1 2
OTHER PLANTS& PLANT PROD.
Fibre 2 3 1
Bamboo 2 1
Rattan/Canes 1 3
Wraps 3
Bark 3 1 1
Grass 3 1
Leaves 1 3
Stem 3
Vines 1 3
Juncus krausii 1
Mats 2
Basket 2
Cork 3
Wood Handicraft 2 1 2
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
PRODUCT LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM
OTHER ANIMAL & ANIMAL PROD.
Hides 3
Horns 2 3
Skins 3 2 1 3
Tusks 3
Feathers 3 3 3
Furs 1
Shells 3
Live Animals 1
OTHER PLANTS & PLANT PROD.
Fibre 2 3 1
Bamboo 2 1
Rattan/Canes 1 3
Wraps 3
Bark 3 1
Grass 3 1
Leaves 1 3
Stem 3
Vines 1 3
]uncus krausii 1
Mats 2
Basket 2
Cork 3
Wood Handicraft 2 1
35
ZIMB
2
2
2
1
2
Legend:
Very ImportantModerately ImportantLess Important
-. Blank: No Value
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS INSELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
36
SERVICES LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM ZIMB
ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
Soil Protection 2 2 1
Climatic Effects(Amenity)
2 2 2
SOCIAL &CULTURALSERVICES
RecreationNon-Consumptive-Tourism
1 1 1 1
RecreationConsumptive-Hunting-Fishing
3
232
1
1
HistoricalImportanceSpiritual Values
Trees of SpiritualValues
MISCELLANEOUS
Beeswax 2 1 1
Propolis 3
IMPORTANT NON-WOOD FOREST BENEFITS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES IN AFRICA
SERVICES LST MLW SAF TAN UGD ZAM
ENVIRONMENTA L SERVICES
Soil Protection 2 2 1
Climatic Effects 2 2 2 (Amenity)
SOCIAL & CULTURAL SERVICES
Recreation Non-Consumptive -Tourism
1 1 1
Recreation Consumptive -Hunting 3 3 1 -Fishing 2 2 1
Historical Importance Spiritual Values
Trees of Spiritual Values
MISCELLANEOUS
Beeswax 2 1 1
Pro polis 3
Legend:
1. Very Important 2. Moderately Important 3. Less Important
-. Blank: No Value
36
ZIMB
1
ANNEX IV
LIST OF REPORTS
1 Opening Ceremony Speech, by A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of Tourism,Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania.
2 Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-Wood ForestProducts, by Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products andEnergy Branch, Forest Products Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
3 Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: an Overview, by J D Keita,Regional Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Africa, Accra,Ghana.
4 Pilot Country Study on Non-Wood Forest Products: Lesotho, Malawi,South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
5 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experienceand Outlook, by B Campbell, University of Zimbabwe.
6 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa,by J J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute of the OverseasDevelopment Administration, UK.
7 Gum Arabic Report from Sudan, by 0 El Wasila.
8 Information Notes on Statistical Information, by F Padovani, ForestryOfficer, Planning and Statistics Branch, Forestry Policy and PlarmingDivision, Forestry Department of FAO.
9 Dependency on Forest and Trees for Food Security, by the TanzaniaFood and Nutrition Centre, Tanzania.
37
ANNEX IV
LIST OF REPORTS
1 Opening Ceremony Speech, by A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania.
2 Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-Wood Forest Products, by Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
3 Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: an Overview, by J D Keita, Regional Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Africa, Accra, Ghana.
4 Pilot Country Study on Non-Wood Forest Products: Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
5 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experience and Outlook, by B Campbell, University of Zimbabwe.
6 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa, by J J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute of the Overseas Development Administration, UK.
7 Gum Arabic Report from Sudan, by 0 EI Wasila.
8 Information Notes on Statistical Information, by F Padovani, Forestry Officer, Planning and Statistics Branch, Forestry Policy and Planning Division, Forestry Department of F AO.
9 Dependency on Forest and Trees for Food Security, by the Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre, Tanzania.
37
3838
Opening Ceremony Speech, by A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of Tourism,Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania.
1 Opening Ceremony Speech, by A R Mwaheleje, Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, Tanzania.
SPEECH BY THE HON. JUMA H. OMAR, (MP) MINISTER FOR TOURISM,
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT AT THE REGIONAL EXPERT
CONSULTATIVE MEETING ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
ARUSHA, TANZANIA - 18 OCTOBER, 1993
Mr. Chairman,
Distinguished Guests,
Distinguished Participants,
Ladies and Gentlemen
Please allow me in opening this Consultative meeting to
express to you in my name and on behalf of the Government and
people of Tanzania our feelings of pride and honour for the
choice of Tanzania as host to the first Regional Expert
Consultative Meeting on non-wood forest product.
On this occassion I would like to extend my sincere thanks
to the Commonwealth Secretariat for calling upon us to host
this important event.
Mr. Chairman,
I would also like to welcome our honoured guests. I wish
all a pleasant stay among us and success in your work.
1
SPEECH BY THE HON. JUMA H. OMAR, (MP) MINISTER FOR TOURISM,
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT AT THE REGIONAL EXPERT
CONSULTATIVE MEETING ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
ARUSHA, TANZANIA - 18 OCTOBER, 1993
Mr. Chairman,
Distinguished Guests,
Distinguished Participants,
Ladies and Gentlemen
Please allow me in opening this Consultative meeting to
express to you in my name and on behalf of the Government and
people of Tanzania our feelings of pride and honour for the
choice of Tanzania as host to the first Regional Expert
Consultative Meeting on non-wood forest product.
On this occassion I would like to extend my sincere thanks
to the Commonwealth Secretariat for calling upon us to host
this important event.
Mr. Chairman,
I would also like to welcome our honoured guests.
all a pleasant stay among us and success in your work.
1
I wish
Our country has a lot to offer and as you may well know,
Tanzania is endowed with some of the most beautiful national
parks in the world to be found not far from Arusha. It is my
hope that you will manage to snatch a few moments of your busy
schedule and utilize this chance to visit such places as the
world famous Ngorongoro Crater, Serengeti and Lake Manyara
National Parks just to mention a few.
Mr. Chairman,
I am informed that in this Consultative Meeting of Experts
on non-wood forest products, you are going to deliberate on the
current status of production and utilisation of non wood forest
products in your respective countries through information and
statistical data gathering; review the need for improvement in
the areas of collecting, processing and marketing of these
products and also examine the issue of economic dimensions of
non-wood forest products as well as proposing development
interventions for national level action through regional project
profiles.
Mr. Chairman,
Your gathering here today has come at the most opportune
time when the conservation and sustainable use of forests for
environmental and biodiversity protection are the key issues in
2
Our
Tanzania
country has a lot to offer
is endowed with some of
and as you may well know,
the most beautiful national
parks in the world to be found not far from Arusha. It is my
hope that you will manage to snatch a few moments of your busy
schedule and utilize this chance to visit
world famous Ngorongoro Crater, Serengeti
National Parks just to mention a few.
Mr. Chairman,
such places as the
and Lake Manyara
1 am informed that in this Consultative Meeting of Experts
on non-wood forest products, you are gOing to deliberate on the
current status of production and utilisation of non wood forest
products in your respective countries through information and
statistical data gathering; review the need for improvement in
the areas of collecting, processing and marketing of these
products and also examine the issue of economic dimensions of
non-wood forest products as well as proposing development
interventions for national level action through regional project
profiles.
Mr. Chairman,
Your gathering here today has come at the most opportune
time when the conservation and sustainable use of forests for
environmental and biodiversity protection are the key issues in
2
the wake of the Agenda 21 deliberated in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
last year.
As we are all aware, forests supply not only timber, poles
and fuelwood, but also an extensive range of goods for food,
fodder, medicine and industry, collectively termed as non-wood
forest products.
Non-wood forest products comprising of vegetal, faunal and
forestry services have been important among our rural population
living in and around the forest areas, who have depended to great
extent on a large variety of forest products for their
subsistence. The harvesting, processing and trade of these
products constitute basic activities providing the goods and cash
required for the welfare of millions of rural people, including
improved food security and better nutrition increased income and
job opportunities as well as increased market opportunities for
new products.
Mr. Chairman,
While we recognise the potential and advantages of the Non-
wood products, however, deforestation and degradation of forests,
due to unsustainable timber harvesting, wild bush fires, over
grazing, shifting cultivation, increasing population among other
reasons have aggravated the situation of rural people living in
3
the wake of the Agenda 21 deliberated in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
last year.
As we are all aware, forests supply not only timber, poles
and fuel wood, but
fodder, medicine
forest products.
also an extensive range
and industry, collectively
of goods
termed as
for food,
non-wood
Non-wood forest products comprising of vegetal, faunal and
forestry services have been important among our rural population
living in and around the forest areas, who have depended to great
extent on a large variety of forest products for their
subsistence. The harvesting, processing and trade of these
products constitute basic activities providing the goods and cash
required for the welfare of millions of rural people, including
improved food security and better nutrition increased income and
job opportunities as well as increased market opportunities for
new products.
Mr. Chairman,
While we recognise the potential and advantages of the Non
wood products, however, deforestation and degradation of forests,
due to unsustainable timber harvesting, wild bush fires, over
grazing, shifting cultivation, increasing population among other
reasons have aggravated the situation of rural people living in
3
or near the forest and impaired the sustainable supply of these
products. Consequent to this there has been reduction of income
and employment opportunities in the rural areas.
Mr. Chairman,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
In order to ensure that the potential and supply of non wood
forest products and other forest based products is maintained and
contribute to the economic and social development of our people
and nations, the issue of protecting our forests and woodlands
against deforestation and degradation must be emphasised, as
outlined in the Tropical Forest Action Plan, which was born out
of the global concern over deforestation and degradation of
forest resources in tropical countries and their far reaching
implication at local, national and regional levels.
For the forests to play their potential role in every facet
of our life, the issue of sustainable management of our forest is
of paramount importance. In its broadest sense, forest
management should deal with the administrative, economic, social,
legal, technical and scientific aspects of conservation and use
of forests within the frame work of technically sound and
politically accepted overall land use plan.
4
or near the forest and impaired the sustainable supply of these
products. Consequent to this there has been reduction of income
and employment opportunities in the rural areas.
Mr. Chairman,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
In order to ensure that the potential and supply of non wood
forest products and other forest based products is maintained and
contribute to the economic and social development of our people
and nations, the issue of protecting our forests and woodlands
against deforestation and degradation must be emphasised, as
outlined in the Tropical Forest Action Plan, which was born out
of the global concern over deforestation and degradation of
forest resources in tropical countries and their far reaching
implication at local, national and regional levels.
For the forests to play their potential role in every facet
of our life, the issue of sustainable management of our forest is
of paramount importance. In its broadest sense, forest
management should deal with the administrative, economic, social,
legal, technical and scientific aspects of conservation and use
of forests within the frame work of technically sound and
politically accepted overall land use plan.
4
Mr. Chairman,
This implies various degrees of human intervention, ranging
from action aimed at safeguarding and maintaining the forest
ecosystem and its functions to favouring given socially or
economically valuable species or groups of species for improved
production of goods and environmental services is taken. This
would require, technically, the formulation of management plans,
which will help to control and regulate harvesting of specified
goods, combined with silvicultural and protective measures
applied in varying intensity to sustain or increase the social,
ecological and economic value of the forests in subsequent
generation.
For the successful implementation of forest management
plans, the people and the countries concerned must be convinced
that the land under forest is at least equal or more valuable as
forests than if converted into other land use. People living in
or adjacent to forests must be closely involved in all stages of
decision making and implementation; moreover social and economic
benefits emanating from the forests and its sustainable use must
be maintained and enhanced at local as well as at national level.
Mr. Chairman,
In addressing ourselves to non-wood forest products we are
5
Mr. Chairman,
This implies various degrees of human intervention, ranging
from action aimed at safeguarding and maintaining the forest
ecosystem and its functions to favouring given socially or
economically valuable species or groups of species for improved
production of goods and environmental services is taken. This
would require, technically, the formulation of management plans,
which will help to control and regulate harvesting of specified
goods, combined with silvicultural and protective measures
applied in varying intensity to sustain or increase the social,
ecological and economic value of the forests in subsequent
generation.
For the successful implementation of forest management
plans, the people and the countries concerned must be convinced
that the land under forest is at least equal or more valuable as
forests than if converted into other land use. People living in
or adjacent to forests must be closely involved in all stages of
decision making and implementation; moreover social and economic
benefits emanating from the forests and its sustainable use must
be maintained and enhanced at local as well as at national level.
Mr. Chairman,
In addressing ourselves to non-wood forest products we are
5
opening another dimension of the multiple use of forests. Non
wood forest products such as, gum copal, gum arabic, wild rubber
to mention a few, had been very important export products in
Tanzania in the mid fifties and late sixties of this century.
However, lack of marketing strategies, development of the
products and proliferation of synthetic products as substitutes
has contributed to the decline in importance of these products.
The revival in looking into developing these products will once
again reinstate the importance of these products and the
potential of enhancing and improving the rural economies and
social welfare of our people. Most important, since the
production and marketing of these products is done by the rural
people in and around the forests, this will further enhance the
participation of people in forest development and management
activities.
Mr. Chairman,
It is my conviction that your deliberation on this subject
will enlighten and pave ways of developing these products to
reach the desired levels of production and utilisation of our
forests on sustainable basis and catching all advantages which
will further justify the development, conservation and protection
of our forests.
6
opening another dimension of the multiple use of forests. Non
wood forest products such as, gum copal, gum arabic, wild rubber
to mention a few, had been very important export products in
Tanzania in the mid fifties and late sixties of this century.
However, lack of marketing strategies, development of the
products and proliferation of synthetic products as substitutes
has contributed to the decline in importance of these products.
The revival in looking into developing these products will once
again reinstate the importance of these products and the
potential of enhancing and improving the rural economies and
social welfare of our people. Most important, since the
production and marketing of these products is done by the rural
people in and around the forests, this will further enhance the
participation of people in forest development and management
activities.
Mr. Chairman,
It is my conviction that your deliberation on this subject
will enlighten and pave ways of developing these products to
reach the desired levels of production and utilisation of our
forests on sustainable basis and catching all advantages which
will further justify the development, conservation and protection
of our forests.
6
Mr. Chairman,
With these few words may I once again, welcome you to
Tanzania and declare this meeting open.
Thank you.
b:wp\dfob.d\non.wood meeting
Mr. Chairman,
With these few words may I once again, welcome you to
Tanzania and declare this meeting open.
Thank you.
b:wp\dfob.d\non.wood meeting
2 Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-Wood ForestProducts, by Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products andEnergy Branch, Forest Products Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
I
2 Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-Wood Forest Products, by Dr C Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
ISSUES IN VOLVED IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTOF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS'
by
C. Chandrasekharan 2
ABSTRACT. Non-wood forest products play a crucial role in the daily life andwelfare of the local population, as significant sources of food, fodder, fertiliser,(biomass) fuel, fibre, medicine, gums and resins, and organic construction materials.They provide raw material to support processing enterprises such as of rattan andbamboo furniture, essential oils, resin and pharmaceuticals. Small scale units of theseare amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units. Some ofthe non-wood forest products are internationally traded commodities used in food,flavourings, perfumes, medicines, confectionaries, paints and polishes. At the locallevel they help to provide additional employment and income.
While non-wood products have been in use from time immemorial, some of them havemoved to the status of intensively managed agricultural and horticultural crops,due to their obvious attributes. Others remained grouped as 'minor' products offorests, in spite of their real and potential value and heterogenous nature. Thisresulted in the benign neglect of most non-wood forest products reflected inserious lack of information on almost all aspects. However, there has recentlybeen a new and increasing awareness about the important contribution of non-wood products (and benefits) in ensuring sustainable forestry development. Thishas further been underlined in the deliberations and decisions of the UNCED.
A comprehensive strategy for development of NWFP, appropriately covering resourceinventory and management, harvesting and processing, utilization and marketing,research and extension support and training and institutional arrangements is an urgentneed.
Paper prepared for the Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products forEnglish-Speaking African Countries. This paper provides a global overview of issuesinvolved in the development of non-wood forest products, relating it to the situationprevailing in Africa, wherever relevant. /iyu31,11 T/1n., ,7 et Ni /-1 f7- OM
2 Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, Food andAgriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome.
ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS'
by
C. Chandrasekharan 2
ABSTRACT. Non-wood forest products playa crucial role in the daily life and welfare of the local population, as significant sources of food, fodder, fertiliser, (biomass) fuel, fibre, medicine, gums and resins, and organic construction materials. They provide raw material to support processing enterprises such as of rattan ana bamboo furniture, essential oils, resin and pharmaceuticals. Small scale units of these are amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units. Some of the non-wood forest products are internationally traded commodities used in food, flavourings, perfumes, medicines, confection aries, paints and polishes. At the local level they help to provide additional employment and income.
While non-wood products have been in use from time immemorial, some of them have moved to the status of intensively managed agricultural and horticultural crops, due to their obvious attributes. Others remained grouped as 'minor' products of forests, in spite of their real and potential value and heterogenous nature. This resulted in the benign neglect of most non-wood forest products reflected in serious lack of information on almost all aspects. However, there has recently been a new and increasing awareness about the important contribution of nonwood products (and benefits) in ensuring sustainable forestry development. This has further been underlined in the deliberations and decisions of the UNCED.
A comprehensive strategy for development of NWFP, appropriately covering resource inventory and management, harvesting and processing, utilization and marketing, research and ex.tension support and training and institutional arrangements is an urgent need.
t Paper prepared for the Expert Consultation on Non- Wood Forest Products for English-Speaking ~rrican Countries. 17lis paper provides a global overview of issues inl'Oll'ed in the del'elopment of non-wood forest products, relating it to the simarion premilillg if! Africa, wherever relemm. /1 ... 1). ~h.ti. • Til nO lIN, d I '"7. 'l. l OC r. 19fj~.
2 Chief, Non- Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome.
2
INTRODUCTION
There is a wide range of non-wood forest products and services differing in theirsource, nature, characteristics and utilization. Their conservation, management, utilization,trade and socio-economic roles present a complex array of problems and potentials. Fromtime immemorial these products and services have contributed greatly to human welfare andprogress.
Once designated as minor forest products (MFP), this very important group of forestbenefits have recently been receiving increasing recognition and attention. Depending on thescope and coverage they are grouped and defined differently. The term non-wood forestproducts (NWFP) generally includes all tangible products other than timber, fuelwood andcharcoal derived from forests or any land under similar use as well as woody plants. Theterm non-timber forest products (NTFP) includes all tangible products other than timber andincludes wood energy (fuelwood and charcoal)3. The other term in use, non-timber forestbenefits, includes, in addition to all tangible products other than timber, environmental andsocio-cultural services.
No position is taken on which of the grouping is to be preferred, since it is an issueto be discussed. However, the emphasis given in this paper is on NWFP, due to thelimitation of information on forest services and benefits.
A universally applicable classification of NWFP also presents a problem due to thediversity of and overlaps in their sources, properties, characteristics and uses. More thanone classification is possible depending on the following criteria: group of organism fromwhich products originate; specific parts of plants or animals yielding the products; mannerof collection or harvest; properties (physical and chemical) of the products; and uses inindustry and trade. (Some of the classifications seen used in literature and reports are givenin Annex 1). A consistent system of classification for NWFP is essential for purposes ofdata collection and planning.
Non-wood forest products include a number of products under the broad categories offood and food additives, fodder, fibre and flosses, (biomass) fertilizer, phytochemicals andaroma chemicals, oils, latex, resins and other exudates, organic constniction materials,decorative articles, and animal products. A large number of items of our everyday use suchas medicines, perfumes, suntan lotions, nail polish, mouth wash, hair conditioners, toiletries,cheese, chewing gum, ice cream, soft drinks, juice drinks, peanut butter, edible nuts,breakfast cereals, culinary herbs, canned fish, dairy deserts, fancy bags, decorative buttons,chess pieces, golf balls, paints, corrosion inhibitors, fungicides and a host of others, containvarying proportion of NWFP.
Apart from the crucial importance of NWFP in the daily life and welfare of local
3 It is often contended that if oils and chemicals obtained by destructive distillation ofwood is treated as non-wood forest product, then wood energy should also be sotreated and the differentiation between NWFP and N7TP becomes redundant.
2
INTRODUCTION
There is a wide range of non-wood forest products and services differing in their source, nature, characteristics and utilization. Their conservation, management, utilization, trade and socio-economic roles present a complex array of problems and potentials. From time immemorial these products and services have contributed greatly to human welfare and progress.
Once designated as minor forest products (MFP), this very important group of forest benefits have recently been receiving increasing recognition and attention. Depending on the scope and coverage they are grouped and defined differently. The term non-wood forest products (NWFP) generally includes all tangible products other than timber, fue1wood and charcoal derived from forests or any land under similar use as well as woody plants. The term non-timber forest products (NTFP) includes all tangible products other than timber and includes wood energy (fuelwood and charcoal)3. The other term in use, non-timber forest benefits, includes, in addition to all tangible products other than timber, environmental and socio-cultural services.
No position is taken on which of the grouping is to be preferred, since it is an issue to be discussed. However, the emphasis given in this paper is on NWFP, due to the limitation of information on forest services and benefits.
A universally applicable classification of NWFP also presents a problem due to the diversity of and overlaps in their sources, properties, characteristics and uses. More than one classification is possible depending on the following criteria: group of organism from which products originate; specific parts of plants or animals yielding the products; manner of collection or harvest; properties (physical and chemical) of the products; and uses in industry and trade. (Some of the classifications seen used in literature and reports are given in Annex 1). A consistent system of classification for NWFP is essential for purposes of data collection and planning.
Non-wood forest products include a number of products under the broad categories of food and food additives, fodder, fibre and flosses, (biomass) fertilizer, phytochemicals and aroma chemicals, oils, latex, resins and other exudates, organic constmction materials, decorative articles, and animal products. A large number of items of our everyday use stich as medicines, perfumes, suntan lotions, nail polish, mouth wash, hair conditioners, toiletries, cheese, chewing gum, ice cream, soft drinks, juice drinks, peanut butter, edible nuts, breakfast cereals, culinary herbs, canned fish, dairy deserts, fancy bags, decorative buttons, chess pieces, golf balls, paints, corrosion inhibitors, fungicides and a host of others, contain varying proportion of NWFP.
Apart from the crucial importance of NWFP in the daily life and welfare of local
3 It is often contended that if oils and chemicals obtained by destrnctive distillation of wood is treated as non-wood forest product. then wood energy should also be so treated and the differentiation between NWFP and NTFP becomes redundant.
3
communities in meeting their diversified subsistence needs as well as providing additionalincome and employment, many items of these products have social and cultural roots. Someof these products are among the oldest traded commodities whereas others are known onlylocally within traditional systems of use. Non-wood forest products support local craftproduction. Activities related to collection and primary processing of NWFP lend themselvessuitable for equitable participation of women. They provide raw material to supportprocessing enterprises such as essential oils, gum rosin and pharmaceuticals. Small scaleunits of these are amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units.Processing of NWFP into consumer products can result in considerable value addition. Theyare in many cases an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Under naturalconditions, non-wood products can be managed along with wood in an integrated manner,thus increasing overall productivity. Their proper management can support conservation ofgenetic wealth and variability. Some of them can also be grown as pure or mixed crops andunder agroforestry systems. Often non-wood products can be harvested without cutting downtre,es or destroying forests. They are, therefore, environmentally more friendly. Overall,non-wood forest products have strong linkages and complementarities with componentactivities of environmentally sound and sustainable development of forestry.
In the UNCED Agenda 21 and Forest Principles (1992), NWFP has been identified asan important area requiring concerted action for capturing their potential for contributing toeconomic development and employment and income generation in an environmentally soundand sustainable manner.
SITUATION OF NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN AFRICA
The estimated area of tropical forest cover in Africa region in 1990 was about 528million hectares of which some 350 million hectares are in Central and Tropical SouthernAfrica. These forests are rich in plant genetic resources. They are the home formultipurpose plants providing fruits, nuts, oil, resin, palm heart, beverages, perfumes,essential oil, medicinal extracts and materials for handicrafts and cultural products.
For millennia, forest dwellers in the region have thrived on products gathered orharvested from the forests. Over centuries of close relationship with the forests and nature,the people have discovered innumerable natural products, many of them of non-wood origin.Their knowledge about medicinal and food plants were particularly interesting and valuable.It has been suggested by several experts that the importance of non-wood products iscomparable to that of wood products, for the wellbeing of the rural society in the Africancontinent. However, statistical information to underpin this statement is sorely lacking.With few exceptions, the non-wood forest products have never been studied in depth, neitherin respect of quantities produced nor of their socio-economic importance. Except for fewcase studies, the situation is marked by an almost total lack of information particularly ofthose products that are consumed locally.
Forest/tree foods are of particular importance to rural communities: Cola nitida (Cola),Cola cordifolia (wild cola), Adansonia digitata (Baobab), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date),
3
commuriities in meeting their diversified subsistence needs as well as providing additional income and employment, many items of these products have social and cultural roots. Some of these products are among the oldest traded commodities whereas others are known only locally within traditional systems of use. Non-wood forest products support local craft production. Activities related to collection and primary processing of NWFP lend themselves suitable for equitable participation of women. They provide raw material to support processing enterprises such as essential oils, gum rosin and pharmaceuticals. Small scale units of these are amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units. Processing of NWFP into consumer products can result in considerable value addition. They are in many ca.~s an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Under natural conditions, non-wood products can be managed along with wood in an integrated manner, thus increasing overall productivity. Their proper management can support conservation of genetic wealth and variability. Some of them can also be grown as pure or mixed crops and under agroforestry systems. Often non-wood products can be harvested without cutting down trees or destroying forests. They are, therefore, environmentally more friendly. Overall, non-wood forest products have strong linkages and complementarities with component activities of environmentally sound and sustainable development of forestry.
In the UNCED Agenda 21 and Forest Principles (1992), NWFP has been identified as an important area requiring concerted action for capturing their potential for contributing to economic development and employment and income generation in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner.
SITUATION OF NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN AFRICA
The estimated area of tropical forest cover in Africa region in 1990 was about 528 million hectares of which some 350 million hectares are in Central and Tropical Southern Africa. These forests are rich in plant genetic resources. They are the home for mUltipurpose plants providing fruits, nuts, oil, resin, palm heart, beverages, perfumes, essential oil, medicinal extracts and materials for handicrafts and cultural products.
For millennia, forest dwellers in the region have thrived on products gathered or harvested from the forests. Over centuries of close relationship with the forests and nature, the people have discovered innumerable natural products, many of them of non-wood origin. Their knowledge about medicinal and food plants were particularly interesting and valuable. It has been suggested by several experts that the importance of non-wood products is comparable to that of wood products, for the wellbeing of the rural society in the African continent. However, statistical information to underpin this statement is sorely lacking. With few exceptions, the non-wood forest products have never been studied in depth, neither in respect of quantities produced nor of their socio-economic importance. Except for few case studies, the situation is marked by an almost total lack of information particularly of those products that are consumed locally.
Forest/tree foods are of particular importance to rural communities: Cola nitida (Cola), Cola cordi/olia (wild cola), Adansonia digitata (Baobab), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date),
4
Spondias spp., Zizyphus TA are only some examples of a large variety of food plants of theforest. They provide foods that supplement and complement traditional agricultural sourcesand contribute to household nutrition and food security. Wild leaves and fruits contain manyessential vitamins. Seeds, nuts, roots and tubers supply fats and carbohydrates. Mushrooms,gums and saps provide protein and minerals, and wild animals from the forest often supplythe major portion of meat consumed by people living in or near forest areas. Forest foodsare also important because they are frequently available for longer periods or during"hungry" or lean" seasons, thus ensuring that people have food supplies when traditionalagricultural products are not available. For example, in Burkina Faso and neighbouringsahelian countries farmers plant or protect mango trees in their fields primarily to providefruit during the planting season when other foods are scare. In Nigeria, traditional homegardens can contain more than 60 species of trees that provide food products. Children inlowland Kenya snack on forest foods that provide an important supplement to their diet. InWest Africa the seeds from Parida spp. provide a nutritious protein and fat-rich food called"dawadawa" in Nigeria.
Fodder is an important requirement in the rural areas, and there are large numbers offorest species which help to meet this requirement. In the arid areas, the multipurposespecies as such as Acacia spp. and Prosopis spp. also provide fodder. In the Sahel, Acaciaalbida may account for 30 to 45 percent of the total livestock feed in the dry season.
Medicinal Plants, as a valuable NWFP, are important in all countries of the region.It is known that the indigenous people had developed complex and sophisticated knowledgesystems about the use of a vast diversity of plants for medicinal purposes.
The origins of traditional herbal medicine predate all existing records, and theknowledge accumulated over thousands of years in different parts of the world is enormous.It is estimated that some 30 000 plant species have at one time or other been used in someculture or other for medicinal purposes. Even though some 75% of the world's populationby and large depends on traditional natural medicine, particularly in developing countries,it suffered some set back with the introduction of allopathy. There is now a re-awakeningof the importance of herbal medicine and it has resulted in a more scientific approach to theuse of medicinal plants. Recent advances in the medical science, especially pharmacology,have been very closely connected to the knowledge of native people about the therapeuticvalue of plants.
A large number of medicinal plants are used in the traditional medicines in Africa, andthey are known by different local names. Some examples are: Ocotea buccata, Curtisiapentata, Cryptocarya myrtifolia, Gnetum africanum, Rhabhia spp., Dacryoides spp., Xylopiaspp., Thaumatococcus danielli. Ethnobotanical studies carried out throughout Africa confirmthat plants make up the main constituent of traditional African medicines. With about 80percent of Africa's population relying upon traditional medicines, the importance of the roleof medicinal plants in the health care system is obvious.
Medicinal plants are at present obtained from both cultivated and wild sources. Someof the studies on the source of medicinal plants used in traditional and modern medicineindicate that the vast majority of them come from wild sources. Only a small percentage of
4
Spondias spp., Zh)'phu.'i spp. are only some examples of a large variety of food plants of the forest. They provide foods that supplement and complement traditional agricultural sources and contribute to household nutrition and food security. Wild leaves and fruits contain many essential vitamins. Seeds, nuts, roots and tubers supply fats and carbohydrates. Mushrooms, gums and saps provide protein and minerals, and wild animals from the forest often supply the major portion of meat consumed by people Jiving in or near forest areas. Forest foods are also important bec.ause they are frequently available for longer periods or during "hungry" or "lean" seasons, thus ensuring that people have food supplies when traditional agricultural products are not available. For example, in Burkina Faso and neighbouring sahelian countries farmers plant or protect mango trees in their fields primarily to provide fruit during the planting season when other foods are scare. Tn Nigeria, traditional home gardens can contain more than 60 species of trees that provide food products. Children in lowland Kenya snack on forest foods that provide an important supplement to their diet. In West Africa the seeds from Parlda spp. provide a nutritious protein and fat-rich food called "dawadawa" in Nigeria.
Fodder is an important requirement in the rural areas, and there are large numbers of forest species which help to meet this requirement. In the arid areas, the multipurpose species as such as Acacia spp. and Prosopis spp. also provide fodder. In the Sahel, Acacia albida may account for 30 to 45 percent of the tota1livestock feed in the dry season.
Medicinal Plants, as a valuable NWFP, are important in all countries of the region. It is known that the indigenous people had developed complex and sophisticated knowledge systems about the use of a vast diversity of plants for medicinal purposes.
The origins of traditional herbal medicine predate all existing records, and the knowledge accumulated over thousands of years in different parts of the world is enormous. It is estimated that some 30 000 plant species have at one time or other been used in some culture or other for medicinal purposes. Even though some 75% of the world's population by and large depends on traditional natural medicine, particularly in developing countries, it suffered some set back with the introduction of allopathy. There is now are-awakening of the importance of herbal medicine and it has resulted in a more scientific approach to the use of medicinal plants. Recent advances in the medical science, especially pharmacology, have been very closely connected to the knowledge of native people about the therapeutic value of plants.
A large number of medicinal plants are used in the traditional medicines in Africa, and they are known by different local names. Some examples are: Ocotea buccata, Curtisia pen/ata, Cryptocarya myrtifolia, Gnelllm ajricanum, Rhabhia spp., Dacryoides spp., Xylopia spp., Thaumatococcus danielli. Ethnobotanical studies carried out throughout Africa confirm that plants make up the main constituent of traditional African medicines. With about 80 percent of Africa's population relying upon traditional medicines, the importance of the role of medicinal plants in the health care system is obviolls.
Medicinal plants are at present obtained from both cultivated and wild sources. Some of the studies on the source of medicinal plants used in traditional and modem medicine indicate that the vast majority of them come from wild sources. Only a small percentage of
5
the plant species has been examined for pharmacological activity. Those which are yet tobe studied may hold valuable secrets for preventing and curing human ailments. Thedestruction and degradation of natural habitats of medicinal plants, in the meanwhile, mayseriously affect the future potential of this valuable resource. Policy and action in this regardare urgently needed.
Medicinal plants can support economic growth through activities related to growing,harvesting, processing and marketing of products. Given its direct relevance to health, socialwell-being and economic performance, the manufacture of products from medicinal andherbal plants is one of the most people-oriented industrial sectors. However, there areseveral constraints: inadequate policy measures and support infrastructure, restricted accessto technology, lack of systematic research, scarcity of production units of scientific andcommercial scale, lack of proper quality control, pharmacological evaluations and regulatoryarrangements. These constraints call for action on many interrelated fronts.
Aromatic plants (which often are also medicinal plants), are the source of essential oilsand aroma chemicals. Essential oils contain an aroma or an essence that stems from organiccompounds known as Terpenoids. Essential oils, unlike fixed oils, are volatile, i.e. they areethereal substances. This characteristic makes them suitable for perfumery, cosmetics,pharmaceuticals and food flavourings. Each type of essential oil contains several chemicalcompounds. There are a number of plants yielding essential oil, such as Eucalyptus spp.,Tagetes glandulifera, Brachyleana hutchinsii and Cedrus spp., even though Africa does notfigure prominently in their production and trade. However, this appears to be an area withpotential.
Occurrence/cultivation of dye yielding plants, such as Bahia nitida (suitable fortextiles) and Bixa orellana (suitable as food colourant), fibre yielding plants such as Ceibapentandra and Agave sissalana, palms such as Raphia venifera and Borassus spp. providingfronds and leaves suitable for weaving into mats and other articles, tannin yielding plantssuch as Rhizophora spp. and Cassia spp., species of rattail suitable for furniture such asCalamus spp. and Erismosphata hookerii, different bamboos and several others indicates thescope and potential for developing NWFP in Africa.
In case of some plants which were not considered important as providing NWFP, newuses are being identified and products commercially developed. One such plant grown inabundance in the drier parts of Africa is neem (Azadirachta indica). A range of productsincluding neem oil, neem soap and an insecticide (Azadarchtine), have been developed fromthe seeds of neem tree.
Development of non-wood forest products can go a long way in providing additionalrural employment and household income, and thus contribute to a better livelihood to therural people.
Apart from their traditional, cultural and socio-economic importance locally in anumber of countries, NWFP is also an important source of export earning. For example,gum arabic from Acacia senegal is a very important source of foreign exchange for Sudan.Spices are an important item of export in Tanzania. Kenya exports Annatto seeds. Some
5
the plant species has been examined for pharmacological activity. Those which are yet to be studied may hold valuable secrets for preventing and curing human ailments. The destruction and degradation of natural habitats of medicinal plants, in the meanwhile, may seriously affect the future potential of this valuable resource. Policy and action in this regard are urgently needed.
Medicinal plants can support economic growth through activities related to growing, harvesting, processing and marketing of products. Given its direct relevance to health, social wel1-being and economic performance, the manufacture of products from medicinal and herbal plants is one of the most people-oriented industrial sectors. However, there are several constraints: inadequate policy measures and support infrastructure, restricted access to technology, lack of systematic research, scarcity of production units of scientific and commercial scale, lack of proper quality control, pharmacological evaluations and regulatory arrangements. These constraints call for action on many interrelated fronts.
Aromatic plants (which often are also medicinal plants), are the source of essential oils and aroma chemicals. Essential oils contain an aroma or an essence that stems from organic compounds known as Terpenoids. Essential oils, unlike fixe.d oils, are volatile, i.e. they are ethereal substances. This characteristic makes them suitable for perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food flavourings. Each type of essential oil contains several chemical compounds. There are a number of plants yielding essential oil, such as Eucalyptus spp., Tagetes glandulifera, Brachyleann hutchinsii and Cedrus spp., even though Africa does not figure prominently in their production and trade. However, this appears to be an area with potential.
Occurrence/cultivation of dye yielding plants, such as Bahia nitida (suitable for textiles) and Bua orellana (suitable as food colourant), fibre yielding plants such as Ceiba pen/andra and Agave sissalana, palms such as Raphia vellifera and Borassus spp. providing fronds and leaves suitable for weaving into mats and other articles, tannin yielding plants such as Rhizophora spp. and Cassia spp., species of rattan suitable for furniture stich as Calamus spp. and Erismosphata hookerii, different bamboos and several others indicates the scope and potential for developing NWFP in Africa.
In case of some plants which were not considered important as providing NWFP, new uses are being identified and products commercially developed. One such plant grown in abundance in the drier parts of Africa is neem (Azadirachta indica). A range of products including neem oil, neem soap and an insecticide (Azadarchtine), have been developed from the seeds of neem tree.
Development of non-wood forest products can go a long way in providing additional rural employment and household income, and thus contribute to a better livelihood to the rural people.
Apart from their traditional, cultural and socio-economic importance locally in a number of countries, NWFP is also an important source of export earning. For example, gum arabic from Acacia senegal is a very important source of foreign exchange for Sudan. Spices are an important item of export in Tanzania. Kenya exports Annatto seeds. Some
6
countries in the region exports unprocessed cashew nuts, wild life products (e.g. crocodileskin), honey and wax. Quantitative information available is limited. However, it issufficiently indicative of the vast potential.
In terms of foreign exchange earning, wild life tourism is very important to some ofthe East African countries. Potential for wildlife tourism and ecotourism exists in mostcountries of the region. However, it is an area requiring detailed planning and sizeableinvestment in infrastructure and facilities.
In spite of their indicated importance, the resources of non-wood forest products, havebeen dwindling at a fast rate.
The future of NWFP, in spite of its apparent scope and potential, would depend on theintegrity and stability of the forest resource - not only as the land base, but also as thebiological base. The estimated annual rate of deforestation, for the period 1981-90, in theAfrica region is about 4.1 million hectares, equivalent to 0.7%. This is a serious matter withimplications on sustainable forest management in the future, calling for appropriate policiesand actions.
CONSTRAINTS TO TIIE DEVELOPMENT OFNON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Globally, many products which figured prominently in the past have undergone asubstantial decline in production and trade over the last 20 years. There are several factorsconstraining the sustainable development of NVVFP, especially of those of purely forestorigin.
Due to overemphasis on timber production in recent times, non-wood productswere neglected by foresters and policy malcers leading to lack of attention ontheir scientific management and conservation.
Extensive gathering and inappropriate management regulations have often causedresource depletion. Gathering or extraction of natural resources can only supportlow human population densities, and increasing population pressure havenegatively affected the sustainability of NWFP resources.
Organized and unplanned land use changes also have caused destruction of theproper habitat for NWFP.
Lack of integration of wood and non-wood products in forest management,wasteful harvesting, lack of stability and reliability of supply, and lack ofefficient and proper market chains are other constraints on the supply side.
There is lack of processing and storage technology and facilities; qualitystandards of products are often poor.
6
countries in the region exports unprocessed cashew nuts, wild life products (e.g. crocodile skin), honey and wax. Quantitative information available is limited. However, it is sufficiently indicative of the vast potential.
In terms of foreign exchange earning, wild life tourism is very important to some of the East African countries. Potential for wildlife tourism and ecotourism exists in most countries of the region. However, it is an area requiring detailed planning and sizeable investment in infrastructure and facilities.
In spite of their indicated importance, the resources of non-wood forest products, have been dwindling at a fast rate.
The future of N\VFP, in spite of its apparent scope and potential, would depend on the integrity and stability of the forest resource - not only as the land base, but also as the biological base. The estimated annual rate of deforestation, for the period 1981-90, in the A frica region is about 4. 1 million hectares, equivalent to 0.7%. This is a serious matter with implications on sustainable forest management in the future, calling for appropriate policies and actions.
CONSTRAINTS TO TilE DEVELOPl\fENT OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Globally, many products which figured prominently in the past have undergone a substantial decline in production and trade over the last 20 years. There are several factors constraining the sustainable development of NWFP, especially of those of purely forest origin.
Due to overemphasis on timber production in recent times, non-wood products were neglected by foresters and policy makers leading to lack of attention on their scientific management and conservation.
Extensive gathering and inappropriate management regulations have often caused resource depletion. Gathering or extraction of natural resources can only support low human population densities, and increasing population pressure have negatively affected the sustainability of NWFP resources.
Organized and unplanned land use changes also have caused destruction of the proper habitat for NWFP.
Lack of integration of wood and non-wood products in forest management, wasteful harvesting, lack of stability and reliability of supply, and lack of efficient and proper market chains are other constraints on the supply side.
There is lack of processing and storage technology and facilities; quality standards of products are often poor.
7
Most traditional NWFP activities are labour intensive and cheap, so they tend tobe inversely related to general economic development. They tend to becomeearly casualties in the process of economic development, and succumb tocompetition, unless measures are taken to improve them to the new needs andsituations.
For many of the non-wood forest products, the markets are ephemeral in natureoften due to competition from cheaper and more convenient substitutes (e.g. fromcultivated source) or synthetic products.
NWFP being mostly of local/rural importance, small in scale, associated withtraditional uses and low in technology, there is often a policy bias against them -considering them as difficult to develop or unimportant.
There is serious lack of research and technology development related to NWFP.
Information is scarce on all aspects of NWFP. These products are not adequatelytreated (or not treated at all) in official statistics and surveys.
There is general absenc.e of inventory of NWFP, and their planning often lacksscientific basis. The extent of variation in the nature, quality, characteristics anduses of the products compounds the problem. Products which do not contributesignificantly to the national economy, tend to get less attention.
Exploitative commercialization of NWFP in some countries results in thecollectors or extractors of products receiving only insufficient incentive tomanage the resources sustainably.
Finally, there is lack of clear and appropriate policy support for NWFPdevelopment in spite of their positive attributes and potential.
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS
The natural forests of Africa are rich in species. The number of species of higherplants in the tropical rain forest is estimated to be 30,700. The number is 13,000 for moistdeciduous forest, 1,900 for dry and very dry zone and 12,300 for upland formations. Manyof the plants providing NWFP are found only among the biological richness and ecologicalcomplexity of primary forests. Some of them can only thrive within natural habitat and donot lend themselves to domestication of any sort. Those species that can be grown inplantations, or as pure or mixed crops, are heavily dependant on regular infusion ofgermplasm from wild gene reservoirs (wild relatives). Only the continued existence ofspecies variability in the wild will afford plant breeders a better chance for creating new,disease-resisting and high-yielding varieties for the future. Thus the genetic wealth andvariability are crucial for future development of NWFP. However, deforestation and otheranthropogenic influences are causing loss of species and their variability. The indicative
7
Most traditional NWFP activities are labour intensive and cheap, so they tend to be inversely related to general economic development. They tend to become early casualties in the process of economic development, and succumb to competition, unless measures are taken to improve them to the new needs and situations.
For many of the non-wood forest products, the markets are ephemeral in nature often due to competition from cheaper and more convenient substitutes (e.g. from cultivated source) or synthetic products.
NWFP being mostly of local/rural importance, small in scale, associated with traditional uses and low in technology, there is often a policy bias against them -considering them as difficult to develop or unimportant.
There is serious lack of research and technology development related to NWFP.
Information is scarce on all aspects of NWFP. These products are not adequately treated (or not treated at all) in official statistics and surveys.
There is general absence of inventory of NWFP, and their planning often lacks scientific basis. The extent of variation in the nature, quality, characteristics and uses of the products compounds the problem. Products which do not contribute significantly to the national economy, tend to get less attention.
Exploitative commercialization of NWFP in some countries results in the collectors or extractors of products receiving only insufficient incentive to manage the resources sustainably.
Finally, there is lack of clear and appropriate policy support for NWFP development in spite of their positive attributes and potential.
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS
The natural forests of Africa are rich in species. The number of species of higher plants in the tropical rain forest is estimated to be 30,700. The number is 13,000 for moist deciduous forest, 1,900 for dry and very dry zone and 12,300 for upland formations. Many of the plants providing NWFP are found only among the biological richness and ecological complexity of primary forests. Some of them can only thrive within natural habitat and do not lend themselves to domestication of any sort. Those species that can be grown in plantations, or as pure or mixed crops, are heavily dependant on regular infusion of germplasm from wild gene reservoirs (wild relatives). Only the continued existence of species variability in the wild wilt afford plant breeders a better chance for creating new, disease-resisting and high-yielding varieties for the future. Thus the genetic wealth and variability are crucial for future development of NWFP. However, deforestation and other anthropogenic influences are causing loss of species and their variability. The indicative
8
species loss during 1981-90 in Africa has been estimated by FAO to be 2.0% for tropicalrain forest, 2.5% for moist deciduous forest, 1.0% for dry and very dry zone, and 2.5% forupland formations.
Integrated management of forests under a holistic approach for wood and non-woodprcxlucts and benefits is an essential strategy in many situations. The practice of managingforests for wood production alone has therefore to change. Integrated multipurposemanagement of forests is highly demanding on scientific knowledge and technology. Itinvolves, in addition to timber inventory, detailed investigation and prospecting of non-woodforest resources for fibre, phytochemicals, aromatics, gums, resins, etc. These investigationshave to consider the nature and extent of distribution of the specific plant resources and theirdensity of occurrence. They need to be scientifically screened for active and valuableingredients, their potential supply from wild sources, their suitability to be grown undermulti-species environment (e.g. enrichment planting under natural forest cover andagroforestry) or under monoculture. Traditional knowledge and ethno-biology can contributeconsiderably in planning integrated development of the resources.
In-situ genetic conservation of areas with greatest number of plant varieties of knowneconomic value, as well as those with potential, should be part of integrated forestmanagement. It will help to "Save the Plants That Save Lives".
It may often be a compatible objective of management to allow controlled extractionof NWFP from natural forests which are included as part of protected area systems,especially in the buffer zones of protected areas.
An important point to be stressed, in promoting integrated management of forests is theneed and urgency of developing proper scientific and situation-specific management systems.Another and equally important need is adequate institutional arrangements, considering thatwithout such arrangements commodity based natural resource management, if solely left tomarket forces, could lead to fast depletion of resources. It is necessary in this connectionto understand that: trees and plants yielding wood and non-wood products can co-exist inthe forests; many non-wood products are available from timber species; harvesting of woodand non-wood products is not mutually exclusive and needs to be carried out with great care;wood harvesting, if improperly done, can be deleterious to production of NWFP; and,production of some non-wood products may substantially affect production of others. Thesesuggest the need for appropriately balanced and integrated system of forest managementcombining ecological and economic prudence.
At present natural forest management in Africa is very weak, almost non-existent inmany cases. The challenge involved to improve the situation is enormous. Faced with thischallenge, some countries regard their ability to promote NWFP as a key to their ability tomanage forest resources in a sustainable way.
Foresters have been developing and refining silvicultural techniques of managingtropical forests for over 100 years. These systems, however, have been specifically designedto maximize the production of commercial timber. Silvicultural systems for enhancing thegrowth of non-wood resources in forests such as wild fruits, edible nuts, mushrooms, gumsand latex which can be harvested non-destructively and in combination with timber, have
8
species Joss during ]981-90 in Africa has been estimated by FAO to be 2.0% for tropical rain forest, 2.5% for moist deciduous forest, 1.0% for dry and very dry zone, and 2.5% for upland formations.
Integrated management of forests under a holistic approach for wood and non-wood products and benefits is an essential strategy in many situations. The practice of managing forests for wood production alone has therefore to change. Integrated multipurpose management of forests is highly demanding on scientific knowledge and technology. It involves, in addition to timber inventory, detailed investigation and prospecting of non-wood forest resources for fibre, phytochemicals, aromatics, gums, resins, etc. These investigations have to consider the nature and extent of distribution of the specific plant resources and their density of occurrence. They need to be scientifically screened for active and valuable ingredients, their potential supply from wild sources, their suitability to be grown under multi-species environment (e.g. enrichment planting under natural forest cover and agroforestry) or under monoculture. Traditional knowledge and ethno-biology can contribute considerably in planning integrated development of the resources.
In-situ genetic conservation of areas with greatest number of plant varieties of known economic value, as well as those with potential, should be part of integrated forest management. It will help to "Save the Plants That Save Lives".
It may often be a compatible objective of management to allow controlled extraction of NWFP from natural forests which are included as part of protected area systems, especially in the buffer zones of protected areas.
An important point to be stressed, in promoting integrated management of forests is the need and urgency of developing proper scientific and situation-specific management systems. Another and equally important need is adequate institutional arrangements, considering that without such arrangements commodity based natural resource management, if solely left to market forces, could lead to fast depletion of resources. It is necessary in this connection to understand that: trees and plants yielding wood and non-wood products can co-exist in the forests; many non-wood products are available from timber species; harvesting of wood and non-wood products is not mutually exclusive and needs to be carried out with great care; wood harvesting, if improperly done, can be deleterious to production of NWFP; and, production of some non-wood products may substantially affect production of others. These suggest the need for appropriately balanced and integrated system of forest management combining ecological and economic prudence.
At present natural forest management in Africa is very weak, almost non-existent in many cases. The challenge involved to improve the situation is enormous. Faced with this chaJlenge, some countries regard their ability to promote NWFP as a key to their ability to manage forest resources in a sustainable way.
Foresters have been developing and refining silvicultural techniques of managing tropical forests for over 100 years. These systems, however, have been specifically designed to maximize the production of commercial timber. Silvicultural systems for enhancing the growth of non-wood resources in forests such as wild fruits, edible nuts, mushrooms, gums and latex which can be harvested non-destructively and in combination with timber, have
9
received much less attention. This is not to say that such systems are unknown or do notexist. Many indigenous or other local communities in the tropics have developed their ownform of 'silviculture' for managing their non-timber resources. Such (indigenous or local)systems of forest management have been little studied, largely because of the lack ofeconomic interest in many non-timber resources, but also due to the relative 'invisibility' ofthese (indigenous) practices. Both indigenous silvicultural practices and conventional forestrycan contribute in designing or improving systems for managing non-timber forest resourceson a sustainable basis.
Some specific issues to be addressed in this regard are:
Compatibility of management systems for different products and the need forcompromises - e.g. tapping of latex and the quality of timber from tapped trees;
Conflicts likely to arise in situations where rights are separately assigned to wood andnon-wood products;
When, where and to what extent NWFP production could be or should be throughdomestication under intensive NWFP plantations, agroforestry and in combination withtimber plantations;
In cases where harvest would result in killing the plant (e.g. extracting tubers/roots)how can conservation of genetic resources and diversity be ensured?
Compatibility of NWFP production with services like watershed protection.
The role of non-wood forest products in upland conservation and watershed protection,is a special aspect of integrated management. Some of the attributes of NWFP, relevant inthis regard, are the following:
Controlled, and regulated exploitation of NWFP is normally fully compatible withforest hydrologic and other protective functions of watershed forest cover;
NWFP are often of high value per unit of weight or volume. They are therefore highlysuitable for production in areas far away from road networks and markets;
Income from NWFP provides a strong incentive for forest conservation, as well as oneof the most important alternatives to shifting cultivation in remote upland areas.
NWFP are often well known to indigenous forest dwellers, and therefore represent apotential source of income where they have a competitive advantage, provided they areensured recognition and protection of resource tenure and fair access to outsidemarkets;
Income generation from NWFP often involve all members of the family, includingchildren, men, women and old people;
NWFP cannot only generate income but also, and sometimes more importantly, provide
9
received much less attention. This is not to say that such systems are unknown or do not exist. Many indigenous or other local communities in the tropics have developed their own form of 'silviculture' for managing their non-timber resources. Such (indigenous or local) systems of forest management have been little studied, largely because of the lack of economic interest in many non-timber resources, but also due to the relative 'invisibility' of these (indigenous) practices. Both indigenous silvicultural practices and conventional forestry can contribute in designing or improving systems for managing non-timber forest resources on a sustainable basis.
Some specific issues to be addressed in this regard are:
a) Compatibility of management systems for different products and the need for compromises - e.g. tapping of latex and the quality of timber from tapped trees;
b) Conflicts likely to arise in situations where rights are separately assigned to wood and non-wood products;
c) When, where and to what extent NWFP production could be or should be through domestication under intensive NWFP plantations, agroforestry and in combination with timber plantations;
d) In cases where harvest would result in killing the plant (e.g. extracting tubers/roots) how can conservation of genetic resources and diversity be ensured?
e) Compatibility of NWFP production with services like watershed protection.
The role of non-wood forest products in upland conservation and watershed protection, is a special aspect of integrated management. Some of the attributes of NWFP, relevant in this regard, are the following:
Controlled, and regulated exploitation of NWFP is normally fully compatible with forest hydrologic and other protective functions of watershed forest cover;
NWFP are often of high value per unit of weight or volume. They are therefore highly suitable for production in areas far away from road networks and markets;
Income from NWFP provides a strong incentive for forest conservation, as well as one of the most important alternatives to shifting cultivation in remote upland areas.
NWFP are often well known to indigenous forest dwellers, and therefore represent a potential source of income where they have a competitive advantage, provided they are ensured recognition and protection of resource tenure and fair access to outside markets;
Income generation from NWFP often involve all members of the family, including children, men, women and old people;
NWFP cannot only generate income but also, and sometimes more importantly, provide
10
a higher nutritional and health standard. This is particularly important in remoteupland areas without access to preventive or curative medical services;
Weaker groups in the uplands, women, the poor, the landless and old people, oftenhave easier, informal access to NWFP than to timber and other wood products.(Formalisation of land and resource tenure in the uplands and watershed areas mayfurther deteriorate the position of the weaker groups, as their access is based oninformal tradition rather than legislation and written property rights).
CULTIVATION OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The impacts of deforestation on NWFP resources can partly be averted or minimizedby cultivating them as a crop. Domestication of plants yielding NWFP, involving theirgenetic improvement and growing them under intensive cultivation practices is oftenconsidered as a means of ensuring controlled production and economic success of theventures. Intensive cultivation can take place under monoculture, mixed cropping oragroforestry systems. Certain non-wood products (such as cardamom) can be grownartificially under the shade of natural or man-made forests.
It has been the experience that once a product achieves commercial importance, itssupply from the wild sources tends to be replaced by cultivated source with a view to bringproduction, quality and cost under control. Oil palm, rubber, cashew, coffee, cocoa andpepper are but a few of the many wild forest products that have been largely replaced byproduction from cultivated sources. The productivity of the cultivated crop can be enhanc,edthrough improved agro-technology, and this Would also help to support resource sustainabilityby facilitating conservation of the genetic resources in the natural forest.
Agro-forestry systems are particularly suitable for certain non-wood forest products(e.g. spices, aromatic plants) and for certain situations (such as land scarcity). Trees aregenerally planted or maintained in agroforestry systems to increase agricultural productivityand/or to provide a wider range of products (timber, fuelwood and non-wood products) forhousehold use or for sale.
Multipurpose tree species - those which provide both ecological benefits and products,are most commonly used in agroforestry systems. The range of trees or woody speciesintegrated into agricultural land use systems in Africa is vast and their products are varied.The development of N'WFP in agro-forestry systems has the advantage of diversifying theeconomic base and enhancing the supply of products for household use.
If trees are to be successfully integrated onto agricultural land, the species and theirmanagement and use must be compatible with the farming system in biophysical, economicand social terms. Accordingly, all the relevant factors must be considered in examining thepotential for development of non-wood forest products in agro-forestry systems.
Consideration must be given to the ecological interactions between the tree and crop
10
a higher nutritional and health standard. This is particularly important in remote upland areas without access to preventive or curative medical services;
Weaker groups in the uplands, women, the poor, the landless and old people, often have easier, informal access to NWFP than to timber and other wood products. (Formalisation of land and resource tenure in the uplands and watershed areas may further deteriorate the position of the weaker groups, as their access is based on informal tradition rather than legislation and written property rights).
CULTIV ATION OF NON-\VOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The impacts of deforestation on NWFP resources can partly be averted or minimized by cultivating them as a crop. Domestication of plants yielding NWFP, involving their genetic improvement and growing them under intensive c.ultivation practices is often considered as a means of ensuring controlled production and economic success of the ventures. Intensive cultivation can take place under monoculture, mixed cropping or agroforestry systems. Certain non-wood products (such as cardamom) can be grown artificially under the shade of natural or man-made forests.
It has been the experience that once a product achieves commercial importance, its supply from the wild sources tends to be replaced by cultivated source with a view to bring production, quality and cost under control. Oil palm, rubber, cashew, coffee, cocoa and pepper are but a few of the many wild forest products that have been largely replaced by production from cultivated sources. The productivity of the cultivated crop can be enhanced through improved agro-technology, and this would also help to support resource sustainability by facilitating conservation of the genetic resources in the natural forest.
Agro-forestry systems are particularly suitable for certain non-wood forest products (e.g. spices, aromatic plants) and for certain situations (such as land scarcity). Trees are generally planted or maintained in agroforestry systems to increase agricultural productivity and/or to provide a wider range of products (timber, fuelwood and non-wood products) for household use or for sale.
MUltipurpose tree species - those which provide both ecological benefits and products, are most commonly used in agroforestry systems. The range of trees or woody species integrated into agricultural land use systems in Africa is vast and their products are varied. The development of NWFP in agro-forestry systems has the advanta.ge of diversifying the economic base and enhancing the supply of products for household use.
If trees are to be successfully integrated onto agricultural land, the species and their management and use must be compatible with the farming system in biophysical, economic and social terms. Accordingly, all the relevant factors must be considered in examining the potential for development of non-wood forest products in agro-forestry systems.
Consideration must be given to the ecological interactions between the tree and crop
11
and tree and livestock components of the system, the economic viability and efficiency, andmarketing needs. Problems of resource depletion are less likely to occur when thedevelopment of NWFP is carried out on private agricultural lands.
IIARVF_STING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Harvesting of non-wood forest products of both wild and cultivated sources is differentfrom wood harvest in terms of the use of tools and equipment, technology, pre-harvestpreparations, post harvest treatment and requirement of intermediate processing. Harvestingdoes not normally involve a whole tree or plant, but only parts thereof. It varies fromcollection of nuts and leaves to tapping of latex, harvesting of palm hearts, honey hunting,extraction of wax and collection of decorative plant materials.
The harvesting techniques vary considerably for the various NWFP. For edible nutsit involves: collecting raw nuts, cleaning, drying and grading; for fibres it involves: cuttingrelevant parts of the plant (leaves, branches), removing thorns and hard coating, boiling,beating and separating fibres, dressing or treating, drying and bundling; for some latex/gumit involves: making incision on the tree trunk, treating as necessary with acid for enhancingexudation, collecting of crude exudate, boiling it to pasty consistency, cooling it into ballsor blocks for packing and transport; for Annatto seeds it involves: collecting pods, drying,threshing, winnowing, screening and fumigation; in the case of some medicinal plants itinvolves: digging up tubers or rhizome, ensuring that some reproductive materials are leftin the ground, slicing, dehydrating, grading and packing. The cycle of harvesting also variesfrom a few weelcs for tender shoots, to longer periods in the case of mature fruits orrhizomes.
Since volume involved for individual NWFP is in most cases small and extractive innature, the attention devoted to their harvesting also tends to be less. The collectors aremostly unskilled and untrained in scientific methods. As a result, the harvesting standard ofmany non-wood products are poor and rudimentary, and hence wasteful, destructive andunsustainable. Efforts are also not made, usually, to harmonise harvest of wood and non-wood products. Planning and control harvesting operations, introducing more efficientharvesting methods and systems, reducing harvesting waste and keeping overall costs ofoperations at the lowest possible level are essential for utilising forest resource on asustainable basis.
There are variations in the system of organizing NWFP harvest. One common systemis the collection by local people under rights bestowed, for sale in the local market, or withsome form of patronage and financial help from a purchasing agent. Another is by theemployment of casual or contract labour by those who have obtained collection rights onlease. Local collectors of NWFP are often exploited by middlemen who control access tothe market, or by those who control access to the resource, Thus the millions of NWFPcollectors have no adequate incentive for practising properly controlled and sustainableharvesting.
11
and tree and livestock components of the system, the economic viability and efficiency, and marketing needs. Problems of resource depletion are less likely to occur when the development of NWFP is carried out on private agricultural lands.
HARVESTING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Harvesting of non-wood forest products of both wild and cultivated sources is different from wood harvest in terms of the use of tools and equipment, technology, pre-harvest preparations, post harvest treatment and requirement of intermediate processing. Harvesting does not normally involve a whole tree or plant, but only parts thereof. It varies from collection of nuts and leaves to tapping of latex, harvesting of palm hearts, honey hunting, extraction of wax and collection of decorative plant materials.
The harvesting techniques vary considerably for the various NWFP. For edible nuts it involves: collecting raw nuts, cleaning, drying and grading; for fibres it involves: cutting relevant parts of the plant (leaves, branches), removing thorns and hard coating, boiling, beating and separating fibres, dressing or treating, drying and bundling; for some latex/gum it involves: making incision on the tree trunk, treating as necessary with acid for enhancing exudation, collecting of crude exudate, boiling it to pasty consistency, cooling it into balls or blocks for packing and transport; for Annatto seeds it involves: collecting pods, drying, threshing, winnowing, screening and fumigation; in the case of some medicinal plants it involves: digging up tubers or rhizome, ensuring that some reproductive materials are left in the ground, slicing, dehydrating, grading and packing. The cycle of harvesting also varies from a few weeks for tender shoots, to longer periods in the case of mature fruits or rhizomes.
Since volume involved for individual NWFP is in most cases small and extractive in nature, the attention devoted to their harvesting also tends to be less. The collectors are mostly unskilled and untrained in scientific methods. As a result, the harvesting standard of many non-wood products are poor and rudimentary, and hence wasteful, destructive and unsustainable. Efforts are also not made, usually, to harmonise harvest of wood and nonwood products. Planning and control harvesting operations, introducing more efficient harvesting methods and systems, reducing harvesting waste and keeping overall costs of operations at the lowest possible level are essential for utilising forest resource on a sustainable basis.
There are variations in the system of organizing NWFP harvest. One common system is the collection by local people under rights bestowed, for sale in the local market, or with some form of patronage and financial help from a purchasing agent. Another is by the employment of casual Of contract labour by those who have obtained collection rights on lease. Local collectors of NWFP are often exploited by middlemen who control access to the market, or by those who control access to the resource I Thus the millions of NWFP collectors have no adequate incentive for practising properly controlled and sustainable harvesting.
12
Post harvest care is also poor in most cases, and wastages are high. Wastage happensin quantitative and qualitative terms during c,ollection, transport and storage. Physicalinfrastructure is more important when harvested products are delicate or perishable comparedto those which can stand rough handling and long storage.
An urgent need, therefore, is to rationalize and improve harvesting systems andpractices, involving improved tools and techniques, training and skill improvement, incentivesystems, institutional arrangements, promoting local facilities for processing and valueaddition, and linking harvest to processing.
PROCESSING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Primary and downstream processing of NWFP adds value to the product, provides localemployment and helps increasing the retention of value in the country of origin. However,in developing country situations, harvested products reach the market, local or foreign, eitherafter some intermediate processing in the form of cleaning and grading or after primaryprocessing.
Market oriented downstream processing, for export markets, is highly specific onquality and stresses on reliability of supply. But due to the lack of technology, skilledmanpower, management expertise, capital for investment and marketing arrangements,coupled with inadequate information on resource and resource development, sophisticated orrefined downstream processing is rarely done in most developing country situations.
The processing taking place uses a range of technology and equipment - semi-mechanical or mechanical processes with equipment mostly locally fabricated to those withimproved processing technology and equipment. The following are indicative of the range:crude extraction of palm oil from fruits of Elaeis guinensis using wooden presses; simpledistillation for essential oil involving passing of steam through a charge of fresh or partiallywithered grass or leaves and condensing the vapours; making ornamental baskets, bags, etc.from palm leaves at cottage level; fairly sophisticated processing of wattle bark for producingtannin. There are also facilities established in the Africa region, especially in the biggercountries, for producing medicinal preparations/pharmaceuticals from phytochemicals, formanufacturing fragrances and toiletries using essential oils and so on. These productionsessentially meet local and national demands.
Most processing of non-wood products for local use, whether herbal medicine or strawbasket, is done in very small family units, employing persons without any training, oftenworking on part-time basis. They are low-return activities. Their survivability is low, asthey tend to be abandoned as wages rise and alternative opportunities grow. Those productsof comparatively bigger establishments carrying out primary processing for export, such asthe case of gum arabic, undergo further processing in developed countries.
Provided that appropriate management capability, skills and technology are available,several of the countries in the Africa region have the potential to install export oriented
12
Post harvest care is also poor in most cases, and wastages are high. Wastage happens in quantitative and qualitative terms during collection, transport and storage. Physical infrastructure is more important when harvested products are delicate or perishable compared to those which can stand rough handling and long storage.
An urgent need, therefore, is to rationalize and improve harvesting systems and practices, involving improved tools and techniques, training and skill improvement, incentive systems, institutional arrangements, promoting local facilities for processing and value addition, and linking harvest to processing.
PROCESSING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Primary and downstream processing ofNWFP adds value to the product, provides local employment and helps increasing the retention of value in the country of origin. However, in developing country situations, harvested products reach the market, local or foreign, either after some intermediate processing in the form of cleaning and grading or after primary processing.
Market oriented downstream processing, for export markets, is highly specific on quality and stresses on reliability of supply. But due to the lack of technology, skiJIed manpower, management expertise, capital for investment and marketing arrangements, coupled with inadequate information on resource and resource development, sophisticated or refined downstream processing is rarely done in most developing country situations.
The processing taking place uses a range of technology and equipment - semimechanical or mechanical processes with equipment mostly locally fabricated to those with improved processing technology and equipment. The following are indicative of the range: crude eJttraction of palm oil from fruits of E/aeis guinensis using wooden presses; simple distillation for essential oil involving passing of steam through a charge of fresh or partially withered grass or leaves and condensing the vapours; making ornamental baskets, bags, etc. from palm leaves at cottage level; fairly sophisticated processing of wattle bark for producing tannin. There are also facilities established in the Africa region, especially in the bigger countries, for producing medicinal preparations/pharmaceuticals from phytochemicals, for manufacturing fragrances and toiletries using essential oils and so on. These productions essentially meet local and national demands.
Most processing of non-wood products for local use, whether herbal medicine or straw basket, is done in very small family units, employing persons without any training, often working on part-time basis. They are low-return activities. Their survivability is low, as they tend to be abandoned as wages rise and alternative opportunities grow. Those products of comparatively bigger establishments carrying out primary processing for export, such as the case of gum arabic, undergo further processing in developed countries.
Provided that appropriate management capability, skills and technology are available, several of the countries in the Africa region have the potential to install export oriented
13
processing of NWFP, such as natural extracts and colours of adequate quality. However,it is necessary to know the specific market needs as well as the product specifications andstandards required, before deciding to venture export oriented production. There is also needto link the production to a reliable and captive source of raw material supply. More efficientmodern technology can cause more destruction if tied to inconsistent supply. Althoughadding value locally is important, attempting to produce end-user commodities withoutadequate preparation or studies will be risky.
A national industrialization strategy to add value to the non-wood materials of theforests does not exist in most countries. Subject to feasibility based on stable supply ofsuitable non-wood forest products and analysis of economic and market factors, developmentthrough value-addition on NWFP will call for appropriate process technology capable ofproducing market goods. Process technology for medicinal plants, for example, helps toisolate pure active compounds for formulation into dnigs, to isolate intermediates forproduction of semi-synthetic drugs and to prepare standard galenicals (extracts, powders,tinctures, etc.).
Before launching on an actual production, pilot trials are necessary. Polyvalent pilotplants, such as the one designed and developed by UNIDO, can be used to carry outoperations in extracting flavour, aroma and medicinal constituents from plant material, suchas aqueous or solvent extraction, continuous extraction, preparation of solid extracts andoleoresins, distillation of essential oils, fractionation of essential oils and processing of othereconomic plant-derived products.
MARKETS AND MARKETING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The non-wood forest products were traded over long distances for many centuries,while wood products have become major international commodities only duringcomparatively recent times. The ancient Egyptians, for example, imported gum arabic fromSudan and used it for preparation of colours for painting and mummifying. In France thiscommodity was considered an important article of commerce as early as 1349, when theTreasury of Philippe VI imposed a tax on it.
Because of the variety of non-wood forest products, ranging from fruits and food toaroma chemicals and phyto-pharmaceuticals, the markets for them show correspondingvariation: bartering in subsistence economy, local village markets, large city (national)markets and international markets. Some of the products meet bulk demands (e.g. ediblenuts, resin) and others reach specific niches (special types of honey, aroma chemicals).Some non-wood product are not traded but only collected and consumed.
A large number of vendors are involved locally in selling NWFP. Many of them sellproducts collected by them for making extra income, others are supported by a network ofmerchants and several levels of buyers and sellers down to the village. The main productslocally sold include fruits, leaves, tubers, bags, baskets, thatch and other building materials,meat and skins, palm oil, and medicinal plants.
13
processing of NWFP, such as natural extracts and colours of adequate quality. However, it is necessary to know the specific market needs as well as the product specifications and standards required, before deciding to venture export oriented production. There is also need to link the production to a reliable and captive source of raw material supply. More efficient modem technology can cause more destruction if tied to inconsistent supply. Although adding value locally is important, attempting to produce end-user commodities without adequate preparation or studies will be risky.
A national industrialization strategy to add value to the non-wood materials of the forests does not exist in most countries. Subject to feasibility based on stable supply of suitable non-wood forest products and analysis of economic and market factors, development through value-addition on NWFP will call for appropriate process technology capable of producing market goods. Process technology for medicinal plants, for example, helps to isolate pure active compounds for formulation into dnlgs, to isolate intermediates for production of semi-synthetic drugs and to prepare standard galenicals (extracts, powders, tinctures, etc.).
Before launching on an actual production, pilot trials are necessary. Polyvalent pilot plants, such as the one designed and developed by UNIDO, can be used to carry out operations in extracting flavour, aroma and medicinal constituents from plant material, such as aqueous or solvent extraction, continuous extraction, preparation of solid extracts and oleoresins, distillation of essential oils, fractionation of essential oils and processing of other economic plant-derived products.
]\fARKETS AND MARKETING OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
The non-wood forest products were traded over long distances for many centuries, while wood products have become major international commodities only during comparatively recent times. The ancient Egyptians, for example, imported gum arabic from Sudan and used it for preparation of colours for painting and mummifying. In France this commodity was considered an important article of commerce as early as 1349, when the Treasury of Philippe VI imposed a tax on it.
Because of the variety of non-wood forest products~ ranging from fruits and food to aroma chemicals and phyto-pharmaceuticals, the markets for them show corresponding variation: bartering in subsistence economy, local village markets, large city (national) markets and international markets. Some of the products meet bulk demands (e.g. edible nuts, resin) and others reach specific niches (special types of honey, aroma chemicals). Some non-wood product are not traded but only collected and consumed.
A large number of vendors are involved locally in setling NWFP. Many of them sell products collected by them for making extra income, others are supported by a network of merchants and several levels of buyers and sellers down to the village. The main products locally sold include fruits, leaves, tubers, bags, baskets, thatch and other building materials, meat and skins, palm oil, and medicinal plants.
14
In cases where the products are sold outside the locality where they are collected localtraders and merchants are the main intermediaries who buy NWFP cheaply from collectorsand sell it to exporters or processors or their agents at a high price. Because of the absenceof cooperative organizations of collectors, non-availability of market and price information,and lack of access to credit to meet operational needs, these collectors are at the mercy ofthe intermediaries. Traditionally the supply of NWFP has thus involved networks of localcollectors and intermediaries bound by long-term, often debt-based, relationships. It is atrader dominated system and it is not conducive for the birth and growth of enterprises. Thesystem is exploitative and non-supportive of sustainable development. For supportingdevelopment, it is essential that the community of NWFP collectors are assisted to form intocooperatives and directly sell their products to the processor or exporter through theirorganizations on the basis of long term contracts.
There are rare cases where processing units are supported by captive sources of NWFPand other arrangements for collection and supply of the products. There is, however, astrong case for rationalizing the domestic market chains for NWFP.
A recent FAO study identified 116 items of NWFP as commercially important,including 26 essential oils, and considering the group of medicinal plants as one item.Available information suggests that 500 to 600 different medicinal plants enter internationaltrade. Compared to other regions, Africa's share in the international trade is low. Some ofthe important export items are gum arabic, medicinal plants and extracts, spices, foodcolorants, honey and animal products. Additionally exports of some unique items, such ascage birds and butterflies from some countries take place occasionally.
General quality standards for internationally traded products are established by theInternational Organization for Standards. Quality and safety regulations by food and drugadministrations and consumer protection groups of importing countries are often rigid inrespect of items such as medicinal extracts, phytochemic,als, food colorants and additives,essential oils and fragrances. In respect of specific groups of products there are internationalfederations overseeing, among others, quality standards (e.g. the World Federation ofProprietary Medicine Manufacturers and the International Federation of Essential Oils andAroma Traders). Quality specifications, sanitary regulations, pacicaging standards (and lackof adequate knowledge about consumer preferences) often become a non-tariff barrier formany countries to obtain access to international markets. There is no alternative to meet thissituation except improving efficiency and production standards.
For various reasons there has been an erosion of international market share of NWFPover the years. Prices have generally fallen, and considerably in some cases. There hasalmost been a crash in respect of some commodities.
While some indications of the constraints being faced by the NWFP sector have beengiven elsewhere in this paper, it is difficult to analyze the situation adequately and objectivelydue to lack of appropriate information and data. Product grouping followed in statisticalreports and the aggregation of products in International Standard Trade Classification (ISTC)make it almost impossible to isolate NWFP by specific products and by sources (forest vs.non-forest and country). N1any items of NWFP fall under "vegetable materials and vegetableproducts". Edible nuts from forest are included under the group of all edible nuts, along
14
In cases where the products are sold outside the locality where they are collected local traders and merchants are the main intermediaries who buy NWFP cheaply from collectors and sell it to exporters or processors or their agents at a high price. Because of the absence of cooperative organi7.ations of collectors, non-availability of market and price information, and lack of access to credit to meet operational needs, these collectors are at the mercy of the intermediaries. Traditionally the supply of NWFP has thus involved networks of local collectors and intermediaries bound by long-term, often debt-based, relationships. It is a trader dominated system and it is not conducive for the birth and growth of enterprises. The system is exploitative and non-supportive of sustainable development. For supporting development, it is essential that the community of NWFP collectors are assisted to form into cooperatives and directly sell their products to the processor or exporter through their organizations on the basis of long term contracts.
There are rare cases where processing units are supported by captive sources of NWFP and other arrangements for collection and supply of the products. There is, however, a strong case for rationalizing the domestic market chains for NwFP.
A recent FAa study identified 116 items of NWFP as commercial1y important, including 26 essential oils, and considering the group of medicinal plants as one item. Available information suggests that 500 to 600 different medicinal plants enter international trade. Compared to other regions, Africa's share in the international trade is low. Some of the important export items are gum arabic, medicinal plants and extracts, spices, food colorants, honey and animal products. Additional1y exports of some unique items, such as cage birds and butterflies from some countries take place occasionally.
General quality standards for internationally traded products are established by the International Organi7.ation for Standards. Quality and safety regulations by food and drug administrations and consumer protection groups of importing countries are often rigi~ in respect of items such as medicinal extracts, phytochemicals, food colorants and additives, essential oUs and fragrances. In respect of specific groups of products there are international federations overseeing, among others, quality standards (e.g. the World Federation of Proprietary Medicine Manufacturers and the International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Traders). Quality specifications, sanitary regulations, packaging standards (and lack of adequate knowledge about consumer preferences) often become a non-tariff barrier for many countries to obtain access to international markets. There is no alternative to meet this situation except improving efficiency and production standards.
For various reasons there has been an erosion of international market share of NWFP over the years. Prices have generally fallen, and considerably in some cases. There has almost been a crash in respect of some commodities.
While some indications of the constraints being faced by the NWFP sector have been given elsewhere in this paper, it is difficult to analyze the situation adequately and objectively due to lack of appropriate information and data. Product grouping followed in statistical reports and the aggregation of products in International Standard Trade Classification (ISTC) make it almost impossible to isolate NWFP by specific produtts and by sources (forest vs. non-forest and country). Many items of NWFP fall under "vegetable materials and vegetable products" . Edible nuts from forest are included under the group of all edible nuts, along
15
with groundnut, cashew, almond and others. For similar reasons it is also difficult toanalyze all the factors involved in price changes and to see whether the prices and the costsreflect the true values and whether production controls can improve the situation.
One aspect which gives some indication about the possibility of controlling costs andimproving economic efficiency is the vast difference between the price paid to the collectoror local producer and that obtained for it in the market without involving sophisticateddownstream processing and refinements. It has been reported that for several items ofNWFP the local producer receives only 2% to 3% of the price for it in the developedcountry markets. Most of this price difference is in the nature of windfalls to the traders ormiddlemen whose tendency (unlike that of entrepreneurs) is to maximize the windfall as longas the opportunity lasts. And this is a serious handicap for market promotion. As suggestedearlier, development of local entrepreneurship is essential.
The new attitude of green consumerism resulting from concern for environmentalconservation and consequent preference for natural products is providing an advantage andnew acceptance to NVVFP. An example is the emerging popularity of aroma therapy whichis a fast growing area of natural therapy requiring essential oils obtained from plants grownwithout using chemical fertilizers. The United Kingdom alone uses essential oils worth US$15 million annually for aroma therapy.
If technology is improved, collection and trade channels rationalized and made efficient,and appropriate processing developed in NWFP producing countries, it will undoubtedly bepossible to effect a positive change in the situation, towards sustainable development ofNWFP. It is necessary also to develop new products and new uses for known products aswell as to ensure steady supply of products.
It is further necessary, especially in respect of commercially important products, tohave a marketing orientation rather than simple production orientation. Simple productionorientation have the effect of creating increased supply, thus reducing price and profitability.A successful marketing orientation for forest products, on the other hand, should increasedemand and value, thus allowing more of the products to enter the market without reducingthe overall price of the concerned commodities. Product development, market developmentand market research are aspects related to this approach.
Marketing is essentially a 'soft-ware-based' function where knowledge and informationare important ingredients along with attitudes and skills of those who are involved in marketdevelopment. Production and product marketing involve several loops forming a chain fromcommodity production to marketing of consumer products. Although primary producers areinfluenced by all the repetitive loops, they usually manage only the first loop. It is essentialto know well enough the whole chain of these loops and one's own position in the full chain,as well as the particular role and importance of the NWFP concerned in the final product,to claim, and justify getting, a "fair" share of the total wealth created between the extractionof the NWFP and the sale of the final consumer good. The need for an appropriatemarketing information system for NWFP thus becomes vital.
15
with groundnut, cashew, almond and others. For similar reasons it is also difficult to analyze all the factors involved in price changes and to see whether the prices and the costs reflect the true values and whether production controls can improve the situation.
One aspect which gives some indication about the possibility of controlling costs and improving economic efficiency is the vast difference between the price paid to the collector or local producer and that obtained for it in the market without involving sophisticated downstream processing and refinements. It has been reported that for several items of NWFP the local producer receives only 2 % to 3 % of the price for it in the developed country markets. Most of this price difference is in the nature of windfalls to the traders or middlemen whose tendency (unlike that of entrepreneurs) is to maximize the windfall as long as the opportunity lasts. And this is a serious handicap for market promotion. As suggested earlier, development of local entrepreneurship is essential.
The new attitude of green consumerism resulting from concern for environmental conservation and consequent preference for natural products is providing an advantage and new acceptance to NWFP. An example is the emerging popularity of aroma therapy which is a fast growing area of natural therapy requiring essential oils obtained from plants grown without using chemical fertilizers. The United Kingdom alone uses essential oils worth US$ 15 million annually for aroma therapy.
If technology is improved, collection and trade channels rationalized and made efficient, and appropriate processing developed in NWFP producing countries, it will undoubtedly be possible to effect a positive change in the situation, towards sustainable development of NWFP. It is necessary also to develop new products and new uses for known products as well as to ensure steady supply of products.
It is further necessary, especially in respect of commercially important products, to have a marketing orientation rather than simple production orientation. Simple production orientation have the effect of creating increased supply, thus reducing price and profitability. A successful marketing orientation for forest products, on the other hand, should increase demand and value, thus allowing more of the products to enter the market without reducing the overall price of the concerned commodities. Product development, market development and market research are aspects related to this approach.
Marketing is essentially a 'soft-ware-based' function where knowledge and information are important ingredients along with attitudes and skills of those who are involved in market development. Production and product marketing involve several loops forming a chain from commodity production to marketing of consumer products. Although primary producers are influenced by all the repetitive loops, they usually manage only the first loop. It is essential to know well enough the whole chain of these loops and one's own position in the full chain, as well as the particular role and importance of the NWFP concerned in the final product, to claim, and justify getting, a "fair" share of the total wealth created between the extraction of the NWFP and the sale of the final consumer good. The need for an appropriate marketing information system for NWFP thus becomes vital.
16
RESEARCH AND IMPROVEMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
The generally poor situation of NWFP in most producing countries is partly attributableto inadequate technology in use and lack of research support.
Research needs for improving technology related to NWFP are tremendous, touchingupon all aspects of their management and development. This would cover among others:enhancing knowledge about NWFP resource; methods of inventory for different NWFP;gathering scientific data on the nature of the products; prospecting, screening, evaluating andclassifying plant species (such as by pharmacological and toxicological studies on medicinalplants) and identifying candidate species for development of specific products; domesticationand cultivation including aspects of monoculture and agroforestry; control of pests anddiseases; on-farm experimentation; species introduction trials; plant breeding and geneticimprovement including use of germ plasm resources in the wild for improving yield andresistance of established crops to pests and diseases; improving of agronomic practices;improving harvesting methods and practices to reduce wastages and damages and to increaseyield; adaptation of imported technology; improvements in processing, packaging anddistribution of products; and product diversification including improvement of quality.
Thus, for example, on the establishment and improvement of the NWFP resource,some of the research issues to be addressed and information to be generated/analyzed are:can the species desired be domesticated?; if so, what are the specifics involved?; is therevariation in the desirable characteristics?; if it exists, is this variation genetic in nature orcaused by environmental factors?; can improvement in desirable characteristics be bestachieved by genetic (phenotypic) selection, by silvicultural interventions, and/or by acombination of both?; is such improvement economically practical and feasible?; whatparallel action will be needed to ensure the conservation of the genetic resources of thespecies. Considering the variety of non-wood forest products and related managementsituations, need for strengthening research to support development is obvious.
Some of the research institutions in Africa (such as the Forestry Research Institute ofNigeria, Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, and Institut des Forets of Ctite d'Ivoire) havebeen doing research on different aspects of NWFP. Some amount of information is alsoavailable on distribution, ecology, phenology, active ingredients, cultivation methods,collection methods, yields and use of selected plant species. There is need, however, tostrengthen the research institutions and to promote collaborative research to avoid duplicationof efforts. An aspect to be stressed here is the importance of research-extension linkage andprovision of appropriate information materials and technical handbooks.
Development of NWFP depends on how far it succeeds in the market place.Therefore, to be effective, among others, research institutions need: competent scientists,support staff and research managers; ability to conduct continual strategic evaluation ofmarket c,onditions and opportunities, as it relates to research; opportunities to be self-financing and autonomy; means to interact directly with producers and users to influenceproduction and marketing.
]6
Rr~EARcn AND IMPROVEI\'IENT OF TECHNOLOGY
The generally poor situation of NWFP in most producing countries is partly attributable to inadequate technology in use and lack of research support.
Research needs for improving technology related to NWFP are tremendolls, touching upon all aspects of their management and development. This would cover among others: enhancing knowledge about NWFP resource; methods of inventory for different NWFP; gathering scientific data on the nature of the products; prospecting, screening, evaluating and classifying plant species (such as by pharmacological and toxicological studies on medicinal plants) and identifying candidate species for development of specific products; domestication and cultivation including aspects of monoculture and agroforestry; control of pests and diseases; on-farm experimentation; species introduction trials; plant breeding and genetic improvement including use of germ plasm resources in the wild for improving yield and resistance of established crops to pests and diseases; improving of agronomic practices; improving harvesting methods and practices to reduce wastages and damages and to increase yield; adaptation of imported technology; improvements in processing, packaging and distribution of products; and product diversification including improvement of quality.
Thus, for example, on the establishment and improvement of the NWFP resource, some of the research issues to be addressed and information to be generated/analyzed are: can the species desired be domesticated?; if so, what are the specifics involved?; is there variation in the desirable characteristics?; if it exists, is this variation genetic in nature or caused by environmental factors?; can improvement in desirable characteristics be best achieved by genetic (phenotypic) selection, by silvicultural interventions, and/or by a combination of both?; is such improvement economically practical and feasible?; what parallel action will be needed to ensure the conservation of the genetic resources of the species. Considering the variety of non-wood forest products and related management situations, need for strengthening research to support development is obvious.
Some of the research institutions in Africa (such as the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, and Institut des Fon~ts of Cote d'Ivoire) have been doing research on different aspects of NWFP. Some amount of information is also available on distribution, ecology, phenology, active ingredients, cultivation methods, collection methods, yields and use of selected plant species. There is need, however, to strengthen the research institutions and to promote collaborative research to avoid duplication of efforts. An aspect to be stressed here is the importance of research-extension Hnkage and provision of appropriate information materials and technical handbooks.
Development of NWFP depends on how far it succeeds in the market place. Therefore, to be effective, among others, research institutions need: competent scientists, support staff and research managers; ability to conduct continual strategic evaluation of market conditions and opportunities, as it relates to research; opportunities to be selffinancing and autonomy; means to interact directly with producers and users to influence production and marketing.
17
INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR DEVELOPMENTOF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
One of the major ills afflicting the NWFP sector is the institutional neglect relating topolicy, strategy and plans, legal rights and arrangements, incentives, development of skills,health and safety considerations, access to information, and strea.mlined support from publicadmini stration.
In most forest policies, non-wood forest products get a mention in passing, but withoutclear objectives, targets, and strategies for development. Harvesting, storage, processing,standardisation and marketing of many non-wood products are neglected areas ofdevelopment, often because they are seen (wrongly) as suitable for local consumption only.This lacuna leads to the lack of appropriate plans, programmes and projects related toNWFP, and inadequacy of investment. Because of this, there is hardly any emphasis ondeveloping and maintaining a database on NWFP. There have been initiatives to improvethe situation in some countries, but a lot more needs to be done and urgently.
Participation of the local communities in the production and management of NWFPcalls for appropriate provision regarding legal rights to encourage long term investments andimprovements. The issue of the rights and involvement of local community in harvesting andmanaging NWFP have social, economic and ecological implications. When value of productsaccrue to the intermediaries, the people engaged in their collection remain poor, regardlessof the value of the products involved. Consistent and equitable income from harvesting ofNWFP gives the people involved, an incentive to conserve and sustainably manage the forest.This is necessary also for facilitating availability of loans/funds for developing NWFP.
Apart from tenure security and autonomy, other economic incentives are also needed.Rational policy interventions are necessary to ensure access to credit and markets andremunerative prices for the product. Financial institutions at present provide credit to theprocessors and exporters of NWFP and these funds get used primarily for buying andmarketing and not for sustainably managing and harvesting the resource.
Broad-based and organized participation encompassing local groups, women, indigenouscommunity and private sector is an essential means of strengthening the institutional structurefor developing non-wood products for their economic and ecological benefits. Appropriategender considerations can help to improve the effectiveness and benefits of NWFPprogrammes at the local level. Provision of facilities for training and skill development,capacity building, delivery of technological packages and extension support, a system ofproviding market information, credit facilities, support for establishing necessaryinfrastructure and a streamlined public forest administration with development orientation areother components of a rational institutional structure. Such a structure is required to promotehealthy relationship between producer and user industry, and integrated operations whereverfeasible.
In linking the NWFP resources with national and international markets to supportsustainable development, each country has to design arrangements appropriate to its situationcovering access, control, management and ownership of the resource and involving local
17
INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR DEVELOPl\'IENT OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
One of the major ills afflicting the NWFP sector is the institutional neglect relating to policy, strategy and plans, legal rights and arrangements, incentives, development of skills, health and safety considerations, access to information, and streamlined support from public administration.
In most forest policies, non-wood forest products get a mention in passing, but without clear objectives, targets, and strategies for development. Harvesting, storage, processing, standardisation and marketing of many non-wood products are neglected areas of development, often because they are seen (wrongly) as suitable for local consumption only. This lacuna leads to the lack of appropriate plans, programmes and projects related to NWFP, and inadequacy of investment. Because of this, there is hardly any emphasis on developing and maintaining a database on NWFP. There have been initiatives to improve the situation in some countries, but a lot more needs to be done and urgently.
,
Participation of the local communities in the production and management of NWFP calls for appropriate provision regarding legal rights to encourage long term investments and improvements. The issue of the rights and involvement of local community in harvesting and managing NWFP have social, economic and ecological implications. When value of products accrue to the intermediaries, the people engaged in their collection remain poor, regardless of the value of the products involved. Consistent and equitable income from harvesting of NWFP gives the people involved, an incentive to conserve and sustainably manage the forest. This is necessary also for facilitating availability of loans/funds for developing NWFP.
Apart from tenure security and autonomy, other economic incentives are also needed. Rational policy interventions are necessary to ensure access to credit and markets and remunerative prices for the product. Financial institutions at present provide credit to the processors and exporters of NWFP and these funds get used primarily for buying and marketing and not for sustainably managing and harvesting the resource.
Broad-based and organized participation encompassing local groups, women, indigenous community and private sector is an essential means of strengthening the institutional structure for developing non-wood products for their economic and ecological benefits. Appropriate gender considerations can help to improve the effectiveness and benefits of NWFP programmes at the local level. Provision of facilities for training and skill development, capacity building, delivery of technological packages and extension support, a system of providing market information, credit facilities, support for establishing necessary infrastructure and a streamlined public forest administration with development orientation are other component') of a rational institutional structure. Such a structure is required to promote healthy relationship between producer and user industry, and integrated operations wherever feasible.
In linldng the NWFP resources with national and international markets to support sustainable development, each country has to design arrangements appropriate to its situation covering access, control, management and ownership of the resource and involving local
18
people and groups, management agencies, industry and trade. International support andassistance can considerably facilitate and help to accelerate the process.
The countries can learn from the experience of others through regular exchange ofinformation and undertaking collaborative activities. A Regional Information Network onNon-Wood Forest Products will be extremely useful in this regard.
MAJOR AREAS OF ACTION
The foregoing discussion has identified major constraints and broad areas of actioninvolved in NWFP development, as well as indicative options. The following listingprovides a general basis for developing a framework for action. Depending on the actualsituation in countries, the order of preference and emphasis of actions may vary.
An assessment of NWFP resources by appropriate categories and a detailed prospectingfor specific products (e.g. phytochemicals) in selected priority areas is an essentialstep. This will help to identify candidate species or group of species and distributionof suitable areas to be developed for specific products. This will in addition serve asa sound basis for planning.
Planning and implementation of integrated forest management for wood and non-woodbenefits is important to improve sustainable productivity and to balance the functionsof forest including conservation of plant genetic resources. Planning in this regardshould take into consideration the limits of sustainable supply of goods and servicesinvolved. Supply offered to the market can be so adjusted as to help the achievementof conservation objectives.
The objectives of natural forest resource conservation can be served by domesticationof wild species and intensive cropping of plants yielding NWFP wherever feasible.This would help to provide stable and uniform supply of raw material, and can bemade captive to processing units. In this connection studies and investigations on thesuitability of different agroforestry and agronomic systems are important.
Harvesting is a particularly weak link in the utilization of NWFP due to the variety oftools, techniques and situations involved. Poor harvesting results in product wastagesand resource damages. Special care is required to improve harvesting along with pre-harvest preparations and post-harvest treatments.
The existing systems of harvesting of NWFP do not have adequate technological andmanagement back-up and its linkage to the chain of middlemen and traders is notconducive to sustainable management of resource. The system needs to be rationalized,by developing autonomous participatory enterprises with long term sustainabilityobjectives.
Development of value adding local processing of appropriate level of technology and
18
people and groups, management agencies, industry and trade. International support and assistance can considerably facilitate and help to accelerate the process.
The countries can learn from the experience of others through regular exchange of information and undertaking collaborative activities. A Regional Information Network on Non-Wood Forest Products wi11 be extremely useful in this regard.
l\fAJOR AREAS OF ACTION
The foregoing discussion has identified major constraints and broad areas of action involved in NWFP development, as well as indicative options. The following listing provides a general basis for developing a framework for action. Depending on the actual situation in countries, the order of preference and emphasis of actions may vary.
An assessment of NWFP resources by appropriate categories and a detailed prospecting for specific products (e.g. phytochemicals) in selected priority areas is an essential step. This will help to identify candidate species or group of species and distribution of suitable areas to be developed for specific products. This will in addition serve as a sound basis for planning.
Planning and implementation of integrated forest management for wood and non-wood benefits is important to improve sustainable productivity and to balance the functions of forest inchlding conservation of plant genetic resources. Planning in this regard should take into consideration the limits of sustainable supply of goods and services involved. Supply offered to the market can be so adjusted as to help the achievement of conservation objectives.
The objectives of natural forest resource conservation can be served by domestication of wild species and intensive cropping of plants yielding NWFP wherever feasible. This would help to provide stable and uniform supply of raw material, and can be made captive to processing units. In this connection studies and investigations on the suitability of different agroforestry and agronomic systems are important.
Harvesting is a particularly weak link in the utilization of NWFP due to the variety of tools, techniques and situations involved. Poor harvesting results in product wastages and resource damages. Special care is required to improve harvesting along with preharvest preparations and post-harvest treatments.
The existing systems of harvesting of NWFP do not have adequate technological and management back-up and its linkage to the chain of middlemen and traders is not conducive to sustainable management of resource. The system needs to be rationalized, by developing autonomous participatory enterprises with long term sustainability objectives.
Development of value adding local processing of appropriate level of technology and
19
scale needs to be undertaken to capture and retain as much benefits as possible withinthe country. Since consumer products based on NWFP are highly specific on qualityand safety standards, development of related technology should be an integral part ofpromoting NWFP.
Ensuring of standard and stability of supply are vital conditions in international trade.This has to be achieved along with cost control to avoid the product being replaced bycheaper synthetic products. Development of new products, improvement of oldproducts, capturing of lost markets and promoting new markets will have to beundertaken, as relevant and appropriate, as part of the strategy for NWFPdevelopment. While promoting trade, local market for NWFP should not be neglected.
A major constraint related to all the above areas of action, in most countries, is thelack of basic information related to almost all aspects of NWFP. Setting up of acomprehensive database and information system is not easy, but essential for rationalplanning.
The need for strengthening research for solving of problems and improving technologycannot be overemphasised. Transfer of technology and adaptive research also need toget adequate emphasis in the overall scheme of NWFP development. Cooperation inresearch activities among the countries of the region through collaborative programmescan help avoid duplication and quicken the process of NWFP development. ARegional Information Network on Non-Wood Forest Products proposed earlier can alsobe used to exchange research information.
Other vital and essential ingredients in the whole process are adequate investment andefficient institutions. These include credit facilities on easy terms, extension support,an effective system of incentives linked to key objectives and target groups, andorganized participation of people.
International assistance as appropriate in key areas of NWFP development can play avery valuable and catalytic role.
An urgent need therefore is a comprehensive policy and strategy for development ofNWFP appropriately covering the above areas and aspects, backed by commitment foraction.
CONCLUSION
Non-wood forest products are an important natural resource which can support soundand sustainable forestry. There is significant potential for NWFP-based development in theAfrica region but this has not been adequately utilized due to several constraints which aretechnological, institutional and financial in nature.
In this regard a number of issues have been identified. They include among others:
19
scale needs to be undertaken to capture and retain as much benefits as possible wiUlin the country. Since consumer products based on NWFP are highly specific on quality and safety standards, development of related technology should be an integral part of promoting NWFP.
Ensuring of standard and stability of supply are vital conditions in international trade. This has to be achieved along with cost control to avoid the product being replaced by cheaper synthetic products. Development of new products, improvement of old products, capturing of lost markets and promoting new markets will have to be undertaken, as relevant and appropriate, as part of the strategy for NWFP development. While promoting trade, local market for NWFP should not be neglected.
A major constraint related to all the above areas of action, in most countries, is the lack of basic information related to almost all aspects of NWFP. Setting up of a comprehensive database and information system is not easy, but essential for rational planning.
The need for strengthening research for solving of problems and improving technology cannot be overemphasised. Transfer of technology and adaptive research also need to get adequate emphasis in the overall scheme of NWFP development. Cooperation in research activities among the countries of the region through collaborative programmes can help avoid duplication and quicken the process of NWFP development. A Regional Information Network on Non-Wood Forest Products proposed earlier can also be used to exchange research information.
Other vital and essential ingredients in the whole process are adequate investment and efficient institutions. These include credit facilities on easy terms, extension support, an effective system of incentives linked to key objectives and target groups, and organized participation of people.
International assistance as appropriate in key areas of NWFP development can playa very valuable and catalytic role.
An urgent need therefore is a comprehensive policy and strategy for development of NWFP appropriately covering the above areas and aspects, backed by commitment for action.
CONCLUSION
Non-wood forest products are an important natural resource which can support sound and sustainable forestry. There is significant potential for NWFP-based development in the Africa region but this has not been adequately utilized due to several constraints which are technological, institutional and financial in nature.
In this regard a number of issues have been identified. They include among others:
20
lack of a clear definition and classification of NWFP; lack of basic information; inadequateresource development, management and conservation; lack of adequate integration ofmanagement of wood and non-wood products; deforestation and land degradation; wastefuland inappropriate harvesting practices; lack of incentives for introducing and implementingsound technology; hurdles in the development of organized people's participation andentrepreneurship; unscientific and uncontrolled system of NWFP collection and the influenceof exploitative middlemen; lack of market orientation, supply fluctuations and inadequateadherence to quality; lack of competitiveness in the international market due to weaknessesin the chain of NWFP management and utilization; inadequate local processing facilities;inadequate research, lack of appropriate extension facilities, lack of facilities for skilldevelopment and training in areas related to NWFP; lack of adequate investment, anappropriate policy and strategy for development of NWFP; and lack of an adequately strongsystem of regional cooperation and collaboration.
For developing non-wood forest products, old ways of doing things would no longersuffice. Considerable and drastic improvements are needed, urgently.
SELECTED REFERENCES:
Anderson, D.M.W. et al. Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) from Niger- Comparison with1991 Other Sources and Potential Agroforestry Development. In
Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 447-452.
Anderson, D.H.W. Some Factors Influencing the Demand for Gum Arabic (Acacia1993 senegal) and Other Water-Soluble Tree Exudates. In Forest Ecology
and Management, 58 (1993), pp. 1-18.
Balick, M.J. and Mendelsohn R.: Assessing the Economic Value of TraditionalMedicines from Tropical Rain Forests. In Conservation Biology,Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1992.
Cunningham, A.13. African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface 13etween1993 Conservation and Primary Healthcare. People and Plants Working
Paper 1, UNESCO, Paris.
FAO Acacia and Prosopis in the Dry Forests of the Tropics. Prepared by A.L.1961 Griffith, FAO, Rome,
FAO Fruit Bearing Forest Trees, Forestry Paper 34. FAO, Rome.1982
FAO The Palmyra Palm: Potential and Perspectives. Plant Production and1983 Protection Paper 52. FAO, Rome.
20
lack of a clear definition and classification of NWFP; lack of basic information; inadequate resource development, management and conservation; lack of adequate integration of management of wood and non-wood products; deforestation and land degradation; wasteful and inappropriate harvesting practices; lack of incentives for introducing and implementing sound technology; hurdles in the development of organized people's participation and entrepreneurship; unscientific and uncontrolled system of NWFP collection and the influence of e~ploitative middlemen; lack of market orientation, supply fluctuations and inadequate adherence to quality; lack of competitiveness in the international market due to weaknesses in the chain of NWFP management and utilization; inadequate local processing facilities; inadequate research, lack of appropriate extension facilities, lack of facilities for skill development and training in areas related to NWFP; lack of adequate investment, an appropriate policy and strategy for development of NWFP; and lack of an adequately strong system of regional cooperation and collaboration.
For developing non-wood forest products, old ways of doing things would no longer suffice. Considerable and drastic improvements are needed, urgently.
SELECTED REFERENCES:
Anderson, D.M.W. et al. Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) from Niger- Comparison with 1991 Other Sources and Potential Agroforestry Development. In
Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, Vol. 19, No.6, pp. 447-452.
Anderson, D. H. W. Some Factors Influencing the Demand for Gum Arabic (Acacia 1993 senegal) and Other Water-Soluble Tree Exudates. Tn Forest Ecology
and Management, 58 (1993), pp. 1-18.
Balick, M.J. and Mendelsohn R.: Assessing the Economic Value of Traditional Medicines from Tropical Rain Forests. Tn Conservation Biology, Vol. 6, No.1, March 1992.
Cunningham, A. B. African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface Between 1993 Conservation and Primary Healthcare. People and Plants Working
Paper I, UNESCO, Paris.
FAO Acacia and Prosopis in the Dry Forests of the Tropics. Prepared by A.L. 1961 Griffith, FAD, Rome.
FAD Fruit Bearing Forest Trees. Forestry Paper 34. FAO, Rome. 1982
FAO The Palmyra Palm: Potential and Perspectives. Plant Production and 1983 Protection Paper 52. FAO, Rome.
21
FAO Selected Medicinal Plants. Plant Production and Protection Paper 53. FAO,1984 Rome.
FAO Some Medicinal Forest Plants of Africa and Latin America. Forestry Paper1986 67. FAO, Rome.
FAO Food and Fruit Bearing Forest Species (3 vols). Forestry Paper 44. FAO,1986 Rome.
FAO Edible Plants of Uganda: The Value of Wild and Cultivated Plants as Food.1988 FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 42/1. FAO, Rome.
FAO Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa. FAO1988 Conservation Guide 19, FAO, Rome.
FAO Forestry and Food Security. Forestry Paper 90. FAO, Rome.1989
FAO Household Food Security and Forestry: An Analysis of Socio Economic Issues.1989 Community Forestry Notes 1. FAO, Rome.
FAO Forestry and Nutrition: A Reference Manual, FAO, Rome.1989
FAO The Major Significance of Minor Forest Products: The Local Use and Value1990 of Forests in the West African Humid Forest Zone. Community
Forestry Notes 6. FAO, Rome.
FAO Non-Wood Forest Products: The Way Ahead. Forestry Paper 97. FAO, Rome.1991
FAO Forest, Trees and Food, FAO, Rome.1992
Fisseha, Y. and Milimo, J.T. Rural Small Scale Forest-Based Processing Enterprises1986 in Zambia, Report of a 1985 Pilot Study, FO:MISC/86/15. FAO,
Rome.
Poulsen, G. Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa. Unpublished report. (FAO1981 Documentation, 1981)
Packham, James. The Value of Indigenous Fruit-Bearing Trees in Miombo Woodland Areas1993 of South Central Africa. In ODI Rural Development Forestry Network Paper
15c, Summer 1993.
WHO Natural Resources and Human Health - Plants of Medicinal and Nutritional1991 Value. Proceedings of the First WHO Symposium on Plants and Health for All:
Scientific Advancement, Kobe, Japan, 26-28 August 1991.
21
FAO Selected Medicinal Plants. Plant Production and Protection Paper 53. FAO, 1984 Rome.
FAO Some Medicinal Forest Plants of Africa and Latin America. Forestry Paper 1986 67. FAO, Rome.
FAO Food and Fruit Bearing Forest Species (3 vols). Forestry Paper 44. FAO, 1986 Rome.
FAO Edible Plants of Uganda: The Value of Wild and Cultivated Plants as Food. 1988 FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 42/1. FAO, Rome.
FAO Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa. FAO 1988 Conservation Guide 19, FAO, Rome.
FAO Forestry and Food Security. Forestry Paper 90. FAO, Rome. 1989
FAO Household Food Security and Forestry: An Analysis of Socio Economic Issues. 1989 Community Forestry Notes 1. FAO, Rome.
FAO Forestry and Nutrition: A Reference Manual, FAO, Rome. 1989
FAO The Major Significance of Minor Forest Products: The Local Use and Value 1990 of Forests in the West African Humid Forest Zone. Community
Forestry Notes 6. FAO, Rome.
FAO Non-Wood Forest Products: The Way Ahead. Forestry Paper 97. FAO, Rome. 1991
FAO Forest, Trees and Food, FAO, Rome. 1992
Fisseha, Y. and Milimo, J. T. Rural Small Scale Forest-Based Processing Enterprises 1986 in Zambia, Report of a 1985 Pilot Study, FO:MISC/86/15. FAO,
Rome.
Poulsen, G. Non-Wood Forest Products In Africa. Unpublished report. (FAO 1981 Documentation, 1981)
Packham, James. The Value of Indigenous Fruit-Bearing Trees in Miombo Woodland Areas 1993 of South Central Africa. In ODI Rural Development Forestry Network Paper
15c, Summer 1993.
WHO 1991
Natural Resources and Human Health - Plants of Medicinal and Nutritional Value. Proceedings of the First WHO Symposium on Plants and Health for All: Scientific Advancement, Kobe, Japan, 26-28 August 1991.
22
WHO Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines, Programme on Traditional1991 Medicines. WHO, Geneva.WHO 1991
22
Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines. Programme on Traditional Medicines. WHO, Geneva.
23
ANNEX 1
SOME EXAMPLES OF TIIE CLASSIFICATIONS OF NON-WOOD/NON-TIMBERFOREST PRODUCTS/BENEFITS SEEN USED IN STUDIES AND REPORTS
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Fiber productsFood products
plant foodanimal food
Medicinal and costnetic plant productsExtractive productsAnimals and animal products other than foodMiscellaneous products
Animal products, of:InsectsBirdsReptilesFishMammals/larger animals
Plant products, of:Leaves GrassesBuds VinesFruits PalmsFlowers Larger plantsRoots Fungi/mushroomsBark
23
ANNEX 1
SOME EXA1\lPLES OF l1IE CLASSIFICATIONS OF NON-'VOOD/NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS/BENEFITS SEEN USED IN STUDIES AND REPORTS.
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
Fiber products Food products . plant food . animal food Medicinal and cosmetic plant products Extractive products Animals and animal products other than food Miscellaneous products
Animal products, of: Insects Birds Reptiles Fish Mammals/larger animals
Plant products, of: Leaves Buds Fruits Flowers Roots Bark
Grasses Vines Palms Larger plants Fungi/mushrooms
24
Animal products:Bush meatFur, hides and skinFeathers/plumesBones and hornsVenomSecretionsHoneyDyes/lacSilk
Plant products:FoodFodder/feedFiberFertiliserMedicinal extractsFragrances/flavouringsEssential oilsDyes/colorantsExcudatesThatch (organic construction material s)BambooRattanNon-wood ligno cellulosic materialsOrnamental materials
Wild animal products Honey and waxBeverages LatexChemicals MulchCork PharmaceuticalsDyes ResinDistillates SilkFibrous materials StimulantsFodder Edible productsGums
24 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Animal products: Bush meat Fur, hides and skin Feathers/plumes Bones and horns Venom Secretions Honey Dyes/lac Silk
Plant products: Food Fodder/feed Fiber Fertiliser Medicinal extracts Fragrances/ flavourings Essential oils Dyes/colorants Excudates Thatch (organic construction materials) Bamboo Rattan Non-wood ligno 'cel1ulosic materials Ornamental materials
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Wild animal products Beverages Chemicals Cork Dyes Distillates Fibrous materials Fodder Gums
Honey and wax Latex Mulch Pharmaceuticals Resin Silk Stimulants Edible products
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
25
Food productsSpices and condimentsCulinary herbsIndustrial plant oilsPlant gumsNatural pigmentsOleoresinsFibres and flossesVegetable tanning materials
Cork and barkFoodFodderWool and skinsTanninsChristmas treesDecorative materialsEssential and aromatic oilsOther
Addition of biomass fuel/fuelwoodand charcoal
tothose included under NWFP
Latex/gumsInsect productsIncense woodsEssential oilsPlant insecticidesMedicinal plantsWild plantsAnimals and animal productsMiscellaneous products
NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS
25
Food products Spices and condiments Culinary herbs Industrial plant oils Plant gums Natural pigments Oleoresins Fibres and flosses Vegetable tanning _materials
Cork and bark Food Fodder
Latex/gums Insect products Incense woods Essential oils Plant insecticides Medicinal plants Wild plants Animals and animal products Miscellaneous products
Wool and skins Tannins Christmas trees Decorative materials Essential and aromatic oils Other
NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS
Addition of biomass fuellfuelwood and charcoal
to those included under NWFP
26
NON-WOOD BENEFITS
Non-wood productsAnimal productsPlant products
ServicesConservation of genetic wealthand bio diversityWatershed managementClimatic influencesSoil improvementSupport to agriculture and range managementEcotourismHeritage valuesAmenity values
Non-wood productsAnimal productsPlant products
Environmental servicesProtectionWater quality and quantityGlobal climatic effectsNature conservationBio diversityLocal environmental functions
(microclimate, absorption ofnoise/pollution)
Social and cultural servicesHunting and fishingOther leisure pursuitsLandscape effectsHistorical importance
26
NON-WOOD BENEFITS
Non-wood products Animal products Plant products
Services Conservation of genetic wealth and bio diversity Watershed management Climatic influences Soil improvement Support to agriculture and range management Ecotourism Heritage values Amenity values
Non-wood products Animal products Plant products
Environmental services Protection Water quality and quantity Global cJimatic effects Nature conservation Bio diversity Local environmental functions
(microclimate, absorption of noise/pollution)
Social and cultural services Hunting and fishing Other leisure pursuits Landscape effects Historical importance
27
NON-TIMBER BENEFITS
Addition of biomass fuel/fuelwoodand charcoal
tothose included under NWFP
27
NON-TIMBER BENEFITS
Addition of biomass fueUfuelwood and charcoal
to those included under NWFP
3 Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: an Overview, by J D Keita,Regional Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Africa, Accra,Ghana.
3 Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa: an Overview, by J D Keita, Regional Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Africa, Accra, Ghana.
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN AFRICA
An Overview
J.D. KeitaRegional Forestry Officer
FAO Regional Office for Africa, ACCRA
1 - INTRODUCTION
"Early Man's interaction with and dependence on the forests was, for many years,almost exclusively centred on Non-timber Forest Products.
Somewhere down the course of history, timber and timber products assumed suchmajor importance in human affairs that they appeared to be the only significant out-put of the forests. They dominated in national and international trade statistics,were promoted rigorously in all sorts of media, adapted readily to the changingtastes of urban consumption, and generally basked in an exagerated measure of selfimportance.
For most rural populations, however, this prominence is ill founded. For thosewho come face to face, without relief, vvith the harrowing experiences of ill health,hunger and other forms of deprivation, the reality is the enormous contributionNon-wood Forest Products, in all their varied forms, make to all aspects of theirlives." (John Franvis, December 1991, Accra).
This declaration seems to be a fair reflection of the truth, especially in the tropicalbelt where no obligation of heating homes during severe winters did confer to tim-ber any early credentials of nobility. Yet it is hard to give proof of the importance ofthese Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs), because of lack of reliable sources ofinformation.
Most of the forest management systems, now applied throughout the World, ge-nerated in the temperate zone and are based on the principle of sustained yield oftimber production, considering NWFPs as secondary, even "minor" products.
Changing this patern of the forest production is not just changing the technicalprescriptions of the management systems, but also putting in more interactionsbeetween the forest systems and the communities using the resources.
The main objectives of this overview are :- to review the definitions commonly accepted of goods and services other than tim-ber, provided by the forests;
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN AFRICA
1 . INTRODUCTION
An Overview
J.D. Keita Regional Forestry Officer
FAO Regional Office for Africa, ACCRA
"Early Man's interaction with and dependence on the forests was, for many years,
almost exclusively centred on Non-timber Forest Products.
Somewhere down the course of history, timber and timber products assumed such
major importance in human affairs that they appeared to be the only significant out
put of the forests. They dominated in national and international trade statistics,
were promoted rigorously in all sorts of media, adapted readily to the changing
tastes of urban consumption, and generally basked in an exagerated measure of self
importance.
For most rural populations, however, this prominence is ill founded. For those
who come face to face, without relief, with the harrowing experiences of ill health,
hunger and other forms of deprivation, the reality is the enormous contribution
Non-wood Forest Products, in all their varied forms, make to all aspects of their
lives." (John Fran~ois, December 1991, Accra).
This declaration seems to be a fair reflection of the truth, especially in the tropical
belt where no obligation of heating homes during severe winters did confer to tim
ber any early credentials of nobility. Yet it is hard to give proof of the importance of
these Non-wood Forest Products (NWFPs), because of lack of reliable sources of
information.
Most of the forest management systems, now applied throughout the World, ge
nerated in the temperate zone and are based on the principle of sustained yield of
timber production, considering NWFPs as secondary, even "minor" products.
Changing this patern of the forest production is not just changing the technical
prescriptions of the management systems, but also putting in more interactions
beetween the forest systems and the communities using the resources.
The main objectives of this overview are :
- to review the definitions commonly accepted of goods and services other than tim
ber, provided by the forests;
- to review a few sources of information, in view of ascertaining the importance ofthese goods and services in the life of the rural folks, especially in Africa;
- to sug,gest some steps on the way ahead, in promoting the NWFPs to the same rank
as timber products in the forest management systems to provide more benefits tocommunities.
2- DEFINITIONS OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
In one of its last publications on the subject, (FAO Forestry Paper n° 97, March1991), the FAO gave the following list of NWFPs : "the products include,the use ofplants for food, beverages, forage, fuel and medicine, animals, birds, reptiles andfishes for food, fur and feathers, and their products such as honey, lac, silk, etc... andthe services of land for conservation and recreation". In this definition, NWFPs aredivided into products sensu stricto, and services; products are themselves groupedinto animal products and plant products.
However, FAO would prefer a definition which will make mention of the sustai-nability of the supply of these products and therefore, NWFPs are defined as allgoods and services for commercial, industrial and subsistence use derived from fo-rests and their biomass which can be sustainably extracted, i.e. extracted from a fo-rest ecosystem in quantities and ways that do not alter its basic reproductive func-tions.
A meeting of the Joint Working Party on Forest Economics and Statistics of theTimber Committee of the Economic Commission for Europe and the FAO Euro-pean Forestry Commission, to prepare a study on the outlook for the Non-woodGoods and Services of the forests in Europe, ga-ve a preliminary classification. Inthis attempt, mention is made of Goods and Services with greater emphasis on Ser-vices grouped into environmental services and social and cultural services.
Specifically, the Group mentioned that, "as a result of UNCED Agenda 21, theConventions on Biodiversity and Climate Change, internationally agreed prioritieshad already been given to services of the forest such as biodiversity and carbon sto-rage and the exchange of CO-2 between forests and the atmosphere".
Considering however the rural communities in Africa, one can wonder if it is notmore appropriate to define the NWFPs by calling the functions they play in ruralhouseholds and agro-forestry and community forestry production systems and there-fore sustaining rural life. These fiinctions are : food production and food security,forest medicines, house construction materials, agricultural production equipment,income generating by gathering, processing and trading extractive products such as
- to review a few sources of information, in view of ascertaining the importance of these goods and services in the life of the rural folks, especially in Africa; - to suggest some steps on the way ahead, in promoting the NWFPs to the same rank as timber products in the forest management systems to provide more benefits to communities.
2- DEFINITIONS OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
In one of its last publications on the subject, (FAO Forestry Paper n° 97, March 1991), the FAO gave the following list of NWFPs : "the products inc1ude,the use of plants for food, beverages, forage, fuel and medicine, animals, birds, reptiles and fishes for food, fur and feathers, and their products such as honey, lac, silk, etc ... and the services of land for conservation and recreation". In this definition, NWFPs are divided into products sensu stricto, and services; products are themselves grouped into animal products and plant products.
However, FAO would prefer a definition which will make mention of the sustainability of the supply of these products and therefore, NWFPs are defined as all goods and services for commercial, industrial and subsistence use derived from forests and their biomass which can be sustainably extracted, i.e. extracted from a forest ecosystem in quantities and ways that do not alter its basic reproductive functions.
A meeting of the Joint Working Party on Forest Economics and Statistics of the Timber Committee of the Economic Commission for Europe and the F AO European Forestry Commission, to prepare a study on the outlook for the Non-wood Goods and Services of the forests in Europe, gave a preliminary classification. In this attempt, mention is made of Goods and Services with greater emphasis on Services grouped into environmental services and social and cultural services.
Specifically, the Group mentioned that, "as a result of UNCED Agenda 21, the Conventions on Biodiversity and Climate Change, internationally agreed priorities had already been given to services of the forest such as biodiversity and carbon storage and the exchange of CO2 between forests and the atmosphere".
Considering however the rural communities in Mrica, one can wonder if it is not more appropriate to define the NWFPs by calling the functions they play in rural households and agro-forestry and community forestry production systems and therefore sustaining rural life. These functions are : food production and food security, forest medicines, house construction materials, agricultural production equipment, income generating by gathering, processing and trading extractive products such as
gum, resin, oils, leaves, fruits, etc...It is only in that way that it will be possible toreally ascertain the significance of the non-wood forest resources for rural commu-nities and therefore, determine what priority should be given to the different pro-ducts and services which play an important role in the very subsistence life of peo-ple.
3- THE IMPORTANCE OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
3.1- Even though some of the NWFPs are used and traded on long distances insideas well as outside Africa, since a long time ago, it is still very difficult to come ac-cross reliable figures concerning their production and trade. Some of these productslike tree gums, shea butter, rubber, cola, tamarind, ivory, etc..., were the first mostimportant products traded between Africa and the other continents.
After the end of the slave trade, it was the trade in Arabic gum that fuelled thetrade between France and West Africa, leading to the signing of the first 'Traitésd'Amitié et de Libre Circulation et de Commerce", with the States along the Sene-gal River, later transformed into "Traités de Protectorat" and the whole process en-ded finally with the colonial conquest.
Arabic gum, (Acacia senegal and other Acacia spp.), is still traded in Mauritania,Senegal and Mali, but, data concerning it, are now aggregated with Miscellaneousitems. However, it is still a very important commodity for Sudan where a productionof about 40,000 T. was registered in 1987; its export represented a value of 267.1million Sudanese Pounds, (18% of Sudan total export in value).
The shea nuts and butter, (Butyrospermum paradoxa, Gaertn. f var. Parkii), had al-so retained its status of traditional export commodity in most of the countries loca-ted in the Sudano-Guinean belt in West Africa; data are however often aggregatedwith Miscellaneous exports in official statistics. In Burldna Faso, one of the least de-
velopped countries, 70,000 T of shea butter and nuts were traded in 1985/86, earning4.9 billion CFA Fr., (175 million US Dollars). This trade represented 1.16% of theGDP and 11.5% of the total export earnings of the country that financial year.
The trade of cola nuts, (Cola nitida, Scott and End», between the forest belt ofWest and Central Africa and the Sudano-Sahelian belt, is at the very origin of thecreation of major States and Kingdoms. Merchants in this trade helped a lot in buil-ding links between tribes and clans as well as regions, thus creating conditions tobuild up larger economic environments and finally setting into motion the process ofcreating political states.
gum, resin, oils, leaves, fruits, etc .. .!t is only in that way that it will be possible to really ascertain the significance of the non-wood forest resources for rural communities and therefore, determine what priority should be given to the different products and services which play an important role in the very subsistence life of people.
3- THE IMPORTANCE OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
3.1- Even though some of the NWFPs are used and traded on long distances inside as well as outside Africa, since a long time ago, it is still very difficult to come accross reliable figures concerning their production and trade. Some of these products like tree gums, shea butter, rubber, cola, tamarind, ivory, etc ... , were the first most important products traded between Africa and the other continents.
After the end of the slave trade, it was the trade in Arabic gum that fuelled the trade between France and West Africa, leading to the signing of the first "Traites d'Amitie et de Libre Circulation et de Commerce", with the States along the Senegal River, later transformed into 'Traites de Protectorat" and the whole process ended finally with the colonial conquest.
Arabic gum, (Acacia senegal and other Acacia spp.), is still traded in Mauritania, Senegal and Mali, but, data concerning it, are now aggregated with Miscellaneous items. However, it is still a very important commodity for Sudan where a production of about 40,000 T. was registered in 1987; its export represented a value of 267.1 million Sudanese Pounds, (18% of Sudan total export in value).
The shea nuts and butter, (Butyrospermum paradoxa, Gaerln. [var. Parkii), had also retained its status of traditional export commoaity in most of the countries located in the Sudano-Guinean belt in West Africa; data are however often aggregated with Miscellaneous exports in official statistics. In Burkina Faso, one of the least developped countries, 70,000 T of shea butter and nuts were traded in 1985/86, earning 4.9 billion CFA Fr., (175 million US Dollars). This trade represented 1.16% of the GDP and 11.5% of the total export earnings of the country that financial year.
The trade of cola nuts, (Cola nitida, Scott and Endl), between the forest belt of West and Central Africa and the Sudano-Sahelian belt, is at the very origin of the creation of major States and Kingdoms. Merchants in this trade helped a lot in building links between tribes and clans as well as regions, thus creating conditions to build up larger economic environments and finally setting into motion the process of creating political states.
3
Official statistics mention the cola trade in non-formal trade commodity and ge-nerally, only estimates are available. In Ghana, it was estimated that cola exportamounted to 740 T in 1990, which is very far from the reality. In Cameroun, esti-mates gave a production of 22,500 T in 1981 and an export of 1,100 T earning 122.6million CFA Fr.
3.2- When it comes to locally traded NWFPs, it is even more difficult to get quanti-tative figures on their production, trade and value. However, there is already anabundant literature on the trade of game meat, known also as bushmeat, particularlyin the forest belt, (Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic and Zaire),but also in some parts of southern Africa, (Botswana, Zimbabwe, etc...).
In Central African Republic, surveys revealed that 197 traders, (out of whom 177are women), are registered in Bangui as only bushmeat traders; the total sale ofbushmeat amounts to 730 T. per year. It has also been found that the national ave-rage consumption of bushmeat in the whole country reaches 25 kg. per person peryear. The contribution of bushmeat to the GDP of Central African Republic, is 37billion CFA Fr which represent a little more than 10%.
Another survey conducted in Bukavu, Zaire, (1987), indicated that 72% of the po-pulation in the town consume bushmeat regularly and that about 400 T.representthe yearly bushmeat consumption of the town.
Similar studies were conducted in Ghana, Nigeria and Botswana, leading to somereliable figures on the intake of wild animal protein in these countries; some studiesfocused their interest on the importance of cash income from sale of bushmeat, (Ni-geria).
3.3- Many other NWFPs are traded locally but their shares in the local economiesare significant, even though they are often products of very local nature. There arealready a lot of studies on them; some of these studies are recorded in an FAOCommunity Forestry Series, (n° 6).
In a study in Southern Ghana, it is for instance noted that Marantaceae leaves playa very important role in Ashanti region in the industry of wrapping "vegetables, fish,cola nuts, soap, and salt and are the only material used to wrap cooked foods, nota-bly rice, yam, beans, kenkey, (fermented maize dough), and fried plantain". Out of300 food sellers interviewed in Kumasi market, only one uses alternative material towrap food, especially cooked food. Marantaceae leaves give better flavor to foodand withstand boiling.
Official statistics mention the cola trade in non-formal trade commodity and ge
nerally, only estimates are available. In Ghana, it was estimated that cola export
amounted to 740 T in 1990, which is very far from the reality. In Cameroun, esti
mates gave a production of 22,500 Tin 1981 and an export of 1,100 T earning 122.6
million CFA Fr.
3.2- When it comes to locally traded NWFPs, it is even more difficult to get quanti
tative figures on their production, trade and value. However, there is already an
abundant literature on the trade of game meat, known also as bushmeat, particularly
in the forest belt, (Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic and Zaire),
but also in some parts of southern Mrica, (Botswana, Zimbabwe, etc ... ).
In Central Mrican Republic, surveys revealed that 197 traders, (out of whom 177
are women), are registered in Bangui as only bushmeat traders; the total sale of
bushmeat amounts to 730 T. per year. It has also been found that the national ave
rage consumption of bushmeat in the whole country reaches 25 kg. per person per
year. The contribution of bushmeat to the GDP of Central Mrican Republic, is 37
billion CF A Fr which represent a little more than 10%.
Another survey conducted in Bukavu, Zaire, (1987), indicated that 72% of the po
pulation in the town consume bush meat regularly and that about 400 T.represent
the yearly bushmeat consumption of the town.
Similar studies were conducted in Ghana, Nigeria and Botswana, leading to some
reliable figures on the intake of wild animal protein in these countries; some studies
focused their interest on the importance of cash income from sale of bushmeat, (Ni
geria).
3.3- Many other NWFPs are traded locally but their shares in the local economies
are significant, even though they are often products of very local nature. There are
already a lot of studies on them; some of these studies are recorded in an F AO
Community Forestry Series, (n° 6).
In a study in Southern Ghana, it is for instance noted that Marantaceae leaves play
a very important role in Ashanti region in the industry of wrapping "vegetables, fish,
cola nuts, soap, and salt and are the only material used to wrap cooked foods, notably rice, yam, beans, kenkey, (fermented maize dough), and fried plantain". Out of
300 food sellers interviewed in Kumasi market, only one uses alternative material to
wrap food, especially cooked food. Marantaceae leaves give better flavor to food
and withstand boiling.
4
The report goes on giving quantitative information on the number of people, (ge-nerally women and children), engaged in gathering the leaves, quantity of leaves ga-thered and value; information on the traders and the trade pattern are also recor-ded.
The same report mentions the trade in Chewstick, which involves the productionof about 4-20 million bundles sold in Kumasi for a value of 280 million cedis mon-thly. The chewsticks "provide the main means of dental care for more than 90% ofthe people in Southern Ghana".
Medicinal products from the forests are among the locally traded products withlow value in monetary terms, but play a fundamental role in the rural productionsystems by providing almost the entire health care to the people. It is therefore easyto have an indication of the real value of these medicinal products by estimating theopportunity cost. If, for instance, the whole population of Ghana would have to relyon modern medicine, it will be necessary to multiply the national bill for drug supplyby 90, as almost 90% of the population, rural as well as urban, rely on traditionalmedical treatments, mainly based on natural products from the forests.
3.4- Apart from this fundamental health care function, NWFPs play a major func-tion in food Production and food security, the scale of which however varies;NWFPs provide food and cash income by gathering, processing and trading them;they provide in some cases, the only source of cash in the rural areas. Food securitywas defined as "the economic and physical access to food, of all people, at all times".Forest foods are the only ones rural dwellers have direct and free access to and the-refore, are the first to be called upon in cases of emergencies, (drought, famines,etc...). Forest foods are also generally dietary supp.lement, providing the bulk of sup-ply in minerals and vitamins. While the Pygmies of Central African Republic get alltheir food supply from the forests, the Ferio desert herdsmen in Senegal, get theirvitamin requirements and indispensable salts from the perennial shrubs like Bosciasenegalensis, (Barbara Becker, 1983).
There are presently a lot of local studies on this subject of forests contributions tofood security, giving interesting figures on foods produced by the forest ecosystemsand the NWFPs'contributions to the cash economy in rural areas. Added to that, butmay be most important, is the large array of services rendered to the agric sector bytrees and forests, which improve the food production : soil improvement, waterconservation, fodder production for livestock, etc... These services are more andmore tapped to develop agroforestry technologies and other low cost and environ-
The report goes on giving quantitative information on the number of people, (generally women and children), engaged in gathering the leaves, quantity of leaves gathered and value; information on the traders and the trade pattern are also recorded.
The same report mentions the trade in Chewstick, which involves the production of about 4-20 million bundles sold in Kumasi for a value of 280 million cedis monthly. The chewsticks "provide the main means of dental care for more than 90% of the people in Southern Ghana".
Medicinal products from the forests are among the locally traded products with low value in monetary terms, but play a fundamental role in the rural production systems by providing almost the entire health care to the people. It is therefore easy to have an indication of the real value of these medicinal products by estimating the opportunity cost. If, for instance, the whole population of Ghana would have to rely on modern medicine, it will be necessary to multiply the national bill for drug supply by 90, as almost 90% of the population, rural as well as urban, rely on traditional medical treatments, mainly based on natural products from the forests.
3.4- Apart from this fundamental health care function, NWFPs playa major function in food production and food security, the scale of which however varies; NWFPs provide food and cash income by gathering, processing and trading them; they provide in some cases, the only source of cash in the rural areas. Food security was defined as "the economic and physical access to food, of all people, at all times". Forest foods are the only ones rural dwellers have direct and free access to and therefore, are the first to be called upon in cases o! emergencies, (drought, famines, etc ... ). Forest foods are also generally dietary supplement, providing the bulk of supply in minerals and vitamins. While the Pygmies of Central African Republic get all their food supply from the forests, the FerIo desert herdsmen in Senegal, get their vitamin requirements and indispensable salts from the perennial shrubs like Boscia senegalensis, (Barbara Becker, 1983).
There are presently a lot of local studies on this subject of forests contributions to food security, giving interesting figures on foods produced by the forest ecosystems and the NWFPs' contributions to the cash economy in rural areas. Added to that, but may be most important, is the large array of services rendered to the agric sector by trees and forests, which improve the food production: soil improvement, water conservation, fodder production for livestock, etc ... These services are more and more tapped to develop agroforestry technologies and other low cost and environ-
ment friendly production systems. The development of these technologies giveshope to setting up sustainable agricultural production systems.
It may be interesting to mention here the case of the relation between milk pro-duction and the availability of green leaves of trees and shrubs in the ranges in aridand semi-arid areas. During the dry season in these areas, grasses are completely dryand do not contain any caroten, the nitrogen elements represent only 1% of thedried matter; thus the only source of digestible nitrogenous matter comes from theleaves of trees and shrubs. It is therefore easy to imagine the importance of treesand shrubs in the ranges for these pastoral communities where milk is one of themost important staple foods.
3.5- There are other very important services which, even though very newly promo-ted, forests are rendering to humanity as a whole. These are, firstly the overall regu-lating function of life on the Earth and secondly, the preservation of the biodiversityand therefore the gene store function forests are playing.
It is a well known fact that life on Earth is possible as a result of a balanced com-bination of certain gases in the atmosphere around the Planet. Carbon dicodde,(CO2), is one of them. With the recent tremendous development of human activi-ties, the release of more carbon dicodde is causing arudety. Forests have the ability toabsorb but also to release CO2, and therefore, can be used in the regulation processof the content of this gas in the atmosphere.
Retaining all the genes and forms of life is also one of the greatest service forestscan render to humanity. It is obvious that progress that man could, and in fact mustmake, so as to improve his living conditions, will greatly depend upon the gene re-servoir constituted by the forest ecosystems.
We are not however going to dwell on these two special services; we are not evengoing to pay too much attention to traditionally mentioned services such as the di-verse forms of support given to agricultural production systems by forests and trees,nor forest contributions to leisure and tourism industries. Rather, we are moreconcerned here with the goods and services the supply or deficit of which have di-rect impact on rural communities. These are : the food products from the forests,the role it plays as food insurance store and food supplement to improve the qualityof diet, materials for building and construction, products to be gathered, processedtransformed and traded for cash income, etc...
The ideal situation would be for mankind to harvest all these goods and enjoy thebenefits of these services on a sustained basis. It will be of course difficult to attainthis on the same land; the solution will be therefore to find diverse appropriate com-
ment friendly production systems. The development of these technologies gives hope to setting up sustainable agricultural production systems.
It may be interesting to mention here the case of the relation between milk production and the availability of green leaves of trees and shrubs in the ranges in arid and semi-arid areas. During the dry season in these areas, grasses are completely dry and do not contain any caroten, the nitrogen elements represent only 1 % of the dried matter; thus the only source of digestible nitrogenous matter comes from the leaves of trees and shrubs. It is therefore easy to imagine the importance of trees and shrubs in the ranges for these pastoral communities where milk is one of the most important staple foods.
3.5- There are other very important services which, even though very newly promoted, forests are rendering to humanity as a whole. These are, firstly the overall regulating function of life on the Earth and secondly, the preservation of the biodiversity and therefore the gene store function forests are playing.
It is a well known fact that life on Earth is possible as a result of a balanced combination of certain gases in the atmosphere around the Planet. Carbon dioxide, (CO2), is one of them. With the recent tremendous development of human activities, the release of more carbon dioxide is causing anxiety. Forests have the ability to absorb but also to release COl, and therefore, can be used in the regulation process of the content of this gas in the atmosphere.
Retaining all the genes and forms of life is also one of the greatest service forests can render to humanity. It is obvious that progress that man could, and in fact must make, so as to improve his living conditions, will greatly depend upon the gene reservoir constituted by the forest ecosystems.
We are not however going to dwell on these two special services; we are not even going to pay too much attention to traditionally mentioned services such as the diverse forms of support given to agricultural production systems by forests and trees, nor forest contributions to leisure and tourism industries. Rather, we are more concerned here with the goods and services the supply or deficit of which have direct impact on rural communities. These are : the food products from the forests, the role it plays as food insurance store and food supplement to improve the quality of diet, materials for building and construction, products to be gathered, processed transformed and traded for cash income, etc ...
The ideal situation would be for mankind to harvest all these goods and enjoy the benefits of these services on a sustained basis. It will be of course difficult to attain this on the same land; the solution will be therefore to find diverse appropriate com-
binations to harvest locally valued goods, but at the same time, cater for the needs topreserve the Earth's diversity.
4- THE WAY AHEAD
4.1- We are here going to limit ourselves to two questions :- First, how to manage forests in order to obtain a sustainable yield of products, i.e.timber, fuelwood and/or the multiplicity of NWFPs.- Second, how to organize the cooperation between countries and Regiorks so thatknowledge and experiences could be shared.
The first question should be taclded locally. It is in essence at threee levels: it issocial, i.e. the communities should be involved in the full process of forest resourcemanagement and land ownership or land tenure ageements should be granted; it istechnical, ecological knowledge and sustainabie resource management ; it is econo-mic, i.e. incentives should be given to encourage and improve methodologies for na-tural resource valuation and accounting. These problems have a common denomi-nator, it is a political issue.
The second problem is an institutional and communication issue. Networks couldbe an appropriate mechanism or tool to monitor and evaluate progress at national,regional and inter-regional levels.
4.2- Let us first concentrate on the problem of people's and communities' partici-pation. It is finally the most important and of course the most difficult one. As alrea-dy stated, most of the forestry management systems applied throughout the World,were born in the temperate regions, where winter 'temperatures compelled the peo-ple to build and heat their homes, using timber, the most appropriate and availableresource. Later on, management systems of the forests were set up to secure thesupply of the timber. This management system, looldng at only one product, the tim-ber, is finally very simple.
In the Tropics, timber is on the contrary, a secondary product of the forests, in factthe less utilized resource; for communities in the Tropics, the most valued resourcesof the forests are the non-wood products like the forest foods, the medicinal plants,the land for agriculture, etc...
It is not therefore surprising that communities in the Tropics did not understandthe logic of the temperate zone style of forest management systems and, in fact, acti-vities of foresters in the tropical belt, generated a lot of controversy. However, onehas to credit the foresters for the fact that they realized themselves very early that
binations to harvest locally valued goods, but at the same time, cater for the needs to preserve the Earth's diversity.
4- THE WAY AHEAD
4.1- We are here going to limit ourselves to two questions : - First, how to manage forests in order to obtain a sustainable yield of products, i.e. timber, fuelwood and/or the multiplicity of NWFPs. - Second, how to organize the cooperation between countries and Regions so that knowledge and experiences could be_ shared.
The first question should be tackled locally. It is in essence at threee levels: it is social, i.e. the communities should be involved in the full process of forest resource management and land ownership or land tenure agreements should be granted; it is technical, ecological knowledge and sustainable resource management; it is economic, i.e. incentives should be given to encourage and improve methodologies for natural resource valuation and accounting. These problems have a common denominator, it is a political issue.
The second problem is an institutional and communication issue. Networks could be an appropriate mechanism or tool to monitor and evaluate progress at national, regional and inter-regional levels.
4.2- Let us first concentrate on the problem of people's and communities' participation. It is finally the most important and of course the most difficult one. As already stated, most of the forestry management systems applied throughout the World, were born in the temperate regions, where winter 'temperatures compelled the people to build and heat their homes, using timber, the most appropriate and available resource. Later on, management systems of the forests were set up to secure the supply of the timber. This management system, looking at only one product, the timber, is finally very simple.
In the Tropics, timber is on the contrary, a secondary product of the forests, in fact the less utilized resource; for communities in the Tropics, the most valued resources of the forests are the non-wood products like the forest foods, the medicinal plants, the land for agriculture, etc ...
It is not therefore surprising that communities in the Tropics did not understand the logic of the temperate zone style of forest management systems and, in fact, activities of foresters in the tropical belt, generated a lot of controversy. However, one has to credit the foresters for the fact that they realized themselves very early that
they were venturing into a more difficult terrain and that they have, more than in thetemperate zone, to involve the communities in the more complex management sys-tems which they should promote. This is why they come out with a lot of conceptualframeworks, all of them geared towards involving in one way or the other, peopleand communities : community forestry, rural forestry, participatory forestry, "fores-terie villageoise", "bois de village", agroforestry, etc....
However, the main objective, (but hidden), of all these promoted concepts, was infact, to get conununities involved in preserving the forest reserves. They foccused oncreating forest resources outside the established Forest Estate by plantation and na-tural forest management programmes, in view of allowing communities to continueusing forest resources without any ldnd of "disturbances" in the forest reserves.
4.3- Recently, some other conceptual approaches were designed, but are yet to beimplemented. Among them is the "collaborative forest management" system. It isone of the progranunes of the Forest Resources Management Project, (FRMP), ofGhana. "It is taken to mean all forms of interaction between local people and theForestry Department which enhance the management of the resources and improvethe flow of benefits to local people".
This approach is in fact very flexible. "It encompasses a range of initiatives. It maybegin with simply talldng to people living near reserves about Forestry Departmentactivities or occasional liaison on specific resource use issues. It could take the formof negotiations with user groups over NWFPs permit rates or the incorporation oflocal knowledge into silviculture of an NWFP. Alternatively, a local communitymight formally accept responsibility for developping a resource in return of guaran-teed rights of access. The potential is there for co'llaboration to assist the ForestryDepartment in its efforts to sustainably manage the forest estate. The form the in-teraction will take vvill depend on local circumstances....". Foresters therefore, be-come partners of all those interested in the uses of NWFPs of the forests.
4.4- The very end result of the collaborative management is the concept of "com-mon property" approach to forestry management, (gestion patrimoniale des foréts),where the unit responsible for the management is composed of groups, each ofwhich considers the resource as their common property. Resource management, fo-rest operations and use of common property rights need consensus of all stakehol-ders who will have to implement his part of the activities freely, but towards a com-mun goal. Negotiation will be favoured rather than confrontation over ownershiprights and duties.
they were venturing into a more difficult terrain and that they have, more than in the temperate zone, to involve the communities in the more complex management sys
tems which they should promote. This is why they come out with a lot of conceptual
frameworks, all of them geared towards involving in one way or the other, people and communities: community forestry, rural forestry, participatory forestry, "fores
terie villageoise", "bois de village", agroforestry, etc .... However, the main objective, (but hidden), of all these promoted concepts, was in
fact, to get communities involved in preserving the forest reserves. They foccused on creating forest resources outside the established Forest Estate by plantation and natural forest management programmes, in view of allowing communities to continue using forest resources without any kind of "disturbances" in the forest reserves.
4.3- Recently, some other conceptual approaches were designed, but are yet to be implemented. Among them is the "collaborative forest management" system. It is one of the programmes of the Forest Resources Management Project, (FRMP), of
Ghana. "It is taken to mean all forms of interaction between local people and the Forestry Department which enhance the management of the resources and improve the flow of benefits to local people".
This approach is in fact very flexible. "It encompasses a range of initiatives. It may begin with simply talking to people living near reserves about Forestry Department activities or occasional liaison on specific resource use issues. It could take the form of negotiations with user groups over NWFPs permit rates or the incorporation of local knowledge into silviculture of an NWFP. Alternatively, a local community
might formally accept responsibility for developping a resource in return of guaranteed rights of access. The potential is there for collaboration to assist the Forestry Department in its efforts to sustainably manage the forest estate. The form the in
teraction will take will depend on local circumstances .... ". Foresters therefore, become partners of all those interested in the uses of NWFPs of the forests.
4.4- The very end result of the collaborative management is the concept of "common property" approach to forestry management, (gestion patrimoniale des forets),
where the unit responsible for the management is composed of groups, each of which considers the resource as their common property. Resource management, forest operations and use of common property rights need consensus of all stakehol
ders who will have to implement his part of the activities freely, but towards a commun goal. Negotiation will be favoured rather than confrontation over ownership rights and duties.
The result vvill be of course a more complex forest management system; it willneed more research into technical, ecological and economic problems, as well as so-cial and political ones. Once again, one has to emphasise on the complexity of forestmanagement systems based on sustainability of non-wood goods production. This isdue to the multiplicity of products, their actual uses, the uncertainty on their futureuses the biological diversity of the systems and finally, the anthropogenic influences.
4.5- It is essential to encourage and help countries to implement projects dealingwith the problem in all its various forms, to test promising approaches and mecha-nisms, to promote applied research in developping improved silvicultural manage-ment systems, to set up a proper monitoring and evaluation system of all pro-grammes and projects implemented to promote NWFPs.
It will be important that experiences gained be known by and benefit the peopleconcerned. Countries should be encouraged and helped to establish data banks tostore all valuable information and organize networks among institutions, (govern-mental and non-governmental), and experts working on NWFPs, to share the expe-riences gained.
The search for information and experiences on NWFPs should concern two as-pects : sustainable resource management and resource valuation.
Concerning the problem of resource valuation, it has been already mentioned thata lot of information has been generated on the subject. However, it may first be ne-cessary to design and formulate methodological guidelines for quantitative surveysof the products and for exercises aiming at giving them economic values; The use ofthe already existing data will be facilitated and of course, gathering and dissemina-ting the information will be facilitated by simplifying and uniformizing the methodo-logies. The use of the information will be more productive if there are possibilitiesof comparison between results.
Concerning sustainable resources management, the process will not be very diffe-rent : collection of data from available experiences, review and evaluation of them,designing and formulating guidelines to orient future actions.
4.6- The survey and evaluation of the socio-economic importance of the NWFPsand the technical evaluation of experiences on forest management based on the sus-tained production of NWFPs, should lead to the building up of data banlcs at natio-nal, regional and inter-regional levels, managed by corresponding networks.
For a start, databanks and networks should cater for socio-economic as well asmanagement problems. However, different guidelines should be designed for va-
Ef
The result will be of course a more complex forest management system; it will
need more research into technical, ecological and economic problems, as well as so
cial and political ones. Once again, one has to emphasise on the complexity of forest
management systems based on sustainability of non-wood goods production. This is
due to the multiplicity of products, their actual uses, the uncertainty on their future
uses the biological diversity of the systems and finally, the anthropogenic influences.
4.5- It is essential to encourage and help countries to implement projects dealing
with the problem in all its various forms, to test promising approaches and mecha
nisms, to promote applied research in developping improved silvicultural manage
ment systems, to set up a proper monitoring and evaluation system of all pro
grammes and projects implemented to promote NWFPs.
It will be important that experiences gained be known by and benefit the people
concerned. Countries should be encouraged and helped to establish data banks to
store all valuable information and organize networks among institutions, (govern
mental and non-governmental), and experts working on NWFPs, to share the expe
riences gained.
The search for information and experiences on NWFPs should concern two as
pects : sustainable resource management and resource valuation.
Concerning the problem of resource valuation, it has been already mentioned that
a lot of information has been generated on the subject. However, it may first be ne
cessary to design and formulate methodological guidelines for quantitative surveys
of the products and for exercises aiming at giving them economic values; The use of
the already existing data will be facilitated and of course, gathering and disseminating the information will be facilitated by simplifying and uniformizing the methodo
logies. The use of the information will be more productive if there are possibilities
of comparison between results.
Concerning sustainable resources management, the process will not be very different : collection of data from available experiences, review and evaluation of them,
designing and formulating guidelines to orient future actions.
4.6- The survey and evaluation of the socio-economic importance of the NWFPs
and the technical evaluation of experiences on forest management based on the sus
tained production of NWFPs, should lead to the building up of data banks at natio
nal, regional and inter-regional levels, managed by corresponding networks.
For a start, databanks and networks should cater for socio-economic as well as management problems. However, different guidelines should be designed for va-
9
luing the socio-economic benefits of the NWFPs and for the management of the re-sources. It will also be usefull to establish two lists of experts with a high degree ofcompetence, one on socio-economic aspects and one on sustainable natural re-source management systems.
To improve the knowledge and sldlls of people engaged in promoting the NWFPsthrough sustainable resource management systems, it will be very useful' to organizegood exchanges of experience : study tours, workshops and seminars designed tomake in-depth analysis of some success stories and failures.
5- CONCLUSION
NWFPs are caracterized by their multiplicity and the fact that they are productsgenerally of very local significance. It is difficult to make quantitative surveys andvalue their roles and functions for the communities, particularly in terms of econo-mic importance. It will be therefore a very difficult task to establish resource mana-gement systems providing a sustained flow of these products. While their multiplici-ty does make technical problems more complicated, especially combining in an opti-mum manner the biological forces, the uncertainty surrounding their future uses forthe human societies concerned and other anthropogenic factors which can interferein the process, will call into question the objectives of resource management pro-grammes.
However, these constraints should be considered opportunities for actions andshould stimulate research in developing the NWFPs sector. There is now a growingconcern about communities participation in conservation and management of thenatural resources and the massive presence of the non-govemmental organisationsrepresent good opportunities in dealing with some of the grassroot level problemsto which goverrunental agencies are desperately confronted. The recent UNCEDmeeting has further raised awareness among Governments, on the importance ofNWFPs, thus giving good momentum to activities related to sustainable natural re-source management.
The follovving activities can be recommended :
to undertake a classification of NWFPs,to develop a standard method for the inventory of NWFPs,to undertake studies in order to acquire information on the sustainable harves-
ting levels of NWFPs,
luing the socio-economic benefits of the NWFPs and for the management of the resources. It will also be usefull to establish two lists of experts with a high degree of competence, one on socio-economic aspects and one on sustainable natural resource management systems.
To improve the knowledge and skills of people engaged in promoting the NWFPs through sustainable resource management systems, it will be very usefull to organize good exchanges of experience : study tours, workshops and seminars designed to make in-depth analysis of some success stories and failures.
5- CONCLUSION
NWFPs are caracterized by their multiplicity and the fact that they are products generally of very local significance. It is difficult to make quantitative surveys and value their roles and functions for the communities, particularly in terms of economic importance. It will be therefore a very difficult task to establish resource management systems providing a sustained flow of these products. While their multiplicity does make technical problems more complicated, especially combining in an optimum manner the biological forces, the uncertainty surrounding their future uses for the human societies concerned and other anthropogenic factors which can interfere in the process, will call into question the objectives of resource management programmes.
However, these constraints should be considered opportunities for actions and should stimulate research in developing the NWFPs sector. There is now a growing concern about communities participation in conservation and management of the natural resources and the massive presence of the non-governmental organisations represent good opportunities in dealing with some of the grassroot level problems to which governmental agencies are desperately confronted. The recent UNCED meeting has further raised awareness among Governments, on the importance of NWFPs, thus giving good momentum to activities related to sustainable natural resource management.
The following activities can be recommended:
a)- to undertake a classification of NWFPs, b)- to develop a standard method for the inventory of NWFPs, c)- to undertake studies in order to acquire information on the sustainable harves
ting levels of NWFPs,
(0
to review and propose, if necessary, appropriate harvesting techniques,to undertake social and economic evaluation of NWFPs; (this is one of the best
ways to gain political and financial support),to undertake studies on marketing and market information systems,
to organise, on a continuous basis, the gathering and sharing of indigenousknowledge, data and experience through studies, databanks and networks,
to develop, on a partnership basis, with rural communities and local existing ins-titutions, guidelines and tools for assessing their needs, involving them in the deci-sion-making and in the implementation process of managing their resources,
to undertake studies in the area of applied research in the field of agro-forestryand community forest management systems.
Finally, it should be recommended to avoid any precipitation and ill-consideredextrapolation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arbres, For-as et Communautés Rurales; (Progamme F.T.P.); N°3 Juin 1993.Barbara BECKER, 1983; The Contribution of Wild Plants in Human Nutritionin the Ferlo, (Northern Senegal). Agroforestry Systems, vol.1, n° 3, 1983.
C.I.D.A. 1992. Forestry Issues. Non-Wood Forest Products.ECE/FAO. 1993. Report of an Ad-Hoc Meeting of Joint Working Party onForest Economics and Statistics of the Timber Committee and the EuropeanForestry Commission on Non-Wood Goods and Services of the Forests. (Ge-neva, 22-24 Feb.1993).
EL HADJ SENE, 1985. Arbres, Production Alimentaire et Lutte contre la Dé-sertification, in Unasylva, n° 150.
FAO, 1987. Etude sur la Contribution du Secteur Forestier à l'Economie duBurldna Faso.
FAO, 1989. Forestry and Food Security FAO Forestry Paper n° 90.FAO, 1990. The Major Significance of minor forest products. Community Fo-restry Note, n° 6. (Julia Falconer).
FAO, 1991. UNASYLVA, n° 165 devoted to Forest Products.FAO, 1991. Non-Wood Forest Products : The Way Ahead FAO Forestry Papern° 97.
FAO, 1991. Household Food Security and Forestry. Community Forestry Noteno i.
d)- to review and propose, if necessary, appropriate harvesting techniques, e)- to undertake social and economic evaluation of NWFPs; (this is one of the best
ways to gain political and financial support),
t)- to undertake studies on marketing and market information systems, g)- to organise, on a continuous basis, the gathering and sharing of indigenous
knowledge, data and experience through studies, databanks and networks,
h)- to develop, on a partnership basis, with rural communities and local existing institutions, guidelines and tools for assessing their needs, involving them in the decision-making and in the implementation process of managing their resources,
i)- to undertake studies in the area of applied research in the field of agro-forestry and community forest management systems.
Finally, it should be recommended to avoid any precipitation and ill-considered extrapolation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- Arbres, Forets et Communautes Rurales; (Progamme F.T.P.); N° 3 Juin 1993. 2- Barbara BECKER, 1983; The Contribution of Wild Plants in Human Nutrition
in the FerIo, (Northern Senegal). Agroforestry Systems, vol. 1, n° 3, 1983. 3- C.I.D.A 1992. Forestry Issues. Non-Wood Forest Products. 4- ECE/FAO. 1993. Report of an Ad-Hoc Meeting of Joint Working Party on
Forest Economics and Statistics of the Timber Committee and the European Forestry Commission on Non-Wood Goods and Services of the Forests. (Geneva, 22-24 Feb.1993).
5- EL HADJ SENE, 1985. Arbres, Production Alimentaire et Lutte contre la Desertification, in Unasylva, n° 150.
6- FAO, 1987. Etude sur la Contribution du Secteur Forestier a l'Economie du Burkina Faso.
7- FAO, 1989. Forestry and Food Security FAO Forestry Paper n° 90. 8- F AO, 1990. The Major Significance of minor forest products. Community Fo
restry Note, n° 6. (Julia Falconer). 9- F AO, 1991. UNASYL V A, n° 165 devoted to Forest Products. 10- FAO, 1991. Non-Wood Forest Products: The Way Ahead FAO Forestry Paper
n° 97. 11- FAO, 1991. Household Food Security and Forestry. Community Forestry Note
n° 1.
II
GHANA FORESTRY DEPARTMENT,1993. A Strategy for the Develop-ment of Collaborative Forest Management in the High Forest Zone of Ghana.(Draft).
Albert Kalivesse, 1991. L'approvisionnement des Marchés de Bangui en viandede Brousse. In Revue Nature et Faune, Vol.7 n° 3; FAO Accra.J.D. KEITA, 1991. La Conservation des Forets Tropicales. Une Vue Genérale.Revue Nature et Faune, Vol.7 n° 4. FAO Accra.Kofimoya SHADA et al. Enquète sur la Vente de la Viande de Chasse dans laVille de Bukavu, Zaire in Revue Nature et Faune, vol.4 n° 3. FAO Accra.ODA, 1992. Non-Timber Forest Products in Southern Ghana; a Summary Re-port; ODA Forestry Series n°2 (Julia Falconer et al.).H.P.J. Peters. Exploitation de la Faune et Developpement Rural en Républi-que Centrafricaine. In Nature et Faune, Vol. 9 n°1. FAO Accra.UNfrED NATIONS, 1991. Yearbook of Statistics. New-York.
12- GHANA FORESTRY DEPARTMENT,1993. A Strategy for the Development of Collaborative Forest Management in the High Forest Zone of Ghana.
(Draft). 13- Albert Kalivesse, 1991. L'approvisionnement des Marches de Bangui en viande
de Brousse. In Revue Nature et Faune, Vol.7 n° 3; FAO Accra. 14- J.D. KEITA, 1991. La Conservation des Forets Tropicales. Une Vue Generale.
Revue Nature et Faune, Vol.7 n° 4. FAO Accra. 15- Kofimoya SHADA et al. Enquete sur la Vente de la Viande de Chasse dans la
Ville de Bukavu, Zaire in Revue Nature et Faune, vol.4 n° 3. FAO Accra. 16- ODA, 1992. Non-Timber Forest Products in Southern Ghana; a Summary Re
port; ODA Forestry Series n° 2 (Julia Falconer et al.). 17- H.PJ. Peters. Exploitation de la Faune et Developpement Rural en Republi
que Centrafricaine. In Nature et Faune, Vol. 9 n°1. FAO Accra. 18- UNITED NATIONS, 1991. Yearbook of Statistics. New-York.
4 Pilot Country Study on Non-Wood Forest Products: Lesotho, Malawi,South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
4 Pilot Country Study on Non-Wood Forest Products: Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - LESOTHOPILOT COUNTRY STUDY - LESOTHO
1. INTRODUCTION
Lesotho is rated among the poorest countries in the world. Indeed it isironic that the country and its people seem to survive, even under themost daunting of economic recessions, due mainly to its precariousposition right in the middle of South Africa.
Lesotho is often referred to as "the Kingdom in the Sky" by virtue of itsmountainous and rugged terrain, ranging in altitude from 1 400m in thesouth-west to 3 480m in the east. The country is divided into fourphysiographic regions, namely, the mountain region in the east, thefoothills in the central parts, the Senqu (Orange) River Valley from thenorth-east to the south-west, and the lowlands in the west.
Most of the country is devoid of natural tree vegetation, the existing treesbeing mainly exotics in government-established woodlots found in mostof the lowlands and foothills. Patches of natural indigenous forest canbe found in a few areas in the north and south of the country. How theseescaped exploitation is still a mystery, considering that most of thecountry's tree vegetation has been used for fuelwood for many years,hence the scarcity of fuelwood in the country.
Although the whole of Lesotho can essentially be considered to be rural,for practical purposes the country is divided into both rural and urbanareas, the latter being those found in and around major town centres suchas the capital, Maseru. The majority of Basotho live in the rural areas,where about 80% of the population were counted during the 1986 census.Migratory tendencies indicate that the people prefer the lowlands andurban agglomerations.
Employment opportunities within the country are scarce, with thegovernment providing almost half of formal employment. Many Basothomen used to work in South African mines, but recently there has been alot of retrenchments.
Lesotho's economy is mainly based on the agricultural sector. Althoughonly about 10% of the land is arable, efforts are made to improvefarming methods for the production of staple crops such as maize,sorghum, pulses and wheat. Several agro-industries have beendeveloped, mainly for the export market; these include a cannery whichprocesses fruit and vegetables, mainly for export, but also for local sales.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Lesotho is rated among the poorest countries in the world. Indeed it is ironic that the country and its people seem to survive, even under the most daunting of economic recessions, due mainly to its precarious position right in the middle of South Africa.
Lesotho is often referred to as "the Kingdom in the Sky" by virtue of its mountainous and rugged terrain, ranging in altitude from 1 400m in the south-west to 3 480m in the east. The country is divided into four physiographic regions, namely, the mountain region in the east, the foothills in the central parts, the Senqu (Orange) River Valley from the north-east to the south-west, and the lowlands in the west.
Most of the country is devoid of natural tree vegetation, the existing trees being mainly exotics in government-established woodlots found in most of the lowlands and foothills. Patches of natural indigenous forest can be found in a few areas in the north and south of the country. How these escaped exploitation is still a mystery, considering that most of the country's tree vegetation has been used for fuelwood for many years, hence the scarcity of fuelwood in the country.
Although the whole of Lesotho can essentially be considered to be rural, for practical purposes the country is divided into both rural and urban areas, the latter being those found in and around major town centres such as the capital, Maseru. The majority of Basotho live in the rural areas, where about 80% of the population were counted during the 1986 census. Migratory tendencies indicate that the people prefer the lowlands and urban agglomerations.
Employment opportunities within the country are scarce, with the government providing almost half of formal employment. Many Basotho men used to work in South African mines, but recently there has been a lot of retrenchments.
Lesotho's economy is mainly based on the agricultural sector. Although only about 10% of the land is arable, efforts are made to improve farming methods for the production of staple crops such as maize, sorghum, pulses and wheat. Several agro-industries have been developed, mainly for the export market; these include a cannery which processes fruit and vegetables, mainly for export, but also for local sales.
1
Afforestation in Lesotho is the responsibility of the government, and asalready mentioned, this mainly involves the establishment of woodlots forthe production of fuelwood and building materials (mainly poles).Recently the government has also been looking into the introduction ofspecies which can provide fodder and other products. The main speciesused for woodlot establishment are Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp.,although Acacia spp. and Cuppressus spp. have also been tried in the pastwith limited success.
The remaining indigenous forest consists mainly of species such asleucosidea (Leucosidea sericea), the white stinkwood (Celtis africana),the wid olive (Olea africana), the mountain cabbage tree (Cussoniapaniculata) and the highland protea (Protea caffra).
THE USE OF NWFP IN LESOTHO
Although in the past Basotho depended on NWFP for many of their dailyrequirements, today NWFP which feature prominently in their livelihoodare very few; such is the extent of the destruction of natural resourcesand the environment in Lesotho. Most of the people rely on the meagreproduction from their fields, and even more on products purchased fromvarious retail outlets.
Although the NWFP found in Lesotho are few, they however still playa significant role in the lives of many Basotho.
VEGETAL NWFP
Food
Most food NWFP in Lesotho are in the form of exotic fruits, which insome cases are semi-naturalized in Lesotho. the main ones are peaches(Prunus persica), apples (Pyrus malus), apricots, (Prunus armeniaca),pears (Pyrus communis) and quinces. All of these grow very well in allthe bioclimatic regions of the country and provide important nutrition tosome of the poorer members of both the rural and urban communities.
2
Afforestation in Lesotho is the responsibility of the government, and as already mentioned, this mainly involves the establishment of woodlots for the production of fuelwood and building materials (mainly poles). Recently the government has also been looking into the introduction of species which can provide fodder and other products. The main species used for woodlot establishment are Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp., although Acacia spp. and Cuppressus spp. have also been tried in the past with limited success.
The remaining indigenous forest consists mainly of species such as leucosidea (Leucosidea sericea), the white stinkwood (Celtis ajricana), the wid olive (Olea ajricana) , the mountain cabbage tree (Cussonia paniculata) and the highland protea (Protea caffra).
THE USE OF NWFP IN LESOTHO
Although in the past Basotho depended on NWFP for many of their daily requirements, today NWFP which feature prominently in their livelihood are very few; such is the extent of the destruction of natural resources and the environment in Lesotho. Most of the people rely on the meagre production from their fields, and even more on products purchased from various retail outlets.
Although the NWFP found in Lesotho are few, they however still play a significant role in the lives of many Basotho.
VEGETAL NWFP
Food
Most food NWFP in Lesotho are in the form of exotic fruits, which in some cases are semi-naturalized in Lesotho. the main ones are peaches (Prunus persica), apples (Pyrus malus), apricots, (Prunus armeniaca) , pears (Pyrus communis) and quinces. All of these grow very well in all the bioc1imatic regions of the country and provide important nutrition to some of the poorer members of both the rural and urban communities.
2
A species which is not common in Lesotho, but which certainly growsvery well in the eastern highlands of the country is the walnut (Juglansregia). At a mission station in the town of Thaba-Tseka, three very bigwalnut trees are in evidence. The trees are said to be more than 50 yearsold and are still bearing plenty of nuts annually. The nuts are mainlyeaten by school children and mission workers. J. regia is a speciesworth following up in the highlands of Lesotho, and in fact, the authorhas set up trials of the species with two farmers in the area.
Various types of wild spinaches can also be found in many parts ofLesotho, the main one being Amaranthus spp. which have still not beendomesticated in Lesotho although the people have used them for manyyears, and are still a very popular Basotho food even today.
The sweet briar (Rosa rubiginosa) is also an important traditional foodof the Basotho. It produces rosehips which are very rich in vitamin C.There have been attempts recently by the local cannery to market rosehipjelly and dried powdered rosehip commercially. Bramble, of which thereare two species in Lesotho (Rubus rigidus and R.ludwigii), is alsoimportant for the berries it produces.
Forage
A few of the indigenous species found in Lesotho serve as importantfodder for livestock, especially in times of drought. Probably thecommonest is the mountain cabbage tree (Cussonia paniculata). Of thenaturalized exotics, there is the century plant (Agave americana) whoseimmense inflorescence is used as cattle feed in the spring, the honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) andthe weeping willow (salix babylonica). Recent introductions of foddertrees in Lesotho include tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), tree lupin(Lupinus arborea) and salt bush (Atriplex spp.), all of which haveperformed very well so far in the country. Forage NWFP areparticularly important for Lesotho since the number of domestic livestockkept is way beyond the carrying capacity of the available grazing lands.It is estimated that overstocking in Lesotho is about 300%!
3
A species which is not common in Lesotho, but which certainly grows very well in the eastern highlands of the country is the walnut (Juglans regia). At a mission station in the town of Thaba-Tseka, three very big walnut trees are in evidence. The trees are said to be more than 50 years old and are still bearing plenty of nuts annually. The nuts are mainly eaten by school children and mission workers. J. regia is a species worth following up in the highlands of Lesotho, and in fact, the author has set up trials of the species with two farmers in the area.
Various types of wild spinaches can also be found in many parts of Lesotho, the main one being Amaranthus spp. which have still not been domesticated in Lesotho although the people have used them for many years, and are still a very popular Basotho food even today.
The sweet briar (Rosa rubiginosa) is also an important traditional food of the Basotho. It produces rosehips which are very rich in vitamin C. There have been attempts recently by the local cannery to market rosehip jelly and dried powdered rosehip commercially. Bramble, of which there are two species in Lesotho (Rubus rigidus and R.ludwigii), is also important for the berries it produces.
Forage
A few of the indigenous species found in Lesotho serve as important fodder for livestock, especially in times of drought. Probably the commonest is the mountain cabbage tree (Cussonia paniculata). Of the naturalized exotics, there is the century plant (Agave americana) whose immense inflorescence is used as cattle feed in the spring, the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) and the weeping willow (salix babylonica). Recent introductions of fodder trees in Lesotho include tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), tree lupin (Lupinus arborea) and salt bush (Atriplex spp.), all of which have performed very well so far in the country. Forage NWFP are particularly important for Lesotho since the number of domestic livestock kept is way beyond the carrying capacity of the available grazing lands. It is estimated that overstocking in Lesotho is about 300 % !
3
Medicines
A large number of the plants found in Lesotho are used for traditionalmedicinal purposes. Indeed, one of the main commercial activities in thecountry is based on traditional medicines. Some of the more popularspecies in this respect are the wild wormwood (Artemisia afra), the bitteraloe (Aloe ferox), the wild sugar bush (Pollichia campestris, the bushguarri (Euclea crispa var. crispa) and the parsnip tree (Heteromorphaarborescens).
Traditional medicines in Lesotho are used to cure a wide variety ofphysical ailments and conditions of both humans and animals, and forspiritual purposes, although whether the latter works or not is anothermatter.
The use of medicinal plants in Lesotho has been poorly documented.
Ornamentals
Surprisingly, there is quite an interest in ornamental species amongBasotho, particular those in the urban and peri-urban areas of thecountry. Ornamental species are grown around the homestead as hedgesof (usually) privet (Ligustrum spp.) or cypress (Cuppressus spp.), andalso as single trees for shade such as the pepper tree (Schinus molle).Roses (Rosa spp.) are also very popular among the urban communitiesof Lesotho as objects of beauty.
FAUNAL NWFP
Wild animals
In days gone by Lesotho used to be a haven of wild animals of all types.However, today only a few small mammals can be found in various partsof the country. These include hares (Lepus spp. and Pedetes spp.)rabbits, rock-rabbits, porcupines (Hystrix africaeaustralis) and a few buck(Oreotragus oreotragus, Raphicerus campestris and Sylvicarpa grimmig).People do still hunt these for meat, but unfortunately populations havebeen drastically reduced due to man's instinctive urge to kill wildlife, andalso probably due to the disappearance of the animals' natural habitat.
4
Medicines
A large number of the plants found in Lesotho are used for traditional medicinal purposes. Indeed, one of the main commercial activities in the country is based on traditional medicines. Some of the more popular species in this respect are the wild wormwood (Artemisia ajra), the bitter aloe (Aloe !erox), the wild sugar bush (Pollichia campestris, the bush guarri (Euclea crispa var. crispa) and the parsnip tree (Heteromorpha arborescens).
Traditional medicines in Lesotho are used to cure a wide variety of physical ailments and conditions of both humans and animals, and for spiritual purposes, although whether the latter works or not is another matter.
The use of medicinal plants in Lesotho has been poorly documented.
Ornamentals
Surprisingly, there is quite an interest in ornamental species among Basotho, particular those in the urban and peri-urban areas of the country. Ornamental species are grown around the homestead as hedges of (usually) privet (Ligustrum spp.) or cypress (Cuppressus spp.), and also as single trees for shade such as the pepper tree (Schinus molle). Roses (Rosa spp.) are also very popular among the urban communities of Lesotho as objects of beauty.
FAUNALNWFP
Wild animals
In days gone by Lesotho used to be a haven of wild animals of all types. However, today only a few small mammals can be found in various parts of the country. These include hares (Lepus spp. and Pedetes spp.) , rabbits, rock-rabbits, porcupines (Hystrix africaeaustralis) and a few buck (Oreotragus oreotragus, Raphicerus campestris and Sylvicarpa grimmiq). People do still hunt these for meat, but unfortunately populations have been drastically reduced due to man's instinctive urge to kill wildlife, and also probably due to the disappearance of the animals' natural habitat.
4
Fish
Many of Lesotho's rivers are well stocked with fish, especially trout(both Salmo gairdneri and S. trutta fario). Other fish species are foundin dams scattered around the country; the main dam species are thecatfish (Claras spp.), the Cape carp (Labeo capensis) and the barb andyellowfish (Barbus spp.). Many Basotho view fish as a cheap source ofprotein which can be caught for free. Very often local men and boys canbe seen fishing in rivers and dams using rather hastily assembled fishingtackles. Most of the fish caught is for home consumption, althoughoccasionally some may be sold.
Insects
Despite the shortage or lack of natural vegetation in Lesotho, bees can befound throughout most of the lowlands of the country. This is probablybecause of the many flowering plants that can be found in the region.Although Basotho enjoy honey, they do not seem to be very keen ongoing into bee farming, even though there is a definite market for home-grown honey. Most of the honey used in Lesotho is imported from SouthAfrica, as are a number of other foods including vegetables and fruit.There have been efforts in the past, mostly by expatriates working in thecountry, to start small-scale apiculture operations, but with no significantsuccess as the locals always seemed rather reluctant to embark on suchschemes, mainly for fear that "the bees could attack at any time". So farin Lesotho, there is probably only one bee farmer, in the southern townof Mafeteng, who has made a modest success of bee farming, which hecombines with fruit farming. The honey he producesis sold locally.
Birds
Again the scarce vegetation of Lesotho has tended to diminish birdpopulations in the country. However, for the ornithological enthusiast,there are still about 288 species of birds in Lesotho. At the subsistencelevel, game birds which were once plentiful in most of the lowlands andfoothills are now becoming rarer and rarer. However, the following canstill be found and their hunting for meat still continues. The greywingfrancolin (Francolinus africanus) is very common in the lowlands whereit can be found in wooded areas, and also in some of the mountain areas.The common quail (Coturnix coturnix), is a great favourite amongBasotho hunters and herdboys for its edibility. The helmeted guineafowl
5
Fish
Many of Lesotho's rivers are well stocked with fish, especially trout (both Salmo gairdneri and S. trutta fario). Other fish species are found in dams scattered around the country; the main dam species are the catfish (Clarias spp.), the Cape carp (Labeo capensis) and the barb and yellowfish (Barbus spp.). Many Basotho view fish as a cheap source of protein which can be caught for free. Very often local men and boys can be seen fishing in rivers and dams using rather hastily assembled fishing tackles. Most of the fish caught is for home consumption, although occasionally some may be sold.
Insects
Despite the shortage or lack of natural vegetation in Lesotho, bees can be found throughout most of the lowlands of the country. This is probably because of the many flowering plants that can be found in the region. Although Basotho enjoy honey, they do not seem to be very keen on going into bee farming, even though there is a definite market for homegrown honey. Most of the honey used in Lesotho is imported from South Africa, as are a number of other foods including vegetables and fruit. There have been efforts in the past, mostly by expatriates working in the country, to start small-scale apiculture operations, but with no significant success as the locals always seemed rather reluctant to embark on such schemes, mainly for fear that "the bees could attack at any time". So far in Lesotho, there is probably only one bee farmer, in the southern town of Mafeteng, who has made a modest success of bee farming, which he combines with fruit farming. The honey he producesis sold locally.
Birds
Again the scarce vegetation of Lesotho has tended to diminish bird populations in the country. However, for the ornithological enthusiast, there are still about 288 species of birds in Lesotho. At the subsistence level, game birds which were once plentiful in most of the lowlands and foothills are now becoming rarer and rarer. However, the following can still be found and their hunting for meat still continues. The greywing francolin (Francolinus africanus) is very common in the lowlands where it can be found in wooded areas, and also in some of the mountain areas. The common quail (Coturnix cotumix) , is a great favourite among Basotho hunters and herdboys for its edibility. The helmeted guineafowl
5
(Numida meleagris) is fairly common in the lowlands and can be foundin the popular and willow trees along river banks. It can also be foundin some of the larger woodlot areas. Several species of ducks and geesealso occurs in the lowlands.
FORESTRY SERVICES
Although forestry development in Lesotho is rather slow, and to a certaindegree, haphazard, the importance of tree planting and forests has filteredthrough to most Basotho, who have now come to realize the benefits thatcan be derived from trees.
Range
Through the influence of a handful of rural development projects in thecountry, some livestock farmers, mainly in the mountain areas, havecome to realize the importance of trees in the rangeland. Currently, mostrangelands in Lesotho are almost totally devoid of tree vegetation, but theintroduction of a number of fast-growing browse species such as tagasaste(Chamaecytisus palmensis), is set to change the whole situation. Themanagement of rangelands in Lesotho is based on a system of RangeManagement Areas (RMA's) which emphasizes full participation by locallivestock farmers, with minimal assistance from government authorities,and this seems to have taken quite appreciably in some areas.
Soil improvement and protection
One of the main catastrophes to befall Lesotho is that of soil erosion.The country, particularly the lowlands, is scarred with huge gullies whichcontinue to grow because of the little effort that goes into soilconservation. However, most of the gullies in the western lowlands haveso far been under a certain degree of control, due mainly to the treevegetation growing in them. The grey poplar (Populus canescens) canbe found growing quite happily in most lowland gullies, thus keepingsuch in check, as well as providing much-needed fuelwood to the localpeople. Other tree species can also be found growing on degraded lands;these include G. triacanthos and R. pseudo-acacia. Most of these treespecies are self-regenerating and need no further attention other than tooccasionally harvest for fuelwood or fodder. The latter two species areleguminous, and are therefore important in improving the soil throughnitrogen fixation and litter fall.
6
(Numida meleagris) is fairly common in the lowlands and can be found in the popular and willow trees along river banks. It can also be found in some of the larger woodlot areas. Several species of ducks and geese also occurs in the lowlands.
FORESTRY SERVICES
Although forestry development in Lesotho is rather slow, and to a certain degree, haphazard, the importance of tree planting and forests has filtered through to most Basotho, who have now come to realize the benefits that can be derived from trees.
Range
Through the influence of a handful of rural development projects in the country, some livestock farmers, mainly in the mountain areas, have come to realize the importance of trees in the rangeland. Currently, most rangelands in Lesotho are almost totally devoid of tree vegetation, but the introduction of a number of fast-growing browse species such as tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), is set to change the whole situation. The management of rangelands in Lesotho is based on a system of Range Management Areas (RMA' s) which emphasizes full participation by local livestock farmers, with minimal assistance from government authorities, and this seems to have taken quite appreciably in some areas.
Soil improvement and protection
One of the main catastrophes to befall Lesotho is that of soil erosion. The country, particularly the lowlands, is scarred with huge gullies which continue to grow because of the little effort that goes into soil conservation. However, most of the gullies in the western lowlands have so far been under a certain degree of control, due mainly to the tree vegetation growing in them. The grey poplar (Populus canescens) can be found growing quite happily in most lowland gullies, thus keeping such in check, as well as providing much-needed fuel wood to the local people. Other tree species can also be found growing on degraded lands; these include G. triacanthos and R. pseudo-acacia. Most of these tree species are self-regenerating and need no further attention other than to occasionally harvest for fuel wood or fodder. The latter two species are leguminous, and are therefore important in improving the soil through nitrogen fixation and litter fall.
6
Parks and reserves
The 7 500ha Sehlabathebe National Park, located in the south-east cornerof the country, is Lesotho's first and, to date, the only one. The parkserves mainly to conserve some rare plant species, and also a few wildanimals and birds, including the the rare white lily (Aponogetonranunculiflorus), the Maluti minnow (Pseudo-barbus quathlambae) whichwas once thought to be extinct, a few species of buck, wild cats andbaboons. However, as far as tourism is concerned, the park still has toreach its full potential. The park offers fishing, hiking bird watching andgame viewing, and is quite popular with foreign visitors.
Aesthetics
A few areas in Lesotho can be considered to be aesthetically importantin terms of the sights they offer, and the history attached to some ofthem. One of the more important ones is the Mission Cave House atMasitise in the south of the country. It is one of the few areas inLesotho where a dense and untainted indigenous forest can still be found,giving one a glimpse of what the country might have looked like a fewcenturies ago. Another area of scenic beauty if found in the north ofLesotho; this one is probably the only area in the country which boastsan extensive forest of the indigenous tree species Protea caffra, thehighveld protea. During summer when the tree is in flower, the areabecomes one attractive landscape of pink to white flowers. Tourists oftenvisit the area between November and February, which is when the treesare in flower.
Most of Lesotho, with its spectacular falls, rivers and valleys is also anattraction in itself, particularly on horse-back.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN LESOTHO
Although Lesotho is not well-endowed with natural and even exotic forestareas, Basotho have long learned to appreciate the value of forest- ortree-related products. Obviously, the country being in the state it is intoday in terms of natural vegetation, foremost among the priorities ofmost Basotho is energy. When the people see a tree, or hear about treesand forests, they think about fuelwood. However, it is encouraging to
7
Parks and reserves
The 7 500ha Sehlabathebe National Park, located in the south-east corner of the country, is Lesotho's first and, to date, the only one. The park serves mainly to conserve some rare plant species, and also a few wild animals and birds, including the the rare white lily (Aponogeton ranunculijlorus), the Maluti minnow (Pseudo-barbus quathlambae) which was once thought to be extinct, a few species of buck, wild cats and baboons. However, as far as tourism is concerned, the park still has to reach its full potential. The park offers fishing, hiking bird watching and game viewing, and is quite popular with foreign visitors.
Aesthetics
A few areas in Lesotho can be considered to be aesthetically important in terms of the sights they offer, and the history attached to some of them. One of the more important ones is the Mission Cave House at Masitise in the south of the country. It is one of the few areas in Lesotho where a dense and untainted indigenous forest can still be found, giving one a glimpse of what the country might have looked like a few centuries ago. Another area of scenic beauty if found in the north of Lesotho; this one is probably the only area in the country which boasts an extensive forest of the indigenous tree species. Protea caifra, the highveld protea. During summer when the tree is in flower, the area becomes one attractive landscape of pink to white flowers. Tourists often visit the area between November and February, which is when the trees are in flower.
Most of Lesotho, with its spectacular falls, rivers and valleys is also an attraction in itself, particularly on horse-back.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN LESOTHO
Although Lesotho is not well-endowed with natural and even exotic forest areas, Basotho have long learned to appreciate the value of forest- or tree-related products. Obviously, the country being in the state it is in today in terms of natural vegetation, foremost among the priorities of most Basotho is energy. When the people see a tree, or hear about trees and forests, they think about fuelwood. However, it is encouraging to
7
note the increase in the planting of fruit trees in Lesotho. Almost withoutexception, this is done at household or individual level, and it goes toshow how important the people rate food production.
In villages in the lowlands and foothills people grow several varieties ofpeaches (Prunus persica), apples (Pyrus malus) and pears (Pyruscommunis), as indicated already, mainly for home consumption; but anincreasing number are going into semi-commercial production, becausethey realize the potential benefits to be gained from growing fruit trees.
It is sad to note that at the national level, the only recognition givenNWFP is their importation from South Africa. There is absolutely norecognition for the fruit produced by the people of Lesotho, hence eachsemi-commercial producer has to try and find a market for his produce.
NVVFP OF RELEVANCE IN LESOTHO
In the last year there has been a spate of deaths, particularly amongtoddlers and babies, in Lesotho. The main reason, according to theauthorities, is starvation and malnutrition. In a country where peachtrees sometimes grow wild, it is totally unacceptable that people shouldgo hungry. In any case, it is very clear that food is the main issue to beaddressed in Lesotho. The fruits that grow in Lesotho have already beenmentioned. However, besides the domesticated fruit, there are a fewwild species such as the prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and the rosehips(Rosa spp.) which are both very nutritious and can probably be easily becultivated in Lesotho. There are also many wild spinaches just waitingfor domestication. However, urbanization would seem to be leadingBasotho further and further away from their traditions, judging by thenumber of people who do no care much for wild NWFP.
Besides food NWFP, fodder or forage is also very important since manyrural Basotho keep large numbers of animals, in areas with very little orno pasture at all. Trees which have grown in Lesotho since the lastcentury, such as the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) are still verypopular among livestock owners, because of the leaves they feed to theanimals. However, most of these trees are either self-regenerated, orwere planted many years ago and their ownership is uncertain. Thisshows that although there is a poor tree planting tradition in Lesotho, the
8
note the increase in the planting of fruit trees in Lesotho. Almost without exception, this is done at household or individual level, and it goes to show how important the people rate food production.
In villages in the lowlands and foothills people grow several varieties of peaches (Prunus persica) , apples (Pyrus malus) and pears (Pyrus communis), as indicated already, mainly for home consumption; but an increasing number are going into semi-commercial production, because they realize the potential benefits to be gained from growing fruit trees.
It is sad to note that at the national level, the only recognition given NWFP is their importation from South Africa. There is absolutely no recognition for the fruit produced by the people of Lesotho, hence each semi-commercial producer has to try and find a market for his produce.
NWFP OF RELEVANCE IN LESOTHO
In the last year there has been a spate of deaths, particularly among toddlers and babies, in Lesotho. The main reason, according to the authorities, is starvation and malnutrition. In a country where peach trees sometimes grow wild, it is totally unacceptable that people should go hungry. In any case, it is very clear that food is the main issue to be addressed in Lesotho. The fruits that grow in Lesotho have already been mentioned. However, besides the domesticated fruit, there are a few wild species such as the prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and the rosehips (Rosa spp.) which are both very nutritious and can probably be easily be cultivated in Lesotho. There are also many wild spinaches just waiting for domestication. However, urbanization would seem to be leading Basotho further and further away from their traditions, judging by the number of people who do no care much for wild NWFP.
Besides food NWFP, fodder or forage is also very important since many rural Basotho keep large numbers of animals, in areas with very little or no pasture at all. Trees which have grown in Lesotho since the last century, such as the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) are still very popular among livestock owners, because of the leaves they feed to the animals. However, most of these trees are either self-regenerated, or were planted many years ago and their ownership is uncertain. This shows that although there is a poor tree planting tradition in Lesotho, the
8
people are very much aware of the benefits. The planting of fodder treesin Lesotho has already received much attention from both governmentand a number of non-governmental organizations, giving recognition tothe potential importance of this resource.
As in many other African countries, traditional medicines are veryimportant to Basotho. Although the country has been stripped of mostof its important vegetation, many plant species still exist which arepopularly used by traditional practitioners. However, the practitionershave lately tended to go over into South Africa for some of the morepopular herbs which are no more available in Lesotho.
Basotho craftsmen use some of the few remaining tree species such as thewhite stinkwood (Celtis africana), the wild sage (Buddleja salviifolia)and the camphor bush (Tarchonanthus camphoratus) to make woodenarticles and fighting/walking sticks. This great tradition is also dyingbecause of the shortage of raw material, which now has to be fetchedfrom very remote areas of the country, or even from South Africa. Thearticles made from wood are usually of very good quality, and thecraftsmen make a reasonable living from this trade.
Institutional Aspects
Until very recently, there was no specific authority in Lesotho chargedwith the responsibility for natural resources, although legislation existedthat protected certain flora and fauna. Indeed, even today responsibilitiesof the different government ministries are not very clearly defined asregards natural resource conservation, management and protection.
In any case, the Ministry of Agriculture, Co-operatives and Marketing isresponsible for all afforestation, and tree planting matters, soilconservation, land use planning, range and fisheries in the country. TheMinistry operates through various department and divisions, each ofwhich is responsible for a particular discipline. Then there is theMinistry of Natural Resources which is responsible for all the naturalresources in the country, their exploitation and protection; there is acertain degree of overlap between this and the Ministry of Agriculture.The Ministry of Natural Resources also operates through severaldepartments, some of which have recently been established, as theMinistry itself is a new one.
9
people are very much aware of the benefits. The planting of fodder trees in Lesotho has already received much attention from both government and a number of non-governmental organizations, giving recognition to the potential importance of this resource.
As in many other African countries, traditional medicines are very important to Basotho. Although the country has been stripped of most of its important vegetation, many plant species still exist which are popularly used by traditional practitioners. However, the practitioners have lately tended to go over into South Africa for some of the more popular herbs which are no more available in Lesotho.
Basotho craftsmen use some of the few remaining tree species such as the white stinkwood (Celtis ajricana) , the wild sage (Buddleja salviifolia) and the camphor bush (Tarchonanthus camphoratus) to make wooden articles and fighting/walking sticks. This great tradition is also dying because of the shortage of raw material, which now has to be fetched from very remote areas of the country, or even from South Africa. The articles made from wood are usually of very good quality, and the craftsmen make a reasonable living from this trade.
Institutional Aspects
Until very recently, there was no specific authority in Lesotho charged with the responsibility for natural resources, although legislation existed that protected certain flora and fauna. Indeed, even today responsibilities of the different government ministries are not very clearly defined as regards natural resource conservation, management and protection.
In any case, the Ministry of Agriculture, Co-operatives and Marketing is responsible for all afforestation, and tree planting matters, soil conservation, land use planning, range and fisheries in the country. The Ministry operates through various department and divisions, each of which is responsible for a particular discipline. Then there is the Ministry of Natural Resources which is responsible for all the natural resources in the country, their exploitation and protection; there is a certain degree of overlap between this and the Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Natural Resources also operates through several departments, some of which have recently been established, as the Ministry itself is a new one.
9
Other than government agencies, there are private organizations such asthe Lesotho Conservation and Preservation Trust whose main goal is tofoster and aid financially the conservation, preservation, and properutilization of Lesotho's natural heritage, including endangered flora andfauna species.
There are a number of other non-governmental organizations in Lesothowhich are concerned with environmental protection and natural resourcemanagement; but these are mostly in the form of foreign-funded projectswhich have a limited life-span.
Personnel
Most of the government personnel responsible for matters pertaining toNWFP are usually either not technically qualified at all, or poorlyqualified to do their job, and usually such NWFP responsibilities have tobe taken over by expatriates. For example, most of the government'sforestry staff are only aware of the management of exotic woodlots forthe production of fuelwood and poles; the governrnent's horticulture staffare mostly concerned with the propagation of fruit trees and not indeveloping the interest of the community in such trees; it is usuallyassumed that those who need the trees will come to the governmentestablishment dealing with such trees.
Also the research carried out is mainly concerned with the developmentof new cultivars or varieties of species such as peaches and apples, andnot with the use or development of indigenous NWFP.
Funding
The government funds its own programmes, sometimes with theassistance of foreign aid. The Lesotho Conservation and PreservationTrust depends mainly on donations from the public and the commercialsector. Foreign-funded projects usually only exist for a given period andthen die a natural death, as is the case elsewhere in Africa.
lo
Other than government agencies, there are private organizations such as the Lesotho Conservation and Preservation Trust whose main goal is to foster and aid financially the conservation, preservation, and proper utilization of Lesotho's natural heritage, including endangered flora and fauna species.
There are a number of other non-governmental organizations in Lesotho which are concerned with environmental protection and natural resource management; but these are mostly in the form of foreign-funded projects which have a limited life-span.
Personnel
Most of the government personnel responsible for matters pertaining to NWFP are usually either not technically qualified at all, or poorly qualified to do their job, and usually such NWFP responsibilities have to be taken over by expatriates. For example, most of the government's forestry staff are only aware of the management of exotic woodlots for the production of fuelwood and poles; the goverI1Q1ent's horticulture staff are mostly concerned with the propagation of fruit trees and not in developing the interest of the community in such trees; it is usually assumed that those who need the trees will come to the government establishment dealing with such trees.
Also the research carried out is mainly concerned with the development of new cultivars or varieties of species such as peaches and apples, and not with the use or development of indigenous NWFP.
Funding
The government funds its own programmes, sometimes with the assistance of foreign aid. The Lesotho Conservation and Preservation Trust depends mainly on donations from the public and the commercial sector. Foreign-funded projects usually only exist for a given period and then die a natural death, as is the case elsewhere in Africa.
10
Legislation
Although legislation exists for the protection of Lesotho's naturalresources, it does not seem to have any impact on the illegal use of suchresources. This is mainly because of lack of law enforcement. Evenright up to today many important and endangered plant and animalspecies are still being misused by many rural and urban communities.An example is Protea caffra which is found at two locations in northernLesotho; in one of the locations, this beautiful tree has been virtuallywiped out by the locals who use it for fuelwood, and also debark it formedicinal purposes, even though it is a legally protected species inLesotho. Legal Notice NO. 36 of 1969 (the Proclamation of Monuments,Relics, Fauna and Flora) is the legislation currently in effect. It issupposed to protect a number of fauna and flora, as well as relics andnational monuments. The Forestry Act No. 11 of 1978 also protectsgovernment managed forest reserves, but people still manage to damagethese.
Policy
The government has had a forestry policy for a long time now, but it hasnever really been implemented. To a certain degree, the agriculturalpolicy, which includes fruit trees, has been implemented, but not to anysignificant degree. An environmental policy exists for Lesotho althoughit has never been implemented mainly because, until recently, there wasno government agency to implement it or other policies relating to naturalresources and their management.
Education and Research
The National University of Lesotho only established a Faculty ofAgriculture in 1990. This offers mainly courses in various aspects ofagriculture, with very little forestry, and no natural resource managementcourses at all. The Lesotho Agricultural College, which is affiliated tothe University, also offers diploma and certificate courses in acombination of forestry, soil conservation and range managementsubjects.
11
Legislation
Although legislation exists for the protection of Lesotho's natural resources, it does not seem to have any impact on the illegal use of such resources. This is mainly because of lack of law enforcement. Even right up to today many important and endangered plant and animal species are still being misused by many rural and urban communities. An example is Pro tea caffra which is found at two locations in northern Lesotho; in one of the locations, this beautiful tree has been virtually wiped out by the locals who use it for fuel wood , and also debark it for medicinal purposes, even though it is a legally protected species in Lesotho. Legal Notice NO. 36 of 1969 (the Proclamation of Monuments, Relics, Fauna and Flora) is the legislation currently in effect. It is supposed to protect a number of fauna and flora, as well as relics and national monuments. The Forestry Act No. 11 of 1978 also protects government managed forest reserves, but people still manage to damage these.
Policy
The government has had a forestry policy for a long time now, but it has never really been implemented. To a certain degree, the agricultural policy, which includes fruit trees, has been implemented, but not to any significant degree. An environmental policy exists for Lesotho although it has never been implemented mainly because, until recently, there was no government agency to implement it or other policies relating to natural resources and their management.
Education and Research
The National University of Lesotho only established a Faculty of Agriculture in 1990. This offers mainly courses in various aspects of agriculture, with very little forestry, and no natural resource management courses at all. The Lesotho Agricultural College, which is affiliated to the University, also offers diploma and certificate courses in a combination of forestry, soil conservation and range management subjects.
11
A few of the lecturers at the University do some research with regard tothe distribution of certain indigenous plant and animal species, andoccasionally study their reproduction as well, but virtually nothing on thepotentially economic indigenous flora and fauna.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
In view of the disturbing environmental situation prevailing in Lesothoit would seem reasonable to suggest that the most important NWFP in thecountry are food, forage and soil improvement and protection.
Food
The harvesting of food NWFP in Lesotho simply means picking the fruitfrom the tree, or going into the veld or field to collect wild spinaches.Since most fniit trees, especially peaches (Prunus persica) and apples(Pyrus malus) are located near the homesteads, the fruit is easilyharvested, placed in baskets, bags or large bowls and taken indoors tocleaned and eaten. Not all of the harvest is eaten all at once. Some ofthe fruit are cut in half or smaller pieces and then dried in the sun. Thedried fruit can be stored for several years and used when necessary.Fruit are also canned by most Basotho women. This involves thecooking of the fruit in a glass jar of water and sugar; the fruit thuspreserved can then be stored for a number of years. Jam is anotherfavourite fruit product in Lesotho, especially that made from apricots(Prunus armeniaca) and peaches.
The main wild fruits collected are the prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) androsehips (Rosa spp.). Both are a bit difficult to harvest because of theirprickly nature. However, the prickly pear is usually harvested using apiece of cloth or paper or a stick, to avoid contact with the spines. Thefruits are placed in a large bowl and taken home where the spines areremoved using the same piece of cloth used for their harvesting. Somepeople throw the fniits briefly in a fire to remove the spines, after whichthe fruits are sliced open and enjoyed. Herdboys usually enjoy the fruitfresh in the veld. They also eat the rosehips, which they collect verycarefully by hand to avoid the spines of the rosehip bush; they then rollthe fruits on a stone to squeeze out the hairy seeds, after which the fruitsare enjoyed. Rosehips are being commercially processed for the making
12
A few of the lecturers at the University do some research with regard to the distribution of certain indigenous plant and animal species, and occasionally study their reproduction as well, but virtually nothing on the potentially economic indigenous flora and fauna.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
In view of the disturbing environmental situation prevailing in Lesotho it would seem reasonable to suggest that the most important NWFP in the country are food, forage and soil improvement and protection.
Food
The harvesting of food NWFP in Lesotho simply means picking the fruit from the tree, or going into the veld or field to collect wild spinaches. Since most fruit trees, especially peaches (Prunus persica) and apples (Pyrus malus) are located near the homesteads, the fruit is easily harvested, placed in baskets, bags or large bowls and taken indoors to cleaned and eaten. Not all of the harvest is eaten all at once. Some of the fruit are cut in half or smaller pieces and then dried in the sun. The dried fruit can be stored for several years and used when necessary. Fruit are also canned by most Basotho women. This involves the cooking of the fruit in a glass jar of water and sugar; the fruit thus preserved can then be stored for a number of years. J am is another favourite fruit product in Lesotho, especially that made from apricots (Prunus armeniaca) and peaches.
The main wild fruits collected are the prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and rosehips (Rosa spp.). Both are a bit difficult to harvest because of their prickly nature. However, the prickly pear is usually harvested using a piece of cloth or paper or a stick, to avoid contact with the spines. The fruits are placed in a large bowl and taken home where the spines are removed using the same piece of cloth used for their harvesting. Some people throw the fruits briefly in a fire to remove the spines, after which the fruits are sliced open and enjoyed. Herdboys usually enjoy the fruit fresh in the veld. They also eat the rosehips, which they collect very carefully by hand to avoid the spines of the rosehip bush; they then roll the fruits on a stone to squeeze out the hairy seeds, after which the fruits are enjoyed. Rosehips are being commercially processed for the making
12
of a delicious jelly, and are also dried and exported to South Africa as ahealth product component, probably becuase of their high vitamin Ccontent. Boiling fresh rosehips is said to extract about 40% of thevitamin C while drying is said to extract about 64%.
Wild berries such as Rubus spp. are also harvested by Basotho womenin February and March. Some of these are consumed at home, while asizeable amount is sold locally.
The principal purpose for which the Basotho have traditionally plantedtrees is fruit production for home consumption, as already stated;however, if the harvest is good some of the produce may be sold; this isespecially the case with apples, peaches and apricots. The fruit may besold from the household, or at a roadside market; sometimes the childrenwill go from household to household selling the fruit. Basotho womenalso sell some of their carmed fruit at local markets. All the selling isusually not done too far from the homestead, so walking is usually themain mode of transport. If a large quantity of fruit or wild spinach hasto be sold, then public transport is used to go to the nearest marketcentre. Incidentally, wild spinach is also a very popular item in thevegetable markets of Lesotho, the most popular species being Amaranthuspaniculatus, A. thunbergii, Lotononis dieterlenii and Chenopodiumalbum. Some Basotho women will rise very early to go to the fields tocollect as much of the wild spinaches as possible for selling at the localmarkets, and also for home consumption. The wild asparagus(Asparagus africanus) is also enjoyed by some of the rural people ofLesotho, especially its young shoots which are boiled and eaten.
Forage
It has already been shown that the Basotho are basically a nation oflivestock farmers despite the acute shortage of grazing land and pastures.The livestock are kept mainly for wool and mohair production (sheep andgoats), and it is taboo to talk to Basotho livestock owners about theintroduction of livestock reduction programmes, even in the light of thedesperate situation regarding animal feeding.
13
of a delicious jelly, and are also dried and exported to South Africa as a health product component, probably becuase of their high vitamin C content. Boiling fresh rose hips is said to extract about 40 % of the vitamin C while drying is said to extract about 64 % .
Wild berries such as Rubus spp. are also harvested by Basotho women in February and March. Some of these are consumed at home, while a sizeable amount is sold locally.
The principal purpose for which the Basotho have traditionally planted trees is fruit production for home consumption, as already stated; however, if the harvest is good some of the produce may be sold; this is especially the case with apples, peaches and apricots. The fruit may be sold from the household, or at a roadside market; sometimes the children will go from household to household selling the fruit. Basotho women also sell some of their canned fruit at local markets. All the selling is usually not done too far from the homestead, so walking is usually the main mode of transport. If a large quantity of fruit or wild spinach has to be sold, then public transport is used to go to the nearest market centre. Incidentally, wild spinach is also a very popular item in the vegetable markets of Lesotho, the most popular species being Amaranthus paniculatus, A. thunbergii, Lotononis dieterlenii and Chenopodium album. Some Basotho women will rise very early to go to the fields to collect as much of the wild spinaches as possible for selling at the local markets, and also for home consumption. The wild asparagus (Asparagus africanus) is also enjoyed by some of the rural people of Lesotho, especially its young shoots which are boiled and eaten.
Forage
It has already been shown that the Basotho are basically a nation of livestock farmers despite the acute shortage of grazing land and pastures. The livestock are kept mainly for wool and mohair production (sheep and goats), and it is taboo to talk to Basotho livestock owners about the introduction of livestock reduction programmes, even in the light of the desperate situation regarding animal feeding.
13
The harvesting of forage species for animal feed involves mainly theremoval of leaves, pods and small branches or twigs of the few specieswhich are available in Lesotho. These include the mountain cabbage tree(Cussonia paniculata), the weeping willow (Salix babylonica), the basketwillow (S. viminalis,) the goat willow (S.capensis), the honey locust(Gleditsia triacanthos), the black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia), variouspoplars (Populus spp.) and the privets (Ligustrum spp.). In most cases,the tree forage is cut using pnining shears and fed to the animals waitingnearby; this usually happens during the dry season. In some casesanimals such as cattle and goats are allowed direct access to the treeswhere they browse freely.
Privet is a popular hedge species in Lesotho and has to be cut back to apre-determined height periodically. The leaves thus removed are fed toanimals, who seem to enjoy them although the privets are not widelyknown as fodder species. With the honey locust and the black locust, thepods are usually collected in bags, taken home and fed to livestock,especially because the honey locust being so thorny, it is not advisableto allow animals to get too close to the the trees; even the harvesting ofthe pods can be very tricky because of the thorns, so these are usuallycollected when they have fallen from the tree. Tagasaste or tree lucerne(Chamaecytisus palmensis) is a new forage species recently introducedinto Lesotho, where it has performed very well, although it is not quitewidespread yet. Tagasaste forage is very nutritious to all types ofanimals (both domestic and wild) and can be used, for instance, in rabbitproduction as feed. Animals can be allowed to browse tagasaste trees orthe leaves can be harvested and stored for use during times of grazingscarcity.
A number of tree and shrub species in Lesotho are useful as bee-forage.These include several of the eucalypt species (Eucalyptus spp.), thepepper tree (Schinus molle), the wattles (Acacia spp.), tagasaste (reputedto be particularly good for this purpose), privet, peach, apple, apricot andpear. Usually the hive is placed somewhere among or near the trees sothat the bees can easily access the flowers and therefore the nectar.
14
The harvesting of forage species for animal feed involves mainly the removal of leaves, pods and small branches or twigs of the few species which are available in Lesotho. These include the mountain cabbage tree (Cussonia paniculata) , the weeping willow (Salix babylonica), the basket willow (S. viminalis,) the goat willow (S.capensis), the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), the black locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia), various poplars (Populus spp.) and the privets (Ligustrum spp.). In most cases, the tree forage is cut using pruning shears and fed to the animals waiting nearby; this usually happens during the dry season. In some cases animals such as cattle and goats are allowed direct access to the trees where they browse freely.
Privet is a popular hedge species in Lesotho and has to be cut back to a pre-determined height periodically. The leaves thus removed are fed to animals, who seem to enjoy them although the privets are not widely known as fodder species. With the honey locust and the black locust, the pods are usually collected in bags, taken home and fed to livestock, especially because the honey locust being so thorny, it is not advisable to allow animals to get too close to the the trees; even the harvesting of the pods can be very tricky because of the thorns, so these are usually collected when they have fallen from the tree. Tagasaste or tree lucerne (Chamaecytisus palmensis) is a new forage species recently introduced into Lesotho, where it has performed very well, although it is not quite widespread yet. Tagasaste forage is very nutritious to all types of animals (both domestic and wild) and can be used, for instance, in rabbit production as feed. Animals can be allowed to browse tagasaste trees or the leaves can be harvested and stored for use during times of grazing scarcity .
A number of tree and shrub species in Lesotho are useful as bee-forage. These include several of the eucalypt species (Eucalyptus spp.) , the pepper tree (Schinus moUe), the wattles (Acacia spp.), tagasaste (reputed to be particularly good for this purpose), privet, peach, apple, apricot and pear. Usually the hive is placed somewhere among or near the trees so that the bees can easily access the flowers and therefore the nectar.
14
Soil improvement and protection
To most visitors to Lesotho it is very clear that the country has seriouserosion problems which seem to be accelerating with no end in sightbefore all the country's topsoil goes down the rivers into South Africa.The problem is much less obvious to the Basotho who have lived all theirlives in the country, and presumably should care deeply about what ishappening to their land. The problem of soil erosion in Lesotho is suchthat fields which were ploughed and productive in the early 1970's arenow useless after two decades of sheet and gully erosion. The problemis worsened by the fact that poor agricultural methods have also resultedin nutrient-deficient soils which are structurally unstable.
The authorities in Lesotho have long recognized the importance ofcurbing soil erosion by any means, especially in the lowlands. In 1936the Soil Conservation Division of the Ministry of Agriculture began usingexotic trees to complement its other conservation works, and up to 1972more than 60 million trees had been planted. Very few of these treessurvive today, and most that do are poplars, particularly Populuscanes cens varieties which have reproduced from root suckers. The bulkof the remainder is made up of wattles, pines, eucalypts, honey locustand black locust.
P. canes cens is today a permanent feature of most of the lowland dongas(gullies). Although the trees are regularly harvested for fuelwood andpoles, they quickly regrow, thereby giving stability to the donga. Thewattles and the locusts are also found in some dongas. They areparticularly useful because they are legumes and therefore improve soilfertility and structure through nitrogen fixation and leaf fall. The pines(Pinus spp.) would appear to be more effective in containing erosion onslopes, their leaf litter forming an erosion-resistant mat of interwovenneedles. Pines can be found growing on most lowland plateaux and hillslopes.
Recent developments have tended to encourage Basotho in rural areas totake over a piece of eroded land or donga and plant it to a wide varietyof trees, shrubs and ground vegetation. This, it is hoped, will serve asa barrier to further erosion, as well as providing fodder and fuelwood foruse by the locals and their animals.
15
Soil improvement and protection
To most visitors to Lesotho it is very clear that the country has serious erosion problems which seem to be accelerating with no end in sight before all the country's topsoil goes down the rivers into South Africa. The problem is much less obvious to the Basotho who have lived all their lives in the country, and presumably should care deeply about what is happening to their land. The problem of soil erosion in Lesotho is such that fields which were ploughed and productive in the early 1970's are now useless after two decades of sheet and gully erosion. The problem is worsened by the fact that poor agricultural methods have also resulted in nutrient-deficient soils which are structurally unstable.
The authorities in Lesotho have long recognized the importance of curbing soil erosion by any means, especially in the lowlands. In 1936 the Soil Conservation Division of the Ministry of Agriculture began using exotic trees to complement its other conservation works, and up to 1972 more than 60 million trees had been planted. Very few of these trees survive today, and most that do are poplars, particularly Populus canescens varieties which have reproduced from root suckers. The bulk of the remainder is made up of wattles, pines, eucalypts, honey locust and black locust.
P. canescens is today a permanent feature of most of the lowland dongas (gullies). Although the trees are regularly harvested for fuelwood and poles, they quickly regrow, thereby giving stability to the donga. The wattles and the locusts are also found in some dongas. They are particularly useful because they are legumes and therefore improve soil fertility and structure through nitrogen fixation and leaf fall. The pines (Pinus spp.) would appear to be more effective in containing erosion on slopes, their leaf litter forming an erosion-resistant mat of interwoven needles. Pines can be found growing on most lowland plateaux and hill slopes.
Recent developments have tended to encourage Basotho in rural areas to take over a piece of eroded land or donga and plant it to a wide variety of trees, shrubs and ground vegetation. This, it is hoped, will serve as a barrier to further erosion, as well as providing fodder and fuel wood for use by the locals and their animals.
15
Most Basotho farmers cannot afford the expensive inorganic fertilizersrequired by modern agriculture. The use of leguminous tree species forthe production of green manure would also help in increasing cropproductivity. A rural development project in the south of Lesotho hasbeen encouraging farmers to adopt this approach, and the initial responsehas been encouraging.
Many Basotho have taken to planting trees around their homes in theform of hedges or windbreaks, as well as for shade and amenity. Allthese efforts go some way towards protecting the country's soils.
The main problem facing the people, however, is ensuring good survivaland establishment of the trees, especially in areas where water is scarce.Fortunately there is enough expertise (both local and expatriate) to adviseon these matters. Certain establishment teclmiques have been developedto assist tree establishment, and the people are also encouraged to watertheir trees at least once fortnightly until they are firmly established.
During establishmenmt, it is particularly difficult to try and plantseedlings on the donga wall. So a method has been devised of directlysowing pelleted seed in the wall of the donga. This method has workedvery well in the south of the country. Seedlings from pelleted seed donot require much attention once they have germinated, except protectionfrom animals. Planting on other types of land and on the donga floorsimply involves the digging of pits (about 75cm x 75cm x 30cm) and thenplanting the trees. The dimensions of the pit (especially the depth) canbe reduced if the soil is very rocky. Pitting is usually done with atraditional hoe or pick-axe and spade.
A problem which often crops up is that of seedling availability. In thisinstance, farmers are usually shown methods of taking cuttings fromexisting trees (especially in the case of poplars and willows), which theycan then plant directly in a suitable area. With other tree species,farmers either have to buy the seedlings themselves, or have the seedlingsgiven to them free of charge (this is usually the case where a projectemphasizing people's participation is in progress). Where the peoplehave to buy their own seedlings, transport can usually be a problem ifthey live far from government nurseries. In such situations the peoplehave to rely on the local forester or extension agent to bring them theseedlings.
16
Most Basotho farmers cannot afford the expensive inorganic fertilizers required by modern agriculture. The use of leguminous tree species for the production of green manure would also help in increasing crop productivity. A rural development project in the south of Lesotho has been encouraging farmers to adopt this approach, and the initial response has been encouraging.
Many Basotho have taken to planting trees around their homes in the form of hedges or windbreaks, as well as for shade and amenity. All these efforts go some way towards protecting the country's soils.
The main problem facing the people, however, is ensuring good survival and establishment of the trees, especially in areas where water is scarce. Fortunately there is enough expertise (both local and expatriate) to advise on these matters. Certain establishment techniques have been developed to assist tree establishment, and the people are also encouraged to water their trees at least once fortnightly until they are firmly established.
During establishmenmt, it is particularly difficult to try and plant seedlings on the donga wall. So a method has been devised of directly sowing pelleted seed in the wall of the donga. This method has worked very well in the south of the country. Seedlings from pelleted seed do not require much attention once they have germinated, except protection from animals. Planting on other types of land and on the donga floor simply involves the digging of pits (about 75cm x 75cm x 30cm) and then planting the trees. The dimensions of the pit (especially the depth) can be reduced if the soil is very rocky. Pitting is usually done with a traditional hoe or pick-axe and spade.
A problem which often crops up is that of seedling availability. In this instance, farmers are usually shown methods of taking cuttings from existing trees (especially in the case of poplars and willows), which they can then plant directly in a suitable area. With other tree species, farmers either have to buy the seedlings themselves, or have the seedlings given to them free of charge (this is usually the case where a project emphasizing people's participation is in progress). Where the people have to buy their own seedlings, transport can usually be a problem if they live far from government nurseries. In such situations the people have to rely on the local forester or extension agent to bring them the seedlings.
16
RENEWABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
All the tree and shrub species discussed already grow in Lesotho, and theadvantage is that since they are used for food and forage, they areunlikely to suffer any major damage that could result in their totaleradication. For example, once Basotho have planted fruit trees theymake sure that they survive and protect them from damage by animalsand other agents. There are many very old specimens of fruit trees foundall over the country, some of which are more than 50 years old, but arestill bearing fruit.
However, with forage species a lot of care has to be exercised in orderto protect the trees from damage by animals; this can easily happen insituations where animals are given unlimited access to the trees tobrowse.
Species such as the rosehips (Rosa spp.) hold much promise for theBasotho and are not browsed by animals. However, their germinationstill has to be ascertained as they have proved rather difficult to propagatefrom seed in the past. But generally, most of the other species arealready being propagated in government nurseries throughout the countryand should be easily accessible to most Basotho.
Even those species that are used for the protection of the soil as well asfuelwood, such as Acacia spp. and Populus spp., should prove extremelydifficult to eradicate because of their root-suckering habit, thereforeproductivity from them can be expected to continue sustainably for a longtime.
Propagation material is easily available in Lesotho (or even from SouthAfrica) for most of the species discussed, therefore, renewal anddevelopment of the resource base should not be too difficult.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMOPLICATIONS
For many decades, Lesotho has faced enourmous soil losses fromagricultural lands, as can be seen from the networks of gullies that scarmost of the lowlands and foothills. The steady decline in indigenousvegetation has definitely contributed to this sad state of affairs, which willcontinue for as long as the country's natural resources are exploitedwithout replacement.
17
RENEWABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
All the tree and shrub species discussed already grow in Lesotho, and the advantage is that since they are used for food and forage, they are unlikely to suffer any major damage that could result in their total eradication. For example, once Basotho have planted fruit trees they make sure that they survive and protect them from damage by animals and other agents. There are many very old specimens of fruit trees found all over the country, some of which are more than 50 years old, but are still bearing fruit.
However, with forage species a lot of care has to be exercised in order to protect the trees from damage by animals; this can easily happen in situations where animals are given unlimited access to the trees to browse.
Species such as the rosehips (Rosa spp.) hold much promise for the Basotho and are not browsed by animals. However, their germination still has to be ascertained as they have proved rather difficult to propagate from seed in the past. But generally, most of the other species are already being propagated in government nurseries throughout the country and should be easily accessible to most Basotho.
Even those species that are used for the protection of the soil as well as fuelwood, such as Acacia spp. and Populus spp., should prove extremely difficult to eradicate because of their root-suckering habit, therefore productivity from them can be expected to continue sustainably for a long time.
Propagation material is easily available in Lesotho (or even from South Africa) for most of the species discussed, therefore, renewal and development of the resource base should not be too difficult.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
For many decades, Lesotho has faced enourmous soil losses from agricultural lands, as can be seen from the networks of gullies that scar most of the lowlands and foothills. The steady decline in indigenous vegetation has definitely contributed to this sad state of affairs, which will continue for as long as the country's natural resources are exploited without replacement.
17
The use of the three NWFP identified as being of most relevance toLesotho, is unlikely to have any major destructive environmentalconsequences if sustainable management practices are adhered to. Insituations where trees and other vegetation are to be used for forage,unlimited direct browsing by livestock may damage the resource base;similarly, if vegetation planted for the control of soil erosion is harvested,for example for fuelwood, without due regard to its sustainability, thenthe main purpose for which it is planted will be defeated, andenvironmental degradation will continue.
It is of the utmost importance therefore, for the people of Lesotho to becareful in their approach to NWFP use, conservation and management,lest the environmental problems they are trying to address become worse.
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
There are many constraints which have proved time and again to bestumbling-blocks to the promotion and development of natural resourcesin Lesotho; and as long as these continue to exist, it will be extremelydifficult to make any progress in the NWFP sphere in Lesotho. Thefollowing are some of the constraints:
Inadequate social and administrative structures with respectto the management of natural resources;
Insufficient awareness and understanding among thoseconcerned, of the ecological interactions in the spheres ofagriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and naturalresources;
Shortage of adequately trained manpower. In order forNWFP promotion and development work to proceed withouta hitch, it will be necessaryto have appropriate manpowerforplanning, guiding and supervising development activitieswhich may also require a broad multidisciplinary approach;
Unavailability of information and know-how necessary forthe introduction of sustainable and economically soundenvironmental and natural resource management systems;without such information, it is difficult to plan properly.
18
The use of the three NWFP identified as being of most relevance to Lesotho, is unlikely to have any major destructive environmental consequences if sustainable management practices are adhered to. In situations where trees and other vegetation are to be used for forage, unlimited direct browsing by livestock may damage the resource base; similarly, if vegetation planted for the control of soil erosion is harvested, for example for fuelwood, without due regard to its sustainability, then the main purpose for which it is planted will be defeated, and environmental degradation will continue.
It is of the utmost importance therefore, for the people of Lesotho to be careful in their approach to NWFP use, conservation and management, lest the environmental problems they are trying to address become worse.
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
There are many constraints which have proved time and again to be stumbling-blocks to the promotion and development of natural resources in Lesotho; and as long as these continue to exist, it will be extremely difficult to make any progress in the NWFP sphere in Lesotho. The following are some of the constraints:
Inadequate social and administrative structures with respect to the management of natural resources;
Insufficient awareness and understanding among those concerned, of the ecological interactions in the spheres of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and natural resources;
Shortage of adequately trained manpower. In order for NWFP promotion and development work to proceed without a hitch, it will be necessary to have appropriate manpower forplanning, guiding and supervising development activities which may also require a broad multidisciplinary approach;
Unavailability of information and know-how necessary for the introduction of sustainable and economically sound environmental and natural resource management systems; without such information, it is difficult to plan properly.
18
Lack of funds to carry out the necessary NWFP promotionand development work. It will be very difficult to introducenew natural resource management systems without a largecapital outlay;
Cultural barriers pose a great problem particularly when thelocal people have to be convinced of the necessity tointroduce drastic new measures, and to abandon practicesthey have grown accustomed to over the years.
19
Lack of funds to carry out the necessary NWFP promotion and development work. It will be very difficult to introduce new natural resource management systems without a large capital outlay;
Cultural barriers pose a great problem particularly when the local people have to be convinced of the necessity to introduce drastic new measures, and to abandon practices they have grown accustomed to over the years.
19
RECOMMENDATIONS
It will be very difficult to find solutions to all the problems related to thepromotion and development of NWFP in Lesotho, especially as some ofthese are of a very complex nature, requiring input from virtually allsectors of the community. However, some steps can be taken towardsattaining a solution, and these area as follows:
Efforts should be made to train, as a matter of urgency,manpower to co-ordinate NWFP promotiion anddevelopment in Lesotho; such training should take intoconsideration the uniqueness and multidisciplinarity of theproblem as pertains to Lesotho;
Although funds are always difficult to come by, especiallyfor redressing problems of an environmental nature, therelevant authorities should make it a priority to set asideadequte funds to cover all aspects of the work to be done,including staff incentives;
Awareness about the causes and consequences ofenvironmental degradation, and also about appropriatecounter-measures, must constitute a key element of anyaction plan intended to prevent further destruction of thenatural resource base. It is therefore recommended that ininfluencing people's attitudes, and hence their actions withregard to natural resources, a well-orchestrated effort bemade through schools, higher education institutions,rural extension services, the media, NGO's and internationaldevelopment organizations;
Involvement of the concerned people must be uppermost inthe promotion and development of NWFP, otherwise theymight feel that the problem is not theirs, and thereforerequires none of their input.
20
RECOMMENDATIONS
It will be very difficult to find solutions to all the problems related to the promotion and development of NWFP in Lesotho, especially as some of these are of a very complex nature, requiring input from virtually all sectors of the community. However, some steps can be taken towards attaining a solution, and these area as follows:
Efforts should be made to train, as a matter of urgency, manpower to co-ordinate NWFP promotiion and development in Lesotho; such training should take into consideration the uniqueness and multidisciplinarity of the problem as pertains to Lesotho;
Although funds are always difficult to come by, especially for redressing problems of an environmental nature, the relevant authorities should make it a priority to set aside adequte funds to cover all aspects of the work to be done, including staff incentives;
Awareness about the causes and consequences of environmental degradation, and also about appropriate counter-measures, must constitute a key element of any action plan intended to prevent further destruction of the natural resource base. It is therefore recommended that in influencing people's attitudes, and hence their actions with regard to natural resources, a well-orchestrated effort be made through schools, higher education institutions, rural extension services, the media, NGO's and international development organizations;
Involvement of the concerned people must be uppermost in the promotion and development of NWFP, otherwise they might feel that the problem is not theirs, and therefore requires none of their input.
20
The people must be kept up-to-date about any newdevelopments regarding NWFP intheir areas; this will alsotend build trust;
A detailed database on available NWFP in Lesotho shouldbe set up; this should encompass all aspects of such NWFP,including their status in the wild, renewability, propagationmethods and uses.
Village nurseries should be established throughout thecountry to ensure that there is never a shortage of seedlingsfor the promotion and development of NWFP in Lesotho;such nurseries should be run by the people themselves;
Finally, the land tenure system must be very clear andunambiguous regarding tree ownership and the use ofNWFP.
21
The people must be kept up-to-date about any new developments regarding NWFP intheir areas; this will also tend build trust;
A detailed database on available NWFP in Lesotho should be set up; this should encompass all aspects of such NWFP, including their status in the wild, renewability, propagation methods and uses.
Village nurseries should be established throughout the country to ensure that there is never a shortage of seedlings for the promotion and development of NWFP in Lesotho; such nurseries should be run by the people themselves;
Finally, the land tenure system must be very clear and unambiguous regarding tree ownership and the use of NWFP.
21
REFERENCES
Bonde, K. (1993). Birds of Lesotho. University of Natal Press,Pietermaritzburg.
Dahlberg, A. (1988). Local institutions and their role in soilconservation: A case study in Maphutseng, Lesotho.Swedish Univerity of Agricultural Sciences, WorkingPaper 55, Uppsala.
Douglas, J.S.(1978). Alternative foods: A world guide tolesser-known edible plants. Pelham Books, London.
FAO (1986). The dynamics of rural poverty. Rome.
FAO (1990). Utilization of tropical foods: Fruits and leaves.FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 47/4, Rome.
Gelfand, M. (1971). Diet and tradition in an African culture.E&S Livingstone, Edinburgh.
Goss, R. (1986). Maberly's mammals of southern Africa:A popular fied guide. Delta, Johannesburg.
Hall, D. and Green, T. (1989). Community forestry in Lesotho:The people's perspective. ODA.
Jacot Guillarmod, A. (1971). Flora of Lesotho. J. Cramer,Lehre.
Kingdom of Lesotho. (1989). National environmental action plan.
Lawry, S. (1986). Livestock and range management inSehlabathebe: A study of communal resourcesmanagement. Report prepared for the LandConservation and Range Development Project of theRange Management Division of the Ministry ofAgriculture, Lesotho.
22
REFERENCES
Bonde, K. (1993). Birds of Lesotho. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.
Dahlberg, A. (1988). Local institutions and their role in soil conservation: A case study in Maphutseng, Lesotho. Swedish Univerity of Agricultural Sciences, Working Paper 55, Uppsala.
Douglas, J.S.(1978). Alternative foods: A world guide to lesser-known edible plants. Pelham Books, London.
FAO (1986). The dynamics of rural poverty. Rome.
FAO (1990). Utilization of tropical foods: Fruits and leaves. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 47/4, Rome.
Gelfand, M. (1971). Diet and tradition in an African culture. E&S Livingstone, Edinburgh.
Goss, R. (1986). Maberly's mammals of southern Africa: A popular fied guide. Delta, Johannesburg.
Hall, D. and Green, T. (1989). Community forestry in Lesotho: The people's perspective. ODA.
Jacot Guillarmod, A. (1971). Flora of Lesotho. J. Cramer, Lehre.
Kingdom of Lesotho. (1989). National environmental action plan.
Lawry, S. (1986). Livestock and range management in Sehlabathebe: A study of communal resources management. Report prepared for the Land Conservation and Range Development Project of the Range Management Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Lesotho.
22
Palgrave, K.C. (1977). Trees of southern Africa. Struik,Cape Town.
Palmer, E. and Pitman, N. (1972). Trees of southern Africa.A.A. Balkema, Cape Town.
Protection and Preservation Commission. (1983). Lesotho'sheritage in jeopardy.
Reader's Digest (1989). Southern African wildlife.Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Reader's Digest(1992). South African family guide to naturalmedicine. Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Sclunitz, G.(Ed.) (1984). Lesotho Environment andManagement. National University of Lesotho. Roma.
Sclunitz, M. (1982). Wild flowers of Lesotho. ESSA, Maseru.
Turner, S.D. (1988). Land and trees in Lesotho. In: Fortmann,L. and Bruce, J.W. (Eds.). VVhose trees?:Proprietary dimensions of forestiy. Westview RuralStudies Series.
Wilson, F. and RaMphele, M. (1989). Uprooting poverty: TheSouth African challenge. David Philip, Cape Town.
23
Palgrave, K.C. (1977). Trees of southern Africa. Struik, Cape Town.
Palmer, E. and Pitman, N. (1972). Trees of southern Africa. A.A. Balkema, Cape Town.
Protection and Preservation Commission. (1983). Lesotho's heritage in jeopardy.
Reader's Digest (1989). Southern African wildlife. Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Reader's Digest(1992). South African family guide to natural medicine. Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Schmitz, G.(Ed.) (1984). Lesotho Environment and Management. National University of Lesotho. Roma.
Schmitz, M. (1982). Wild flowers of Lesotho. ESSA, Maseru.
Turner, S.D. (1988). Land and trees in Lesotho. In: Fortmann, L. and Bruce, J.W. (Eds.). Whose trees?: Proprietary dimensions of forestry. Westview Rural Studies Series.
Wilson, F. and Ramphele, M. (1989). Uprooting poverty: The South African challenge. David Philip, Cape Town.
23
ANNEX I
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP
24
CATEGORY OF NON-WOODFOREST PRODUCTS
PRODUCT IMPORTANCEOF NWFP
Fibre Agave americana 2
Food (Vegetal) Peach 1
Apple 2Pear 1
Apricot 1
Prickly pear 1
Wild berries (Rubus) 1
Rosehips 2Nuts 3Wild spinach 1
Food (Faunal) Honey 2Bushmeat 2Fish 1
Non-Food (Faunal) Animal skins 3
Feathers 3
Cosmetic & Medicinal Artemisia afra 1
Aloe ferox 2Protea caffra 2Acacia karroo 2Eucomis spp. 2Euclea spp. 2Buddleja salviifolia 1
Tarconanthuscamphoratus
2
Extractive Tarmin 2
Forage Livestock fodder 1
Bee forage 2
ANNEX I
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP
CATEGORY OF NON-WOOD PRODUCT IMPORTANCE FOREST PRODUCTS OF NWFP
Fibre Agave americana 2
Food (Vegetal) Peach 1 Apple 2 Pear 1 Apricot 1 Prickly pear 1 Wild berries (Rubus) 1 Rosehips 2 Nuts 3 Wild spinach 1
Food (Faunal) Honey 2 Bushmeat 2 Fish 1
Non-Food (Faunal) Animal skins 3 Feathers 3
Cosmetic & Medicinal Artemisia afra 1 Aloe ferox 2 Protea caffra 2 Acacia karroo 2 Eucomis spp. 2 Euclea spp. 2 Buddleja salvii/olia 1 Tarconanthus 2
camphoratus
Extractive Tannin 2
Forage Livestock fodder 1 Bee forage 2
24
25
Wood (handicrafts) Budclledja salviifolia 2Olea africana 2
Ornamentals Amenity 2
Range Grazing and browse 1
Shade and shelter 2
Soil improvement and Green manure 2protection Humus 2
N-fixation 2Soil stabilization 1
Windbreaks &hedges
2
Parks and reserves Tourism 1
Conservation 2Hunting 3Fishing 2
Wood (handicrafts) Buddledja salvii/olia 2 Olea africana 2
Ornamentals Amenity 2
Range Grazing and browse 1 Shade and shelter 2
Soil improvement and Green manure 2 protection Humus 2
N-fixation 2 Soil stabilization 1 Windbreaks & 2 hedges
Parks and reserves Tourism 1 Conservation 2 Hunting 3 Fishing 2
25
egen :
T: TonneL: LitreB: 50kg bag
AN1sTEX II
STATISTICAL DATA ON NVVFP
26
PRODUCT
YEAR OFREFERENCE
UNIT QUANTITY
UNITPRICE
(US$/T)
VALUE(US$1000)
Peaches 1992 T 17 N/A N/A
Apples 1992 T 6.5 N/A N/A
Pears 1992 T 2.5 N/A N/A
Apricots 1992 T 5 N/A N/A
Rosehips 1992 T 12 650 7.8
PRODUC T
Peaches
Apples
Pears
Apricots
Rosehips egend:
T: Tonne L: Litre B: 50kg bag
ANNEX II
STATISTICAL DATA ON NWFP
YEAR OF UNIT VALUE REFEREN UNIT QUANTIT PRICE (US$ CE Y (US$/T) 1000)
1992 T 17 N/A N/A
1992 T 6.5 N/A N/A
1992 T 2.5 N/A N/A
1992 T 5 N/A N/A 1992 T 12 650 7.8
26
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - MALAWIPILOT COUNTRY STUDY - MALAWI
E=e_ML-"A
g
E
iOkk
rrnallr: MEN
Kowm
E EWIR E
A Pilot Country Study Prepared for the RegionalExpert Consultation on NWFP(Non-Wood Forest Products)
Arusha, Tanzania,October, 1993.
Prepared by:R.W.S. NyirendaDeputy Chief Forestry OfficerDepartment of ForestryP.O. Box 30048Lilongwe 3MALAWI.
Telephone: 781000Fax : (265)784268
September,1993
r II! rorest Ie I ~ rroauct
A Pilot country study Prepared for the Regional Expert Consultation on NWFP (Non-Wood Forest Products)
Arusha, Tanzania, October, 1993.
Prepared by: R.W.S. Nyirenda Deputy Chief Forestry Officer Department of Forestry P.O. Box 30048 Lilongwe 3 MALAWI.
Telephone: 781000 Fax (265)784268
September, 1993
( i )
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Table of Contents (i)
Acknowledgement (ii)
Summary (iii)
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 GENERAL INFORMATION 2
3.0 FOREST RESOURCES OF MALAWI 4
4.0 NON - WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN MALAWI 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4
4.2 IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN MALAWI
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF NWFP TO RURAL COMMUNITIES
TO MALAWI 11
4.4 PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF NWFP IN MALAWI 16
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 17
Annex 1 Importance of NWFP in the Northern,
Central and Southern Regions of Malawi 19
Annex 2 Map of Malawi 20
( i )
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement
Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 GENERAL INFORMATION
3.0 FOREST RESOURCES OF MALAWI
4.0 NON - WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN MALAWI
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN MALAWI
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF NWFP TO RURAL COMMUNITIES
TO MALAWI
4~4 PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF NWFP IN MALAWI
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Annex 1 Importance of NWFP in the Northern,
Page
(i)
(i i )
(iii)
1
2
4
4
4
11
16
17
Central and Southern Regions of Malawi 19
Annex 2 Map of Malawi 20
ACKNO7LEDGEMENT
Special thanks go to the various officers in the Forestry andNational Parks and Wildlife Departments for having provideduseful information for this study which was acquired mainlythrough interviews. Other members of the general public andthose from certain Government and Non-Governmental Organizations,especially the Malawi-German Bee-keeping Project, are alsosincerely thanked for having assisted in facilitating this study.This pilot study is therefore dedicated to all these people.
( i i )
ACKNC '7LEDGEMENT
Special thanks go to the various officers in the Forestry and National Parks and Wildlife Departments for having provided useful information for this study which was acquired mainly through interviews. Other members of the general public and those from certain Government and Non-Governmental Organizations. especially the Malawi-German Bee-keeping Project. are also sincerely thanked for having assisted in facilitating this study. This pilot study is therefore dedicated to all these people.
SUMMARY
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) play a major role in socialdevelopment in Malawi. Despite this, there is very limitedinformation about the management and exploitation of suchproducts. Though there have been deployed various intervensions,mainly through Government, the development and management of NWFPin Malawi is still in its primary stages.
This study has revealed that the exploitation of NWFP in Malawivaries with type, time and location of such products. Theforests, especially those under public control, are the mostproductive. On a commercial basis, food NWFP, especially bee andgame products, seem to be the most exploited. Other NWFP,including fruits, mushrooms, and medicinal products, are at
present being exploited mostly for subsistence purposes. It hasalso been found that NWFP are being exploid legally orillegally. The Malawi Government is trying hard to reduceillegal harvesting by promoting legal approaches through variousextensional strategies and physical intervensions.
In conclusion, sustainable development of NWFP in Malawi requiresa review of all relevant policies and legislation, thedevelopment of appropriate technologies and the provision ofuseful extension and marketing techniques.
It is the view of this study that for the above recommendatinsto be transformed into viable strategies there is need for suchan undertaking to be initiated through a multidisplinaryapproach. This calls for the involvement of both Government andNon-Governmental Organizations in Malawi as well as internationalinistitutions like the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. This would helpplan, implement and monitor such strategies in the developmentand exploitation of important NWFP.
(i i i )
SUMMARY
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) playa major role in social development in Malawi. Despite this, there is very limited information about the management and exploitation of such products. Though there have been deployed various intervensions, mainly through Government, -the development and management of NWFP in Malawi is still in its primary stage~.
This study has revealed that the exploitation of NWFP in Malawi varies with type, time and location of such products. The forests, especially those under public control, are the most productive. On a commercial basis, food NWFP, especially bee and game products, seem to be the most exploited. Other NWFP, including fruits, mushrooms, and medicinal products, are at present being exploited mostly for subsistence purposes. It has also been found that NWFP are being exploi.?d lega.1ly or illegally. The Malawi Government is trying hard to reduce illegal harvesting by promoting legal approaches through various extensional strategies and physical intervensions.
In conclusion, sustainable development of NWFP a review of all relevant policies and development of appropriate technologies and useful extension and marketing techniques.
in Malawi requires legislation, the the provi sion of
It is the view of this study that for the above recommendati~ns to be transformed into viable strategies there is need for such an undertaking to be initiated through a multidisplinary approach. This calls for the involvement of both Government and 1\ 0 n - G 0 v ern men tal Organizations i nM a 1 a w i as well as international inistitutions like the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. plan, implement and monitor such strategies in and exploitation of important NWFP.
This would help the developlltent
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) which according to FAO refer to
market or subsistence goods and services for human or industrial
consumption derived from renewable forest resources and biomass,
bearing promise to augument man's basic needs of food, clothing
and shelter, have played a major role in human development in
the past and present in Malawi. To a certain extent man has
since time immemorial depended on NWFP fo his social, physical
and economic development. This is quite relevant for Malawi as
can be seen from the way NWFP are being exploited from natural
forests. It is a common practice to see people enter fprests in
Malawi to collect various forest products including honey,
fruits, medicinal products, and mushrooms. Game is also hunted
seasonally in most forests for meat, hides and other products.
It is unfortunate that such activities, which are important to
various rural communities, have not been well investigated for
sustainable development in Malawi. There is very limited data on
such investigations to evaluate the role NWFP in Malawi's
development especially at community level. This pilot study is
therefore aimed at carrying out such an investigation. Most of
the information used has been obtained through interviews with
a number of foretry and wildlife officers in the various
districts and also from some members of the public especially in
rural areas. It is therefore hoped that recommendatiolis made in
this study will be put to use in the sustainable development,
management, and utilization of non-wood foresty products in
Malawi.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) which according to FAO refer to
market or subsistence goods and services for human or industrial
consumption derived from renewable forest resources and biomass,
bearing promise to augument man's basic needs of food, clothing
and shelter, have played a major
the past and present in Malawi.
role in human development in
To a certain extent man ha s
since time immemorial depended on NWFP fa, his social, physical
and economic development. This is quite relevant for Malawi as
can be seen from the way NWFP are being exploited from natural
forests. It is a common practice to see people enter fprests in
Malawi to collect various forest products including honey,
fruits, medicinal products, and mushrooms. Game is also hunted
seasonally in most forests for meat, hides and other products.
It is unfortunate that such activities, which are important to
various rural communities, have not been well investigated for
sustainable development in Malawi. There is very limited data on
such investigations to evaluate the role NWFP in Malawi's
development especially at community level. This pilot study is
therefore aimed at carrying out such an investigation. Most of
the information used has been obtained through interviews with
a number of foretry and wildlife officers in the various
districts and also from some members of the public especially in
rural areas. It is therefore hoped that recommendatiolls made in
this study will be put to use in the sustainable development,
management, and utilization of non-wood foresty products in
Malawi.
2.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The Republic of Malawi is a long narrow, land-locked country
situated south of the equator in South-East Africa, between 90
-17 degrees South and 32 - 35 degrees East. The total surface
area of the territory covers approximately 118, 484 square
kilometres (sq. km.), of which land is 94, 274sq.km. (80%) and
water 24, 210 sq.km. (20%) with Lake Malawi being the
predominant feature.The country is located along the East
African Rift valley, and is ecologically and physiographically
varied. Of the total land area, about 68,3000 sq.km. (72, 43%)
are held under customary land tenure; 4,700 sq. km. (4.98%) under
estates (freehold and leasehold titles); and 21300 sq.km.
(22.59%) under public land with a large proportion being used for
the indigenous forest reserves, national parks, game reserve,
large-scale forest plantations, urban and infrustructural
development. For administrative purposes, Malawi is divided into
three regions: north, center, and south (see Map in Annex 2).
Malawi experiences a tropical continental climate, characterized
by two clearly defined seasons, the rain season
(November/December-April/May), and the dry season (May/June -
October/November).The mean annual precipitation varies widely
from a minimum of less than 635mm to a maximum of 3,050 mm.
boundary. The mean annual temperature is most strongly influenced
by altitude, and varies on average from less than 16 degree C to
24 degrees C.
2
2.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The Republic of Malawi is a long narro\l.', land-locked country
situated south of the equator in South-East Africa, between 90
-17 degrees South and 32 - 35 degrees East. The total surface
area of the terri tory covers approximately 118, 484 square
kilometres (sq. km.), of which land is 94, 274sq.km. (80%) and
water 24, 210 sq.km. (20%) with Lake Malawi being the
predominant feature.The country is located along the East
African Rift valley, and is ecologically and physiographically
varied. Of the total land area, about 68,3000 sq.km. (72, 43%)
are held under customary land tenurei 4,700 sq. km. (4.98%) under
estates (freehold and leasehold titles); and 21300 sq.km.
(22.59%) under public land with a large proportion being used for
the indigenous forest reserves, national parks, game reserve,
large-scale forest plantations, urban and infrustructural
development. For administrative purposes, Malawi is divided into
three regions: north, center, and south (see Map in Annex 2).
Malawi experiences a tropical continental climate, characterized
by two clearly defined seasons, the rain season
(November IDecember-Apri l/May), and the dry season (May I June
October/November).The mean annual precipitation varies widely
from a minimum of less than 635mm to a maximum of 3,050 mm.
boundary. The mean annual temperature is most strongly influenced
by altitude, and varies on average from less than 16 degree C to
24 degrees C.
2
2
The total human population is over 8 million persons growing at
an average rate of 3.5% per annum which is expected to rise to
an estimated 10 million by the year 2,000.
The average national population density is 59 persons per sq. Km,
but with an uneven distribution varying from 14-220 persons per
square kilometer. 92% live in rural areas deriving their livehood
chiefly from agriculture, forestry, livestock farming and allied
rural and agro-based industries. The per capita land area has
decreased from 1.42 hectares in 1984 to an estimated 0.94
hectares by the year 2000. This will put severe pressure on the
already scarce land resources.
The majority of the population subsist on agriculture. Agro-based
industries and other economic sectors are limited to provide
alternatives to farming. This means there is an ever incre.sing
pressure on the exploitation of natural resources including
forests. It is estimated that about 3% of the total land area
under forest cover is lost every year in Malawi. This is mainly
due to the high population groth rate (3% per year) that is
exerting tremendous pressure on natural resources especially
natural forests. In order lo reduce such a high rate of
deforestation, the Malawi Government has intoduced a number of
strategies through policy and legislative review. It has Lreated
a number of institunions for this purpose.
3
2
The total human population is over 8 million persons growing at
an average rate of 3.5% per annum which is expected to rise to
an estimated 10 million by the year 2,000.
The average national population density is 59 persons per sq. Km,
but with an uneven distribution varying from 14-220 persons per
square kilometer. 92% live in rural areas deriving their livehood
chiefly from agriculture, forestry, livestock farming and allied
rural and agro-based industries. The per capita land area has
decreased from 1.42 hectares in 1984 to an estimated 0.94
hectares by the year 2000. This will put severe pressure on the
already scarce land resources.
The majority of the population subsist on agriculture. Agro-based
industries and other economic sectors are limited to provide
a 1 t ern a t i ve s t 0 far min g . Th ism e a n s the rei san eve r inc r e, sin g
pressure on the exploitation of natural resources including
forests. It is estimated that about 3% of the total land area
under forest cover is lost every year in Malawi. This is mainly
due to the high population groth rate (3% per year) that is
exerting tremendous pressure on natural resources especially
natural forests. In order to reduce such a high rate of
deforestation, the Malawi Government has intoduced a number of
strategies through policy and legislative review. It has ~reated
a number of institunions for this purpose.
3
3.0 FOREST RESOURCES OF MALAWI
Forest and woodlands are of outmost importance to Malawi's
society, providing the bulk of country's energy, timber, non-wood
forest products, and environmental benefits. Malawi's total
forest resource covered 3.51 millions ha. or 37.2% of the total
land area in 1990. The Northern Region with only about 11% of
the population has the largest forest resource (39%) while the
Central and the Southern Regions with 89% of the population have
considerably less. A large population of the natural forest is
located on reserved land (National Parks, Game Reserves and
Forest Reserves ie 48%) of the total forest resource.
Fuelwood makes up the great bulk of wood removals from the
forest.
4.0 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN MALAWI
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The potential use of natural forests has been recognised and
exploited in Malawi for decades. These forests have provided
malawians with various products including timber, energy, shelter
and food in form of fruits, honey, vegetables, game meat,
mushrooms, tubers, and fish. Although recognized, the role of
such forests has been taken for granted, as a natural event,
until the balance between supply and demand for the resources has
titled for the worse.In Malawi, the need to fc, mally manage the
indigenous forests on a multiple use system was advocated some
decades ago. Despite this development, acceptance such schemes
were to be subordinate to the paramount objectives of commercial
timber production and water catchment protection.
4
3.0 FOREST RESOURCES OF MALAWI
Forest and woodlands are of outmost importance to Malawi's
society. providing the bulk of country's energy. timber. non-wood
forest products. and environmental benefits. Malawi's total
forest resource covered 3.51 millions ha. or 37.2% of the total
land area in 1990. The Northern Region with only about 11% of
the population has the largest forest resource (39%) while the
Central and the Southern Regions with 89% of the population have
considerably less. A large population of the natural forest is
located on reserved land (National Parks. Game Reserves and
Forest Reserves ie 48%) of the total forest resource.
Fuelwood makes up the great bulk of wood removals from the
forest.
4.0 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN MALAWI
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The potential use of natural forests has been recognised and
exploited in Malawi for decades. These forests have provided
rnalawians with various products including timber. energy. shelter
and food in form of fruits. honey. vegetables. game meat.
mushrooms. tubers. and fish. Al though recognized. the role of
such forests has been taken for granted. as a natural event.
until the balance between supply and demand for the resources has
titled for the worse.In Malawi. the need to fLrnally manage the
indigenous forests on a multiple use system was advocated some
decades ago. Despite this development. acceptance such schemes
were to be subordinate to the paramount objectives of commercial
timber production and water catchment protection.
4
At the same time, because of the nature of indigenous forests in
Malawi, maximization of revenue from the primary objective of
timber production could not be achieved eas_'y on a sustained
yield. Poor stocking, low incremental rate and the difficulties
experienced in regenerating the forests were the major causes.
To manage indigenous forest in Malawi for the production of non-
wood forest products (NWFP), the following areas were proposed
for further exploration in the 1960's; grazing,beekeeping,
wildlife management, tourism and mushroom production.
Unfortunately, these interventions appear not to have achieve the
prescribed goals. The management of forest re.Jurces mainly for
wood production has contributed to this shortfall.
4.2 IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN MALAWI
Malawi's forest resources can be divided into five categories in
terms of location (Table 1).
Table 1. Distribution of Forests in Malawi
Source: Foistry Department
5
Type Area (Million
ha)
% of Total
Forest Area
Customary Land orest 2.7 57
Forest Reserves 0.98 21
National Parks and
Game Reserves
1.0 21
Industrial plantations 0.07 1
At the same time. because of the nature of indigenous forests in
Malawi. maximization of revenue from the primary objective of
timber production could not be achieved eaL ~y on a sustained
yield. Poor stocking. low incremental rate and the difficulties
experienced in regenerating the forests were the major causes.
To manage indigenous forest in Malawi for the production of non
wood forest products (NWFP). the following areas were proposed
for further exploration in the 1960's. grazing. beekeeping.
wildlife management. tourism and mushroom produc t ion.
Unfortunately. these interventions appear not to have achieve the
prescribed goals. The management of forest re.,YLtrces mainly for
wood production has contributed to this shortfall.
4.2 IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN MALAWI
Malawi's forest resources can be divided into five categories in
terms of location (Table 1).
Table 1. Distribution of Forests in Malawi
Type Area o.n 11 ion % of Total
hal Forest Area
Customary Land ~ orest 2. 7 57
For est Reserves 0.98 21
National Parks and 1.0 21
Game Reserves
Industrial plantations 0.07 1
Source: FOl .stry Department
5
Because of the free access to forest products on customary land,
the limited distribution of NWFP in industrial plantations, and
the limited time for this study, it was not possible to
quantitatively evaluate the potential for exploitation of NWFP
in all forests. This study has therefore concentrated at the
potential for the exploitation of NWFP in forest reserves,
national parks and game reserves. This should provide usefull
information since such forests account for over 50% of the total
forest area in Malawi. There are 98 proposed and gazetted forest
reserves in Malawi covering an area of about 10,000 square
kilometers (sq. km.) (Table 2). There are also about 4 national
parks and 4 game reserves in Malawi covering an area of over
10,000 sq. km.
Table 2.
Proposed and Gazetted IThrest Reserves.
Source: Forestry Department
To get an insight into the utilization of NWFP in these
reserves, various pec,ple including forestry and wildlife officers
were interviewed. The approach was to find out which NWFP were
6
Region :umber Area(sq km)
Northern Region 38 3120
Central Region '9 3437
Southern Region 31 3598
Total 98 10,155
Because of the free access to forest products on customary land.
the limited distribution of NWFP in industrial plantations. and
the limited time for this study. it was not possible to
quantitatively evaluate the potential for exploitation of NWFP
in all forests. This study has therefore concentrated at the
potential for the exploitation of NWFP in forest reserves.
national parks and game reserves. This should provide usefull
information since such forests account for over 50% of the total
forest area in Malawi. There are 98 proposed and gazetted forest
reserves in Malawi covering an area of about 10.000 square
kilometers (sq. km.) (Table 2). There are also about 4 national
parks and 4 game reserves in Malawi covering an area of over
10.000 sq. km.
Table 2.
Proposed and Gazetted ~jrest Reserves.
Region :'umber Area(sq km)
Northern Region 38 3120
Central Region ~9 3437
Southern Region 31 3598
Total 98 10.155
Source: Forestry Department
To get an insight into the utilization of NWFP in these
reserves. various pee,pIe including forestry and wildlife officers
were interviewed. The approach was to find out which NWFP were
6
being exploited the most, legally or illegally, and for what
purpose. Time that such an activity took place was also
investigated. Information was also sought as to whether such
exploitation was for subsistence or commercial purposes and
whether this was done mostly by men or women or both. This survey
was conducted throu h the three regional forestry offices in the
north, centre and south (RFO-N, RFO-C, and RFO-S) respectively.
The results are summarised in Annex 1 and Figures 1-3. It has
been found that NWFP are exploited in all the three regions of
Malawi. Where as the northern and southern regions are dominated
by faunal food NWFP the centre is dominated by vegetal food NWFP.
Considering the exploitation of faunal food NWFP, meat, honey,
termites, and caterpillars dominate in the northern region(Figure
2). In the celi,ral region, the exploitation of caterpillars is
more significant than that of honey,termites and meat. In the
southern region termite harvest has been ranked higher compared
to meat, honey, caterpillars and fish. With regard to vegetal
food NWFP, the harvesting of mushrooms and fruits is significant
in all the three regions (Figure 3).
The major weakness with this method of investigation is that it
does not i.dicate the magnitude of occurence in a particular
area. At the same time, the only major advantage with this
approach, given the various constraints including the limited
time for this study, is that it gives a useful overview of the
current situation in the absence of comprehensive data It also
narrows down the scope for future investigations to only those
NWFP that are comparatively significant.
7
being exploited the most. legally or illegally. and for what
purpose. Time that such an activity took place was also
investigated. Information was also sought as to whether such
exploitation was for subsistence or commercial purposes and
whether this was done mostly by men or women or both. This survey
was conducted throubh the three regional forestry offices in the
north. centre and south (RFO-N. RFO-C. and RFO-S) respectively.
The results are summarised in Annex 1 and Figures 1-3. It has
been found that NWFP are exploited in all the three regions of
Malawi. Where as the northern and southern regions are dominated
by faunal food NWFP the centre is dominated by vegetal food NWFP.
Considering the exploitation of faunal food NWFP. meat. honey.
termites. and caterpillars dominate in the northern region(Figure
2). In the cell,.ral region. the exploitation of caterpillars is
more significant than that of honey.ter~ites and meat. In the
southern region termite harvest has been ranked higher compared
to meat. honey. caterpillars and fish. With regard to vegetal
food NWFP. the harvesting of mushrooms and fruits is significant
in all the three regions (Figure 3).
The major weakness with this method of investigation is that it
does not i..dicate the magnitude of occurence in a particular
area. At the same time. the only major advantage with this
approach. given the various constraints including the limited
time for this study. is that it gives a useful overview of the
current situation in the absence of comprehensive data It also
narrows down the scope for future investigations to only those
NWFP that are comparatively significant.
7
Non-Wood Forest Produce (RFO-N)
43%
43%
Non-Wood Forest Produce (RFO-C)
Non-Wood Forest Produce (RFO-S)
0 Food (Faunal)
Medicine
al Others
Food(Vegetal)
0 Fibre
0 Extractives
0 Food (Faunal)
O Medicine
IllOthers
O Food(Vegetal)
Fibre
0 Food (Faunal)
O Medicine
I Others
Food(Vegetal)
0 Fibre
10% 14%
Non- Wood Forest Produce (RFO-N)
43%
32%
Non-Wood Forest Produce (RFO-C)
10% 14%
Non-Wood Forest Produce (RFO-S)
2%
o Food (Faunal)
~Medicine
I Others
[] Food(VegetaJ)
BFibre
[] Extractives
o Food (Faunal)
SMedicine
III Others
o Food(Vegetal)
DFibre
o Food (Faunal)
32% [l Medicine
I Others
o Food(Vegetal)
DFibre
38%
Faunal Produce - RFO (N)
23%
70/0
Faunal Produce - RFO(C)
Faunal Produce - RFO(S)
13%
44:
22%
30%
13%
0Termites
E Caterpillars
I Honey
0 meat
0 Fish
OTermites
Caterpillars
Honey
O Meat
O Termites
E Caterpillars
i Honey
Meat
O Fish
Faunal Produce - RFO (N)
23%
23% ==111'30% 7%
Faunal Produce - RFO(C)
38% 8%
23%
Faunal Produce - RFO(S)
13%
o Termites
i1 Caterpillars
I Honey
[JMeat
tlFish
o Termites
III Caterpillars
I Honey
o Meat
OTermites
ml Caterpillars
I Honey
o Meat
DFish
tv-t42-S :
53%
47%
Vegetal Produce - RFO(N)
Vegetal Produce - RFO(C)
Vegetal Produce - RFO(S)
:.t s
52%
0 Fruits
E Mushrooms
0 Leaves
0 Mushrooms
Tubers
D Fruits
0 Leaves
LI Mushrooms
I Tubers
O Fruits
110/021%
Vegetal Produce - RFO(N)
47% o Fruits
~Mushrooms 53% ,
Vegetal Produce - RFO(C)
o Leaves
47% ~Mushrooms
I Tubers
o Fruits
5%
Vegetal Produce - RFO(S)
11%
I DLeave~1 [J Mushrooms
II Tubers
o Fruits
52%
-10 -
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF NWFP TO RURAL COMMUNITIES IN MALAWI.
A quik survey conducted by interviewing some district forestry
officers in eighteen of the 24 districts of Malawi, in which most
forests are located, revealed some interesting trends with
regard to the importance of NWFP at various community levels in
Malawi (Table 3).
Table 3. The Socio-economics of NWFP in Malawi.
11
Product Involvement
Utiliza-tion
Marketing
Potentia1
Production
Leve1
forDemand
Environ.Impact
Availability
EffectonIncome
Edibleproducts
Honey X M S +C H H O Y H
Fruits X + F L S L H 0 Y M
Murshrooms
F M S(+C H H 0 Y
Insects X + F L S L L 0 Y ?
Game M M S +C M H 0 P H
Tubers F L S L ? ? P ?
Leaves F ? S L ? S ?
Non -EdibleProducts
Medicines
X+F M C(+S L H ? P H
Rasins X L S ? 0 P L
Fibres X M S L ? 0 P L
Grass X+F L S L ? 0 Y M
Fodder 0 L S(+C L H H Y ?
Soil X+F L S(+C L ?A
H P ?
KEY: X : Male, F : Female, H : High, M : Medium, L : Low,S : Sdbsistence, C : Commercial, Y : Seasonal, P
Permanent.
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF NWFP TO RURAL COMMUNITIES IN MALAWI.
A quik survey conducted by interviewing some district forestry
officers in eighteen of the 24 districts of Malawi. in which most
forests are located. revealed some interesting trends with
regard to the importance of NWFP at various community levels in
Malawi (Table 3).
Table 3. The Socio-economics of NWFP in Malawi.
Product Involve Uti 1 Mark Pote Leve Envi Avai Ef f ment iza- e tin ntia I ron. labi ect
t ion g I for Impa lit y on Prod Dema c t Inc ucti nd ome on
Edible products
Honey X M S +C H H 0 Y H
Fruits X + F L S L H 0 Y M
Murshroo F M S(+C H H 0 Y "T .. ms
Insects X + F L S L L 0 Y ?
Game M M S +C M H 0 P H
Tubers F L S L ? ? P ?
Leaves F ? S L ? ? S ?
Non -Edible Products
Medicine X+F M C(+S L H ? P H s
Rasins X L S ? ? 0 P L
Fibres X M S L ? 0 P L
Grass X+F L S L ? 0 Y M
Fodder 0 L S(+C L H H Y ?
Soil X+F L S(+C L ? H P ?
KEY: X : Male. F : Female. H : High. M : Medium. L : Low. S Siibsistence. C Commercial. Y Seasonal. P Permanen t .
11
It has been observed in this study that the production,
collection, and/or processing of NWFP in Malawi involves both men
and women and that utilization of such products ranges from very
low to medium. Most of these products are used for subsistence
purposes. Only honey, mushrooms, game meat, medicinal products,
fodder and soil are sometimes harvested fr sale. Of these
products, honey seems to be the only product with a marketing
system that is developing well. Whereas the production of honey,
mushrooms, and game meat can be improved, that of the others have
very limited potential.
Currently,there is high demand for honey, fruits, mushrooms, game
meat, medicinal products and fodder in Malawi. Only fodder and
soil harvesting could be considered as having an impact on the
environment. Whereas some NWFP are avallable seasonally eg.
honey, fruits and mushrooms, the rest are available all the year
round.
This study has revealed that only honey, fruits, mushrooms, game
and medicinal products, and grass for thatch have a strong
potential to improve the incomes of the rural communities in
Malawi. An attempt has been made to rank each NWFP in terms of
its importance in the categories of food security, nutrition,
health, employment and income (Table 4).
It has been observed in this study that the production,
collection, andlor processing of NWFP in Malawi involves both men
and women and that utilization of such products ranges from very
low to medium. Most of these products are used for subsistence
purposes. Only honey, mushrooms, game meat, medicinal products,
fodder and soil are some"times harvested f, ; r sale. Of these
products, honey seems to be the only product with a mark.eting
system that is developing well. Whereas the production of honey,
mushrooms, and game meat can be improved, that of the others have
very limited potential.
Currently,there is high demand for honey, fruits, mushrooms, game
mea t, me die ina I pro due t san d f 0 d d e r i n Mal a wi. On I y f 0 d d era n d
soil harvesting could be considered as having an impact on the
environment. Whereas some NWFP are aV;j:lable seasonally ego
honey, fruits and mushrooms, the rest are available all the year
round.
This study has revealed that only honey, fruits, mushrooms, game
and medicinal products, and grass for thatch have a strong
potential to improve the incomes of the rural communities in
Malawi. An at tempt has been made to rank each NWFP in terms of
its importance in the categories of food security, nutrition,
health, employment and income <Table 4).
Table 4
Importance of NWFP to Local Communities in Malawi.
Rank : 0-5 + Low, 6-10 = medium, 11-15 = high.
Such ranking has revealed that honey and fruits are the most
significant products followed by mushrooms, insects,
leaves(vegetables), game and medicine. Tubers, raisins, fibres,
grass, fodder and soil have ranked low.
In an effort to quantify statistically the exploitation of the
most impurtant NWFP,it has been observed that this is only
possible, to a limited extent, with honey, caterpillar and game
products as follows.
13
Product FoodSecurity
Nutrition
Health
Employment
Income
TotalScore
Rank
Honey 3 3 3 3 3 15 High
Fruits 3 3 3 2 2 13 High
Mushrooms 3 3 1 1 ', 10 Medium
Insects 3 3 1 1 1 9 Medium
Leaves 1 3 3 1 1 9 Medium
Game 2 3 1 1 1 8 Medium
Tubers ' 1 1 1 1 5 Low
Medicine 0 0 3 2 2 7 Medium
Raisins 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Fibres 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Grass 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Fodder 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Soil 0 0 0 i 1 2 Low
Table 4
Importance of NWFP to Local Communities in Malawi.
Product Food Nutri Heal Employ Inco Total Rank Securi tion th ment me Score ty
Honey 3 3 3 3 3 15 Hi gh
Fruits 3 3 3 2 2 -'-3 Hi gh
Mushrooms 3 3 1 1 2 10 Medium
Insects 3 3 1 1 1 9 Medium
Leaves 1 3 3 1 1 9 Medium
Game 2 3 1 1 1 8 Medium
Tubers . 1 1 1 1 5 Low
Medicine 0 0 3 2 2 7 Medium
Raisins 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Fibres 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Grass 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Fodder 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Soil 0 0 0 1 1 2 Low
Rank 0-5 + Low, 6-10 medium, 11-15 = high.
Such ranking has revealed that honey and fruits are the most
significant products followed by mushrooms, insects,
1 e a v e s ( ve get a b 1 e s ), gam e and me d i c in e . Tu b e r s, r a i sin s, fib res,
grass, fodder and soil have ranked low.
In an effort to quantify statistically the exploitation of the
most impLrtant NWFP,it has been observed that this is only
possible, to a limited extent, with honey, caterpillar and game
products as follows.
13
According to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
(DNPWL), communities surrounding some parks, game and forest
reserves are allowed to hang bee hives in these areas harvest bee
products. Through a Government supported beekeeping project a
total of 894 peo,le are currently participating in beekeeping.
During the 1992-93 beekeeping year, a total of 4,188.9kg of honey
and 174.7kg of bee-wax were harvested and sold. Money realized
from honey sales was MK25,133.40 (about US$5,000) and that from
wax was MK1,222.97 (about US$350). There is also one commercial
bee-keeper operating on the Nyika National Park and South Viphya
Forest Reserve. In the Nyika alone he has 185 hives which are
estimated to harvest about 1,000 kg of honey a year. Where as
the bee products from te rural communities around the park are
sold to the project, the commercial bee-keeper sells direct to
retail outlets. Honey is also amongst the products that are
harvested illegally from most parks and reserves. In the Kasungu
National Park, people are also allowed to install bee hives. In
1992 which was the initial harvest year 70 kg of honey was
harvested. In Nkhota-kota Wildlife Reserve, bee-keeping has
started but due to the drought of 1992 very few hives were
(colonized hence no harvest has Leen reported yet.
Apart from bee-keeping, rural communities around Kasungu National
Park have been allowed to collect caterpillars (Matondo and
Vilungulungu) for food. In 1991, according to the DNPWL, over
170 people participated in the exercise. They harvested about
1,850 kg of caterpillars. The market value of these products in
1991 ranged between MK8.00/kg (about US$ 2/kg) and MK29.00/kg
(about US$ 7/kg) depending on their availability.
14
According to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
<DNPWL). communi ties surrounding some parks. game and fares t
reserves are allowed to hang bee hives in these areas harvest bee
products. Through a Government supported beekeeping project a
total of 894 pearle are currently participating in beekeeping.
During the 1992-93 beekeeping year. a total of 4.188.9kg of honey
and 174.7kg of bee-wax were harvested and sold. Money realized
from honey sales was MK25.133.40 <about US$5.000) and that from
wax was MKl.222.97 <about US$350). There is also one commercial
bee-keeper operating on the Nyika National Park and South Viphya
Forest Reserve. In the Nyika alone he has 185 hives which are
estimated to harvest about 1.000 kg of honey a year. Where as
the bee products from t:.e rural communities around the park are
sold t6 the project. the commercial bee-keeper sells direct to
ret ail out let s . Honey is also amongst the products that are
harvested illegally from most parks and reserves. In the Kasungu
National Park. people are also allowed to install bee hives. In
1 99:2 wh i c h was the in i t i a 1 h a r ve stye a r 70 kg of han e y was
harvested. In Nkhota-kota Wildlife Reserve. bee-keeping has
started but due to the drought of 1992 very few hives were
~olonized hence no harvest has ~een reported yet.
Apart from bee-keeping. rural communities around Kasungu National
Park have been allowed to collect caterpillars <Matondo and
Vilungulungu) for food. In 1991. according to the DNPWL. over
170 people participated in the exercise. They harvested about
1.850 kg of caterpillars. The market value of these products in
1 9 9 1 ran g e d bet wee n MK 8 . 00 I kg ( a b out US $ 2 I kg) and MK 29 . 00 I kg
(about US$ 7/kg) depending on their availability.
14
In most of the national parks and game reserves there are a
number of illegal activities (Table 5).
Table 5
Illegal activities in National Parks & Game Reserves
Source : Department of National Parks and Wildlife.
The major annual species that fall victim to poachers include
elephant, hippo, antelope, buffalo, warthog, fish, and rock
hyraxes. Between 1981 and 1990 an average of 30 antelopes of
different species per year were killed illegally. The average
figure for elephants for the same period was 25 per year.
Culling is a periodic exercise in Lengwe National Park. Nyala
antelope, warthog and buffalo have been culled in the past. The
meat is sold (at reduced prices) to the people. Legal harvest
by local communities has not been introduced yet. Government is
trying hard to reduce these illegal activities by making them
legal.
15
Park/Reserves Illegal Activity
Nyika - harvesting of honey, meat, hides,mushrooms, thatch grass, and wildfruits.
Vwaza - harvesting of meat, hides, ivory,mushrooms, thatch grass, and wild
fruits
Kasungu andNkhota-kota
- (Similar to Vwaza but include leavesfor food c (Orachidace
family) and Bwaka
Lake MalawiNational Park
- fish harvest, and meat
Liwonde and Majote - fish, meat, hides and ivory harvesting
Longwe and Mwabvi - harvesting animals for meat and masawu(Ziziphus sp) as fruit
In most of the national parks and game reserves there are a
number of illegal activities (Table 5).
Table 5
Illegal activities in National Parks & Game Reserves
Park/Reserves Illegal Ac t i v it Y
Nyika - harvesting of honey. meat. hides. mushrooms. thatch grass. and wi ld
fruits.
Vwaza - harvesting of meat. hide s • ivory. mushrooms. thatch grass. and wild
fruits
Kasungu and - (Similar to Vwaza but include leaves Nkhota-kota for food (;;u Chinaka (Orachidace
family) and Bwaka
Lake Malawi - fish harvest. and meat National Park
Liwonde and Majote - fish. mea t • hides and ivory harvesting
Longwe and Mwabvi - harvesting animals for meat and masawu (Ziziphus s p) as f ru it
Source Department of NatIonal Parks and WIldlIfe.
The major annual species that fall victim to poachers include
elephant. hippo. antelope. buffalo. warthog. fish. and rock
hyraxes. Between 1981 and 1990 an average of 30 antelopes of
different species per year were killed illegally. The average
figure for elephants for the same period was 25 per year.
Culling is a periodic exercise in Lengwe National Park. Nyala
antelope. warthog and buffalo have been culled in the past. The
meat is sold (at reduced prices) to the people. Legal harvest
by local communities has not been introduced yet. Government is
trying hard to reduce these illegal activities by making them
legal.
15
This is being done through an intensive public awareness
programme amongst other strategies. In areas outside national
parks and game reserves, licences (at a fee) are issued to sport
hunters. The licence authorises the holder to kill five common
duikers, one worthog and one male bush buck. Over 200 hunters
are licensed annually. The success of the hunters has not been
closely monitored by the Department of National Parks and
Wildlife (DNPWL) but the zeal to renew the licences shows that
the activity is v-ible. Government hunters also shoot several
animals on crop protection. According to DNPWL, an average of
0.3 million kg of meat are sold to the public from this exercise
every year giving (estimated revenue not available). The bulk
of the meat is from hippo, elephant and buffalo in decreasing
order of contribution.
4.4 PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF NWFP IN MALAWI
The sustainable development of NWFP in Malawi is still in its
infancy. It would appear only the harvesting of bee products
is ad,:ancing to commercial levels. Other products (Table 4)
including fruits, mushrooms, insects, leaves, and game products
show potential for further development at both subsistence and
commercial levels.
For such development to advance in Malawi, the following factors
(or constraints) need to be well looked into:
(i) Suitablc environment must be available, particularly with
regard to climate and vegetation,
16
This is being done through an intensive public awareness
programme amongst other strategies. In areas outside national
parks and game reserves, licences (at a fee) are issued to sport
hunters. The licence authorises the holder to kill five common
duikers, one worthog and one male bush buck. Over 200 hunters
are licensed annually. The success of the hunters has not been
closely monitored by the Department of National Parks and
Wildlife (DNPWL) but the zeal to renew the licences shows that
the act i v i t y i s \' ~ i b Ie. Go v ern men t hun t e r s a Iso s h 0 0 t s eve r a I
animals on crop protection. According to DNPWL, an average of
0.3 million kg of meat are sold to the public from this exercise
every year giving (estimated revenue not available). The bulk
of the meat is from hippo, elephant and buffalo in decreasing
order of contribution.
4.4 PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF NWFP IN MALAWI
The sustainable development of NWFP in Malawi is still in its
infancy. It would appear only the harvesting of bee products
is 3d':.Jncing to commercial levels. Other products (Table 4)
including fruits, mushrooms, insects, leaves, and game products
show potential for further development at both subsistence and
commercial levels.
For such development to advance in Malawi, the following factors
(or constraints) need to be well looked into:
(i) Suitable environment must be available, particularly with
regard to climate and vegetation,
16
(ii) Conducive policies and legislation, ie laws and
institutions,
(iii Appropriate technologies, fe adaptive research to combine
local with new knowledge, the provision of capital to
finance equipment if necessary,
Extension and training, je training in relevant technical
field plus business management training such as accounting,
Marketing system (local - urban, ie infrastructure, traders
and buyers (small and large), capital.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
NWFP in Malawi are abundant but not well managed and utilized.
Most of these are located in National Parks, Game Reserves and
Forest Reserves. Where as only bee products appear to be
exploited economically this activity could be improved. In
Malawi, there is limited policy and legislative :rame work
governing the management and exploitation of NWFP. Since the
Malawi economy is agro-based an'd that agricultural expansion is
declining , management of NWFP for sustainable development is an
attractive option. In order for this to be achieved, this study
recommends the following:
Reducing the pressure on the environment by developing and
introducing appropriate alternative management practices and
technolobies for the utilization of NWFP from forests.
Improve on legislation and provide for the institutional
capacities to enforce the legislation.
17
(ii) Conducive policies and legislation, ie laws and
institutions,
(iii Appropriate technologies, ie adaptive research to combine
local with new knowledge, the provision of capital to
finance equipment if necessary.
(iv) Extension and training, ie training in relevant technical
field plus business management training such ~s accounting,
(v) Marketing system (local - urban, ie infrastructure, traders
and buyers (small and large), capital.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
NWFP in Malawi are abundant but not well managed and utilized.
Most of these are located in National Parks, Game Reserves and
Forest Reserves. Wh ere a son I y bee pro d u c t sap pea r t 0 be
exploited economically this activity could be improved. In
Malawi. there is limited policy and legislative .:'rame work
governing the management and exploitation of NWFP. Since the
Malawi economy is agro-based and that agricultural expansion is
declining, management of NWFP for sustainable development is an
attractive option. In order for t~is to be achieved, this study
recommends the following:
(i) Reducing the pressure on the environment by developing and
introducing appropriate alternative management practices and
technolobles for the utilization of NWFP from forests.
(ii) Improve on legislation and provide for the institutional
capacities to enforce the legislation.
17
Upgrade the existing extension and training facilities by
developing adequate training programmes and appropriate extension
packages and logistics for the various target groups.
Establish suitable marketing systems and erovide the
necessary capital for the development and management of the
relevant NWFP.
In Malawi NWFP can therefore be sustainably developed and
exploited if there is a multidisplinary approach to the whole
exercise at legislative, policy, and implementation levels. This
can be facilitated through the initiative of the Ministry of
Forestry and Natural Resources and other relevant GovernmLnt and
Non-governmental Organization.
18
(iii) Upgrade the existing extension and training facilities by
developing adequate training programmes and appropriate extension
packages and logistics for the various target groups.
(i v ) Est a b lis h sui tab 1 e mar k e tin g s y s t ems and ~. r 0 vi de the
necessary capital for the development and management of the
relevant NWFP.
I n M a I a w i NWF P can the ref 0 reb e sus t a ina b I y de vel 0 p e dan d
exploited if there is a multidisplinary approach to the whole
exercise at legislative. policy. and implementation levels. This
can be facilitated through the initiative of the Ministry of
Forestry and Natural Resources and other relevant GovernmLnt and
Non-governmental Organization.
18
Table 1 Non-Wood Forest Produce in Malawi
(Frequency Distribution of FaunaJ & Vegetal Produce)
RFO(N) FtFO(C) RFO(S)Food (Fauna!) 30 Food (Fauna)) 13 Food (Fauna)) 30
Medicine 3 Medicine 9 Medicine 3
Others 39 Others 16 Others 39
Food(Vegetal) 17 Food(Vegetal) 44 Food(Vegetal) 19
Fibre 2 Fibre 9 Fibre 2Extractives 2 Extractives 0 Extraceves 0
Total 93 91
Table 2 Non-Wood Forest Produce in Malawi
(Frequency Disrnbuhon &Faunal Produce) (Percentage Distribunon of kaunal Produce)
RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S) RFO( N) RFO(C) RFO(S)Food(Faunal) Termites 7 3 10 Termites 23 23 43
Caterpillars s 5 3 Caterpillars 17 as 13
Honey 7 4 3 Honey 23 31 13
Mea! 9 1 5 Meal 30 8 22
Fish 2 0 2 Fish 7 o 9
Total 30 13 23 100 100 100
Table 3 Non-Wood Forest Produce in Malawi
;Frequency Dtsetbunon ot Vegetal Produce) (Percentege Dtstrbution of Vegetal Produce)
RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S) RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S)Food(Vegetal) Leaves o 13 4 Leaves o 30 21
Mushrooms 9 8 10 Mushrooms 53 18 53
Tubers o 2 3 Tubers 0 5 16
Frurts 8 21 2 Fruits 47 48 11
Total 17 44 19 100 loo 100
Source Questtonnetre survey conducted through Dastrtct Forestry Of tc.rs
Page 19
Table 1 Non-Wood Forest Prodwce in Malawi
(Frequency Distribution 01 Faunal &. Vegetal Produce)
RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S)
Food (Fllun:llj 30 Food (Faunal) 13 Food (Faunal) 30 MfOdicine 3 Medicine 9 Medicine 3
Others 39 Others 16 Others 39 Food(Vegeta/) 17 Food(Vegetal) 44 Food(VegetaJ) 19
Fibre 2 Fibre 9 Fibre 2 ExlracliYes 2 ExIr.lcliYes 0 Ex1racliYes 0
Tobl 93 91 93
Tab l e 2 Non-Wood Forest Produce in Malawi
(Fre quency Olstl'lbuho n of Faunsl Produce) (PerCltnt"q8 D 'ltrlbuhon ot t=eunel Produce)
RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S) RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S) Food(FllunaJ) Tenniles 7 3 10 Tennites 23 23 43
CalerpiOars 5 5 3 Calerpalars 17 38 13 Honey 7 4 3 Honey 23 31 13 Meal 9 1 5 Melli 30 8 22 FISh 2 0 2 Fish 7 0 9
Total 30 13 23 100 100 100
Ta b l e 3 Non-Wo od Fores t Produce in Malawi
{Frequency Ol ~tnbuhon otVegl"t~1 Produce) (p@fCl'n"'Q!' D rstTl bul'lOn of Vegeft:tl Produce)
RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S) RFO(N) RFO(C) RFO(S)
Food(Vegelal) Leaves 0 13 4 Leaves 0 30 21 Mushrooms 9 8 10 Mustvooms 53 18 53
Tubers 0 2 3 Tubers 0 5 16 Fruits 8 21 2 Fruits 47 48 11
Total 17 44 19 100 100 100
So urce Uues tl.OD Cla l. re s urve y CODdw.;lec1 through Dl.str1.ct forestry Off l c~r3
Page I 'f
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MAP OF MALAWIS HOWING PEGIONAL BOUNDARIESF OREST RESERVES, NATIONAL F)
AND GAME RESERVES
Fn FOREST RESERVE
pm PRINCIPAL TIMBER PLANTATIONS
El PULPWOOD PLANTATIONS
A SAWMILLS
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SHOWING REGIONAL BOUNDARIES, FOREST RESERVES, NATIONAL PAR AND GA~E RESERVES.
m"A FOREST RESERVE
~ P'ULPWOOO PLANTATIONS
... SAWMIUS
~ HATIOW,L· PARK IDJ] GAME RESERVE :..,N.P.
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SCALE I: 2.857.000 or lem repre~ents
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MALAWI N:P.
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - SOUTH AFRICAPILOT COUNTRY STUDY - SOUTH AFRICA
1. INTRODUCTION
In 1991 it was estimated that 16 million people in South Africa wouldlive below the bread-line. This figure has probably increased quiteconsiderably since then, and will most likely continue to do so, becausemodern South African agriculture, as is the case in many developingcountries, is failing to meet the challenge to fight hunger, mainly due tothe destruction of the environment through pollution, soil erosion,overgrazing and unco-ordinated development. The situation is made stillworse by unreliable climatic conditions.
The food security of millions of rural dwellers all over the world dependsto a large extent on the survival of nature, and the ability of man tomanage natural resources sustainably for the production of his basicneeds.
Man has always depended on natural resources in various ways for hissurvival. The number of wild plants and animals which have served, andstill serve man today is astounding. In almost every country in the world,including South Africa, both rural and urban communities use variousplant and animal products from, or adjacent to forest areas for their dailyrequirements.
South Africa has widely varying climatic, topographic, edaphic, socialand cultural conditions, and its floral and faunal composition is equallydiverse, ranging from the sparse vegetation of the dry semi-desertclimates in the south-west, to the species-rich lowland, coastal and duneforests in the moister areas of the south.
Most afforestation activities in South Africa are commercially undertakenby private companies, government or individuals on private land, and assuch are usually of little benefit to rural communities, except for jobcreation, the main benefit being that of jobs to carry out the variousforestry operations, thus earning much needed cash incomes. Aninnovation introduced by Sappi Forests, one of the major forestrycompanies in South Africa, five years ago, is to allow local individualsliving around the company's plantations access into freshly-establishedforest compartments (usually Eucalyptus spp.) and grow food crops suchas tomatoes and beans and before the canopy closes. The system ismutually beneficial to both the locals and the company; the locals get togrow their crops on well-tilled ground for free, and the company gets
1
1. INTRODUCTION
In 1991 it was estimated that 16 million people in South Africa would live below the bread-line. This figure has probably increased quite considerably since then, and will most likely continue to do so, because modern South African agriculture, as is the case in many developing countries, is failing to meet the challenge to fight hunger, mainly due to the destruction of the environment through pollution, soil erosion, overgrazing and unco-ordinated development. The situation is made still worse by unreliable climatic conditions.
The food security of millions of rural dwellers all over the world depends to a large extent on the survival of nature, and the ability of man to manage natural resources sustainably for the production of his basic needs.
Man has always depended on natural resources in various ways for his survival. The number of wild plants and animals which have served, and still serve man today is astounding. In almost every country in the world, including South Africa, both rural and urban communities use various plant and animal products from, or adjacent to forest areas for their daily requirements.
South Africa has widely varying climatic, topographic, edaphic, social and cultural conditions, and its floral and faunal composition is equally diverse, ranging from the sparse vegetation of the dry semi-desert climates in the south-west, to the species-rich lowland, coastal and dune forests in the moister areas of the south.
Most afforestation activities in South Africa are commercially undertaken by private companies, government or individuals on private land, and as such are usually of little benefit to rural communities, except for job creation, the main benefit being that of jobs to carry out the various forestry operations, thus earning much needed cash incomes. An innovation introduced by Sappi Forests, one of the major forestry companies in South Africa, five years ago, is to allow local individuals living around the company's plantations access into freshly-established forest compartments (usually Eucalyptus spp.) and grow food crops such as tomatoes and beans and before the canopy closes. The system is mutually beneficial to both the locals and the company; the locals get to grow their crops on well-tilled ground for free, and the company gets
1
free weeding as the crops are weeded. The crops so raised are usuallysold for profit. This practice has so far not been widely adopted in SouthAfrica, but other forestry companies are posed to implement it as it hasbeen shown to reduce establishment costs.
A very large proportion of the natural forest areas and largest forests inSouth Africa are managed and controlled by local governments in thevarious regions. A relatively small portion (18.7% in the Transvaal,28.8% in Natal, and 23.3 % in the southern Cape) are privately owned.In Natal, the Kwazulu homeland controls 34.8% and in the TransvaalLebowa (another homeland) controls 22.5% of the forests. The Transkeihomeland forest reserves cover an area of 73 505 ha.
Ownership of the forests in South Africa usually determines the type ofmanagement and use made of them. In many of the privately ownedforests, rural communities have limited or no access at all.
The value of the forests to the rural communities of South Africa haslong been recognized. A number of direct and indirect benefits of SouthAfrican forests have been listed by several authors. However, use ofNWFP from the various forest types depends also on the particular ethnicgroup existing in a particular region. The country has approximately 26different ethnic groups distributed throughout the various bioclimaticregions.
Black South Africans represent the largest (73 %) and fastest growingsector of the total population of the country, their numbers increasingfrom 3.5 million in 1904 to 20.6 million in 1980, due to an averagegrowth rate of 2.35% per annum. The rural portion of this populationis particularly dependent on indigenous plant and animal resources,although urbanization does not preclude the use of these wild indigenousresources. Fuelwood, traditional medicines, wild spinaches, wild fruitand animal skins are all items of trade from rural forest areas whichregularly supply urban demands.
Although this paper is intended to describe the NWFP situation in SouthAfrica, it is worth mentioning that the exotic forest plantations of pines,eucalypts and wattles, provide the urban structural timber needs of theregion, the furniture timber being provided mainly by the relatively largesouthern Cape forests where this industry had an annual turnover of aboutUS$ 5 million and employed 650 people in 1986 (Geldenhuys, 1990).
2
free weeding as the crops are weeded. The crops so raised are usually sold for profit. This practice has so far not been widely adopted in South Africa, but other forestry companies are posed to implement it as it has been shown to reduce establishment costs.
A very large proportion of the natural forest areas and largest forests in South Africa are managed and controlled by local governments in the various regions. A relatively small portion (18.7% in the Transvaal, 28.8 % in Natal, and 23.3 % in the southern Cape) are privately owned. In Natal, the K wazulu homeland controls 34.8 % and in the Transvaal Lebowa (another homeland) controls 22.5 % of the forests. The Transkei homeland forest reserves cover an area of 73 505 ha.
Ownership of the forests in South Africa usually determines the type of management and use made of them. In many of the privately owned forests, rural communities have limited or no access at all.
The value of the forests to the rural communities of South Africa has long been recognized. A number of direct and indirect benefits of South African forests have been listed by several authors. However, use of NWFP from the various forest types depends also on the particular ethnic group existing in a particular region. The country has approximately 26 different ethnic groups distributed throughout the various bioclimatic regIOns.
Black South Africans represent the largest (73 %) and fastest growing sector of the total population of the country, their numbers increasing from 3.5 million in 1904 to 20.6 million in 1980, due to an average growth rate of 2.35 % per annum. The rural portion of this population is particularly dependent on indigenous plant and animal resources, although urbanization does not preclude the use of these wild indigenous resources. Fuelwood, traditional medicines, wild spinaches, wild fruit and animal skins are all items of trade from rural forest areas which regularly supply urban demands.
Although this paper is intended to describe the NWFP situation in South Africa, it is worth mentioning that the exotic forest plantations of pines, eucalypts and wattles, provide the urban structural timber needs of the region, the furniture timber being provided mainly by the relatively large southern Cape forests where this industry had an annual turnover of about US$ 5 million and employed 650 people in 1986 (Geldenhuys, 1990).
2
The important species used here are the yellowwoods (Podocarpus spp.)and the stinkwood (Ocotea bullata). Another species of significance isthe sneezewood (Ptaeroxylon obliquum) which is used for a number ofpurposes including railway sleepers and beautiful furniture (Palgrave,1977).
One of the main problems facing rural communities in South Africa todayis housing. Many rural people cannot afford the expensive modernbuilding materials which are on the commercial market; therefore theyusually have to rely on the available forest resources in order to erectsome sort of shelter. These resources are either free, or cost very little.A number of building materials from the forest have been reported; theseinclude climbers, leaves, leaf petioles and tree bark. The use of wood forbuilding varies with building style and availability of materials; however,a number of different tree and shrub species have been identified as beingof importance in the construction of rural dwellings in South Africa(Johnson, 1982).
Another major use of forests by both the rural and urban communities ofSouth Africa is that of fuelwood. Basson (1987) has reported thatfuelwood accounts for 51% of the domestic energy use in South Africa,as well as representing the highest volume of forest product use by ruralcommunities. Le Roux (1981) estimated that 6.6 million people in therural areas of South Africa were dependent on wood as a source ofenergy. This has put a lot of pressure on the forest resources of thecountry. There are, however, a number of projects in the country whichare intended to address in particular the fuelwood problem, mainlythrough the establishment of community woodlots.
The use of NWFP in South Africa
For many years the use of NWFP has represented an important aspect ofthe daily life of the lesser developed rural communities in South Africa,and to a lesser degree, also the urban African communities. Today manyrural communities still depend for their livelihood on natural resourcesof their immediate environment. However, modern agricultural andforestry systems and technologies have reduced the awareness of mostrural people that their physical well-being depends, to a large degree, onthe way they use and manage their natural resources. The ignorance ofthe people can mainly be blamed on lack of education, since most ofthem are not bothered to sustain or replenish the resource in question.
3
The important species used here are the yellowwoods (Podocarpus spp.) and the stinkwood (Ocotea bullata). Another species of significance is the sneezewood (Ptaeroxylon obUquum) which is used for a number of purposes including railway sleepers and beautiful furniture (Palgrave, 1977).
One of the main problems facing rural communities in South Africa today is housing. Many rural people cannot afford the expensive modern building materials which are on the commercial market; therefore they usually have to rely on the available forest resources in order to erect some sort of shelter. These resources are either free, or cost very little. A number of building materials from the forest have been reported; these include climbers, leaves, leaf petioles and tree bark. The use of wood for building varies with building style and availability of materials; however, a number of different tree and shrub species have been identified as being of importance in the construction of rural dwellings in South Africa (Johnson, 1982).
Another major use of forests by both the rural and urban communities of South Africa is that of fuelwood. Basson (1987) has reported that fuelwood accounts for 51 % of the domestic energy use in South Africa, as well as representing the highest volume of forest product use by rural communities. Le Roux (1981) estimated that 6.6 million people in the rural areas of South Africa were dependent on wood as a source of energy. This has put a lot of pressure on the forest resources of the country. There are, however, a number of projects in the country which are intended to address in particular the fuel wood problem, mainly through the establishment of community woodlots.
The use of NWFP in South Africa
For many years the use of NWFP has represented an important aspect of the daily life of the lesser developed rural communities in South Africa, and to a lesser degree, also the urban African communities. Today many rural communities still depend for their livelihood on natural resources of their immediate environment. However, modern agricultural and forestry systems and technologies have reduced the awareness of most rural people that their physical well-being depends, to a large degree, on the way they use and manage their natural resources. The ignorance of the people can mainly be blamed on lack of education, since most of them are not bothered to sustain or replenish the resource in question.
3
Conventional agricultural crop production, however, still plays asignificant role in the sustenance of rural South African communities.But poor seasonal yields and lack of variety mean that the daily rural dietlacks many of the mineral and vitamins essential for good health anddisease prevention. The diet of most rural South Africans, as is the caseelsewhere in Africa, is typically based on starchy staples such as maizeand sorghum. In order to supplement the normal diet, a number of forestfoods are used, the types and quantities varying according to region.
The range of NWFP available to rural communities in South Africa isquite extensive; this is reflected by number of uses made of them. Treesprovide by far the largest number of NWFP.
VEGETAL NWFP
Food
South African forests provide a quite startling range of foods. Theseinclude edible fruits, nuts, plant leaves, wild spinaches and edible fungi,which all provide important dietary supplements to the black communitiesin the less developed areas of South Africa, by providing nutrientsdeficient in the normal starchy diet. This role of providing foodsupplements becomes even more important during drought periods,particularly in areas of marginal agricultural potential (Grivetti, 1979).Wild spinaches are not very common in South African forests, however,there are species such as the vine Pyrenacantha scandens whose leavesare a popular spinach in the Maputaland area of Natal (Cunningham,1985). A number of tree and shnib species are very popular for theirdelicious fruits, seeds, nuts and sometimes roots. Among these, mentioncan be made of the cashew nut (Anarcardium occidentale), the marula(Sclerocarya birrea), buchu (Agathosma betulina), the mango (Mangiferaindica), the guava (Psidium guajava), the avocado (Persea americana),wild rosemary (Eriocephalus spp.), pecan nuts (Caiya illinoinyensis),wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata), the ilala palm (Hyphaene coriaceae),the carob (Ceratonia siliqua).
4
Conventional agricultural crop production, however, still plays a significant role in the sustenance of rural South African communities. But poor seasonal yields and lack of variety mean that the daily rural diet lacks many of the mineral and vitamins essential for good health and disease prevention. The diet of most rural South Africans, as is the case elsewhere in Africa, is typically based on starchy staples such as maize and sorghum. In order to supplement the normal diet, a number of forest foods are used, the types and quantities varying according to region.
The range of NWFP available to rural communities in South Africa is quite extensive; this is reflected by number of uses made of them. Trees provide by far the largest number of NWFP.
VEGETAL NWFP
Food
South African forests provide a quite startling range of foods. These include edible fruits, nuts, plant leaves, wild spinaches and edible fungi, which all provide important dietary supplements to the black communities in the less developed areas of South Africa, by providing nutrients deficient in the normal starchy diet. This role of providing food supplements becomes even more important during drought periods, particularly in areas of marginal agricultural potential (Grivetti, 1979). Wild spinaches are not very common in South African forests, however, there are species such as the vine Pyrenacantha scandens whose leaves are a popular spinach in the Maputaland area of Natal (Cunningham, 1985). A number of tree and shrub species are very popular for their delicious fruits, seeds, nuts and sometimes roots. Among these, mention can be made of the cashew nut (Anarcardium occidentale), the marula (Sclerocarya birrea), buchu (Agathosma betulina), the mango (Mangifera indica), the guava (Psidium guajava), the avocado (Persea americana), wild rosemary (Eriocephalus spp.), pecan nuts (Carya illinoinyensis) , wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata), the ilala palm (Hyphaene coriaceae), the carob (Ceratonia si/iqua).
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Forage
Many trees and shrubs, and other plants are found in South Africa whichare used as forage for various types of domestic livestock, wildlife (bothanimals and birds), and insects (particularly in apiculture). As with food-producing plants, various parts of forage species are used by differenttypes of animals (both domestic and wild). Forage species are especiallyimportant in those areas of South Africa where conventional grazing andpastures have been degraded due to overstocking and human populationpressure. A case in point here would the Kwazulu region of Natal wherethe degenerate grass, 'Ngongoni (Aristida junciformis), occupies largeareas of land. This grass is virtually useless as animal feed or foranything else, and eradicating it is virtually impossible. In order toimprove the carrying capacity of such 'Ngongoni veld, various authoritiesin South Africa have recommended the introduction of exotic fodder treesand shrubs which can also provide other products. This has been doneto a certain degree, albeit amid strong resistance from certain groups andgovernment authorities who consider many exotic tree and shrub speciesof the Leguminosae in particular, to be noxious weeds. However,introductions have been made in areas such as the Transkei andKangwane, where species such Leucaena leucocephala in particular aredoing quite well.
Although rural black communities in South Africa have kept livestock formany years, the growing and use of trees specifically for fodderproduction among such communities is relatively unknown. For someyears now white farmers have been aware that trees can be grown andmanaged for fodder production, and indeed some have integrated thisaspect with other types of agriculture to a very successful level, anexample being the Lion Match Company, whose integration of sheepfarming with their poplar growing opreations has been found to be quiteprofitable.
Local knowledge of trees for a long time was restricted to the use ofindigenous species such as the buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata subsp.mucronata), shepherd's tree (Boscia albitrunca) and the Elephant bush(Portulacaria afra) for fodder. In the tree-rich savannah veld of SouthAfrica, such as parts of the eastern Cape, northern Natal, the TransvaalLowveld, northern Transvaal, the Transvaal Bushveld and the Kalahari,
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Forage
Many trees and shrubs, and other plants are found in South Africa which are used as forage for various types of domestic livestock, wildlife (both animals and birds), and insects (particularly in apiculture). As with foodproducing plants, various parts of forage species are used by different types of animals (both domestic and wild). Forage species are especially important in those areas of South Africa where conventional grazing and pastures have been degraded due to overstocking and human popUlation pressure. A case in point here would the Kwazulu region of Natal where the degenerate grass, 'Ngongoni (Aristida junciformis), occupies large areas of land. This grass is virtually useless as animal feed or for anything else, and eradicating it is virtually impossible. In order to improve the carrying capacity of such 'Ngongoni veld, various authorities in South Africa have recommended the introduction of exotic fodder trees and shrubs which can also provide other products. This has been done to a certain degree, albeit amid strong resistance from certain groups and government authorities who consider many exotic tree and shrub species of the Leguminosae in particular, to be noxious weeds. However, introductions have been made in areas such as the Transkei and Kangwane, where species such Leucaena leucocephala in particular are doing quite well.
Although rural black communities in South Africa have kept livestock for many years, the growing and use of trees specifically for fodder production among such communities is relatively unknown. For some years now white farmers have been aware that trees can be grown and managed for fodder production, and indeed some have integrated this aspect with other types of agriculture to a very successful level, an example being the Lion Match Company, whose integration of sheep farming with their poplar growing opreations has been found to be quite profitable.
Local knowledge of trees for a long time was restricted to the use of indigenous species such as the buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata subsp. mucronata) , shepherd's tree (Boscia albitrunca) and the Elephant bush (Portulacaria afra) for fodder. In the tree-rich savannah veld of South Africa, such as parts of the eastern Cape, northern Natal, the Transvaal Lowveld, northern Transvaal, the Transvaal Bushveld and the Kalahari,
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where livestock farming is practised, indigenous trees are sometimesdeliberately protected for supplementary fodder production, particularlyduring drought periods.
Extension efforts by various groups in the promotion of agroforestry inSouth Africa have resulted in a number of rural farmers (both black andwhite) eagerly wanting to initiate fodder production schemes, and it isindeed gratifying to record that in various parts of the country somepromising schemes have been started.
A number of tree and shrub species (both exotic and indigenous, wild anddomesticated) already feature, or have recently been introduced forfodder production in South Africa. Some examples are the sweet thorn(Acacia karroo), tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), mesquite (Prosopisspp.) and the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos).
Medicines
An important aspect of rural life in South Africa for many years has beenthe use of plants for medicinal purposes. Traditional medicines areimportant to rural communities for medical, psychosomatic and economicreasons. Traditional medicinal NWFP include the roots, bark, leaves,branches, stems and flowers of trees, shrubs, climbers, epiphytes andparasites. Some of the most popular species used in traditional medicineare the bastard onionwood (Cassipourea malosana), the Swazi ordeal tree(Erythrophleum lasianthum), the stinlcwood (Ocotea bullata) and thepepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris). Traditional medicines are alsoimportant to the rapidly growing urban black population, and they havea local and national multi-million dollar trade between rural sources andurban markets and shops.
Toxins
Many forest plants in South Africa have toxicc properties, some useful,some not. Some actually have lethal substances in their differentcomponents, be they leaves fruit, roots or some other part of the tree.However, the most important use of plant toxins by rural populations inSouth Africa is probably that made by the Bushmen; they use the poisonsof certain plants to give their arrows more lethal power; an
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where livestock farming is practised, indigenous trees are sometimes deliberately protected for supplementary fodder production, particularly during drought periods.
Extension efforts by various groups in the promotion of agroforestry in South Africa have resulted in a number of rural farmers (both black and white) eagerly wanting to initiate fodder production schemes, and it is indeed gratifying to record that in various parts of the country some promising schemes have been started.
A number of tree and shrub species (both exotic and indigenous, wild and domesticated) already feature, or have recently been introduced for fodder production in South Africa. Some examples are the sweet thorn (Acacia karroo), tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), mesquite (Prosopis spp.) and the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos).
Medicines
An important aspect of rural life in South Africa for many years has been the use of plants for medicinal purposes. Traditional medicines are important to rural communities for medical, psychosomatic and economic reasons. Traditional medicinal NWFP include the roots, bark, leaves, branches, stems and flowers of trees, shrubs, climbers, epiphytes and parasites. Some of the most popular species used in traditional medicine are the bastard onionwood (Cassipourea malosana), the Swazi ordeal tree (Erythrophleum lasianthum) , the stinkwood (Ocotea bullata) and the pepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris). Traditional medicines are also important to the rapidly growing urban black population, and they have a local and national multi-million dollar trade between rural sources and urban markets and shops.
Toxins
Many forest plants in South Africa have toxicc properties, some useful, some not. Some actually have lethal substances in their different components, be they leaves fruit, roots or some other part of the tree. However, the most important use of plant toxins by rural populations in South Africa is probably that made by the Bushmen; they use the poisons of certain plants to give their arrows more lethal power; an
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example of this is the violet tree (Securidaca longepedunculata). Someplant poisons are also used to stun fish so that they can be easily caught.Examples are the bead bean (Maerua angolensis) and the confetti tree(Maytenus senegalensis).
Biochemicals
There are a number of plant species in South Africa which are sourcesof biochemicals. The best known is probably the black wattle (Acaciamearnsii) which is widely grown, especially in Natal, for the economicvalue of its bark from which tannin (used in the leather tanning industry)from which tannin is extracted. Another species whose bark has beenused in tanning is the weeping boer-bean (Schotia brachypetala). Anumber of species are used particularly by rural communities because ofthe dyes they produce; these include Adansonia digitata, the horse radishtree (Moringa oleifera) and the small sourplum (Ximenia americana)whose seeds also produce an oil which is used by the rural people tosoften leather and to rub on their bodies as a cosmetic; a similar oil isalso found in the seeds of the large sourplum (X. caffra).
Fibre
A number of plant species lend themselves to exploitation by SouthAfrica rural communities for the production of fibres which are animportant component in the making of various household items, craftsand clothing items. For example, the bark fibres of the baobab arewidely used for cordage, basketry, mats and cloths. Its root bark is alsoa useful string for nets, socks and mats (Booth and Wickens, 1988).Another useful species in this respect is the bastard brandy bush (Grewiabicolor) whose bark fibres are stripped and used for string, rope andcordage; this is the most important Grewia species for this use. The barkof the horse radish tree (Moringa oleifera), when beaten, produces a fibrewhich is plaited to make small ropes and mats. A tree which is muchappreciated by rural South Africans for its long, durable and and toughfibres is the violet tree (Securidaca longepedunculata). Its fibres areused to make string and rope for fishing nets and lines, bird and animalsnares, thread to sew bark cloth, coarse bark cloth, and bead string fornecklaces. Besides trees, a number of climber and grass species are alsoused for cordage, basketry, brooms and clothing. Abrus precatorius andFlagellaria guineensis are some of the more commonly used climberspecies.
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example of this is the violet tree (Securidaca longepedunculata). Some plant poisons are also used to stun fish so that they can be easily caught. Examples are the bead bean (Maerua angolensis) and the confetti tree (May tenus senegalensis).
Biochemicals
There are a number of plant species in South Africa which are sources of biochemicals. The best known is probably the black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) which is widely grown, especially in Natal, for the economic value of its bark from which tannin (used in the leather tanning industry) from which tannin is extracted. Another species whose bark has been used in tanning is the weeping boer-bean (Schotia brachypetala). A number of species are used particularly by rural communities because of the dyes they produce; these include Adansonia digitata, the horse radish tree (Moringa oleifera) and the small sourplum (Ximenia americana) whose seeds also produce an oil which is used by the rural people to soften leather and to rub on their bodies as a cosmetic; a similar oil is also found in the seeds of the large sourplum (X. caffra).
Fibre
A number of plant species lend themselves to exploitation by South Africa rural communities for the production of fibres which are an important component in the making of various household items, crafts and clothing items. For example, the bark fibres of the baobab are widely used for cordage, basketry, mats and cloths. Its root bark is also a useful string for nets, socks and mats (Booth and Wickens, 1988). Another useful species in this respect is the bastard brandy bush (Grewia bicolor) whose bark fibres are stripped and used for string, rope and cordage; this is the most important Grewia species for this use. The bark of the horse radish tree (Moringa oleifera), when beaten, produces a fibre which is plaited to make small ropes and mats. A tree which is much appreciated by rural South Africans for its long, durable and and tough fibres is the violet tree (Securidaca longepedunculata). Its fibres are used to make string and rope for fishing nets and lines, bird and animal snares, thread to sew bark cloth, coarse bark cloth, and bead string for necklaces. Besides trees, a number of climber and grass species are also used for cordage, basketry, brooms and clothing. Abrus precatorius and Flagellaria guineensis are some of the more commonly used climber speCIes.
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Handicrafts
This is one area where the rural populations are able to make a decentliving. South African wooden handicrafts can be found in many urbanmarkets and tourist shops, where the prices are rather high compared towhat the rural craftsmen are paid for their wares. Since the 1970's, therehas been a dramatic increase in the production and sale of handicrafts byrural private entrepreneurs and non-profit organizations (Preston-Whyte,1983; Cunningham, 1987). Due to low capital outlay and use of locallyavailable resources and traditional skills, handicraft production hasbecome an important cottage industry in many rural areas of SouthAfrica. Indigenous plant species provide the major source of rawmaterials for this trade. Some of the species used for handicrafts are theilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea) (leaves used for weaving beer baskets,beer strainers), the pod mahogany (Afzelia quanzensis), the velvetbushwillow (Combretum molle), Terminalia sericea, (wood used for themaking of grain stamping mortars), the Natal mahogany (Trichiliaemetica), the torchwood (Balanites maughamii) the tamboti (Spirostachysafricana) (wood used for maldng bowls, spoons and carved animals), themat-rush, Juncus krausii (used for making mats), the monkey oranges(Strychnos madagascariensis and S. spinosa) (the fruits are useddecoratively). Walking sticks made of the bastard tamboti (Cleistanthusschlechteri), the Cape plane (Ochna arboea), the Natal plane(0.natalitia), the hairy drypetes (Thypetes gerrardii) and the coffe-beanstrychnos (Strychnos henningsii) are much in demand by tourists andurban dwellers (Geldenhuys, 1990). Magic rope (Oncinotis inandensis)stems are used for the making of basket frames and handles.
Ornamentals
South Africa provides a glimpse of paradise for the floriculturalenthusiast. The southern and western Cape especially, with their varietyof indigenous flowering plants, are regarded as one of the richest sourcesof flowering plants in the world today. South Africa's floral wealth hassprouted a prosperous new industry, namely the production of indigenouscut flowers. For example, fronds of the seven-week fern (Rumohraadiantiformis) are used extensively in the florist trade, both locally andabroad. The development of the export market for the fern since 1981has flourished into an industry earning over US$300 000 per annum,
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Handicrafts
This is one area where the rural populations are able to make a decent living. South African wooden handicrafts can be found in many urban markets and tourist shops, where the prices are rather high compared to what the rural craftsmen are paid for their wares. Since the 1970's, there has been a dramatic increase in the production and sale of handicrafts by rural private entrepreneurs and non-profit organizations (Preston-Whyte, 1983; Cunningham, 1987). Due to low capital outlay and use of locally avatlable resources and traditional skills, handicraft production has become an important cottage industry in many rural areas of South Africa. Indigenous plant species provide the major source of· raw materials for this trade. Some of the species used for handicrafts are the ilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea) (leaves used for weaving beer baskets, beer strainers), the pod mahogany (Aftelia quanzensis) , the velvet bushwillow (Combretum moUe), Terminalia sericea, (wood used for the making of grain stamping mortars), the Natal mahogany (Trichilia emetica), the torchwood (Balanites maughamii) the tamboti (Spirostachys africana) (wood used for making bowls, spoons and carved animals), the mat-rush, ]uncus krausii (used for making mats), the monkey oranges (Strychnos madagascariensis and S. spinosa) (the fruits are used decoratively). Walking sticks made of the bastard tamboti (Cleistanthus schlechten) , the Cape plane (Ochna arboea) , the Natal plane (0. natalitia) , the hairy drypetes (Drypetes gerrardii) and the coffe-bean strychnos (Strychnos henningsii) are much in demand by tourists and urban dwellers (Geldenhuys, 1990). Magic rope (Oncinotis inandensis) stems are used for the making of basket frames and handles.
Ornamentals
South Africa provides a glimpse of paradise for the floricultural enthusiast. The southern and western Cape especially, with their variety of indigenous flowering plants, are regarded as one of the richest sources of flowering plants in the world today. South Africa's floral wealth has sprouted a prosperous new industry, namely the production of indigenous cut flowers. For example, fronds of the seven-week fern (Rumohra adiantiformis) are used extensively in the florist trade, both locally and abroad. The development of the export market for the fern since 1981 has flourished into an industry earning over US$300 000 per annum,
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giving employment to about 250 - 300 people (Milton, 1987; Geldenhuysand van der Merwe, 1988). Epiphytic mosses have been harvested fromTransvaal forests as packing material for flowers, floral arrangements andfor exhibition purposes (Jacobsen, 1978).
Indigenous flowers and bulbs contribute approximately 1% of the totalnational value of agricultural production in South Africa. Not only arelocal markets served, but foreign currency is generated through theexport of cut flowers and other plant material. The South African"fynbos" is the smallest of the globe's six plant kingdoms, but it exceedsall the others in its diversity of higher plant species. Many of the speciesfound in the "fynbos" have become important floricultural products, andhigh priority is given by different institutions to research on this greatnatural resource of South Africa.
Other than the highly developed flower trade in South Africa, many treeand shrub species exist in the country which are important in horticultureand because of their amenity value. Many nurseries have beenestablished in South Africa to cater for the growing ornamental tree andshrub markets, especially in the urban and peri-urban areas.
FAUNAL NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
For centuries the rural communities of South Africa have relied quitestrongly for some of their requirements for survival on animals (bothdomestic and wild) and animal products. This is still very much thesituation today, although the numbers of wild animals have tended todwindle due to uncontrolled hunting in some areas.
The uses made of animals and animal products by rural South Africansare many and varied. Foremost among many rural people is the need tosupply the family with much needed protein to accompany the usuallymainly starchy diet. Hunting has always been regarded as part of theexistence of the rural poor. As far back as 1770, when the first contactsbetween the white and native black inhabitants of South Africa took placein what is today the Eastern Cape Province, the nomadic natives (thencalled the Khoisan, later to become known colloquially as Bushmen andHottentots) were already roaming the interior of the country in hunting
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giving employment to about 250 - 300 people (Milton, 1987; Geldenhuys and van der Merwe, 1988). Epiphytic mosses have been harvested from Transvaal forests as packing material for flowers, floral arrangements and for exhibition purposes (Jacobsen, 1978).
Indigenous flowers and bulbs contribute approximately 1 % of the total national value of agricultural production in South Africa. Not only are local markets served, but foreign currency is generated through the export of cut flowers and other plant material. The South African "fynbos" is the smallest of the globe's six plant kingdoms, but it exceeds all the others in its diversity of higher plant species. Many of the species found in the "fynbos" have become important floricultural products, and high priority is given by different institutions to research on this great natural resource of South Africa.
Other than the highly developed flower trade in South Africa, many tree and shrub species exist in the country which are important in horticulture and because of their amenity value. Many nurseries have been established in South Africa to cater for the growing ornamental tree and shrub markets, especially in the urban and peri-urban areas.
FAUNAL NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
For centuries the rural communities of South Africa have relied quite strongly for some of their requirements for survival on animals (both domestic and wild) and animal products. This is still very much the situation today, although the numbers of wild animals have tended to dwindle due to uncontrolled hunting in some areas.
The uses made of animals and animal products by rural South Africans are many and varied. Foremost among many rural people is the need to supply the family with much needed protein to accompany the usually mainly starchy diet. Hunting has always been regarded as part of the existence of the rural poor. As far back as 1770, when the first contacts between the white and native black inhabitants of South Africa took place in what is today the Eastern Cape Province, the nomadic natives (then called the Khoisan, later to become known colloquially as Bushmen and Hottentots) were already roaming the interior of the country in hunting
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bands looldng for game to kill (Becker, 1975). Even up to today huntingis still an important aspect of the daily life of the Buslunen. Hunting,however, is not restricted to the Bushmen; the Nguni tribes, the Sothosand Tswanas of South Africa also do some hunting although the methodstend to be different from those employed by the Bushmen.
The forests and the sparsely forested areas of South Africa providehabitats for a wide range of animals, birds, reptiles, insects and fish, allof which are exploited to varying degrees, and for various purposes, bythe rural communities in particular.
Wild animals
For communities living in the vicinity of forests, natural woodlands andforest fallow areas, wild animals often play a significant role in localdiets; in some cases they provide the single largest source of animalprotein. Wild animals of different kinds can be found in all thephysiographic regions of South Africa. Rural South Africans, and indeedthe urban dwellers as well, are great lovers of most forms of meat. Theylike protein foods, however the problem is that these may be scarce attimes and there are relatively few places where they can be obtained withease. Of course, there are exceptions, but the majority of the ruralpopulation are rarely able to enjoy adequate protein in their daily diet.The slaughtering of domestic animals such as goats, sheep, cattle andpoultry occurs very rarely, usually done only for special occasions suchas wedding, burial or thanksgiving ceremonies. Domestic animals arekept mainly for milk production, draught purposes, or simply as a statussymbol, therefore meat protein has to come from wild animals.
The methods used to snare and hunt wild animals are basically the sameamong the different ethnic groups, however some differences do occur.The Bushmen, whose skill in tracking, stalking and snaring game isunparalled in South Africa, rely most heavily for their protein on wildanimals, because they do not keep any domestic stock, which also meansthey have no access to milk protein. Their hunting weapons consist ofa light metal- or bone-tipped arrow (the quiver is made from the roots ofthe quiver tree (Aloe dichotoma) which they fire at close range with ashort but sturdy bow, a tiny spear and a hunting club. Mindful of thelimitations of their weapons, especially when in pursuit of the eland(Taurotragus oryx) or other of the larger antelopes, the Bushmen daubtheir arrows with poisons extracted either from selected roots, bark and
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bands looking for game to kill (Becker, 1975). Even up to today hunting is still an important aspect of the daily life of the Bushmen. Hunting, however, is not restricted to the Bushmen; the Nguni tribes, the Sothos and Tswanas of South Africa also do some hunting although the methods tend to be different from those employed by the Bushmen.
The forests and the sparsely forested areas of South Africa provide habitats for a wide range of animals, birds, reptiles, insects and fish, all of which are exploited to varying degrees, and for various purposes, by the rural communities in particular.
Wild animals
For communities living in the vicinity of forests, natural woodlands and forest fallow areas, wild animals often playa significant role in local diets; in some cases they provide the single largest source of animal protein. Wild animals of different kinds can be found in all the physiographic regions of South Africa. Rural South Africans, and indeed the urban dwellers as well, are great lovers of most forms of meat. They like protein foods, however the problem is that these may be scarce at times and there are relatively few places where they can be obtained with ease. Of course, there are exceptions, but the majority of the rural population are rarely able to enjoy adequate protein in their daily diet. The slaughtering of domestic animals such as goats, sheep, cattle and poultry occurs very rarely, usually done only for special occasions such as wedding, burial or thanksgiving ceremonies. Domestic animals are kept mainly for milk production, draught purposes, or simply as a status symbol, therefore meat protein has to come from wild animals.
The methods used to snare and hunt wild animals are basically the same among the different ethnic groups, however some differences do occur. The Bushmen, whose skill in tracking, stalking and snaring game is unparalled in South Africa, rely most heavily for their protein on wild animals, because they do not keep any domestic stock, which also means they have no access to milk protein. Their hunting weapons consist of a light metal- or bone-tipped arrow (the quiver is made from the roots of the quiver tree (Aloe dichotoma) which they fire at close range with a short but sturdy bow, a tiny spear and a hunting club. Mindful of the limitations of their weapons, especially when in pursuit of the eland (Taurotragus oryx) or other of the larger antelopes, the Bushmen daub their arrows with poisons extracted either from selected roots, bark and
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berries, or from the venom sacs of snakes, spiders or scorpions. Poisonsare also prepared from the cocoons and grubs of a reddish-brown desert(Becker 1975). These vary from band to band, depending on what isavailable. The other ethnic groups tend not to use bows and arrows forhunting; their hunting weapons usually comprise of spears, sticks, clubsand small axes, and they are usually accompanied by dogs which chasethe animals.
Wild animals which are hunted for their meat include various species ofbuck, genets, field mice, rock rabbits, porcupines, bush pigs and haresoccasionally monkeys, which are relished particularly by the Zulus.Some tribes will not eat certain animals because of traditional beliefs.
Sometimes if the catch has been good, some of the meat is sold for cash,but this is not a very common occurence in the rural areas of SouthAfrica.
Besides meat, which is the main product from wild animals, a thrivingindustry based on animal by-products such as hides, sldns horns andbones exists in South Africa. The hides and skins are also used by somecommunities to make bags, cordage, and items of clothing such asdresses, shoes, belts and hats. Some of these items may be used locally,but most are sold at roadside markets. Sometimes the skins are sold tomore sophisticated entrepreneurs in urban areas for the production ofbetter-looking, and more expensive, leather items. Occasionally the hidesand skins are used by the rural communities as mats or blankets.
The horns and bones are used by local craftsmen to produce beautifulartefacts which are then sold for extra income. The bones are sometimescollected until a sizeable amount has been accumulated, at which stagethey are then sold to commercial bonemeal producers.
Another use made of wild animals is that of traditional medicines.Various animal parts are believed to have curative properties by sometribes. Animals whose body parts have been used in traditional medicineinclude the scrub and cape hares (Lepus saxatilis and L. capensis), theporcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis), the polecat (ktonyx striatus), and thepangolin (Manis temminckii) which is considered to be a particularlypotent medicine by the Lobedu tribe of the north-eastern Transvaal.
The effectiveness of medicines made from animal parts has never been
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berries, or from the venom sacs of snakes, spiders or scorpions. Poisons are also prepared from the cocoons and grubs of a reddish-brown desert (Becker 1975). These vary from band to band, depending on what is available. The other ethnic groups tend not to use bows and arrows for hunting; their hunting weapons usually comprise of spears, sticks, clubs and small axes, and they are usually accompanied by dogs which chase the animals.
Wild animals which are hunted for their meat include various species of buck, genets, field mice, rock rabbits, porcupines, bush pigs and hares occasionally monkeys, which are relished particularly by the Zulus. Some tribes will not eat certain animals because of traditional beliefs.
Sometimes if the catch has been good, some of the meat is sold for cash, but this is not a very common occurence in the rural areas of South Africa.
Besides meat, which is the main product from wild animals, a thriving industry based on animal by-products such as hides, skins horns and bones exists in South Africa. The hides and skins are also used by some communities to make bags, cordage, and items of clothing such as dresses, shoes, belts and hats. Some of these items may be used locally, but most are sold at roadside markets. Sometimes the skins are sold to more sophisticated entrepreneurs in urban areas for the production of better-looking, and more expensive, leather items. Occasionally the hides and skins are used by the rural communities as mats or blankets.
The horns and bones are used by local craftsmen to produce beautiful artefacts which are then sold for extra income. The bones are sometimes collected until a sizeable amount has been accumulated, at which stage they are then sold to commercial bonemeal producers.
Another use made of wild animals is that of traditional medicines. Various animal parts are believed to have curative properties by some tribes. Animals whose body parts have been used in traditional medicine include the scrub and cape hares (Lepus saxatilis and L. capensis) , the porcupine (Hystrix ajricaeaustralis), the polecat (lctonyx striatus), and the pangolin (Manis temminckil) which is considered to be a particularly potent medicine by the Lobedu tribe of the north-eastern Transvaal.
The effectiveness of medicines made from animal parts has never been
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ascertained. The use of wild animals in traditional medicine is, however,not as widespread as that of plants.
Birds
Birds are also an important aspect of the daily life of the ruralcommunities of South Africa, which abounds with various species ofbirds. A number of different birds are eaten by the various ethnicgroups, which is probably by far the main use made of them. Birds usedfor meat include the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), the ostrich(Struthio camelus) whose meat is also commercially sold as biltong, thefrancolin (Francolinus sephaena), the common quail (Coturnix coturnix)and various types of geese and ducks. Most of these birds sometimesfeature on South African restaurant menus, at very exorbitant prices.
The eggs of most birds are also collected for consumption by ruralcommunities. The enormous eggshells of the ostrich are used by theBushmen to store and carry water, once the contents have been eaten.The eggshells are sometimes sold to tourists as decorative objects.
Skins, especially those of the ostrich, are a valuable commodity in SouthAfrica, where they are used for the manufacture of quality ostrich leathergoods. Ostrich feathers, and those of a few other birds such as thepeacock, whose plumage is one of the most ornate, are also trade objects.The feathers are normally used to adorn the head as part of traditionalattire.
A number of birds are also caught alive and sold as pets, mainly to thewhite urban communities. These include the louries (Tauraco spp.), theparrots (Poicephalus spp.) and the buntings (Emberiza spp.). This isquite a thriving business in South Africa. Some birds are also used intraditional medicine, but again the efficacy of medicines produced frombirds is uncertain.
Fish
Rural South Africans do eat fish, but it does not comprise a significantsource of protein in their diet, particularly those living inland. This isprobably because many of the smaller rivers tend to dry up during thedry season and therefore it might require a long journey to nearest sourcewhere plenty of fish can be caught. For those nearer the coastal areas,
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ascertained. The use of wild animals in traditional medicine is, however, not as widespread as that of plants.
Birds
Birds are also an important aspect of the daily life of the rural communities of South Africa, which abounds with various species of birds. A number of different birds are eaten by the various ethnic groups, which is probably by far the main use made of them. Birds used for meat include the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) , the ostrich (Struthio camelus) whose meat is also commercially sold as biltong, the francolin (Francolinus sephaena), the common quail (Coturnix coturnix) and various types of geese and ducks. Most of these birds sometimes feature on South African restaurant menus, at very exorbitant prices.
The eggs of most birds are also collected for consumption by rural communities. The enormous eggshells of the ostrich are used by the Bushmen to store and carry water, once the contents have been eaten. The eggshells are sometimes sold to tourists as decorative objects.
Skins, especially those of the ostrich, are a valuable commodity in South Africa, where they are used for the manufacture of quality ostrich leather goods. Ostrich feathers, and those of a few other birds such as the peacock, whose plumage is one of the most ornate, are also trade objects. The feathers are normally used to adorn the head as part of traditional attire.
A number of birds are also caught alive and sold as pets, mainly to the white urban communities. These include the louries (Tauraco spp.), the parrots (Poicephalus spp.) and the buntings (Emberiza spp.). This is quite a thriving business in South Africa. Some birds are also used in traditional medicine, but again the efficacy of medicines produced from birds is uncertain.
Fish
Rural South Africans do eat fish, but it does not comprise a significant source of protein in their diet, particularly those living inland. This is probably because many of the smaller rivers tend to dry up during the dry season and therefore it might require a long journey to nearest source where plenty of fish can be caught. For those nearer the coastal areas,
12
such as the mangrove areas of northern Natal, subsistence fishing isalmost a daily occupation. If the catch is good, some of the fish may besold for cash, otherwise it is for home consumption. There is no doubt,however, that fish is a popular food item among South Africans of allraces; for example, the most popular type of fish among the black peri-urban communities is the canned variety (sardines, pilchards, etc).
A number of ways are employed by rural South Africans to catch fish.The most common is the line and hook method. In the Maputaland areaof Natal nets made of plant fibres are used. Another method, usedparticularly by the rural communities of the Limpopo valley in theTransvaal, involves the use of a poison prepared from the latex of thecandelabra tree (Euphorbia ingens) and the lesser candelabra tree(Euphorbia cooper°. A bundle of grass is soaked in the latex, tied to astone and thrown into a pool in the river. The fish are said to rise to thesurface after 15 minutes, paralyzed but still breathing. Presumably thisis a safe fishing method as there are no records of deaths having occurreddue to the eating of fish caught this way. This shows how far the poorwill go just to get protein for their families.
Recent innovations have tried to encourage the establishment of small fishproduction units, particularly in the Natal midlands, because of therealization that fish can be a cheap but important source of protein for therural communities of South Africa.
Reptiles/Amphibians
The uses made of reptiles and amphibians by rural South Africancommunities are almost the same as those made of wild animals andbirds. South African forests are crawling with all types of reptiles andamphibians. Several members of the Reptiliae occasionally find theirway into the cooking pot of a rural family, although less often than withwild animals and birds. Those eaten are usually regarded as delicacies.These include lizards, leguaans (Varanus spp.), frogs and toads, turtlesor tortoises, and a number of snakes, including venomous ones such asthe puff-adder (Bitis spp.) For various reasons snakes would seem tomake up the largest percentage of reptilians used as meat by rural SouthAfricans, judging from the number of cases cited regarding their use forlocal consumption.
The skins of many reptiles are in great demand inthe leather and fancy
13
such as the mangrove areas of northern Natal, subsistence fishing is almost a daily occupation. If the catch is good, some of the fish may be sold for cash, otherwise it is for home consumption. There is no doubt, however, that fish is a popular food item among South Africans of all races; for example, the most popular type of fish among the black periurban communities is the canned variety (sardines, pilchards, etc).
A number of ways are employed by rural South Africans to catch fish. The most common is the line and hook method. In the Maputaland area of Natal nets made of plant fibres are used. Another method, used particularly by the rural communities of the Limpopo valley in the Transvaal, involves the use of a poison prepared from the latex of the candelabra tree (Euphorbia ingens) and the lesser candelabra tree (Euphorbia coopen). A bundle of grass is soaked in the latex, tied to a stone and thrown into a pool in the river. The fish are said to rise to the surface after 15 minutes, paralyzed but still breathing. Presumably this is a safe fishing method as there are no records of deaths having occurred due to the eating of fish caught this way. This shows how far the poor will go just to get protein for their families.
Recent innovations have tried to encourage the establishment of small fish production units, particularly in the Natal midlands, because of the realization that fish can be a cheap but important source of protein for the rural communities of South Africa.
Reptiles/Amphibians
The uses made of reptiles and amphibians by rural South African communities are almost the same as those made of wild animals and birds. South African forests are crawling with all types of reptiles and amphibians. Several members of the Reptiliae occasionally find their way into the cooking pot of a rural family, although less often than with wild animals and birds. Those eaten are usually regarded as delicacies. These include lizards, leguaans (Varanus spp.), frogs and toads, turtles or tortoises, and a number of snakes, including venomous ones such as the puff-adder (Bitis spp.) For various reasons snakes would seem to make up the largest percentage of reptilians used as meat by rural South Africans, judging from the number of cases cited regarding their use for local consumption.
The skins of many reptiles are in great demand inthe leather and fancy
13
goods industries. They are used in the manufacture of shoes, suitcases,bags, belts etc. The reptiles used include crocodiles, leguaans, lizardsand snakes, particularly the larger types such as the python.
There are records of poisonous snakes, such as puff-adders and mambas,being used by some native South African tribes to kill buffaloes. Thesnake is caught and then anchored by its tail to the ground in the middleof a buffalo track, and is supposed to bite the passing animals(Fitzsimons, 1962).
Many urban South Africans delight in keeping reptiles as pets and quitea thriving business is carried out in this respect. The favoured reptilesare snakes, including pythons, chamaeleons, lizards, frogs and tortoises.
Finally, snakes, or more precisely their venoms, are very much indemand for their therapeutic properties. Many uses of the two types ofvenom, haematoxin and neurotoxin, have been evolved, the former incombating haemophilia, and the latter in providing sedatives and painkillers. South African medical scientists are continually working atfinding new ways of using snake venom, which is also used as arrowpoison by Bushmen.
Insects
Despite their small size, some insects contribute to the livelihood of manin quite a big way. Their importance in the ecosystem varies from placeto place. In South Africa, the subsistence use of insects for the benefitof man is mainly limited to a few species considered edible by the ruralcommunities, and bees (Apis spp.) which are probably by far the mostimportant insect in the country, in terms of economic products and theirrole in pollination.
Honey is by far the most popular (and profitable) insect product in SouthAfrica, both among the rural and urban communities.
Honey bees occur either wild or in farming in South Africa. In the ruralareas, wild colonies are regularly raided for honey. Among the Buslunenin particular, honey is a great favourite. Other ethnic groups in SouthAfrica also enjoy wild honey, which they use as a substitute for sugar,and often in the brewing of local beer.
14
goods industries. They are used in the manufacture of shoes, suitcases, bags, belts etc. The reptiles used include crocodiles, leguaans, lizards and snakes, particularly the larger types such as the python.
There are records of poisonous snakes, such as puff-adders and mambas, being used by some native South African tribes to kill buffaloes. The snake is caught and then anchored by its tail to the ground in the middle of a buffalo track, and is supposed to bite the passing animals (Fitzsimons, 1962).
Many urban South Africans delight in keeping reptiles as pets and quite a thriving business is carried out in this respect. The favoured reptiles are snakes, including pythons, chamaeleons, lizards, frogs and tortoises.
Finally, snakes, or more precisely their venoms, are very much in demand for their therapeutic properties. Many uses of the two types of venom, haematoxin and neurotoxin, have been evolved, the former in combating haemophilia, and the latter in providing sedatives and pain killers. South African medical scientists are continually working at finding new ways of using snake venom, which is also used as arrow poison by Bushmen.
Insects
Despite their small size, some insects contribute to the livelihood of man in quite a big way. Their importance in the ecosystem varies from place to place. In South Africa, the subsistence use of insects for the benefit of man is mainly limited to a few species considered edible by the rural communities, and bees (Apis spp.) which are probably by far the most important insect in the country, in terms of economic products and their role in pollination.
Honey is by far the most popular (and profitable) insect product in South Africa, both among the rural and urban communities.
Honey bees occur either wild or in farming in South Africa. In the rural areas, wild colonies are regularly raided for honey. Among the Bushmen in particular, honey is a great favourite. Other ethnic groups in South Africa also enjoy wild honey, which they use as a substitute for sugar, and often in the brewing of local beer.
14
The caterpillars of a number of moths and butterflies are relished bysome rural communities. The mopane worm, a great delicacy of both therural and urban communities of the northern Transvaal, is sometimes soldin local markets (Gelfand, 1971), when the harvest has been good.
FORESTRY SERVICES
The use of trees and forests in providing services is well known to boththe rural and urban populations of South Africa, although the urbancommunities tend to be much more aware of the service role of trees thanthe rural dwellers. The rural communities of South Africa tend toperceive trees or forests as an unending resource to be exploited for theirown well-being, and not because it can protect the soil, feed animals(both domestic and wild), and at the same time enhance their immediatesurroundings, and protect rural homes against bitter South Africansummer and winter winds.
Range
For many years, both the rural and urban South African communitieshave used trees (both indigenous and exotic) in their livestockmanagement systems. In some cases, trees have been deliberatelyprotected in order to give shade to livestock against the searing heat inthe summer and the harsh winter. Both animals and crops needprotection from the elements, as has been shown by research, whichsuggests that shelter from hot or chilly weather can improve productionfrom all types of agricultural crops and livestock. White farmers inparticular, are now aware that trees can be managed to increaseproductivity from their animals. The rural communities, however, areonly aware that the foliage of certain trees is useful as animal feed, butthey do not seem to consider management of such species for thesustained production of fodder.
In some regions of South Africa, the management of trees and pasture ina single system sometimes improves animal productivity. This isespecially the case in the Karroo where Acacia karroo is commonlyassociated with the sparse dryland pasture in the rearing of sheep. Othersystems found in South Africa involve the use of species such asDichrostachys cinerea, Acacia albida, Boscia albitrunca and Euclea spp.
15
The caterpillars of a number of moths and butterflies are relished by some rural communities. The mopane worm, a great delicacy of both the rural and urban communities of the northern Transvaal, is sometimes sold in local markets (Gelfand, 1971), when the harvest has been good.
FORESTRY SERVICES
The use of trees and forests in providing services is well known to both the rural and urban populations of South Africa, although the urban communities tend to be much more aware of the service role of trees than the rural dwellers. The rural communities of South Africa tend to perceive trees or forests as an unending resource to be exploited for their own well-being, and not because it can protect the soil, feed animals (both domestic and wild), and at the same time enhance their immediate surroundings, and protect rural homes against bitter South African summer and winter winds.
Range
For many years, both the rural and urban South African communities have used trees (both indigenous and exotic) in their livestock management systems. In some cases, trees have been deliberately protected in order to give shade to livestock against the searing heat in the summer and the harsh winter. Both animals and crops need protection from the elements, as has been shown by research, which suggests that shelter from hot or chilly weather can improve production from all types of agricultural crops and livestock. White farmers in particular, are now aware that trees can be managed to increase productivity from their animals. The rural communities, however, are only aware that the foliage of certain trees is useful as animal feed, but they do not seem to consider management of such species for the sustained production of fodder.
In some regions of South Africa, the management of trees and pasture in a single system sometimes improves animal productivity. This is especially the case in the Karroo where Acacia karroo is commonly associated with the sparse dryland pasture in the rearing of sheep. Other systems found in South Africa involve the use of species such as Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia albida, Boscia albitrunca and Euclea spp.
15
Most trees which are browsed by domestic stock also tend to be eaten bywild animals and birds.
Soil improvement and protection
The use of trees for the protection and improvement of the soil isrelatively unknown among the black rural communities of South Africa;can also be said about the white farming communities, who, even thoughthey may be much more aware of the importance of trees in their localenvironment, do not deliberately use them for their soil protection andimprovement qualities. However, a few farmers have begun to realizethis potential, and tree planting, especially among the white farmers, ison the increase. The species favoured are those that tend to provideseveral products and services such as erosion control (Acacia spp.)shelter (Crataegus pubescens) hedges or windbreaks (Casuarinacunninghamiana) and bee forage (Eucalyptus spp.).
Parks and reserves
South Africa is one of the leading countries on the sub-continent in termsof efforts to protect and conserve its flora and fauna, particularly speciesconsidered to be endangered or over-exploited. There are many parksand nature reserves in the country which not only serve to conservetheindigenous biodiversity, but also earn much-needed incomes for thoseinvolved in their day to day management. Many of the parks and naturereserves offer a number of recreational facilities such as hunting, fishing,bird watching, nature trails, hiking, camping, and the occasional"braaivleis" (barbecue) party (non of which can usually be afforded bythe locals. Tourists come from all over the world to visit South Africangame parks and nature reserves. The poor rural communities of SouthAfrica,(at least those that live near the parks) however, often do notbenefit directly from these establislunents, the only legal beneficiariesbeing those who are lucky enough to be employed as game rangers andassistants; the other beneficiary is the poacher, who often plies his tradeat the risk of severe punislunent by the authorities.
16
Most trees which are browsed by domestic stock also tend to be eaten by wild animals and birds.
Soil improvement and protection
The use of trees for the protection and improvement of the soil is relatively unknown among the black rural communities of South Africa; can also be said about the white farming communities, who, even though they may be much more aware of the importance of trees in their local environment, do not deliberately use them for their soil protection and improvement qualities. However, a few farmers have begun to realize this potential, and tree planting, especially among the white farmers, is on the increase. The species favoured are those that tend to provide several products and services such as erosion control (Acacia spp.) shelter (Crataegus pubescens) hedges or windbreaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana) and bee forage (Eucalyptus spp.).
Parks and reserves
South Africa is one of the leading countries on the sub-continent in terms of efforts to protect and conserve its flora and fauna, particularly species considered to be endangered or over-exploited. There are many parks and nature reserves in the country which not only serve to conserve the indigenous biodiversity, but also earn much-needed incomes for those involved in their day to day management. Many of the parks and nature reserves offer a number of recreational facilities such as hunting, fishing, bird watching, nature trails, hiking, camping, and the occasional "braaivleis " (barbecue) party (non of which can usually be afforded by the locals. Tourists come from all over the world to visit South African game parks and nature reserves. The poor rural communities of South Africa,(at least those that live near the parks) however, often do not benefit directly from these establishments, the only legal beneficiaries being those who are lucky enough to be employed as game rangers and assistants; the other beneficiary is the poacher, who often plies his trade at the risk of severe punishment by the authorities.
16
Aesthetics
South Africa boasts some of the most spectacularly beautiful forestryareas in the region, not only such, but also some unique structures of old,set in forestry landscapes. These are usually much appreciated byforeign tourists and do indeed attract a lot of trade from outside thecountry, but a lot of South Africans also visit these areas.
Many scenic routes, such as the wine, fruit and flower routes of theCape, are found throughout the country. Another example is the"fynbos" of the south-western Cape; no region of comparable size in theworld is richer in plant species that the narrow zone bounded by thesouth-western Cape's fold mountains and the sea. The Afrikaans word"fynbos" (literally "delicate bush" or "fine bush") used to describe theindigenous vegetation of the area is almost inadequate, considering thewealth of flora that includes some 600 Idnds of heath (Erica spp.), almost70 proteas (Proteaceae), and over 50 Disa species. To walk through the"fynbos" in spring can leave one with the impression of not being in thewild, but in a prolific garden (Readers Digest, 1990).
ASSESSMENT OF THE IIVIPORTANCE OF NVVFP IN SOUTHAFRICA
Undoubtedly NWFP have a very important role to play in the localeconomics and nutrition of the various ethnic groups of South Africa, aswell as the daily subsistence of the rural corrununities in particular. Itwas mentioned earlier that agriculture, on which the rural people of SouthAfrica have depended for centuries, has been modernized, but still cannotfeed the masses. Asibey and Child (1990) point out that sustained highrates of population growth characterize almost every country in sub-Saharan Africa. The associated urgent demand for increased foodproduction has prompted many rural African farmers to shorten fallowperiods, in an effort to try to obtain increased yields from low fertilitysoils, and to grow crops on marginal lands. This usually results in thesteady degradation and impoverislunent of arable land. And, wherelivestock populations are growing as fast as, and in some areas, fasterthan the human population, Africa's vast grazing lands are alsoundergoing similar destruction. This is particularly the case where theloss of traditional grazing land to crop production intensifies the pressureon the remaining area.
17
Aesthetics
South Africa boasts some of the most spectacularly beautiful forestry areas in the region, not only such, but also some unique structures of old, set in forestry landscapes. These are usually much appreciated by foreign tourists and do indeed attract a lot of trade from outside the country, but a lot of South Africans also visit these areas.
Many scenic routes, such as the wine, fruit and flower routes of the Cape, are found throughout the country. Another example is the "fynbos" of the south-western Cape; no region of comparable size in the world is richer in plant species that the narrow zone bounded by the south-western Cape's fold mountains and the sea. The Afrikaans word "fynbos" (literally "delicate bush" or "fine bush") used to describe the indigenous vegetation of the area is almost inadequate, considering the wealth of flora that includes some 600 kinds of heath (Erica spp.), almost 70 proteas (Proteaceae), and over 50 Disa species. To walk through the "fynbos" in spring can leave one with the impression of not being in the wild, but in a prolific garden (Readers Digest, 1990).
ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPORTANCE OF NWFP IN SOUTH AFRICA
Undoubtedly NWFP have a very important role to play in the local economics and nutrition of the various ethnic groups of South Africa, as well as the daily subsistence of the rural communities in particular. It was mentioned earlier that agriculture, on which the rural people of South Africa have depended for centuries, has been modernized, but still cannot feed the masses. Asibey and Child (1990) point out that sustained high rates of population growth characterize almost every country in subSaharan Africa. The associated urgent demand for increased food production has prompted many rural African farmers to shorten fallow periods, in an effort to try to obtain increased yields from low fertility soils, and to grow crops on marginal lands. This usually results in the steady degradation and impoverishment of arable land. And, where livestock populations are growing as fast as, and in some areas, faster than the human population, Africa's vast grazing lands are also undergoing similar destruction. This is particularly the case where the loss of traditional grazing land to crop production intensifies the pressure on the remaining area.
17
In South Africa, resource-poor rural communities cannot afford the typeof costly inputs required by modern agriculture in order to obtainreasonable crop yields. This problem is compounded by ever-increasingunemployment coupled with the rapidly escalating cost of living in thecountry, as well as rapid population growth. In order to make endsmeet, and to add variety to their regular starchy diet, rural communitiesin South Africa rely to a large degree on their immediate naturalresources in the form of NWFP. Although many are not aware that thenatural resource base is not inexhaustible, particularly if it is not properlymanaged, they do however, place great importance on various NWFP.Many rural families in various parts of the country are continuallysearching for alternative means of livelihood, and local NWFP haveoffered an opportunity. The use of NWFP among rural dwellers mayeither be for home consumption, or for sale to earn extra income for thepurchase of other basic household necessities (e.g. salt, tea, sugar,paraffin), and sometimes to send the children to school. Examples ofcommunity-based subsistence economies based on local NWFP can befound in areas of Natal, where the "muti" (traditional medicine) trade isquite literally big. The importance placed by rural communities onNWFP is further shown by the willingness of some of the locals to tryand sustain the resources through small-scale agricultural production, andalso to manage existing ones (such as paw-paws, guayas and bananas)sustainably.
The extent to which rural communities rely on NWFP in South Africahas been shown by several authors and researchers. Cunningham (1990a, b,) has shown that the palms Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinataare very important to the rural people of Maputaland coastal plain inNatal because they are a source of weaving material, palm wine andedible fruit. Despite their small size, resulting from tapping, the highdensity of the palms provide a commonly used resource for the localThembe-Thonga people who also use the area for cattle grazing,subsistence cultivation, and the gathering of wild fruits and traditionalmedicines.
At the district level culms of the saltmash rush (Juncus krausii) are afavoured and extensively used material for the weaving of traditionalarticles by rural women in Natal/Kwazulu (Heinsohn and Cunningham,1991). Geldenhuys (1990) also points out that in the Transkei the use ofcertain NWFP has become important to the livelihood of the localcommunities; he reports that in the Port St. John's area of the Transkei,
18
In South Africa, resource-poor rural communities cannot afford the type of costly inputs required by modern agriculture in order to obtain reasonable crop yields. This problem is compounded by ever-increasing unemployment coupled with the rapidly escalating cost of living in the country, as well as rapid population growth. In order to make ends meet, and to add variety to their regular starchy diet, rural communities in South Africa rely to a large degree on their immediate natural resources in the form of NWFP. Although many are not aware that the natural resource base is not inexhaustible, particularly if it is not properly managed, they do however, place great importance on various NWFP. Many rural families in various parts of the country are continually searching for alternative means of livelihood, and local NWFP have offered an opportunity. The use of NWFP among rural dwellers may either be for home consumption, or for sale to earn extra income for the purchase of other basic household necessities (e.g. salt, tea, sugar, paraffin), and sometimes to send the children to school. Examples of community-based subsistence economies based on local NWFP can be found in areas of Natal, where the "muti" (traditional medicine) trade is quite literally big. The importance placed by rural communities on NWFP is further shown by the Willingness of some of the locals to try and sustain the resources through small-scale agricultural production, and also to manage existing ones (such as paw-paws, guavas and bananas) sustainably.
The extent to which rural communities rely on NWFP in South Africa has been shown by several authors and researchers. Cunningham (1990 a, b,) has shown that the palms Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata are very important to the rural people of Maputaland coastal plain in Natal because they are a source of weaving material, palm wine and edible fruit. Despite their small size, resulting from tapping, the high density of the palms provide a commonly used resource for the local Thembe-Thonga people who also use the area for cattle grazing, subsistence cultivation, and the gathering of wild fruits and traditional medicines.
At the district level culms of the saltmash rush (Juncus krausii) are a favoured and extensively used material for the weaving of traditional articles by rural women in N atal/K wazulu (Heinsohn and Cunningham, 1991). Geldenhuys (1990) also points out that in the Transkei the use of certain NWFP has become important to the livelihood of the local communities; he reports that in the Port St. John's area of the Transkei,
18
climbers are the basis of a craft industry, mainly baskets and mats, whichform an important part of the local economy and traditions of the localPondo people. The industry is worth more the USD40,000 per annumand grows rapidly with organized marketing methods. In the Karrooregion, the sweet thorn (Acacia Karroo) is the basis of extensive sheepand cattle farming in the area, mainly because of the nutritious fodder(leaves, flowers and pods) it produces (Aucamp et al., 1984).
At the national level, mention has already been made of the boomingtrade in cut and dried flowers, both locally and internationally.Furthermore, a number of fruit trees such as Psidium guajava, Perseaamericana, Mangifera indica and Carica papaya are the basis of abooming local and export business. This shows that with propermanagement NWFP can actually contribute quite significantly to thenational economy, not only in terms of job creation, but from foreignexchange earnings as well. Another NWFP of national significance inSouth Africa is the wild fruit liqueur which is prepared from the marulafruit (Sclerocarya birrea) and is marketed locally and for export. Againat the national level, South Africa's game parks and nature reserves withtheir kaleidoscope of flora and fauna, attract thousands of local andforeign tourists each year.
RELEVANT NVVFP IN LOCAL COIVIMUNITIES
As already indicated, there is an astounding wealth of NWFP in SouthAfrica, which are used for various purposes and to varying degrees bylocal communities. Some are considered as vital to the day to dayexistence of certain communities, some are regarded purely as luxuries,while others are only important in times of acute need, such as the casemay be during severe droughts.
The following are some NWFP which already feature significantly havethe potential to play a major role in the general livelihood of both ruraland urban communities of South Africa.
19
climbers are the basis of a craft industry, mainly baskets and mats, which form an important part of the local economy and traditions of the local Pondo people. The industry is worth more the USD40,OOO per annum and grows rapidly with organized marketing methods. In the Karroo region, the sweet thorn (Acacia Karroo) is the basis of extensive sheep and cattle farming in the area, mainly because of the nutritious fodder (leaves, flowers and pods) it produces (Aucamp et ai., 1984).
At the national level, mention has already been made of the booming trade in cut and dried flowers, both locally and internationally. Furthermore, a number of fruit trees such as Psidium guajava, Persea americana, Mangifera indica and Carica papaya are the basis of a booming local and export business. This shows that with proper management NWFP can actually contribute quite significantly to the national economy, not only in terms of job creation, but from foreign exchange earnings as well. Another NWFP of national significance in South Africa is the wild fruit liqueur which is prepared from the marula fruit (Sclerocarya birrea) and is marketed locally and for export. Again at the national level, South Africa's game parks and nature reserves with their kaleidoscope of flora and fauna, attract thousands of local and foreign tourists each year.
RELEVANT NWFP IN LOCAL COMMUNITIES
As already indicated, there is an astounding wealth of NWFP in South Africa, which are used for various purposes and to varying degrees by local communities. Some are considered as vital to the day to day existence of certain communities, some are regarded purely as luxuries, while others are only important in times of acute need, such as the case may be during severe droughts.
The following are some NWFP which already feature significantly have the potential to play a major role in the general livelihood of both rural and urban communities of South Africa.
19
VEGETAL NVVFP
A number of vegetal NWFP provide regularly for the needs of the ruralpeople of South Africa. The resource base includes food producingspecies such as fruit trees, of which there are several types whose currentproductivity at the national level is quite high, and which can certainlybe improved in the rural areas. Fruit species which are consideredimportant among local communities include the marula (Sclerocaryabirrea), which is so highly esteemed by the rural population that it isseldom cut down, the guava (Psidium guajava), the avocado (Perseaamericana), the mango (Mangifera indica), the banana (Musa sapientum),the pawpaw (Carica papaya), and cashew nuts (Anacardium occidentale).All of these species already grow in some areas of South Africa and thedevelopment and expansion of their production in the rural areas shouldnot pose many difficulties.
Mushrooms are another food NWFP with a lot of potential in SouthAfrica. Reports of mushroom eating by rural communities in SouthAfrica date back as far as the early 1920's; for example, the Zulus havealways been known to enjoy the beefsteak mushroom (Schulzeriaumkowaani). Fox and Young (1982) also indicate that in the Ciskei theXhosas roast the this particular mushroom over hot coals. Cunninghamand Pieser (1991), while studying the traditional foods of the Zulus,showed that mushrooms featured quite significantly in their diet. Todaymushrooms are a very common item in South African supermarkets andare enjoyed virtually all by the different ethnic groups.
Medicines are nother NWFP of importance to the rural communities ofSouth Africa. Many plants are used for the treatment of a variety ofailments and diseases, some are effective while others are not soeffective. Some of the favoured species have already been mentionedabove. But of note is the fact that the traditional medicine trade is veryimportant to a large section of the rural and urban population in SouthAfrica. The growing of some of these medicines could easily constitutea full-time and profitable occupation for some of the rural people.However, another two medicinal species which are worth a mention theseare the mountain Buchu (Agathosma betulina) and the wild ginger(Tetradenia riparia) (formerly lboza riparia).
20
VEGETAL NWFP
A number of vegetal NWFP provide regularly for the needs of the rural people of South Africa. The resource base includes food producing species such as fruit trees, of which there are several types whose current productivity at the national level is quite high, and which can certainly be improved in the rural areas. Fruit species which are considered important among local communities include the marula (Sclerocarya birrea) , which is so highly esteemed by the rural population that it is seldom cut down, the guava (Psidium guajava); the avocado (Persea americana), the mango (Mangifera indica), the banana (Musa sapientum) , the pawpaw (Carica papaya), and cashew nuts (Anacardium occidentale). All of these species already grow in some areas of South Africa and the development and expansion of their production in the rural areas should not pose many difficulties.
Mushrooms are another food NWFP with a lot of potential in South Africa. Reports of mushroom eating by rural communities in South Africa date back as far as the early 1920's; for example, the Zulus have always been known to enjoy the beefsteak mushroom (Schulzeria umkowaani). Fox and Young (1982) also indicate that in the Ciskei the Xhosas roast the this particular mushroom over hot coals. Cunningham and Pieser (1991), while studying the traditional foods of the Zulus, showed that mushrooms featured quite significantly in their diet. Today mushrooms are a very common item in South African supermarkets and are enjoyed virtually all by the different ethnic groups.
Medicines are nother NWFP of importance to the rural communities of South Africa. Many plants are used for the treatment of a variety of ailments and diseases, some are effective while others are not so effective. Some of the favoured species have already been mentioned above. But of note is the fact that the traditional medicine trade is very important to a large section of the rural and urban population in South Africa. The growing of some of these medicines could easily constitute a full-time and profitable occupation for some of the rural people. However, another two medicinal species which are worth a mention these are the mountain Buchu (Agathosma betulina) and the wild ginger (Tetradenia riparia) (formerly Iboza riparia).
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FAUNAL NVVFP
The importance of bees and their products has already been mentioned.Enjoyed by millions of South Africans, both rural and urban, the mainbe product, honey, is not as easily accessible to the rural people as itmight sound. The urban communities have relatively easy access tohoney because they can buy it (most being employed) in markets andshops. For the rural communities, however, the only honey is naturalhoney, and gathering it has been made somewhat easy the fact that theyknow their environment and do not need specific gadgets for thecollection of the product.
There are approximately 2 000 bee farmers is South Africa; whether anyof those are rural and/or black, is uncertain at the moment; but it wouldappear that they are all white farmers.
Honey production in South Africa has been reported at 3200 metrictonnes/year (van Hoven, 1991). It is obviously an industry with muchpotential for the rural poor; the only lacking factor being education in thisregard, and for rural South Africans should give much needed nutrition,and if commercialization is the idea, much-needed income.
Institutional Aspects
South Africa is in a unique position regarding the institutional handlingof all aspects of its natural resources. Unlike many other developingcountries, South Africa has the infrastructure and the manpower requiredto oversee all types of natural resource development, management andprotection. However, the institutional infrastructure is mostly gearedtowards assisting the urban commercial sector and the big whitecommercial farmers. Only recently have efforts been increased toaddress the problems of feeding and creating employment for the poorrural and urban communities, through the responsible use of naturalresources.
Institutions and government
Several institutions and organizations, as well as the South Africangovernment have responsibility relating to the development, preservationand sustainable use of natural resources in the country. Different NWFPare handled by different organizations.
21
FAUNAL NWFP
The importance of bees and their products has already been mentioned. Enjoyed by millions of South Africans, both rural and urban, the main be product, honey, is not as easily accessible to the rural people as it might sound. The urban communities have relatively easy access to honey because they can buy it (most being employed) in markets and shops. For the rural communities, however, the only honey is natural honey, and gathering it has been made somewhat easy the fact that they know their environment and do not need specific gadgets for the collection of the product.
There are approximately 2000 bee farmers is South Africa; whether any of those are rural and/or black, is uncertain at the moment; but it would appear that they are all white farmers.
Honey production in South Africa has been reported at 3200 metric tonnes/year (van Hoven, 1991). It is obviously an industry with much potential for the rural poor; the only lacking factor being education in this regard, and for rural South Africans should give much needed nutrition, and if commercialization is the idea, much-needed income.
Institutional Aspects
South Africa is in a unique position regarding the institutional handling of all aspects of its natural resources. Unlike many other developing countries, South Africa has the infrastructure and the manpower required to oversee all types of natural resource development, management and protection. However, the institutional infrastructure is mostly geared towards assisting the urban commercial sector and the big white commercial farmers. Only recently have efforts been increased to address the problems of feeding and creating employment for the poor rural and urban communities, through the responsible use of natural resources.
Institutions and government
Several institutions and organizations, as well as the South African government have responsibility relating to the development, preservation and sustainable use of natural resources in the country. Different NWFP are handled by different organizations.
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Government
The responsibility for many of South Africa's natural resources is vestedwith the Department of Community Development (formerly theDepartment of Agricultural Credit and Land Tenure). According torelevant legislation such resources are deemed to belong to the statealthough they are for the benefit and use of the general public. Thiscategory includes resources such as the sea and its shores, state forests,(including forestry nature reserves, protection forests and wildernessareas), national parks, provincial and local nature reserves, rivers andcertain dams.
The government is directly charged with the management of thementioned natural resources. Although not always the owner of specificNWFP, which are relevant to rural communities, the governmentnevertheless controls the use of such resources in the public interest even,where such resources are privately owned. Examples are soilconservation, wildlife, (birds, animals and fish) plants, some lake areas,mountain catchment areas, mineral resources and underground water.
The government is also entrusted with the planning of how land (bothprivate and government land) is to be used. Land-use planning at thenational level is the responsibility of what used to be the Department ofConstitutional Development and Planning. However, the responsibilityfor environmental matters and natural resources lies with a number ofgovernment agencies. Most government departments are fully mannedand equipped for their various tasks; however, as mentioned before, thechannelling of such efforts is questionable, judging by the help givenrural white farmers as opposed to rural black communities.
Institutions
The South African government, through its various agencies, works veryclosely with a number of institutions in the country in order to managevarious natural resources and the environment in general. South Africahas also been involved in the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) from the veryearly stages of its formation. It is also one of the founder members ofthe International Union for the Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN) which produces the International Red Data Books(RDBs). South Africa was one of the first countries in the world to
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Government
The responsibility for many of South Africa's natural resources is vested with the Department of Community Development (formerly the Department of Agricultural Credit and Land Tenure). According to relevant legislation such resources are deemed to belong to the state although they are for the benefit and use of the general public. This category includes resources such as the sea and its shores, state forests, (including forestry nature reserves, protection forests and wilderness areas), national parks, provincial and local nature reserves, rivers and certain dams.
The government is directly charged with the management of the mentioned natural resources. Although not always the owner of specific NWFP, which are relevant to rural communities, the government nevertheless controls the use of such resources in the public interest even, where such resources are privately owned. Examples are soil conservation, wildlife, (birds, animals and fish) plants, some lake areas, mountain catchment areas, mineral resources and underground water.
The government is also entrusted with the planning of how land (both private and government land) is to be used. Land-use planning at the national level is the responsibility of what used to be the Department of Constitutional Development and Planning. However, the responsibility for environmental matters and natural resources lies with a number of government agencies. Most government departments are fully manned and equipped for their various tasks; however, as mentioned before, the channelling of such efforts is questionable, judging by the help given rural white farmers as opposed to rural black communities.
Institutions
The South African government, through its various agencies, works very closely with a number of institutions in the country in order to manage various natural resources and the environment in general. South Africa has also been involved in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) from the very early stages of its formation. It is also one of the founder members of the International V nion for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IVCN) which produces the International Red Data Books (RDBs). South Africa was one of the first countries in the world to
22
publish its own regional RDBs, the production of which is currently ajoint venture undertaken by the Council for Scientific and IndustrialResearch (CSIR), the Endangered Wildlife Trust and the Department ofEnvironment Affairs.
In terms of the South Africa Constitution, the responsibility for theprotection of fauna and flora, and specifically the control on the use ofvegetal and faunal NWFP is vested in the four ProvincialAdministrations. The nature conservation authorities of the Transvaal,the Orange Free State, Natal and the Cape Province have been designatedas CITES Management Authorities. The Department of EnvironmentAffairs acts as the central co-ordinating and policy-making authority inrespect of environmental conservation in South Africa, and as such, hasalso been designated a CITES Management Authority with theresponsibility of co-ordinating the implementation of the Conventioninternally, and to act as a channel of communication between the CITESsecretariat and the provincial management authorities and other bodiesinvolved.
Several South African universities also have institutions which are veryactive in promoting the development and sustainable use of naturalresources in rural areas. The Institute of Natural Resources of theUniversity of Natal has done some appreciable work in this regard withthe rural communities of Natal. Others of note are the Univeristity ofZululands's Centre for Low Input Agriculture and ResearchDevelopment, and the Wits Rural Facility of the University of theWitwatersrand in the Transvaal.
The provincial nature conservation authorities, and other conservation andresearch institutions such as the National Parks Board and NationalBotanical Institute have at their disposal the services of a devoted corpsof biological scientists, almost all of whom are whites, the other racegroups being poorly represented. One of their main responsibilities is tomonitor the protection status of all species on a continuous basis. Theirwork is supplemented by scientific research at various South Africanuniversities.
One of the results of this comprehensive effort is the production of theSouth African Red Data Book series. Red Data Books have already beenproduced on terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, fish,butterflies as well as the "fynbos" and Karroo biomes.
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publish its own regional RDBs, the production of which is currently a joint venture undertaken by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the Endangered Wildlife Trust and the Department of Environment Affairs.
In terms of the South Africa Constitution, the responsibility for the protection of fauna and flora, and specifically the control on the use of vegetal and faunal NWFP is vested in the four Provincial Administrations. The nature conservation authorities of the Transvaal, the Orange Free State, Natal and the Cape Province have been designated as CITES Management Authorities. The Department of Environment Affairs acts as the central co-ordinating and policy-making authority in respect of environmental conservation in South Africa, and as such, has also been designated a CITES Management Authority with the responsibility of co-ordinating the implementation of the Convention internally, and to act as a channel of communication between the CITES secretariat and the provincial management authorities and other bodies involved.
Several South African universities also have institutions which are very active in promoting the development and sustainable use of natural resources in rural areas. The Institute of Natural Resources of the University of Natal has done some appreciable work in this regard with the rural communities of Natal. Others of note are the Univeristity of Zululands's Centre for Low Input Agriculture and Research Development, and the Wits Rural Facility of the University of the Witwatersrand in the Transvaal.
The provincial nature conservation authorities, and other conservation and research institutions such as the National Parks Board and National Botanical Institute have at their disposal the services of a devoted corps of biological scientists, almost all of whom are whites, the other race groups being poorly represented. One of their main responsibilities is to monitor the protection status of all species on a continuous basis. Their work is supplemented by scientific research at various South African universities.
One of the results of this comprehensive effort is the production of the South African Red Data Book series. Red Data Books have already been produced on terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, fish, butterflies as well as the "fynbos" and Karroo biomes.
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The homelands of South Africa tend to have their own natureconservation set-ups, but these are not as well-staffed or well-organizedas the provincial ones. They depend almost entirely on expertise andfunding from the central South African government.
Research and Development
There is a number of research organizations in Sout_h Africa whose workis important in the study of natural resources and the environment, butvery few of these are private bodies. The majority are controlled andfunded by universities, government departments and the Council forScientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The limited number ofresearch bodies and the means at their disposal make close collaborationessential. Of particular importance in this respect is the CSIR's Co-operative Scientific Programmes (CSP). The CSP administers a seriesof National Programmes which offer mechanisms and means for co-operation and collaboration between research organizations, universities,government departments and individual scientists.
There is also a number of voluntary organizations which help in the fightto save South Africa's environment and its natural resources. Suchorganizations range from permanent scientific and professionalassociations, to pressure groups which exist for only as long as the issuein question remains unresolved; examples are Earthlife Africa, theWildlife Society, the Botanical Society, the Ornithological Society and theDendrological Society.
Education
A number of South African universities and colleges offer training in anumber of disciplines ranging from environmental and natural resourcemanagement to nature conservation. Of note is the University of CapeTown's environmental courses which are quite popular in South Africa;however, once again this type of training seems to be mostly for whitestudents, although this situation is beginning to change, giving thedisadvantaged youth of South Africa access to environmental and natureconservation courses. This would indeed be to the advantage of the ruralcommunities as they will be in a position to manage their own naturalresources; they will be much more aware of the problems inherent in thesustainable utilization of local NWFP.
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The homelands of South Africa tend to have their own nature conservation set-ups, but these are not as well-staffed or well-organized as the provincial ones. They depend almost entirely on expertise and funding from the central South African government.
Research and Development
There is a number of research organizations in South Africa whose work is important in the study of natural resources and the environment, but very few of these are private bodies. The majority are controlled and funded by universities, government departments and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The limited number of research bodies and the means at their disposal make close collaboration essential. Of particular importance in this respect is the CSIR' s Cooperative Scientific Programmes (CSP). The CSP administers a series of National Programmes which offer mechanisms and means for cooperation and collaboration between research organizations, universities, government departments and individual scientists.
There is also a number of voluntary organizations which help in the fight to save South Africa's environment and its natural resources. Such organizations range from permanent scientific and professional associations, to pressure groups which exist for only as long as the issue in question remains unresolved; examples are Earthlife Africa, the Wildlife Society, the Botanical Society, the Ornithological Society and the Dendrological Society.
Education
A number of South African universities and colleges offer training in a number of disciplines ranging from environmental and natural resource management to nature conservation. Of note is the University of Cape Town's environmental courses which are quite popular in South Africa; however, once again this type of training seems to be mostly for white students, although this situation is beginning to change, giving the disadvantaged youth of South Africa access to environmental and nature conservation courses. This would indeed be to the advantage of the rural communities as they will be in a position to manage their own natural resources; they will be much more aware of the problems inherent in the sustainable utilization of local NWFP.
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Funding
Funding for work on NWFP in South Africa comes from a variety ofsources. The government funds its own departments and affiliatedorganizations, and also offers assistance, in funding or in kind, to someprivate organizations particularly if they are non-profit making. Themajority of private organizations get their funding from donations by thebusiness sector and individuals both from South Africa and outside. Inthis respect, the South African Nature Foundation (SANF), which is theWorld Wildlife Fund (WWF) representative in Southern Africa, helps toraise and distribute funds for nature conservation projects in South Africaand other countries in the sub-continent. The SANF also assists in allforms of nature conservation, and in the education of the public. Ingaining monetary commitments from major financial houses the SANFhas helped increase private sector participation in the environment. Afew organizations get their funding from consultancies, while professionalassociations and the smaller societies depend mainly on membership feesand the sale of promotional materials.
Legislation
Comprehensive legislation exists in South Africa for the protection of theenvironment and natural resources. South African environmentalprovisions are contained in an extremely wide variety of parliamentaryacts, provincial ordinances, local by-laws and ministerial regulations.Some statutes regulating environmental affairs deal exclusively with suchissues. For example the National Parks Act 57 of 1976 and the variousprovincial nature conservation ordinances, fall into this category. Otherstatutes, although not exclusively environmental statutes, may be regardedas being of a predominantly environmental nature. Examples are theForest Act 72 of 1968, the Mountain Catchment Areas Act 63 of 1970and the Lake Areas Development Act 39 of 1975. Legislation has alsobeen enacted for the control of the exploitation of, and trade inendangered species. High penalties (up to US$ 50 000) and long periodsof imprisonment (up to ten years) are applicable.
The law enforcement authorities in South Africa have a force of almost1 000 law enforcement officers at their disposal. They work in veryclose collaboration with the Endangered Species Unit of the SouthAfrican Police. In 1991 this co-operation resulted in 81 cases beingbrought to court.
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Funding
Funding for work on NWFP in South Africa comes from a variety of sources. The government funds its own departments and affiliated organizations, and also offers assistance, in funding or in kind, to some private organizations particularly if they are non-profit making. The majority of private organizations get their funding from donations by the business sector and individuals both from South Africa and outside. In this respect, the South African Nature Foundation (SANF), which is the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) representative in Southern Africa, helps to raise and distribute funds for nature conservation projects in South Africa and other countries in the sub-continent. The SANF also assists in all forms of nature conservation, and in the education of the pUblic. In gaining monetary commitments from major financial houses the SANF has helped increase private sector participation in the environment. A few organizations get their funding from consultancies, while professional associations and the smaller societies depend mainly on membership fees and the sale of promotional materials.
Legislation
Comprehensive legislation exists in South Africa for the protection of the environment and natural resources. South African environmental provisions are contained in an extremely wide variety of parliamentary acts, provincial ordinances, local by-laws and ministerial regulations. Some statutes regulating environmental affairs deal exclusively with such issues. For example the National Parks Act 57 of 1976 and the various provincial nature conservation ordinances, fall into this category. Other statutes, although not exclusively environmental statutes, may be regarded as being of a predominantly environmental nature. Examples are the Forest Act 72 of 1968, the Mountain Catchment Areas Act 63 of 1970 and the Lake Areas Development Act 39 of 1975. Legislation has also been enacted for the control of the exploitation of, and trade in endangered species. High penalties (up to US$ 50000) and long periods of imprisonment (up to ten years) are applicable.
The law enforcement authorities in South Africa have a force of almost 1 000 law enforcement officers at their disposal. They work in very close collaboration with the Endangered Species Unit of the South African Police. In 1991 this co-operation resulted in 81 cases being brought to court.
25
TECHNICAL DESCRIVTION
Because of the potential they are deemed to have in improving thelivelihoods of rural South Africans, three NWFPs will be discussed inthis section.
Food (both vegetal and faunal)
The rather heavy reliance of rural South African communities on NWFPhas already been discussed. The different black peoples use NWFP moreor less similarly although there are some variations. The importance ofthe various wild and domesticated foods also vary from place to place,but it is generally acknowledged that food and nutrition, being some ofthe most basic needs of the rural people of South Africa, are also someof the most important products obtained from South Africa's naturalforest areas.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
Harvesting
For most food NWFP, harvesting by rural communities simply meansgoing into the area where the food is growing and collecting it. Methodsof collection vary depending on the type of food and/or plant species.The leaves, fruits, seeds, nuts, flowers, sap and sometimes roots ofvarious plants may be used as food.
The leaves of wild spinaches such as the cockscomb (Amaranthus spp.),fat hen (Chenopodium album), milk thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) and blackjack (Bidens pilosa) are simply picked from the plant, placed in a bag orbasket, and taken home.
Wild spinaches are usually first washed, the fibrous parts being removedand fed to livestock, and the cooked to be eaten with maize porridge.Occasionally, if the harvest is good, the spinaches may be dried andstored in bags to be eaten at a later date. Wild spinaches are usuallycollected not far from the homestead, in any case, not more than a threehour walk to the collection area and back.
26
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Because of the potential they are deemed to have in improving the livelihoods of rural South Africans, three NWFPs will be discussed in this section.
Food (both vegetal and faunal)
The rather heavy reliance of rural South African communities on NWFP has already been discussed. The different black peoples use NWFP more or less similarly although there are some variations. The importance of the various wild and domesticated foods also vary from place to place, but it is generally acknowledged that food and nutrition, being some of the most basic needs of the rural people of South Africa, are also some of the most important products obtained from South Africa's natural forest areas.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
Harvesting
For most food NWFP, harvesting by rural communities simply means going into the area where the food is growing and collecting it. Methods of collection vary depending on the type of food and/or plant species. The leaves, fruits, seeds, nuts, flowers, sap and sometimes roots of various plants may be used as food.
The leaves of wild spinaches such as the cockscomb (Amaranthus spp.), fat hen (Chenopodium album), milk thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) and black jack (Bidens pilosa) are simply picked from the plant, placed in a bag or basket, and taken home.
Wild spinaches are usually first washed, the fibrous parts being removed and fed to livestock, and the cooked to be eaten with maize porridge. Occasionally, if the harvest is good, the spinaches may be dried and stored in bags to be eaten at a later date. Wild spinaches are usually collected not far from the homestead, in any case, not more than a three hour walk to the collection area and back.
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Various parts of a number of tree and shrub species are popular in thediet of may rural people in South Africa. Again collection is done fromtrees in and around the community. Harvesting methods differ for thevarious species, but in most cases the edible part is picked straight fromthe tree, placed in a bag or basket and taken home, where it is eithereaten fresh, processed or preserved in one of a variety of ways. Forexample, the monkey orange (Strychnos madagascariensis) fniit is pickedgreen to protect it from wildlife, and buried in the ground to ripen (vanWyk, 1974) after which the fruit pulp (which does not shrink on drying)is sun-dried and kept as a food for lean times; the fruits of the natalmahogany (Trichilia emetica) are picked when they ripen inJanuary/February. They are then taken home where the seeds areremoved from the capsules and soaked until the scarlet arils are a lightyellow, at which stage the seeds are separated from the arils. The arilsare then mixed with sweet potatoes, squash or peanut flour and eaten asa main meal; this is a popular dish of the Natal communities(Cunningham and Pieser, (1991).
Generally, the rural people do not have to walk very long distances togather traditional foods from the forest or veld, in whose vicinity theyusually live. Very occasionally, they may have to travel from dawn todusk, on foot, to gather a particular food which is abundant elsewhere,mainly for home consumption, sometimes, if a lot has been collected,some will be sold to the neighbours.
Other methods of harvesting fruit or nuts involve their collection oncethey have fallen down from the tree. A good example is the marula(Sclerocarya birrea), whose fruit, a great favourite with South Africanrural communities (Palmer and Pitman, 1973), is usually collected whenit is about to ripen (around February/March in South Africa) and hasdropped dropped to the ground. Another species whose fruits dropbefore they are quite ripe is the mobola plum (Parinari curatellifolia);both fruits go through the final ripening phase on the ground (van Wyk,1972).
Another food-harvesting method is that employed in the tapping of certainpalm species for sap which is used in the making of a traditional wine.The main palm species used for this purpose in South Africa are the wilddate palm (Phoenix reclinata) and the ilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea).Although pastures, fuelwood, wild fruits and game animals aretraditionally considered to be natural resources under communal
27
Various parts of a number of tree and shrub species are popular in the diet of may rural people in South Africa. Again collection is done from trees in and around the community. Harvesting methods differ for the various species, but in most cases the edible part is picked straight from the tree, placed in a bag or basket and taken home, where it is either eaten fresh, processed or preserved in one of a variety of ways. For example, the monkey orange (Strychnos madagascariensis) fruit is picked green to protect it from wildlife, and buried in the ground to ripen (van Wyk, 1974) after which the fruit pulp (which does not shrink on drying) is sun-dried and kept as a food for lean times; the fruits of the natal mahogany (Trichilia emetica) are picked when they ripen in January IFebruary . They are then taken home where the seeds are removed from the capsules and soaked until the scarlet arils are a light yellow, at which stage the seeds are separated from the arils. The arils are then mixed with sweet potatoes, squash or peanut flour and eaten as a main meal; this is a popular dish of the Natal communities (Cunningham and Pieser, (1991).
Generally, the rural people do not have to walk very long distances to gather traditional foods from the forest or veld, in whose vicinity they usually live. Very occasionally, they may have to travel from dawn to dusk, on foot, to gather a particular food which is abundant elsewhere, mainly for home consumption, sometimes, if a lot has been collected, some will be sold to the neighbours.
Other methods of harvesting fruit or nuts involve their collection once they have fallen down from the tree. A good example is the marula (Sclerocarya birrea), whose fruit, a great favourite with South African rural communities (Palmer and Pitman, 1973), is usually collected when it is about to ripen (around February IMarch in South Africa) and has dropped dropped to the ground. Another species whose fruits drop before they are quite ripe is the mobola plum (Parinari curatellifolia); both fruits go through the final ripening phase on the ground (van Wyk, 1972).
Another food-harvesting method is that employed in the tapping of certain palm species for sap which is used in the making of a traditional wine. The main palm species used for this purpose in South Africa are the wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata) and the ilala palm (Hyphaene coriacea). Although pastures, fuelwood, wild fruits and game animals are traditionally considered to be natural resources under communal
27
ownership, palm wine tappers are traditionally allocated "territories" inthe palm veld for their exclusive use in producing palm wine(Curmigham, 1990a). In Natal persons wanting to tap palm sap for thefirst time must first approach the local headman, who will then indicatea suitable area; thereafter a payment of cash, or a quantity of palm wine,is made to the headman and a further, equal quantity of wine during thecourse of tapping. Boundaries of these tapping areas are respected by allconcerned and any disputes are taken back to the headman (Cunningham,1990a).
The tapping process involves selecting clumps of palms and preparinglarge stems within these for tapping after burning each clump to removethe undergrowth and leaf spines. Selected stems are trimmed to initiatesap flow using razor sharp bush knives. A woven palm leaf is placedover the palm stem and collection container, protecting it from rain, dust,sun and insects. The stem and young leaf bases are cut at a slight angleto guide sap onto a leaf gutter and into the clay collection container. Bythe end of the tapping period these young leaf bases have been removedby trimming two to three times per day over a five to seven week period.
Although rural South Africans like to eat fauna! NWFP when they areavailable, they are unfortunately not as easy to harvest, and not asabundant as the vegetal food NWFP. However, some do play ansignificant role in the diet of some rural communities.
As mentioned earlier a number of wild animals are caught and eaten bysome rural communities, although it is difficult to determine the extentto which wild meat contributes to local diets. The hunting of large gameanimals is legally forbidden in South Africa, although it still occurs insome areas, and many of the more commonly consumed faunal NWFPsuch as caterpillars, locusts and grasshoppers, tend to be eaten as snacks,with the result that their consumption goes unrecorded(FAO, 1989).
Most animals and birds are usually caught during a hunt, which mayinclude the use of sticks, spears, clubs, bows and arrows, and the oddgun. Other than hunting, most wild animals are trapped using a varietyof snares devised by the rural people themselves or purchased from storesin adjacent urban areas. Favoured animal include springhares,porcupines, rabbits, and wild fowl (ducks, geese). Again, most ruralSouth Africans are not concerned with the legalities of hunting andtrapping wildlife.
28
ownership, palm wine tappers are traditionally allocated "territories" in the palm veld for their exclusive use in producing palm wine (Cunnigham, 1990a). In Natal persons wanting to tap palm sap for the first time must first approach the local headman, who will then indicate a suitable area; thereafter a payment of cash, or a quantity of palm wine, is made to the headman and a further, equal quantity of wine during the course of tapping. Boundaries of these tapping areas are respected by all concerned and any disputes are taken back to the headman (Cunningham, 1990a).
The tapping process involves selecting clumps of palms and preparing large stems within these for tapping after burning each clump to remove the undergrowth and leaf spines. Selected stems are trimmed to initiate sap flow using razor sharp bush knives. A woven palm leaf is placed over the palm stem and collection container, protecting it from rain, dust, sun and insects. The stem and young leaf bases are cut at a slight angle to guide sap onto a leaf gutter and into the clay collection container. By the end of the tapping period these young leaf bases have been removed by trimming two to three times per day over a five to seven week period.
Although rural South Africans like to eat faunal NWFP when they are available, they are unfortunately not as easy to harvest, and not as abundant as the vegetal food NWFP. However, some do play an significant role in the diet of some rural communities.
As mentioned earlier a number of wild animals are caught and eaten by some rural communities, although it is difficult to determine the extent to which wild meat contributes to local diets. The hunting of large game animals is legally forbidden in South Africa, although it still occurs in some areas, and many of the more commonly consumed faunal NWFP such as caterpillars, locusts and grasshoppers, tend to be eaten as snacks, with the result that their consumption goes unrecorded(FAO, 1989).
Most animals and birds are usually caught during a hunt, which may include the use of sticks, spears, clubs, bows and arrows, and the odd gun. Other than hunting, most wild animals are trapped using a variety of snares devised by the rural people themselves or purchased from stores in adjacent urban areas. Favoured animal include springhares, porcupines, rabbits, and wild fowl (ducks, geese). Again, most rural South Africans are not concerned with the legalities of hunting and trapping wildlife.
28
Of the insects eaten by rural South Africans, one of the most popular isthe emperor moth (Imbrasia belina) caterpillars which are found on themopane tree (Colophospermum mopane). Rural people collect theprotein-rich larvae in sacks or baskets from the mopane trees.
Another insect of importance, not only to rural communities, but also tocommercial farmers, is the bee (Apis spp.). Honey from the bees haslong been used by the rural people of South Africa as a food and asweetening agent. The collection of wild honey, although not without itsrisks, is a simple matter for the rural people. When honey is known tobe in a tree a fire is lit underneath to smoke out the bees. No specialclothing is worn for protection. A lighted stick, still smoking, is thrustinto the hole from which the bees emerge dazed. A hole is then made inthe hive with an axe just below or above the natural opening, orsometimes in both places. The honey is then taken out through one ofthe openings and placed in a container. For bees which nest in holes inthe ground, after they have been smoked out, a spade or some otherdigging instrument is used to dig out the hive from which the honey isthen extracted.
One of the most important means of livelihood for the rural people ofSouth Africa, craftwork, demands the collection of various materials froma number of different plants either by the craftsmen themselves or bycommercial harvesters of craft materials.
Again, as with the food NWFP, the harvesting of craft materials simplymeans any individual going to an area where the resource is found andharvesting it, as craftwork resources in the rural areas of South Africaare also regarded as common property. Harvesting methods differaccording to plant species and the plant part to be harvested.
The plant parts mostly used in craftwork are tree roots and bark (used inthe making of dyes) and leaves/culms/thin stems used in the making ofwoven articles.
Various implements are used for harvesting craft materials. Theseinclude knives, sickles, axes, bush knives and various types of saws.Thin stems of species such as Acalypha glabrata, Canthium setiflorumand Dalbergia obovata are cut off with bush knives and tied intoheadload size bundles. Branches bearing leaves are also cut off in asimilar way, after which the leaves are removed by hand and also tied
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Of the insects eaten by rural South Africans, one of the most popular is the emperor moth (lmbrasia belina) caterpillars which are found on the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane). Rural people collect the protein-rich larvae in sacks or baskets from the mopane trees.
Another insect of importance, not only to rural communities, but also to commercial farmers, is the bee (Apis spp.). Honey from the bees has long been used by the rural people of South Africa as a food and a sweetening agent. The collection of wild honey, although not without its risks, is a simple matter for the rural people. When honey is known to be in a tree a fire is lit underneath to smoke out the bees. No special clothing is worn for protection. A lighted stick, still smoking, is thrust into the hole from which the bees emerge dazed. A hole is then made in the hive with an axe just below or above the natural opening, or sometimes in both places. The honey is then taken out through one of the openings and placed in a container. For bees which nest in holes in the ground, after they have been smoked out, a spade or some other digging instrument is used to dig out the hive from which the honey is then extracted.
One of the most important means of livelihood for the rural people of South Africa, craftwork, demands the collection of various materials from a number of different plants either by the craftsmen themselves or by commercial harvesters of craft materials.
Again, as with the food NWFP, the harvesting of craft materials simply means any individual going to an area where the resource is found and harvesting it, ascraftwork resources in the rural areas of South Africa are also regarded as common property. Harvesting methods differ according to plant species and the plant part to be harvested.
The plant parts mostly used in craftwork are tree roots and bark (used in the making of dyes) and leaves/culms/thin stems used in the making of woven articles.
Various implements are used for harvesting craft materials. These include knives, sickles, axes, bush knives and various types of saws. Thin stems of species such as Acalypha glabrata, Canthium setiflorum and Dalbergia obovata are cut off with bush knives and tied into headload size bundles. Branches bearing leaves are also cut off in a similar way, after which the leaves are removed by hand and also tied
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into bundles. Leaf-yielding species include Cyperus latifolius, Digitariaeriacantha, Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata. Bark is usuallystripped off the tree trunk in long strands after making an initial cut withan axe or a bush knife; pieces of bark can also be removed by repetitive(almost vertical) blows of the bush knife or small axe on the tree trunk.Species whose bark is used for dye production include Ficus trichopoda,Trichilia emetica and Schotia brachypetala. Roots of species such asAcacia burkei, Aloe martothii and Terminalia sericea are usuallycollected by digging around the tree and cutting off pieces with a bushknife or small axe. Culms or stems of species such as Cyperusnatalensis, C. sexangularis, C. textilis and Juncus krausii are usuallyharvested using a sickle, small sharp knife or bush knife, after whichthey are tied into bundles ready for transportation.
Traditional medicines
Many rural people in South Africa still believe strongly in the use oftraditional remedies for a variety of illnesses; consequently the harvestingof vegetal NWFP for traditional medicines can be found virtuallythroughout the whole country.
The harvesting of traditional medicines in South Africa takes manyforms. In some case it is done for practical purposes while in others itis based on traditional harvesting methods. Here again, various plantparts are gathered. The main parts used are leaves, small branches ortwigs, bark, fruits and roots. The methods used to harvest these arealmost similar to those employed for wood and fibre for handicrafts,except that traditional medicine practitioners tend to use only their barehands for harvesting, except when digging roots and bulbs.
The species used for traditional medicines are too numerous to mentionhere, but some of the more important ones are Warburgia salutaris,Ocotea bullata, Agathosma betulina and Boweia volubilis.
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into bundles. Leaf-yielding species include Cyperus latifolius, Digitaria eriacantha, Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata. Bark is usually stripped off the tree trunk in long strands after making an initial cut with an axe or a bush knife; pieces of bark can also be removed by repetitive (almost vertical) blows of the bush knife or small axe on the tree trunk. Species whose bark is used for dye production include Ficus trichopoda, Trichilia emetica and Schotia brachypetala. Roots of species such as Acacia burkei, Aloe martothii and Terminalia sericea are usually collected by digging around the tree and cutting off pieces with a bush knife or small axe. Culms or stems of species such as Cyperus natalensis, C. sexangularis, C. textilis and ]uncus krausii are usually harvested using a sickle, small sharp knife or bush knife, after which they are tied into bundles ready for transportation.
Traditional medicines
Many rural people in South Africa still believe strongly in the use of traditional remedies for a variety of illnesses; consequently the harvesting of vegetal NWFP for traditional medicines can be found virtually throughout the whole country.
The harvesting of traditional medicines in South Africa takes many forms. In some case it is done for practical purposes while in others it is based on traditional harvesting methods. Here again, various plant parts are gathered. The main parts used are leaves, small branches or twigs, bark, fruits and roots. The methods used to harvest these are almost similar to those employed for wood and fibre for handicrafts, except that traditional medicine practitioners tend to use only their bare hands for harvesting, except when digging roots and bulbs.
The species used for traditional medicines are too numerous to mention here, but some of the more important ones are Warburgia salutaris, Ocotea bullata, Agathosma betulina and Boweia volubilis.
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Transportation
This is one area which poses a few problems for the rural South African.The road infrastructure is often very inadequate in most rural areas,therefore most journeys have to be done on foot. Some areas are luckyenough to have a main road passing through or near their collectionareas, in which case the gatherers may catch a taxi or bus to and fromcollection points and vice versa.
For most wild foods (both vegetal and faunal), collection or gathering isdone in the surrounding adjacent forest or natural woodland areas, andusually the only means of transport is walking since large quantities offood are not usually gathered, that is, only enough is gathered for homeconsumption. If large quantities of a particular wild food are gathered,then some of the family members may help to carry the produce on thehead or shoulder in bags, baskets or bundles, and also in hand-heldbaskets. Occasionally, the gathering of wild foods may require a wholeday trip, but it is often a matter of three or four hours, and this usuallyonly happens in times of scarcity.
The main problem arises when large quantities of material, such as palmleaves and culms of Juncus krausii for weaving, have to be transportedfrom the source to the homestead or processing centre. In such casesroad transport is often used. For example, in Natal, syndicates of womenwho use Juncus krausii for craftwork usually hire a vehicle for thecollection of this material, which may be up to 25 km away, therebysharing the transportation costs; otherwise they have to rely on suppliersto bring them the materials, thus incurring extra costs.
South Africa's modern and extensive transport system plays an importantrole in the national economy and also those of neighbouring countries.For the rural communities of South Africa, the transport system isparticularly important in the marketing of their craftwork, medicines andfruits such as bananas, mangoes, guayas and pawpaws further afield fromtheir areas.
Occasionally, some of the rural people may have a horse or ox-drawncart which they use for the collection and transportation of bulky NWFP,and sometimes this is hired by other commercial NWFP operators.
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Transportation
This is one area which poses a few problems for the rural South African. The road infrastructure is often very inadequate in most rural areas, therefore most journeys have to be done on foot. Some areas are lucky enough to have a main road passing through or near their collection areas, in which case the gatherers may catch a taxi or bus to and from collection points and vice versa.
For most wild foods (both vegetal and faunal), collection or gathering is done in the surrounding adjacent forest or natural woodland areas, and usually the only means of transport is walking since large quantities of food are not usually gathered, that is, only enough is gathered for home consumption. If large quantities of a particular wild food are gathered, then some of the family members may help to carry the produce on the head or shoulder in bags, baskets or bundles, and also in hand-held baskets. Occasionally, the gathering of wild foods may require a whole day trip, but it is often a matter of three or four hours, and this usually only happens in times of scarcity.
The main problem arises when large quantities of material, such as palm leaves and culms of Juncus krausii for weaving, have to be transported from the source to the homestead or processing centre. In such cases road transport is often used. For example, in Natal, syndicates of women who use Juncus krausii for craftwork usually hire a vehicle for the collection of this material, which may be up to 25 km away, thereby sharing the transportation costs; otherwise they have to rely on suppliers to bring them the materials, thus incurring extra costs.
South Africa's modern and extensive transport system plays an important role in the national economy and also those of neighbouring countries. For the rural communities of South Africa, the transport system is particularly important in the marketing of their craftwork, medicines and fruits such as bananas, mangoes, guavas and pawpaws further afield from their areas.
Occasionally, some of the rural people may have a horse or ox-drawn cart which they use for the collection and transportation of bulky NWFP, and sometimes this is hired by other commercial NWFP operators.
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PROCESSING AND STORAGE
A number of NWFP found in South Africa have to undergo some formof processing before they can be consumed, marketed or stored.
Food
Most wild fruits are eaten fresh in the veld or as a supplement to themain meal at the homestead; others such as the rubber vine (Landolphiakirkii), the Zulu milkberry (Manilkara concolor), the large sourplum(Ximenia caffra) and the spiny monkey orange (Strychnos spinosa) aremainly added to thin porridge (Cunningham and Pieser, 1991) after beingwashed and cut up into small pieces.
Some fruits such as bananas, are harvested just before they are fully ripe,and taken home where the ripening process is allowed to nin its fullcourse. Sometimes the fruits are sold in the partially ripe state to avoidwastage as the shelf life of ripe fruit is rather short (sometimes only afew days); this is especially the case with bananas, mangoes, guayas andpawpaws.
If they are not eaten fresh, fruits may be processed. In South Africaseveral methods exist of doing this. Sun-drying one of the more commonmethods. The categories of sun-dried foods are fruit, fungi and wildspinaches.
An example of fruit-drying in Natal is that of Strychnos madagascariensisfruit pulp. The fruit shells are first broken open and the pulp removedalong with the seeds. These are then placed on mats and then dried overa fire in a pit. When the pulp has changed to an orange brown colour,but is still moist, it is separated from the pips with a sharp, flatinstniment. It is placed in the sun to dry, then finally over the fire again.The dried pulp is then stamped in a wooden mortar until sticky, in whichstate it can be stored for up to five years.
Other fruits are dried directly in the sun. For example, bananas may besliced, spread out on mats and placed in the sun for drying, a processlasting up to two weeks, after which the dried product can be stored.
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PROCESSING AND STORAGE
A number of NWFP found in South Africa have to undergo some form of processing before they can be consumed, marketed or stored.
Food
Most wild fruits are eaten fresh in the veld or as a supplement to the main meal at the homestead; others such as the rubber vine (Landolphia kirkiz) , the Zulu milkberry (Manilkara concolor) , the large sourplum (Ximenia caffra) and the spiny monkey orange (Strychnos spinosa) are mainly added to thin porridge (Cunningham and Pieser, 1991) after being washed and cut up into small pieces.
Some fruits such as bananas, are harvested just before they are fully ripe, and taken home where the ripening process is allowed to run its full course. Sometimes the fruits are sold in the partially ripe state to avoid wastage as the shelf life of ripe fruit is rather short (sometimes only a few days); this is especially the case with bananas, mangoes, guavas and pawpaws.
If they are not eaten fresh, fruits may be processed. In South Africa several methods exist of doing this. Sun-drying one of the more common methods. The categories of sun-dried foods are fruit, fungi and wild spinaches.
An example of fruit-drying in Natal is that of Strychnos madagascariensis fruit pulp. The fruit shells are first broken open and the pulp removed along with the seeds. These are then placed on mats and then dried over a fire in a pit. When the pulp has changed to an orange brown colour, but is still moist, it is separated from the pips with a sharp, flat instrument. It is placed in the sun to dry, then finally over the fire again. The dried pulp is then stamped in a wooden mortar until sticky, in which state it can be stored for up to five years.
Other fruits are dried directly in the sun. For example, bananas may be sliced, spread out on mats and placed in the sun for drying, a process lasting up to two weeks, after which the dried product can be stored.
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Fungi or wild mushrooms and wild spinaches can also be sun-dried.Dried mushrooms are ground into a powder and then added to soupsmade with peanut flour and wild spinaches which can also be dried to beeaten at a later date. Cunningham and Pieser (1991) report that twospecies of fungi are eaten raw in Natal, although they do not give thenames of the species.
In South Africa, cooking is by far the most common method ofprocessing wild and domesticated foods, although the heat may reduce thecontent of some essential nutrients in some of the foods. The Bushmenare probably the only rural South Africans whose vegetal diet is notcommonly subjected to cooking; they eat most wild foods raw, which isprobably why they do not suffer from many diseases as they get the fullcomplement of nutrition from plants. Cooldng applies mainly to wildspinaches, fungi and some fruits, but generally it is not common to cookfniits in the rural areas of South Africa. In the urban areas, fniits suchas guayas may be cooked in canning bottles, with sugar added in orderto preserve them for later consumption.
Fermentation is another processing method employed by rural SouthAfricans. For example in Natal and the Transvaal palm and marula wineare quite popular, the former being made from the fermentation of palmsap, and the latter from that of manila fruit juice. The fermentation maybe done in a clay or plastic container; the wine is also stored in these.
In the more comrnercial sector, processing methods include juiceextraction, canning, and the production of liqueurs and wines.
The seeds of some species, such as the marula, are edible, and may beextracted by various means such as cracking the shell with a stone to getat the kernel.
Fibre
The processing of fibre materials normally means their actual weavinginto specific products such as mats and baskets. As mentioned earlier,the main types of fibre used by South African rural communities areclimbers, thin tree stems, palm leaves and culms of certain reeds andgrasses.
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Fungi or wild mushrooms and wild spinaches can also be sun-dried. Dried mushrooms are ground into a powder and then added to soups made with peanut flour and wild spinaches which can also be dried to be eaten at a later date. Cunningham and Pieser (1991) report that two species of fungi are eaten raw in Natal, although they do not give the names of the species.
In South Africa, cooking is by far the most common method of processing wild and domesticated foods, although the heat may reduce the content of some essential nutrients in some of the foods. The Bushmen are probably the only rural South Africans whose vegetal diet is not commonly subjected to cooking; they eat most wild foods raw, which is probably why they do not suffer from many diseases as they get the full complement of nutrition from plants. Cooking applies mainly to wild spinaches, fungi and some fruits, but generally it is not common to cook fruits in the rural areas of South Africa. In the urban areas, fruits such as guavas may be cooked in canning bottles, with sugar added in order to preserve them for later consumption.
Fermentation is another processing method employed by rural South Africans. For example in Natal and the Transvaal palm and marula wine are quite popular, the former being made from the fermentation of palm sap, and the latter from that of marula fruit juice. The fermentation may be done in a clay or plastic container; the wine is also stored in these.
In the more commercial sector, processing methods include JUIce extraction, canning, and the production of liqueurs and wines.
The seeds of some species, such as the marula, are edible, and may be extracted by various means such as cracking the shell with a stone to get at the kernel.
Fibre
The processing of fibre materials normally means their actual weaving into specific products such as mats and baskets. As mentioned earlier, the main types of fibre used by South African rural communities are climbers, thin tree stems, palm leaves and culms of certain reeds and grasses.
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Climbers and thin stems, which usually form the basic framework, areused while still green so that they can be easily bent into the requiredshape; they are kept in water to maintain their flexibility. Baskets areconstructed of fibre coils comprising narrow strips of palm leaf pinnaewrapped around an inner core of the same material, grass leaves or thestems of climbers. This material is prepared by cutting and dryingyoung, unopened palm leaves, tearing them into strips, and soaking themin water before use to make them less brittle. Designs are worked intothe weave by using palm leaf strips dyed in extracts of the bark and rootsof certain tree species.
After harvesting, culms of the reed Juncus kransii, are dried and then cutinto different lengths depending on the articles to be made, the lengths ofreed are then woven into the required product, usually mats of varyingsizes and designs, being held in place with twine woven across the culmlength.
Medicines
As already indicated traditional medicines for the treatment ofinnumerable diseases and conditions are many and varied in South Africa,and methods employed for their processing before they can be used ormarketed are equally numerous. Some traditional medicines requireseveral stages of processing before they can become useful.
Generally, however, drying is the commonest processing methodemployed although some plant parts and used fresh. Almost everymedicinal plant part imaginable is usually first dried before it can beprocessed further or stored.
Boiling the relevant plant part to extract the active medicinal ingredients(infusion) may be the next step of processing; sometimes this is precededby grinding the part into powder, which in itself is also considered as thefinal processing stage, particularly if the powder is to be used as a snuff.
Sometimes the plant parts are squeezed to extract the juice which is thenused, usually immediately, as a medicine. The juice can also beextracted by tapping the stems of some plants.
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Climbers and thin stems, which usually form the basic framework, are used while still green so that they can be easily bent into the required shape; they are kept in water to maintain their flexibility. Baskets are constructed of fibre coils comprising narrow strips of palm leaf pinnae wrapped around an inner core of the same material, grass leaves or the stems of climbers. This material is prepared by cutting and drying young, unopened palm leaves, tearing them into strips, and soaking them in water before use to make them less brittle. Designs are worked into the weave by using palm leaf strips dyed in extracts of the bark and roots of certain tree species.
After harvesting, culms of the reed ]uncus kransii, are dried and then cut into different lengths depending on the articles to be made, the lengths of reed are then woven into the required product, usually mats of varying sizes and designs, being held in place with twine woven across the culm length.
Medicines
As already indicated traditional medicines for the treatment of innumerable diseases and conditions are many and varied in South Africa, and methods employed for their processing before they can be used or marketed are equally numerous. Some traditional medicines reqUIre several stages of processing before they can become useful.
Generally, however, drying is the commonest processing method employed although some plant parts and used fresh. Almost every medicinal plant part imaginable is usually first dried before it can be processed further or stored.
Boiling the relevant plant part to extract the active medicinal ingredients (infusion) may be the next step of processing; sometimes this is preceded by grinding the part into powder, which in itself is also considered as the final processing stage, particularly if the powder is to be used as a snuff.
Sometimes the plant parts are squeezed to extract the juice which is then used, usually immediately, as a medicine. The juice can also be extracted by tapping the stems of some plants.
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Insects
The main insect product in the rural areas of South Africa, honey, doesnot undergo any special processing, except for the squeezing of thehoneycombs to extract it. It is then stored in a jar for later use. Ofcourse, in the commercial sector honey and beeswax are processed intoa variety of products in the food, confectionery and pharmaceuticaltrades.
After being harvested, mopane worms, another insect product, aresqueezed to remove the intestinal contents and then washed in water.They are then cooked immediately in water, and the following day theyare spread out on a mat or rocky place to dry in the sun. They aresometimes also fried after cooking and then stored for future use.
Marketing and Trade
There is a wide variety of practices regarding the trade and marketing ofthe various NWFP found in the different parts of South Africa. MostNWFP and their secondary products are disposed of in several ways:they may be used directly by rural households, marketed locally byindividuals (at roadside markets), marketed by small-scale traders or co-operatives (syndicates), or marketed by a government agency, althoughthe latter is not very common in South Africa; it is found, for example,where rural farmers want to sell large quantities of fruit such as bananas,avocados or guayas.
The sophisticated marketing and trade system in South Africa is mainlyapplicable to large-scale production of domesticated food NWFP such asthe ones mentioned above. By-products of naturally-occuring indigenousfruits such as the marula also benefit from this system.
Food
Most wild and cultivated South African NWFP are directly consumed bythe household. In seasons of plenty, the surplus is sold locally and atroadside markets; this is particularly the case with the marula, the mobolaplum (Parinari curatellifolia), and a few other indigenous fruits, as wellas the domesticated ones.
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Insects
The main insect product in the rural areas of South Africa, honey, does not undergo any special processing, except for the squeezing of the honeycombs to extract it. It is then stored in a jar for later use. Of course, in the commercial sector honey and beeswax are processed into a variety of products in the food, confectionery and pharmaceutical trades.
After being harvested, mopane worms, another insect product, are squeezed to remove the intestinal contents and then washed in water. They are then cooked immediately in water, and the following day they are spread out on a mat or rocky place to dry in the sun. They are sometimes also fried after cooking and then stored for future use.
Marketing and Trade
There is a wide variety of practices regarding the trade and marketing of the various NWFP found in the different parts of South Africa. Most NWFP and their secondary products are disposed of in several ways: they may be used directly by rural households, marketed locally by individuals (at roadside markets), marketed by small-scale traders or cooperatives (syndicates), or marketed by a government agency, although the latter is not very common in South Africa; it is found, for example, where rural farmers want to sell large quantities of fruit such as bananas, avocados or guavas.
The sophisticated marketing and trade system in South Africa is mainly applicable to large-scale production of domesticated food NWFP such as the ones mentioned above. By-products of naturally-occuring indigenous fruits such as the marula also benefit from this system.
Food
Most wild and cultivated South African NWFP are directly consumed by the household. In seasons of plenty, the surplus is sold locally and at roadside markets; this is particularly the case with the marula, the mobola plum (Parinari curatellifolia), and a few other indigenous fruits, as well as the domesticated ones.
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A rural food NWFP whose marketing and trade is probably betterorganized than most is palm wine. A study conducted by Cunningham(1990b), showed that nearly 980 000 litres of palm wine were sold duringthe 12-month period between November 1981 and October 1982,generating US$145 113 (1982), although individual profits were small.The marketing of palm wine entails its sale and resale. The palm saptappers or palm wine producers set up pre-determined sales points whichare "advertised" by word of mouth. The re-sellers then buy the winefrom the producers in order to re-sell to the general community.Cunningham (1990b) points out that palm wine for resale is diluted toincrease its volume, and therefore, the profit margin. The dilution ratioof wine to water is kept at about 1:1 by consumer demand. Undilutedpalm wine is sold within the local production area. The wine to beresold is transported to centres outside the production area, but it doesnot reach the urban market.
Fibre
The various types of fibre mentioned above are, as mentioned earlier,either harvested directly by the user (craftworker) or by commercialharvesters (those whose job is purely to harvest the NWFP and sell toothers who use the NWFP for the production of certain articles). Thecommercial harvesters usually arrange for the transportation of theNWFP to the user, for which they charge accordingly.
Once articles have been made of the fibre, a few are sold locally, whilethe majority are either marketed at roadside to passing motorists, or arecollected by commercial businessmen who buy in bulk to sell atestablished urban craftwork markets. In some cases the marketing systemis very well organized. For example, syndicates of the estimated 8 000women involved in the rural weaving industry (using Juncus kraush) inNatal, send representatives to urban areas to sell their products. Theirgoods also sell in curio shops all over the country, and a few outside thecountry.
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A rural food NWFP whose marketing and trade is probably better organized than most is palm wine. A study conducted by Cunningham (1990b), showed that nearly 980 000 litres of palm wine were sold during the 12-month period between November 1981 and October 1982, generating US$145 113 (1982), although individual profits were small. The marketing of palm wine entails its sale and resale. The palm sap tappers or palm wine producers set up pre-determined sales points which are "advertised" by word of mouth. The re-sellers then buy the wine from the producers in order to re-sell to the general community . Cunningham (1990b) points out that palm wine for resale is diluted to increase its volume, and therefore, the profit margin. The dilution ratio of wine to water is kept at about 1: 1 by consumer demand. Undiluted palm wine is sold within the local production area. The wine to be resold is transported to centres outside the production area, but it does not reach the urban market.
Fibre
The various types of fibre mentioned above are, as mentioned earlier, either harvested directly by the user (craftworker) or by commercial harvesters (those whose job is purely to harvest the NWFP and sell to others who use the NWFP for the production of certain articles). The commercial harvesters usually arrange for the transportation of the NWFP to the user, for which they charge accordingly.
Once articles have been made of the fibre, a few are sold locally, while the majority are either marketed at roadside to passing motorists, or are collected by commercial businessmen who buy in bulk to sell at established urban craftwork markets. In some cases the marketing system is very well organized. For example, syndicates of the estimated 8 000 women involved in the rural weaving industry (using ]uncus krausiz) in Natal, send representatives to urban areas to sell their products. Their goods also sell in curio shops all over the country, and a few outside the country.
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Medicines
The traditional medicine trade in South Africa is very big indeed. It isestimated that 80% of the black people in the country choose to consulta traditional healer before resorting to the consulting rooms of a qualifiedpractitioner of orthodox western medicine. Although there is no reliablefigure of the number of traditional practitioners in South Africa, thefigure may be as high as 200 000, of which probably no more than halfare trained.
Most traditional practitioners usually set up some sort of consultingrooms where the local people come to consult and/or buy specificmedicines. A number of "muti" (medicine) shops also exist in mostSouth African towns and cities from which anyone can buy; these are notnecessarily run by practitioners, but can be run by anyone who isbusiness-minded and lulows a bit of botany.
The financial transactions involved in the trade are estimated to run intoa few million dollars, and indeed some of the practitioners are very rich(usually those who have built up an awesome reputation as herbalists overa period of several years; people will travel very long distances from allover South Africa and neighbouring countries to consult suchpractitioners).
There is no set marketing system for traditional medicines in SouthAfrica, except by consulting a traditional practitioner, buying from oneof the numerous "muti" shops, or from the many unqualified hawkerswho can be found in urban market places or roadside markets, and whosometimes have absolutely no idea of what they are selling.
Some medicines are particularly costly, regardless of who is selling; agood example is Warburgia salutaris, whose bark is probably the mostexpensive traditional medicine in South Africa.
Insects
The traditional use of wild honey and mopane worms, the main insectproducts in rural South Africa, at the household level, ensures that nomarketing or trade in these products can take place. This may have todo with the quantities harvested annually in the wild, which are too smallto market with any reasonable profit in mind.
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Medicines
The traditional medicine trade in South Africa is very big indeed. It is estimated that 80 % of the black people in the country choose to consult a traditional healer before resorting to the consulting rooms of a qualified practitioner of orthodox western medicine. Although there is no reliable figure of the number of traditional practitioners in South Africa, the figure may be as high as 200 000, of which probably no more than half are trained.
Most traditional practitioners usually set up some sort of consulting rooms where the local people come to consult and/or buy specific medicines. A number of "muti" (medicine) shops also exist in most South African towns and cities from which anyone can buy; these are not necessarily run by practitioners, but can be run by anyone who is business-minded and knows a bit of botany.
The financial transactions involved in the trade are estimated to run into a few million dollars, and indeed some of the practitioners are very rich (usually those who have built up an awesome reputation as herbalists over a period of several years; people will travel very long distances from all over South Africa and neighbouring countries to consult such practitioners) .
There is no set marketing system for traditional medicines in South Africa, except by consulting a traditional practitioner, buying from one of the numerous "muti" shops, or from the many unqualified hawkers who can be found in urban market places or roadside markets, and who sometimes have absolutely no idea of what they are selling.
Some medicines are particularly costly, regardless of who is selling; a good example is Warburgia salutaris, whose bark is probably the most expensive traditional medicine in South Africa.
Insects
The traditional use of wild honey and mopane worms, the main insect products in rural South Africa, at the household level, ensures that no marketing or trade in these products can take place. This may have to do with the quantities harvested annually in the wild, which are too small to market with any reasonable profit in mind.
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RENEWABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
It is all too well to harvest from nature's great storeroom without anyconsideration of what would happen should the supply run out.However, this is precisely what is happening in the rural areas of SouthAfrica. Obviously the natural resources on which the rural people are sodependent cannot continue to exist ad infinitum, therefore ways toconserve and replenish the resource have to be found.
The resource base of the four NWFP discussed, viz food, fibre,medicines and insects, can be sustained at a production level sufficient tomaintain the livelihood of the rural communities in South Africa, andincreased to cater for population growth. Most plants yielding the firstthree NWFP can easily be propagated and grown in appropriate areas ofthe country, and indeed much research has already been done in thisrespect with some of the relevant species. For example, Amaranthusspp. are semi-naturalized in some parts of the country, meaning that witha little more effort rural communities can take to their production in asizeable way, particularly considering that the genus required littleattention once established. The same goes for many tree species.
Regarding bee farming, it should be mentioned here that South Africa isat the fore-front of this business in the region, and there is absolutely noreason why this resource (bees) cannot be sustained in rural areas.Honey production in this country speaks volumes about the ease withwhich bees can be managed to produce not only honey, but beeswax aswell.
South Africa is blessed with knowledgeable scientists in all aspects ofresource management and conservation; if this knowledge could beimparted to the rural communities, it would be a major step towardsensuring the sustainability of NWFP- in the country.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
It is inevitable that in any situation where natural resources are exploitedwithout due consideration of their renewability problems will arise. Theharvesting of NWFP in South Africa has already had seriousenvironmental consequences in some areas.
38
RENEWABILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
It is all too well to harvest from nature's great storeroom without any consideration of what would happen should the supply run out. However, this is precisely what is happening in the rural areas of South Africa. Obviously the natural resources on which the rural people are so dependent cannot continue to exist ad infinitum, therefore ways to conserve and replenish the resource have to be found.
The resource base of the four NWFP discussed, viz food,. fibre, medicines and insects, can be sustained at a production level sufficient to maintain the livelihood of the rural communities in South Africa, and increased to cater for population growth. Most plants yielding the first three NWFP can easily be propagated and grown in appropriate areas of the country, and indeed much research has already been done in this respect with some of the relevant species. For example, Amaranthus spp. are semi-naturalized in some parts of the country, meaning that with a little more effort rural communities can take to their production in a sizeable way, particularly considering that the genus required little attention once established. The same goes for many tree species.
Regarding bee farming, it should be mentioned here that South Africa is at the fore-front of this business in the region, and there is absolutely no reason why this resource (bees) cannot be sustained in rural areas. Honey production in this country speaks volumes about the ease with which bees can be managed to produce not only honey, but beeswax as well.
South Africa is blessed with knowledgeable scientists in all aspects of resource management and conservation; if this knowledge could be imparted to the rural communities, it would be a major step towards ensuring the sustainability of NWFp· in the country.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
It is inevitable that in any situation where natural resources are exploited without due consideration of their renewability problems will arise. The harvesting of NWFP in South Africa has already had serious environmental consequences in some areas.
38
With regard to food NWFP, the impact on the resource base is usuallynot much of a concern because, as pointed out earlier, trees known bythe rural communities to produce large amounts of fruit, are oftenprotected and looked after; even when clearing land for agriculture, suchtrees are usually left standing, as is the case with the mobola plum andthe marula, and exotics such as guayas and avocados. Problems usuallyarise when tree roots, for example, have to be dug up as a source offood. If this is done too often and big quantities of roots are harvested,then the tree may be undermined. Fortunately, instances of such use oftrees are very seldom encountered in South Africa, except for speciessuch as the sweet-root commiphora (Commiphora neglecta) whose rootsthe Zulus peel and eat like sugar cane, but then this does not representa significant part of the local diet, so the tree usually survives.
Palm-tapping for sap poses a threat to the two main palm species ofNatal, where the palm-wine trade is quite important to the localcommunities. Cunningham (1991a) showed that sap-tapping resulted inthe death of on average 2.9% of the tapped palms in Natal, depending ontapping intensity. Obviously if care is not taken to regulate palm-tapping,it may be a very short time before the resource is used up.
The harvesting of fibres for craftwork also has an impact on theenvironment and sustainability of the resource base. For example, thesteady increase in the number of people harvesting Juncus krausii inNatal has steadily grown since 1970, and this has placed a tremendousstrain on the resource base. In 1970 there were 400 J. krausiiharvesters, but now there are more than 1500 cutters during theharvesting season, which lasts about three weeks each year. J. krausiigrows in ecologically sensitive wetlands of northern Natal, therefore, theharvesting of the resource on a large scale could easily causedisequilibrium in the system, resulting in the loss of some ecologicallyimportant species.
In the past, under subsistence demand, plants providing dye materialwere not ring-barked and only some of the roots were dug up. But undercommercial demand this has resulted in the opportunistic scramble fordye material, and ring-barking and uprooting of trees occurs. This isaggravated by the demand for dyed fibre for articles woven forcommercial purposes. Tourist demand for heavily decorated wovenmaterials has similarly resulted in increased pressure on dye material.Dye resources can easily become extinct due to the destructive effects of
39
With regard to food NWFP, the impact on the resource base is usually not much of a concern because, as pointed out earlier, trees known by the rural communities to produce large amounts of fruit, are often protected and looked after; even when clearing land for agriculture, such trees are usually left standing, as is the case with the mobola plum and the marula, and exotics such as guavas and avocados. Problems usually arise when tree roots, for example, have to be dug up as a source of food. If this is done too often and big quantities of roots are harvested, then the tree may be undermined. Fortunately, instances of such use of trees are very seldom encountered in South Africa, except for species such as the sweet-root commiphora (Commiphora neglecta) whose roots the Zulus peel and eat like sugar cane, but then this does not represent a significant part of the local diet, so the tree usually survives.
Palm-tapping for sap poses a threat to the two main palm species of Natal, where the palm-wine trade is quite important to the local communities. Cunningham (1991a) showed that sap-tapping resulted in the death of on average 2.9% of the tapped palms in Natal, depending on tapping intensity. Obviously if care is not taken to regulate palm-tapping, it may be a very short time before the resource is used up.
The harvesting of fibres for craftwork also has an impact on the environment and sustainability of the resource base. For example, the steady increase in the number of people harvesting Juncus krausii in Natal has steadily grown since 1970, and this has placed a tremendous strain on the resource base. In 1970 there were 400 J. krausii harvesters, but now there are more than 1500 cutters during the harvesting season, which lasts about three weeks each year. J. krausii grows in ecologically sensitive wetlands of northern Natal, therefore, the harvesting of the resource on a large scale could easily cause disequilibrium in the system, resulting in the loss of some ecologically important species.
In the past, under subsistence demand, plants providing dye material were not ring-barked and only some of the roots were dug up. But under commercial demand this has resulted in the opportunistic scramble for dye material, and ring-barking and uprooting of trees occurs. This is aggravated by the demand for dyed fibre for articles woven for commercial purposes. Tourist demand for heavily decorated woven materials has similarly resulted in increased pressure on dye material. Dye resources can easily become extinct due to the destructive effects of
39
harvesting for commercial purposes, therefore care has to be taken indealing with such materials.
The use of plants, especially trees, for medicinal purposes has been aconstant cause for concern for some years in South Africa.Unsustainably high levels of exploitation are not a new problem, althoughthe problem has escalated in areas with large urban areas and high levelsof urbanization since the 1960s. Many plant species are on the verge ofextinction due to harvesting for medicinal purposes. For example, by1938, only poor coppices, cut right down to the bottom, of Warburgiasalutaris could be found in Natal. Cooper (1979) has estimated that 95%of all Ocotea bullata trees in South Africa have been exploited for theirbark, with 40% ring-barked and dying. Many such examples abound inSouth Africa. Such a loss of biodiversity will obviously leave manyareas of the country pre-disposed to many factors of environmentaldegradation.
Bees, which are the producers of honey, require nectar in order toproduce, and nectar is found in plants. Lack of plant biodiversity in therural areas of South Africa has meant that most rural people do not haveready or easy access to honey, and indeed they have not made any effortsin this regard. The more trees are destroyed for various purposes in therural areas, the less bees will be found in such areas, and the people willbe denied a nutritious and potentially important commercial resource. Thesame goes for the mopane worm. Its host, Colophospemum mopane, isvalued for its fine timber;, however, the greed for timber could lead tothe destruction of this species, along with that of the mopane worm, thusputting paid to another important source of nutrition to the rural peopleof South Africa.
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
Although the rural communities of South Africa have used NWFP formany generations, they however still need to become aware of the rangeand variety available to them, or that can be made available through theestablishment of various tree and shrub species. They also need to knowand practice different management systems for natural resources, so thatthey can be in control of their resources.
40
harvesting for commercial purposes, therefore care has to be taken in dealing with such materials.
The use of plants, especially trees, for medicinal purposes has been a constant cause for concern for some years in South Africa. Unsustainably high levels of exploitation are not a new problem, although the problem has escalated in areas with large urban areas and high levels of urbanization since the 1960s. Many plant species are on the verge of extinction due to harvesting for medicinal purposes. For example, by 1938, only poor coppices, cut right down to the bottom, of Warburgia salutaris could be found in Natal. Cooper (1979) has estimated that95 % of all Ocotea bullata trees in South Africa have been exploited for their bark, with 40% ring-barked and dying. Many such examples abound in South Africa. Such a loss of biodiversity will obviously leave many areas of the country pre-disposed to many factors of environmental degradation.
Bees, which are the producers of honey, require nectar in order to produce, and nectar is found in plants. Lack of plant biodiversity in the rural areas of South Africa has meant that most rural people do not have ready or easy access to honey, and indeed they have not made any efforts in this regard. The more trees are destroyed for various purposes in the rural areas, the less bees will be found in such areas, and the people will be denied a nutritious and potentially important commercial resource. The same goes for the mopane worm. Its host, Colophospemum mopane, is valued for its fine timber;, however, the greed for timber could lead to the destruction of this species, along with that of the mopane worm, thus putting paid to another important source of nutrition to the rural people of South Africa.
PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
Although the rural communities of South Africa have used NWFP for many generations, they however still need to become aware of the range and variety available to them, or that can be made available through the establishment of various tree and shrub species. They also need to know and practice different management systems for natural resources, so that they can be in control of their resources.
40
For a long time now, the management of natural resources in the ruralareas of South Africa has been in the hands of those who do not live inthese areas, and therefore do not benefit directly from the local resources.Not through their own choice, rural communities have been left to tryand find solutions to their dwindling resources; each day they have towalk further and further away from their homes to collect food and otherNWFP for their livelihood. To most of them, it has still not occurredthat NWFP are resources that can be replenished, or sustainably managedin perpetuity to yield their daily requirements.
Efforts so far have been very poor in bringing knowledge andinformation about NWFP and their importance to the rural communities.Instead scientists are more concerned with the management or studyingof the dynamics of indigenous forests which are out of bounds, andtherefore of very little importance to the rural people. Not that suchforests should not be studied, but the information derived from suchstudies should be available to the rural people also, which is currently notthe case.
What the authorities, scientists, nature conservationists andenvironmentalists in South Africa have so far failed to notice is thathuman beings, particularly the deprived rural communities, are a nation'smost valuable natural resource. Any approach to the environment thatignores, demeans, or regards people as in any way dispensable orsusceptible to manipulation in the interest of any other objective, isuntenable and virtually doomed to failure.
Land tenure is another constraint which hampers progress in thepromotion and development of NWFP in South Africa, and it is clearlyan issue of great concern to the rural people particularly regarding treeplanting activities and tree ownership. The people will only take the riskof planting trees and protecting them if they are confident that they willbe the ultimate beneficiaries, and this can only happen if their claim tothe land and the trees is secure. The land tenure system in South Africa,especially for the rural and displaced people, is rather vague andcomplicated, and varies from area to area. This uncertainty tends tocreate the feeling that the land does not really belong to the people,consequently they are reluctant to undertake long-term "risks" such astree planting for fear that the land might be taken away from them, evenwith the realization of the benefits to be derived from, for example, fruittrees.
41
For a long time now, the management of natural resources in the rural areas of South Africa has been in the hands of those who do not live in these areas, and therefore do not benefit directly from the local resources. Not through their own choice, rural communities have been left to try and find solutions to their dwindling resources; each day they have to walk further and further away from their homes to collect food and other NWFP for their livelihood. To most of them, it has still not occurred that NWFP are resources that can be replenished, or sustainably managed in perpetuity to yield their daily requirements.
Efforts so far have been very poor in bringing knowledge and information about NWFP and their importance to the rural communities. Instead scientists are more concerned with the management or studying of the dynamics of indigenous forests which are out of bounds, and therefore of very little importance to the rural people. Not that such forests should not be studied, but the information derived from such studies should be available to the rural people also, which is currently not the case.
What the authorities, scientists, nature conservationists and environmentalists in South Africa have so far failed to notice is that human beings, particularly the deprived rural communities, are a nation's most valuable natural resource. Any approach to the environment that ignores, demeans, or regards people as in any way dispensable or susceptible to manipulation in the interest of any other objective, is untenable and virtually doomed to failure.
Land tenure is another constraint which hampers progress in the promotion and development of NWFP in South Africa, and it is clearly an issue of great concern to the rural people particularly regarding tree planting activities and tree ownership. The people will only take the risk of planting trees and protecting them if they are confident that they will be the ultimate beneficiaries, and this can only happen if their claim to the land and the trees is secure. The land tenure system in South Africa, especially for the rural and displaced people, is rather vague and complicated, and varies from area to area. This uncertainty tends to create the feeling that the land does not really belong to the people, consequently they are reluctant to undertake long-term "risks II such as tree planting for fear that the land might be taken away from them, even with the realization of the benefits to be derived from, for example, fruit trees.
41
If the promotion of NWFP is to be successful, particularly, among therural communities, seedlings of various tree, shrub and herb speciesshould be readily available to the people who require them.Unfortunately, in South Africa, most nurseries are located in urban areas,and the cost of seedlings is way beyond the means of most rural people,which does not augur well for NWFP development.
There is virtually no trained manpower in South Africa to lead the wayin the development of NWFP in the rural areas. Most of the availablemanpower is more concerned with commercial forestry, natureconservation and environmental management at the national level, aspectsin which black students in South Africa have received very littleexposure, and these are the people most likely to understand the needs ofthe rural communities in South Africa.
Finally, funding for initiatives to promote and develop NWFP in ruralareas is very scarce. Institutions which have made efforts to address thesustainable management and exploitation of natural resources have oftenfailed to see the job through because of lack of funds.
42
If the promotion of NWFP is to be successful, particularly, among the rural communities, seedlings of various tree, shrub and herb species should be readily available to the people who require them. Unfortunately, in South Africa, most nurseries are located in urban areas, and the cost of seedlings is way beyond the means of most rural people, which does not augur well for NWFP development.
There is virtually no trained manpower in South Africa to lead the way in the development of NWFP in the rural areas. Most of the available manpower is more concerned with commercial forestry, nature conservation and environmental management at the national level, aspects in which black students in South Africa have received very little exposure, and these are the people most likely to understand the needs of the rural communities in South Africa.
Finally, funding for initiatives to promote and develop NWFP in rural areas is very scarce. Institutions which have made efforts to address the sustainable management and exploitation of natural resources have often failed to see the job through because of lack of funds.
42
RECOMMENDATIONS
In view of the prevalent problems and constraints with regard to thepromotion and development of NWFP in South Africa, the followingrecommendations are made:
A full complement of manpower should be trained to initiatethe NWFP promotion and development activities in the ruralareas of South Africa. The country is very big, therefore,this fact should be taken into consideration when deciding onthe numbers of manpower to be trained;
Extension services have to be developed and strengthened asan integral part of the existing extension system in SouthAfrica, especially for technology transfer regarding newways of managing the resource base for NWFP. Thisshould include such aspects as nutrition and propagation ofspecies;
Nurseries should be established in rural areas so that thelocals have easy access to seedlings. These rural nurseriesshould be run by the people themselves, who should alsoreceive basic training in plant propagation techniques;
The relevant authorities in South Africa should make fundsavailable for the development of NWFP; these should alsoinclude funds for nursery establishment and training oftechnical staff, as well as the rural people themselves.
A detailed assessment of the use of NWFP in South Africashould be carried out;
Finally, the rural people must be kept informed at all timesabout developments in their areas regarding various aspectsof NWFP.
43
RECOMMENDATIONS
In view of the prevalent problems and constraints with regard to the promotion and development of NWFP in South Africa, the following recommendations are made:
A full complement of manpower should be trained to initiate the NWFP promotion and development activities in the rural areas of South Africa. The country is very big, therefore, this fact should be taken into consideration when deciding on the numbers of manpower to be trained;
Extension services have to be developed and strengthened as an integral part of the existing extension system in South Africa, especially for technology transfer regarding new ways of managing the resource base for NWFP. This should include such aspects as nutrition and propagation of speCIes;
Nurseries should be established in rural areas so that the locals have easy access to seedlings. These rural nurseries should be run by the people themselves, who should also receive basic training in plant propagation techniques;
The relevant authorities in South Africa should make funds available for the development of NWFP; these should also include funds for nursery establishment and training of technical staff, as well as the rural people themselves.
A detailed assessment of the use of NWFP in South Africa should be carried out;
Finally, the rural people must be kept informed at all times about developments in their areas regarding various aspects of NWFP.
43
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Van Hoven, L. (1991). Bees in South Africa. South AfricanPanorama, September/October 1991. 22-26.
Van Wyk, P.(1974). Trees of the Kruger National Park.Purnell, Cape Town.
Van Wyk, P.(1984). Field guide to the trees of the KrugerNational Park. Struik, Cape Town.
Wilson, F. and Ramphele, M. (1989). Uprooting poverty: TheSouth African challenge. David Philip, Cape Town.
49
Reader's Digest (1989). Southern African wildlife. Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Reader's Digest(1992). South African family guide to natural medicine. Reader's Digest, Cape Town.
Roberts, M. (1990). Indigenous healing plants. Southern, Johannesburg.
Van Hoven, L. (1991). Bees in South Africa. South African Panorama, September/October 1991. 22-26.
Van Wyk, P.(1974). Trees of the Kruger National Park. Purnell, Cape Town.
Van Wyk, P.(1984). Field guide to the trees of the Kruger National Park. Struik, Cape Town.
Wilson, F. and Ramphele, M. (1989). Uprooting poverty: The South African challenge. David Philip, Cape Town.
49
ANNEX I
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP
50
CATEGORY OF NON-WOODFOREST PRODUCTS
PRODUCTIMPORTANCE OF
NVVFP
Fibre Palm leaves 1
Climbers 1
Juncus krausii 1
Food (Vegetal) Marula 1
Mobola plum 2Guava 1
Banana 1
Mango 1
Pawpaw 1
Avocado 1
Mushrooms 3
Wild spinach 1
Trichilia emetica 3
Palm wine 1
Food (Faunal) Honey 2Mopane worms 2Bushmeat 1
Ostrich meat 2Fish 1
Non-Food (Fauna!) Animal skins 2Reptile skins 3
Bird (Ostrich) skins 2Feathers 3
Bees wax 2
ANNEX I
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP
CATEGORY OF NON- PRODUCT WOOD IMPORTANC FOREST PRODUCTS EOF
NWFP
Fibre Palm leaves 1
Climbers 1 funcus krausii 1
Food (Vegetal) Marula 1 Mobola plum 2 Guava 1 Banana 1 Mango 1 Pawpaw 1 Avocado 1 Mushrooms 3 Wild spinach 1 Trichilia emetica 3 Palm wine 1
Food (Faunal) Honey 2 Mopane worms 2 Bushmeat 1 Ostrich meat 2 Fish 1
Non-Food (Faunal) Animal skins 2 Reptile skins 3 Bird (Ostrich) skins 2 Feathers 3 Bees wax 2
50
51
Cosmetic & Medicinal Warburgia salutaris 1
Ocotea bullata 1
Betulina agathosma 1
Tetradenia riparia 1
Trichilia emetica 2Boweia volubilis 1
Eucomis spp. 1
Acacia xanthophloea 1
Cassine transvaalensis 1
Terminalia sericea 2
Extractive Tannin 1
Dyes 1
Forage Livestock fodder 2Mopane worm fodder 1
Bee forage 1
Wood (handicrafts) Trichilia emetica 1
Afzelia quanzensis 1
Balanites maughamii 1
Ochna spp. 1
Strychnos henningsii 1
Oncinotis inandensis 1
Ornamentals Flowers (cut & dried) 3
Amenity 2
Range Grazing and browse 3
Shade and shelter 2
Soil improvement and Green manure 3
protection Humus 3
N-fixation 2Soil stabilization 1
Windbreaks & hedges 2
Parks and reserves Tourism 1
Conservation 2Hunting 3
Fishing 2
Cosmetic & Medicinal Warburgia salutaris 1 Ocotea bullata 1 Betulina agathosma 1 Tetradenia riparia 1 Trichilia emetica 2 Boweia volubilis 1 Eucomis spp. 1 Acacia xanthophloea 1 Cassine transvaalensis 1 Terminalia sericea 2
Extractive Tannin 1 Dyes 1
Forage Livestock fodder 2 Mopane worm fodder 1 Bee forage 1
Wood (handicrafts) Trichilia emetica 1 Aftelia quanzensis 1 Balanites maughamii 1 Ochna spp. 1 Strychnos henningsii 1 Oncinotis inandensis 1
Ornamentals Flowers (cut & dried) 3 Amenity 2
Range Grazing and browse 3 Shade and shelter 2
Soil improvement and Green manure 3 protection Humus 3
N-fixation 2 Soil stabilization 1 Windbreaks & hedges 2
Parks and reserves Tourism 1 Conservation 2 Hunting 3 Fishing 2
51
egend:
T: TonneL: LitreB: 50kg bag
ANNEX II
STATISTICAL DATA ON NWFP
52
PRODUCT YEAR OFREFERENCE
UNIT
QUANTITY
UNITPRICE(US$/T)
VALUE(US$1000)
Avocados 1992 T 35 000 1 045 36 575
Mangoes 1992 T 25 000 N/A N/A
Bananas 1992 T 182 000 550 100 100
Pawpaws 1992 T 30 000 410 12 300
Guayas 1992 T 40 000 N/A N/A
Apples 1993 T 25.540 460 11748
Pears 1993 T 15 980 380 6 072
Marula fruit 1991 T 1 700 N/A N/A
Honey 1992 T 3 200 N/A N/A
Palm vvine 1989 L 980 000 0.15 147
Beeswax 1991 T 60 N/A N/A
Flowers (cut& dried)
1990 N/A N/A N/A 460
Medicines(top 20)
1988 B 15 700 18 282.6
PRODUCT
Avocados
Mangoes
Bananas
Pawpaws
Guavas
Apples
Pears
Marula fruit
Honey
Palm wine
Beeswax
Flowers (cut & dried)
Medicines (top 20)
Legend:
T: Tonne L: Litre B: 50kg bag
ANNEX II
STATISTICAL DATA ON NWFP
YEAR OF UNIT VALUE REFEREN UNI QUANTIT PRICE (US$ CE T Y (US$/T) 1000)
1992 T 35000 1 045 36575
1992 T 25000 N/A N/A
1992 T 182 000 550 100 100
1992 T 30000 410 12300
1992 T 40000 N/A N/A
1993 T 25540 460 11748
1993 T 15980 380 6072
1991 T 1 700 N/A N/A
1992 T 3200 N/A N/A
1989 L 980000 0.15 147
1991 T 60 N/A N/A
1990 N/A N/A N/A 460
1988 B 15700 18 282.6
52
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - TANZANIAPILOT COUNTRY STUDY - TANZANIA
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATIONOF THE UNITED NATIONS
NON WOOD PRODUCTS AND ENERGY BRANCH(FOPN)
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY ONNWFP FOR TANZANIA
DECEMBER 1992
ALEXANDER WILSON CHIRONGO
Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI)MOROGORO
FOOD l\NlI l\GRICULTURE ORGl\NIZl\'l'lON OF 'rilE UN .lTEO Nl\TIONS
NON \YOO/) I'RODUC'J'S l\ND ENERGY DRl\NCIl (FOPN)
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY ON N\yfP FOR Tl\NZl\NIA
DECENBER 1992
Alof.Xl\NDF.R \~ 1. TJRON ell IllONGO
'ranZnnia Forestry RE!IH~arch Insti.tute (TJ\fORI) NOROGORO
CONTENTS
Page
Acronyms, Abbreviations and Rates of exchange. (I)Terms of Reference (iii)TNTRODUCTION 2
1.1 SizP of the Country 2
1.2 Ecological zones 21.3 Forested areas 3
1.4 Population statistics 31.5 Forests as source of non-wood products 3
DEFINITTONS, CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP 4
2.1 Definitions 42.2 Classification 4
2.2.1 Fibre 4
2.2.2 Forage2.2.3 Food-vegetal2.2.3.1 Nuts2.2.3.2 Edible fungi2.2.3.3 Spices2.2.4 Food-Faunal 6
2.2.4.1 Honey 62.2.4.2 Game meat 62.2.5 Non food-Faunal: Bees wax 62.2.6 Medicinal plants 6
2.2.7 Aromatics 72.2.8. Extractives 7
2.2.8.1 Tannins 7
2.2.8.2 Natural dyes S
2.2.8.3 Latex2.2.8.4 Gums S
2.2.8.5 RPsins S
2.2.9 Servi ces Functions of Forest Lands 9
2.2.9.1 Amenity2.2.9.2 Environmental Protection2.2.9.3 Tourism 9
SOCTO-ECONOMTC IMPORTANCE OF NWFP 10
3.1 At Community Level 103.1.1 Forage 103.1.2 Fibres 11
3.1.3 Food-vegetal 123.1.3.1 Fruits 121.1.1.2 Beverages 143.1.3.3 Fungi 143.1.4 Food-Faunal 143.1.4.1 Fish 143.1.4.2 Edible insects 151.1.4.3 Game meat 153.1.4.4 Honey 151.1.5 Non Food-Fannal 163.1.6 Medicinal plants 161.2 At National Level 17
Wildlife based activities 19
CONTENTS
AC'I'ollyms, AhbreviCltions and Rat.es of exchange .• TerTflfi of Reference •.•.•..••..••.•.•.•..•..••••
1 . TNTRODUCTION ................................ . ] . ] S i z (> 0 [ t, h e Co \ 111 try .••••••.••••••••..•.••..... 1.2 Ecologi.cal zones ............................. . J • 3 For(~s tec1 area s ........................•....... 1.4 PoplIli'ttion statistics ....................... .. 1 .5 FOH!sts an nource of non-wooel products ....... .
2. DEFINITIONA, CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP .......... . 2.1 Defjnitions ..................•.....•...... 2.2 C1afinification .....•..•.......•..•........ 2.2.J Fibre ................•.................... 2.2.2 FOl~age ..........•.•••..•••••..••••.••..•.. ? . 2 . :.\ Fooel-vegetal •.................•.•......... 2.2.3.1 Nl.ltR .•..••.•.•••••••••.••.••.••••••••••••.
7..2.3.2 Edible fungi ......• ' •...•.................. ?'.2.3.3 Spi.c!es .................................... . 2.2.4 Fooc1-FauJlnl .......•..•.................... 2 . 2 . 4 . 1 H 0 tHO' Y .................................... . ? . ? . ,1 .? r. a J1I e mea t ................................ . ? . ? . ~ 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2. n. 2.2.n.1. ??..lL2 2.2.8.3 2.2.0.4 2.2.8.5 2.2.9 2.7..9.1 ??.q.?. /,.2.9.3
Non food-Faunal: Bees \o/ax .•••••••••.••... Nec1icinal plant.s ......................... . Aromotics •..•••••••••••••••.••••••••.••.•. Extrn('t i ves ........•...•.....•...•........ T :"'1111 i 11 S ................................................ .. '.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Nat.ura 1 dyes •.....••••.•••.•.•••••••••..•. T_.a t. ex ........................................................................ .. GtJlrI5 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
R e n ill S ...................................... . Seryic'es Funct.ions of Forest Lands ...... . Amellity ......•••.•.•••••••.••••.•••••••... F.nvlronmentfl1 Prot.ection ..••............•. Touri.sm .................................. .
AOCJO-F.~ONOMJC IMPORTANCE OF NWFP ' ............ .
1.1 3.1.] 3.1. 2 3.J. 3 1.1.1.1. 1.1.1.?' 1.1.3.3 1.1.4 1.1.4.1. 1 . .1 .4.2 :'.1. <1.:1 1.] .4.4 1.1.5 1.1. n I.? 1. ? . 1
At COInrnunity Level ...................... .. Forage ...........................•........ Fi111"'es .................................... . Fonc1-vegetaJ ......•....................... Fl"11 i t ~; ................................................... .. Rf'\v~roges ...................................................... . FlltJ(J i .............................................................. . F (l 0 (1- Fall 11 a 1 .............................. . F i 511 ............................................................ ..
Ed'il,le jnRf'cts ..•••.•.•••••.•••••••.••.••• nrlme mea t ............................................... .. HOlley •.•...•.•.••.•••••••••••.•.•••••••••• Non Food-Fallnal .......................... . H(.>(li p'i )]<11 plants •••••••••••••..•••••.••••• At N;,tioIlFll Levpl ........................ . Wildlife based activities ................ .
(j) (j i j)
2 ? 2 1 3 3
4 4 4 4 ')
5 5 5 !)
6 6 (,
n 6 7 7 7 A n A R C)
C)
q
9
]0
10 10 11 12 12 14 14 14 14 1 !) 15 15 l() 16 17 lq
3.2.2 Honey and bees wax 203.2.3 Tannin Extract 203.2.4 Guiri arabic 21
3.2.5 Cinchona barks 213.2.6 Raw rubber 213.2.7 Wood carvings 223.2.8 Naval stores 22
4. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY 224.1 Organisational structure 234-1.1 Responsibilities 234.1.2 Coordination structure 234.1.3 Relationship with producers/market agents 244.1.4 Financial aspects 244.2 Human Resources involvement 254.2.1 Technical capabilities 254.2.2 Local management skills 254.3 Efficiency and impact 264.4 Policy and legislation 264.4.1 Review of policy and legislation 264.4.2 Effectiveness of policy and legislation 27
J. TECHNICAL ASPECTS 275.1 Major NWFP 275.2 Geographical distribution 285.3 Yield/Management of principal resource base 295.1.1 Tannin extract 295.1.2 Honey and bees wax 295.3.3 Gum arabic 305.3.4 Cinchona barks 305.3.5 Wildlife based activities 30
MAIN PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS 316.1 Resource Base 316.2 National Capacity 32
RECOMMENDATIONS 33
cONCLUSTON 36
3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3. /. . 5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8
Honey nnd bep.5 wax ....................... . Tannin Extract ........................... . GUJII nrabi.t:! ............................... . Cinchonn barks ........................... . Ri'lW rubber .............................. _. Wooel carv ing5 ............................ . Nava 1 stores ............................. .
<1. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBII,ITY ................. . 4.1 4. J . J 4.1.2 4.1 .3 4.1. 4 4./. 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.4 4.4. 1 4.4.2
Orgflnisfltiollfll structure ................. . ResponsibJl.itip.5 ......................... . Coordinfltion structure ................... . RelatJonship wjth producers/mi'lrket agents .. Financial aspects ........................ . Human Resources involvement .............. . Technical capabilities ................... . 1.ocal management skills ....•....•......... Efficiency and impact •.........•.•........ Policy and legislation ................... . Rp.view of policy and legislation ......... . Effectiveness of policy and legislation .. .
5. 5.1
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
~.2 5.3 5.1. 1 5.1.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5
Hajor NWFP .........•...................... GeogrAphical distribution ................ . YipJcl/Mnnagement of principal resourcE' baRe T~lln in extract ........................... . Honey and bees wax ................•....... Gllm ar'abir! ............................... . CiJ1C}10nn barks ........................... . Wildlife based activities •................
o. MAIN PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS n . 1 6.2
7 .
o.
Resource Bo se ............................ . National Cnpacit.y ........................ .
RECONMENOATIONS .............................. .
CONCLUSION .........................•..........
20 /.0 2] 2] 21 2/' 22
22 23 23 23 24 24 25 25 25 26 /.6 26 27
27 27 2R 29 2<) 29 30 30 30
31 31 32
33
30
LIST OF TABLES
Table I. Total value of Primary forestry productjou 11
Table 2. Estimated gross value of output in forestbased activities 1988-2008 18
Table 3. Export Trade statistics for selectedNWFP 1988/92 19
LIST OF' TABLER
TobIe 1. Totnl value of Primary forestry production ]]
Table 2. Estimated gross value of output in forpr.;t based activities 1988-2008..... ....... ... 18
Tilble J. E.'\port 'T'raclf' statistics for selected NWF p 19 n 13 /92 . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9
ANNEXES
ANNEX r CLASSTFICATTON OF NWFP TN TANZANIA 3B
ANNEX II STASTICAL DATA ON NWFP 41
ANNEX III CONTRTBUTTON OF TOURISM TO NATIONAL 52.ECONOMY
ANNEX IV SELECTED MULTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES FOR 513PLANTING IN TANZANIA
REFERENCES 50
PROjECT PROFILES 57
ANNEXES
ANNEX r CLADSIFTCATTON OF NWFP TN TANZANIA ]0
ANNEX II STASTICAL DATA ON NWFP 4]
ANNEX J II CONTRTBUTTON OF TOURISM TO NATTONAfJ 52-ECONOMY
ANNEX IV SELECTED MULTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES FOR 53 PLANTING IN TANZANIA
REFERf':NCES
PRChJECT PROFILES
ArRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ABA Arusha Beekeepers AssociationBET Board of External Trade (Foreign Trade Statistics)BoT Bank of Tanzania (Tanzania Central Bank)BoS Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania, Planning DivisionBT1- Beekeeping Training Institute (Tabora)CDC Commonwealth Development CoorporationDSM Dar es Salaam
Export figuresERP Economic Recovery Programme, TanzaniaFAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
NationsGAPEX General Agricultural Products Export Company (of
Tanzania)GDP Gross Domestic ProductGER Germany Federal RepublicHHPP Handeni Honey Processing PlantIUCN International Union for the Conservation of NatureKg KilogrammesNos NumbersNWFP Non-wood Forest Products
Production figuresRNRO Regional Natural Resources OfficeSPM Southern Paper Mills Ltd. (Mufindi)
TonnesTAFORI Tanzania Forestry Research InstituteTANAPA Tanzania National Parks AuthorityTanWatt Tanganyika Wattle Company Ltd. (Njombe)TBCS Tabora Beekeepers' Cooperative SocietyTFAP Tropical Forestry Action PlanTsh Tanzania shillingsUAE United Arab EmiratesUK United KingdomUSA United States of AmericaWHO World Health OrganizationWWF World Wildlife Fund
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AnA BET noT nos OTT CDC DflN E ERP FAD
nAPEX
GOP GFR HBPI> IUCN Kg Nos NWFP P RNRO SPM l' TM'ORI TANAPA TanWatt TBCS TFAP T5h UAE UK USA \oJHO WWF
Arusha "pek~eper5 ASRo~iation Board of External Trade (Foreign Trade Stati5ti~s) Bank of Tanzania (Tanzania Centr~l Bank) nllrpau of Statistics, Tanzania, Planning Division Bepkeeping Training Institute (Tahora) Commonwealth Development Coorporation Dar es Salaam Export figures Economic Recovery Programme, Tanzania Food and Agricultural Organization of the Unitpd Nations General Agricultural Products Export Company (o( Tanzania) GrOSR Domestic Product Germany Federal Republic Handeni Honey Processing Plant International Union for the Conservatioll of Nature Kilogrammes Numbers Non-wood Forest Products Production figures Regional Natural Resources Office Southern Paper Mills Ltd. (Mufindi) Tonnes Tanzania Forestry Research Institute Tanzania National Parks Authority Tanganyika Wattle Company Ltd. (Njom~e) Tabora Beekeepers' Cooperative Society Tropical Forestry Action Plan Tanzania shillings United Arab Emirates Un ited Kingdom United States of America World Health Organization World Wildlife Fund
RATES OF EXCHANGE
ii
Aug. 198019811984
111
.., =US 0US $ =US 0 y =
8.18 Tsh.10 Tsh.17 Tsh.
1985 1 US 0 Y = 17 Tsh.1986 1 US $ = 40 Tsh.1987 1 US $ = 65 Tsh.1988 1 US $ = 100 Tsh.
Feb. 1989 1 US $ = 124.9 Tsh.Aug. 1989 1 US $ = 145 Tsh.
1990 1 US $ = 195 Tsh.1991 1 US $ = 210 Tsh.1992 1 US 0 q = 400 Tsh.
ii
RATES OF EXCHANGE
1\11<]. 1900 1 US $ = B.1.B Tsh. 1981 1 US $ = 10 Tsh. 1904 1 US $ = 17 Tsh. 198:' 1. US $ = 17 Tsh. 19A6 1 US $ = 40 Tsh. 19B7 1 US $ = 65 Tsh. 1.98B 1 US $ = 100 'I'sh.
Feb. 1989 1 US $ = 124.9 Tsh. Auq. 1989 1. US $ = 145 Tsh.
1990 1 US $ = 195 Tsh. 1991 1 US $ = 210 'I'sh. 1992 1 US $ = 400 Tsh.
TERMS OF REFERENCE:
By letter dated 9th October 1992, FAO engaged Alexander WilsonChihongo of Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI),Morogoro through contract No. 7-54391 to carry out consultancywork for the preparation of Pilot Country Study for Tanzania onNon-wood Forest Products (NWFP) in line with the TropicalForestry Action Plan (TFAP).
The terms of reference were:
To gather and collect information and statistical data onNon-Wood Forest Products (NWFP).
To provide a brief, concise and realistic overview of theimportance of NWFP of the country and prospects forfurther promotion and development.
Identify the rate of NWFP production in the NaturalResources Sector as a whole.
Identify constraints and issues warranting intervention.
Review the role of the Government, cooperatives, individualsand private sector in management and utilisation of NWFPresources and make recommendations to further promote anddevelop NWFP sector.
Provide a proposed filed project to address issues mentionedin the Country Study on NWFP.
Last, the Pilot Country Report is to be utilized for RegionalExpert Consultation of NWFP, 1993 and for the InterregionalExpert Consultation on Economics and Resource sustainabilityof NWFP as well as to sustain FAO/FOPN database on NWFP.
iii
Although this report has been commissioned by FAO, theorganization bears no responsibility for, and is not in any waycommitted to, the views and recommendations expressed herein.
Report Data Collection:
In October/November 1992, Alexander Wilson Chihongo (SeniorForest Research Officer, TAFORI) undertook a Country Study of theinformal NWFP sector within Tanzania. This took the form offield visits to selected areas of major NWFP activities such asArusha, Kilimanjaro, Morogoro and Dar es Salaam. Discussionswere also held with related sectors of NWFP especially thosebased in Dar es Salaam. Personal contacts with personnel at theSokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) were also done concerningthe subject on NWFP. A few relevant literatures have also been
iii
T~RMS OF REFERENCE:
fly J.f'1. t~r cia ted 9th October 1992, FAO ~llgRged 1\ J I"xam1pr Wi J flOn Chihongo of Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (T1\FORT), ~orog()ro through contl"i'\ct No. 7-54391 to carry out comnlltRTwy work for the preparation of Pilot Country Study for Tanzania (lll
Nnn-wood Forest Products (NWFP) in line wi I.h the Tropi.cal Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).
Thf> I:et'ms of reff'rencp were:
1. To gather and collect information and statisti('al (hlta on Non-Wood Fon~f;t Products (NWFP).
2. To provide a brief, concise and realistic overview of the importance of NWFP of the country and prospects for further promotion and development .
.1. Identify the rate of NWFP production in the Natural Resources Sect.or as a whole.
4. Identify constraints and issues warranting intervention.
5. Review the role of t.he Government, cooperatives, individuals Hnd private sector in management and utilisation of NWFP resources and make recommendations to further promote and develop NWFP sector.
6. Provi.de a proposed filed project to address issues mentioned in the Country Study on NWFP.
7. L,1st, the Pilot Country Report is to be utilized fot' Rpgional Expert Consultation of NWFP, 1993 and for the Interregional Expert Consultation on Economics and Resource sustainahili ty of NWFP as well as to sustain FAO/FOPN database on NWFP.
A J though this report has been commissioned by FAU, the organization bears no responsibility for, and is not in any way committed to, the views and recommendations expressed herein.
Bi':'port On t a Collection:
In Oe Lober /November 1992, Alexander W llson Chihongo (S~n lor Forf'st Research Officer, TAFORI) undertook a Country Study of the info"mal NWFP sector \",ithin Tanzania. This took the form o[ fjeld visits to sel~cted areas of major NWFP activitiBs such as 1\rll~hn, Kilimanji\ro, Morogoro and Dar es Sali\am. Discussi.ons were also held with relat.ed sectors of NWFP f'spl:'!~iill]y thofle bnr.r~c1 i.n Dill' es nalaClm. Personal contacts wit.h pprsonnp.1. at the Sokoi.ne llnivprsity of Agl-iculture (SUA) were also done concerning th", subject on NWFP. A few relevant literatures have also bpen
iv
consulted in respect to NWFP, and are cited accordingly in thereport. A seminar held at Kilimanjaro Hotel, Dar es Salaam on10 November 1992 on Investment Opportunities in Forestry inTanzania raised the awareness of economic values of NWFP.
The outcome of my study is presented in this report. Basen onmy conclusions, a number of recommendations are given, which Ibelieve will help to relieve constraints on the NWFP sector andlead to overall sustainable development in line with the TFAPobjective.
iv
('Ollsl.Iltnd in reRpect to NWFP, and are cited accordingly in the report. A seminar held at Kilimanjaro Hotel, Dar es Salaam on 10 Nov~mber 1992 on Investment Opportunities in Forestry .in TAnzaniA raised the awareness of economic values of NWFP.
The olltcome of my Rtudy is presented in this repo,'t. BARNi on my conclusions, a number of recommendotions are given, which 1 b0.li~\·e will help to relieve conRtraints on the NWfP sect.or illlfl
IPAd to overall sllstainable development. in line with the TFAP ohjecti.ve.
1. INTRODUCTION
Forests are a valuable environmental'and economic resourcefor supporting natural systems and improving human welfare.Human activities have always modified the forest environment.Every one has benefited when the forests have been treated as arenewable resource, protected them to preserve biodiversity ortransformed them to support other economic activities onsustainable basis. Conversely, destructive exploitation offorests has caused serious social, economical and environmentallosses.
1.1 Size of the Country
Tanzania, located between latitudes 1°S and 12°3 andlongitudes 360E and 400E is, one of the larger countries inAfrica, being the eleventh in size and occupying a total landarea of about 88.6 million hacters (939,702 km2). Zanzibaroccupies 264 000 ha. or 0.3% of total land area.
1.2 Ecological zones
The land rises gradually from the Indian Ocean in the eastto about 2000m some 400 km inland where the Eastern arm of theGreat Rift valley divides it from north to south west towardsLake Malawi. From this lake northwards, the western arm of theRift valley demarcates the boundary between Tanzania andneighbouring Malawi, Zambia, Zaire, Burundi and Rwanda intoUganda. On the floor of the Western Rift valley there are anumber of lakes such as L. Malawi, L. Rukwa, L. Tanganyika, L.Edward and L. Albert. The valley is about 70 km wide and 300 m.deep with precipitous walls in some parts. In the eastern Riftvalley, the lakes are usually very shallow and these include L.Natron, L. Eyasi, L. Manyara and Momella, which are mainly causedby local barriers to drainage on the floor of the valley. Mostof the active volcanoes are associated with the rift valley,especially the eastern arm. The whole rift valley and thehighland zone in Northern Tanzania is overlain by volcanic rocks.Some of the largest individual cones: Hanang, Meru (4565m)Kilimanjaro 5895m) appear to be on lines of weakness. Otherblocks of Mountains include the Pare, Usambara, Nguru, Uluguruand Udzungwa forming the Eastern Arch; and Southern Highlands,Poroto, Rungwe, Livingstone, and Ufipa Highlands forming theWestern Arc, are all bounded by major faults. These MontaneUplands are cool, wetter and form important water catchments,forest reserves and agricultural zones. The Central plateauconsisting of a number of basins and averaging 1200m. a.s.l.stretches from Lake victoria in the north to Ruvuma river in thesouth.
The plateau covers most of the country and receives seasonalrainfall. Miombo woodland is the major vegetation of the centralplateau. The coastal belt including Zanzibar Islands consistsof a strip of low-lying country between 20-60 km wide (below 500m.a.s.1), with comparatively fertile soils. In isolated areas,especially along river deltas the coast in lined with mangrove
22
I • IN'rRODllC'rH>N
FOrf>5t.s iU-E> a valllable environmental i\nd economic: rer:;ourcp for supporting natural systems and improving human w(>l fare. Human act i. vi t i.es IHWP. a lways modi f ied the fon~st envi l'onment. Everyone has benefitE>d when the forests have been trE>atect as A )'(~newab 1 e resource, protected them to preserve b i or1i.vel-s jty Of'
tranr:;formed them to support other economic activitiE>s on sllsti'linable hasis. ConversE>ly, destructivp. pxploitation of forests has caused serious social, economical and environmE>ntAl ]ORSPr..
1.1 R izp. of the COllntr'y
Tanzania, loeated between latitudf>5 lOS ann 12°S and Jongitlldes 360E and 400E is, one of the largi'>r cOIIJltriE>s in Afrh:a, beinq the eleventh in size and occupying 1'1 t.otill land (lrea of about 88.6 million hacters (939,702 km2). Zanzihilr orCllpips 264 000 ha. or 0.3% of total land area.
1.2 Ecological zones
ThE> land rises gradually from the Indian Ocean in the east to about 2000m some 400 km inland where the Eastern arm of thE> Great Rift valley divjc1es it from north to south west towaror. Lake Malawi. From this lake northwards, the western arm of the Rift valley demarcates the boundary between Tanzani.a and neighbour ing Ma lawi, Zambia, Zaire, Burundi and Rwanda into Uqanda. On the floor of the Western Rift valley there are a numbE>r of lakes such as L. Malawi, L. Rukwa, L. Tanganyika, L. E(lward anel L. Albert. The va] ley is ahout 70 km wide and 300 m. dE>ep with precipitous walls in some parts. In the eastern Rift valley, the lakes are usually very shallow and these include L. Natrol1, L. Eyasi, L. Manyara .md Momella, which are mainly caused by Jorn!. bnrrieT'!; to orninage on the floor of the valley. MORt of the act.ive volcanoE>s are associated with the rift valley, ef;pecially the eastern arm. The whole rift vallE>Y and the highland zone in Northern Tanzania is overlain by volcani crocks. Some of the largest individual cones: Hanang, Meru (456!lm) Ki 1 imanjaro 5895m) appear to be on lines of weaknes!';. Other blocks of Mountains include the Pare, Usambara, Ngurll, {JllIglJI~u an~ Udzungwft forming the Eastern Arch; and Southern Highlands, Por.oto, Rungwe, Livingstone, and Ufipa Highlands forming the Wpstern Arc, are a 11 bounded by major faults. These Montanl?' Uplan~s are cool, wetter and form important water catchments, forl;>st reserves and agricultural zones. The Central plateau cOTl!';isting of a nur:\hp.r of basins and averaging 1200m. a.R.l. stretchl?'s from Lake victoria in the north to Ruvuma river in the sout:h.
The p l.a t eau covers mos t 0 [ the co.unt ry and rece i ves seasC)lla 1 rainfall. Miombo woodland is the major vE>getalion of the cE>ntral plal'pi'll]' The coastal belt including Zllnzibar Is.landR consists of a strip of low-lying country between 20-60 km wide (beloW 500 m.H.r..]), with compftrlltively fertile Goils. In isolated arpas, psppcialJy along river deltaf; the coast in lined with mangrove
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forests. Whereas, remnants of lowland forests are al so seenoccupying very localised areas of coastal belt.
1.3 Forested areas
Tanzania forest resource suppOrting the environmental andeconomic needs is based on 44 million ha. of natural forestsconsisting of riverine and montane high forests (1.4 mil. ha. or0.3% oE total forested land), savannah woodlands and grasslands(32 mil. ha); mangrove forests along the coastal belt (SO 000ha.) and man made industrial plantations (115 000 ha) andcomunity forests (66,700 ha) existing as reserved and unreservedforests. The total area of productive forest land is estimatedat 34.6 million hectares (78% of total forest area). The rest9.8 mil. ha. is unproductive for physical reasons such asinaccessibility, stand terrain features or legal reasons such ascatchment forest reserves, forest lands in the National Parks andGame reserves. The forestry industry as well as rural populationliving around these forested areas have been relying heavily onthe use of material from the natural forests. Due to manyfactors including forest fires, increased population pressure onland and enhanced agricultural activities, natural forests aredisappearing at an estimated rate of 130 000 hectares per annum.Forests and wetland habitats are under special threat because ofthe potential use of these areas for agriculture.
1.4 Population Statistics
The World Development Report 1992 (World Bank 1992)estimates Tanzanian population of 25.6 million in 1990, with 33%of the total population living in urban areas. The populationgrowth rate has been slowly increasing over the last 25 yearsfrom 2.9% in the period 1965-80 to 3.6% for 1980-90. Thepopulation is projected to continue to grow at a rate of 3.6% forthe period 1990-2000. Zanzibar Islands are densely populatedthan any other country in Africa with an annual growth rate of2.7% and 850 000 inhabitants (1988). The mountainous regions onthe mainland are thickly populated.
l.5 Forests as source of non wood products
Forestry in Tanzania has a great potential which largelyremains to be developed. Its importance for maintenance andimprovement of environment, climate, water .resources, soilenrichment etc. is crucial. Potentiality of forest and non woodforest products in particular, in rural development efforts oughtto be pursued. Products from the forests include the woodproducts like timber, fuelwood, poles and a wide range of nonwood products such as fodder as forage for livestock and wild-life including insects; trees as a source of nectar for honey andbeeswax production and increasing pollination of agriculturalcrops; palm nuts; tannin extracts; bark; gums; resins; medicinalplants; aromatics; fruits; edible fungi; wild animals and
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[ol'er;ts. Whereas, rf?mnants of lowland (orests on~ ~ I f;O SP.flrl orcupying very localised areas of coastal belt.
J.1 Forest~rl areas
Tanzania fot'f~st resourcf' supportillg t'he environmf'1I1;ll <111(\
er'ollomic needs is bC\ned on 44 million ha. of natllral forents (~ollsinting of rjvp.rine and mont one high forents (1.4 mil. ha. or 0.3% of total forested land), savannah woodlands and grasslands (l/, mj]. ha); mangrove for.est!> along t.he cc)(\stol belt (nO 000 ha.) and man made industrial plantations (115 000 h<l) a 1\(1 comllnity forests (66,700 hal existing as reserved and unreserved forests. The total area of productive forest land is est imated At 34.6 million hectares (76% of total forest area). Tile rest 9.n mil. ha. is unproductive for physical reasons such as i IH\CCeSS i bi Ii ty, stand terrain fea tures or lega 1 reasons such as catchment forest reserves, forest lands in the National Parks and Game reserves. The forestry industry as well as rura I popula t ion living around these forested areas have been relying heavily on the Ilse of moterial from the natural forests. Due to mnny factors including forest fires, increased population pressure on lond and enhanced agr.icllitural activities, natural forests are disappearing at an estimated rate of 130 000 hectares per annum. Fore!>ts and wetland habitats are under special threRt because of the potential use of these areas for agriculture.
1.4 PopUlation statistics
The World Development Report 1992 (World BRnk 19q~) f?stimatps Tanzonian population of 25.6 million in 1990, with 31% of the total population living in urban areas. The populRtion growth rate has been slowly increasing over the last 25 years [rom 2.9% in the period 1.965-80 to 3.6% for ] 980-90. 'rhe population is projected to continue to grow at a rate of 3.6' for thp per.iod .1990-2000. Zanzibar Islands are densply populated than any other country in Africa with an annual growth r<lte of ~.7% and 850 000 inhabitants (1968). The mountainous regions on the ma.i.nland are thickly populated.
J.5 Forests as source of non wood products
Forestry in Tanzania has a great potential whl~h largely l'p.lllidns to be developed. Its importance for mai.ntenance and jmprovemf?nt o[ environment, climate, water resources, soil I'>nriehmf>nt etc. is crucial. Potentiality of for'pst i1nd non \wod forest products in particular, in rural development efforts ought to he plJrsuf!d. Products from the forests inc lude the wood products like timher, fuelwood, poles and a wide range of non \oIoor1 products sllch CIS fodder as forClge for livestock fllHl wi] nlife including insects; trees as a source of nectar for honey and bees\"ax product iOll ond increas ing po 11 ination of agr lcul t.urn 1 crops: palm nuts: tannin extracts; bal-k; gum,:;: resins: mN.lidnal pl<lnt s: aromatics: fruits: edible fungi: wild animals find
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trophies and many others. Though the forestry sector plays minorrole in the economy of Tanzania in terms of its contribution tothe GDP which hardly exceeds 2-3% and contributing about l% onlyto the exports; the forests and woodlands have a very positivpeffect on both the subsistance and national economy throughaPPropriate management practices ensuring sustainable suppliesof wood and non-wood forest products.
The Objective of this paper is to give an overwiew of thecurrent utilisation aspects of both within and outside Tanzaniawith respect to non wood forest products (NWFP) and to presentsome suggestions and possible strategies of what should be doneto further promote and develop these towards a sustainable socio-economic performance in future.
2. DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION OF NON WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
2.1 Definitions
In Tanzania, beekeeping, wattle mimosa extract cultivation,gum arabic production, tradition medicinal and aromatic plantsprocessing, fodder crop farming, fibre handicrafts making, edibleinsects collection, fruits and nuts from the wild flora, latextapping, tourism and environmental improvement and potentialnaval stores extraction are all predominantly forest - basedactivities. On the other hand Cinchona barks and spicesproduction, though depend upon agricultural lands, theircultivation is closely related to well forested sites. Theforest products and services derived from the above namedactivities, other than wood, and presented in detail in Annex Imay be classified as non wood forest products (NWFP). Usuallytheir extraction from a forest ecosystem does not alter the basicreproductive functions of the forest. (FAO, Papet No. 97).
2.2 Classification
2.2.1 Fibre:
The mountain bamboo; Arundinaria alpina found onthe moister mountainous sites between 2400 and 3000 asl. providebuilding poles and fibrous materials for communal handicraftindustry in rural Tanzania. On drier sites, the Borassus -palmsupports matts and baskets making industry for the rural people,an activity which.is of great importance to certain areas. Othervegetal fibres used in rural areas include the plaiting and tough- weaving fibres used for straw hats, baskets, chair-seats andmatting for which stems of various palms, grasses and the baobabAdansonia digitata are used. Morereover, in special cases,natural fabrics consisting of tough interlacing fibres that canbe extracted from bark in layers and used as a substitute forcloth are obtained from Ficus specie's. Such fabrics are commonlyused in rural Kagera areas.
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tt'ophips ~nd m,my othel's. Though the (orp.stry sector plClYs minol' role in the economy of Tanzania in terms of its contribution to the Gnp which hardly exceeds 7,-3% and contributing ahout 1'ls only to the exports: the forests and woodlands have a very positivp effect on both the subsistance Clnd nnt.ional eC'onomy t.hrollqh ~ppropriate management practices ensuring sustainRble supplies of wood and non-wood forest products.
The Objective of this paper is to give an overwiew of the C'lIlTent utilisation aspects of both within and outside Tanz~ni<l with respect to non wood forest products (NWFP) and to prespnt some sllggf'stions and pos!iible strategies o( what should hI" don~ to further promote and develop these towards a sustainable soeioer'onomic performance in future.
2. DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION OF NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
2.1 Definitions
In Ta nza n i a, beekeeping, wa t t Ie mimosa ext rac 1: ('Ill t i. Vi\ tj on , gllm arabic production, tradition medicinal and aromatic plants process ing, fodder crop farming, fibre handicrafts making, ediblp inseC'ts collect.ion, fruits and nuts from the wild flora, lat.px t <lppj ng, tour i.sm and environmenta I improvement and potf'llt ia 1 naval stores extraction are all predominantly forest - based activities. On the other hand Cinchona barks and spices production, though depend upon agricultural lands, th",i1' elll t j vat ion is closely related to well forested 5 i tes. The forest products and services derived from the above named Activities, other than wood, and presented in detail in Annex I may be classified as non wood forest products (NWFP). Usually t.h~il' extraction from a forest ecosystem does not alter the basi(~ reproductive functions of the forest. (FAO, Papet No. 97).
2.2 Classification
7..2.1. Fibre:
The mountain bAmboo; Arundinaria alpin.£!. fUl/lld 011
th~ moister mountainolls sites between 2400 and 3000 oslo provhlE' bId l.ding poles and fibrous motp.rials for commlln~l hallclir.raU industry in rural Tanzania. On drier sites, the B<2!"J!~~sus 'palm sllpport.s matts and baskpts making industry for the rural people, an activity which is of great importance to certain areas. Other vf'gpl'a] fibres IlsNl in rural areas inc lude the p.l a it. i ng and touqh - weaving fibres used for straw hats, baskets, choir-seats and m~tt.lng for which stems of various palms, grasses and the bflohab ['.dE!l,?on ia digi tata are used. Moren'over, in spec i a 1 casE'S, Ilnt.und fabri.cs cOllsisti.ng of tough interlacing fibl'(>S thnt can be extrActed from hark in layers and used as a SUbstitute for cloth are obtnined from Fic~ species. Such fabrics at~e commonly used in rural Kagera areas.
2.2.2. Forage:
The forests provide forage and shelter to both domesticatedas well as wildlife populations-key component to food protein andtourism, upon which mankind depends. The role of forestry in thesemi-arid zones and savannah grassland areas of Tanzania ispartially reflected by the provision of fodder and shelter notonly to livestock but to wildlife populations within the Nationalparks. These animals do not only feed on grass but obtain aconsiderable part of their nutrition, and the part most rich inprotein, from the pods and buds of trees and bushes, of which themost valuable are the Acacias. From the utilitarian point ofview, forage plants for domesticated as well as wildlife may belooked upon as a means of turning plant carbohydrate and proteininto meat and dairy products. Suffice it to say that practAcatlyevery item of food of all animals comes from plants; as thesealone are able economically to build up complex food substancesfrom simple inorganic materials. (Nicholas, 1960).
2.2.3 Food - Vegetal
2.2.3.1 Nuts:
Products of the nut-bearing plants are often obtained fromwild sources. Some of the important chewing materials likebetel, obtained from the widely cultivated Betelnut palm Arecacatechu provide food and cash requirements to the rural as wellas national economies.
2.2.3.2 Edible fungi:
A number of usually minor foods are afforded by the lowerplants. Thus the use of mushrooms, morels, truffles and otherfungi is ancient and familiar. Mushrooms provide valuablesources of certain food proteins and vitamins. Mushrooms inparticular are being widely cultivated, though in Tanzania theseare only collected from wild sources. The commonly consumedmnshrooms in the country belong to the locally important orange-red Amanita species native to the Miombo woodlands. They arerelated to Amanita caesarea the most highly appreciated ediblemushroom in ancient Rome. Other edible species of mushroom arealso common in rural Tanzania. Food yeast is another importantfungal Product used in brewing and baking processes.
2.2.3.3 Spices:
Many of the non wood forest products are taken with fairregularity as a kind of crop, sometimes from cultivated trees.Spices, condments and other food adjuncts are almost inumerahle,and the value of spices and condiments lies in their ability toincrease the attractiveness of food, usually owing to thepresence of essential oils. Besides their use as food adjuncts,spices are employed in various industries including perfumery,drug and soap manufacture and dyeing. The vast majorityoriginate in seeds and fruits of the cultivated vegetals e.g.cardamon, chillis and peppers; others from flowers or flower-buds
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/, . /. . /, . Forage:
The forE'sts provide forage and shelter to both dom('st iC(lt r'(l as w('ll as wild} ife populations-key component to food prot.ein cHlcl tourism, upon which mankind depends. The role of. forestry in tlw flp.mi-arid zones and savannah grass] and are-as of Tanzania is partialJy reflected by the provision of fodder and flhelter not only t.o livestock but to '.Jildlife populat.ions within the Nntional IHll'kr;. These animflls do not only fpect on grass bllt. obtain a ~onsiderable part of their nutrition, and the part most rjeh in proUdll, (rom the pods illld huds of trf'p.~ "nd iJ1Jr;her;, of ,.,.hieh th~ most valuable are the Acacias. From the utilitarinn point (If
view, forAge plants for domesticated as well as wildlife mflY he looked upon as a means of turning plant carbohydrate and protein into meflt and dairy products. Suf.f.ice it. to say that P'"ill'l'jcillly every item of food of all animals comes from plants; as theRP alone are able economicnlly t.o build Ill> complex food suh5tanC'ef> from simple inorganic materials. (Njcholas, 1960).
2.2.3 Food - Vegetal
2.2.3.1 Nuts:
Products of the nut-bearing plants are often obtain('ct from wild sources. Some of the important chewing mat.erials like betel, obtained from the widely cultivated Betelnut palm Areca catechu provide food and cash requirements to the rural as" well as national economies.
2.2.3.2 Ed.i.ble fungi:
A n\1mbF>r of usually minor foods are affordeo by the lower plants. Thus the use of mushrooms, morels, truffles and ot:her fungi is anc ip.nt. and familiar. Mushrooms provide va lUAb le sources of certain food proteins and vitamins. Mushroom!';.in part ieular are being widely cult iva ted, though in Tanzani.a thene are only collected from wild sources. The commonly consumed mushrooms hl the country belong to the locally important oranq~red Amanita species native to the Miombo woodlands. They are related to ~!!l!,!nita ~aesarea the most highly appreciated edible mushroom in ancient Rome. Other edible species of mlH;hroom are also common in rural Tanzani.a. Food yeast is another import.~nt fungal product used in brewing and baking processes.
2.2.3.3 Spices:
MallY of lhe non ,.,.ooc] fOl'est products are taken wi t.h fa i r n~gularity a5 a kind of crop, sometimes from cultivated tree,.;. Rpices, conclment s and other food adjuncts are almost illumerah 1 P,
and the vaJue of spices and condiments lies in their ability to inc:reflRf' the attractiveness of food, usually owing to the pref>ence of essentia 1 oils. Besides their use as food adjlllwt.8, spices are F>mployed in vflrious indu!;tries including perfumery, drug and soap manufacture and dyeing. The vaRt majority oriq.lnate in seeds and fruits of t.he cultivated vegetal::; c.lJ. c~rc1amon, chi1lis and peppers; others from flowers or flo'.Jer-hudr.
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like cloves, while from leaves are obtained peppermint, spearmintetc. Spices obtained from barks include cinnamon and cassia;from roots and rhizomes include ginger, turmeric grown in thetropics (Nicholas, 1960).
2.2.4 Food-Faunal
2.2.4.1 Honey:
In Tanzania, the woodland and savanna areas are not onlyimportant as producers of large quantities of wood. They alsoconstitute the main basis for industry of some nationalimportance, beekeeping. Most of the Acacias, - A. tortilissubsp. sEirocarpa, A,Nanthophloea: Brachysteqia and Julbfr:nadjaspecies are excellent honey trees. Honey is widely useddomestically in making an alcoholic beavarage.
2.2.4.2 Game meat:
As source of cheaper protein for rural as well as urbanpopulations, is of vital importance particularly for peopleliving around the parks and forest reserves. Fish and insectsalso provide vital feed protein requirements to people.
2.2.5 Non food-Faunal
Bees wax: A by-product of honey, bees wax is of nationalimportance and most of it is being exported because there arevery few domestic industries which process the wax for other enduses.
2.2.6 Medicinal plants:
The medicinal value of plants is due to the presence in themof special substances having 'a particular physiological actionon the human body: commonly such substances are alkaloids, someof which are powerful poisons if administered unwisely, whileothers are dangerOusly habit-forming. Yet in small quantitiesskilfully adMinistered, even the most poisonous or dangerousdrugs can be of value to human health and well-being (Nicholas,)960). Throughout the world, there are used for medicinal usessome thousands of different plants, many of them only locally byrural populations in the developing countries. Some are widelycultivated, like Cinchona species but many more are collectedentirely in the wild state and are still important commercially.It is estimated that as many as 80% of Tanzania's rural. peoplerely on herbal traditional medicines from the indigenous forests,as their primary health care, though commendable efforts havebeen made to avail medical facilities. A few of the mostsignificant plants cultivated in the country include:. Opium,obtained from fruits and seeds, as an exudation from the injuredfruits of the widely cultivated Opium Poppy containing principleseffective in relieving pain but fragrantly misused as a narcotic.In Tanzania, the Opium poppy is cultivated to a limited scale onwetter, well drained soils in the highlands. Quinine, extractedfrom the cultivated cinchona barks, is a great anti-malaria drug.
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1 ike ~loves, while from leaves are ohtained peppermint, spE'M"lIlint et~. Spices obtained from barks include cinnamon and cassia; from roots and rhizomes include ginger, turmeric grown jn the tropjcs (Nicholas, 1960).
2.2.4 Food-Faunal
2.2.4.1 Honey:
Tn Tfln7.fln ia, the woodland and savanna aT"pal': iH-e not nn 1 y import.;mt as producers of large quantities of wooel. TII",ya11':(I r.onstitute the mflin basis for industry of some natiollol importance, beekeeping. Most of the Acacias, - A. tortilis suhsp. !?12tJ;:.oca~, ~!-~a~tho..Qhloea; I3rachystE'(Jia and .!:!!!"!Q~Tr!~~1j:.~ speciE'S are excellent honey trees. Honey is wtdely used domentically in making an alcoholic beavarage.
2.2.4.2 Game meat:
As source of cheaper protein for rural flS WE'll ;lH lit-han populfltions, js of vital importance particularly for people living around the parks and forest reserves. Fi f:h and insects also provide vital feed protein requirements to people.
2.2.5 Non food-Faunal
Bees wax: A by-product of honey, bees wax i.s of lIf1tional impnrtflnee and most of it is being exported bE'cause thprE' are very few domestic: industries which process the wax for other p.nd uses.
2.2.6 Medicinal plants:
The medicinal value of plants is due to the presence in them of special SUbstances having a particular physiological action on t.he human body: commonly sllch substances are alkaloids, some of which are powerful poisons if administerpd unwisely, while others are dangerously habit-forming. Yet in small qualltities ski] fully administered, even the most poisonous or dangerolls drugs can be of value to hUman health and well-being (Nicholas, ]960). Throughout the world, there are used for medicinal uses snmp thousands of different plants, milny of them only locally hy run,l popu lations in the developing countrj es. Some are wide] y ('ultivated, like Cinchona species but many more are co.llecterl pnt i re Iy in the wild st-ate and are still important commerc ia lly. It is estimated that as many as 80% of Tanzania's rural. people rely on herbal traditional medicines from the indigenous forests, as thei.r primary health care, thol1gh commendable effol·ts hav/'> bpen made to avail medical facilities. A few of the most sigllifi.r:'ant plants cultivated in the (~ountry include:. opium, nbt(\ined from fruits and seeds, as an eXUdation from the injured [,-uitr, o( t.he \.Jidply cultivated Opium Poppy containing principles pffp('t ive in relieving pain but fragrantly misused as a narcotic. In Tilnzania, the Opium poppy is cultivated to a limited scale on wptter, well drainpd soils in the highlands. Quinine, extracted [1'0111 the CUltivated cinchona barks, is a great anti-malaria druq.
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Papain, an enzyme obtained from papaya plant, Carica papayafruits though of limited use in medicine, is employed as a
digestive enzyme for treatment of intestinal and gastricdisorders. Other potential notable sources of medicinal drugsinclude the agricultural fibrous product - Agave sisalana whichis used in the production of a steroidal sapogenin called Hecoginas its by-product. Hecogin is an important therapeutic agentused in modern medicine. The sisal plant is used to a verylimited extent for the synthesis of these drugs in Tanzania,though its potential is great. The exotic Neem tree, Azadirachtaindica is grown in the country as a multipurpose tree forfuelwood, shade and ornamental as well as medicinal sourrP ofAzadirachtin that is widely used for the manufacture ofinsecticides elsewhere. Locally, the decoction from the bark ofthe Neem is believed to cure a number of ailments includingmalaria. Among the introduced blue gum trees, E......globulits, E.
saligDa, E. maidenii and E. regnans are known to produceeucalyptus oil Cineole from their leaves that is extensively usedin medicine for the treatment of nose and throat disorders.Actual production of cineole in the country has not beendeveloped. Shortly, there are many species of plants in Tanzania(more than 90% of the flora) whose significance as potentialsources of important drugs and/or cosmetics have not beenappreciated, simply because their chemical composition has notbeen studied (Rulangaranga, 1991).
2.2.7 Aromatics:
Essential oils or volatile types as stated elsehere, havea pleasant taste and strong aromatic odour, easily volatilizingin air. They are complex in chemical composition but are readilyremoved by distillation, or solvent extraction from the plantsthat produce them. Their major uses are for scenting,flavouring, or medicinal purposes for example in the manufactureof soaps, perfumes, and other toilet preparations. Other usesare as clearing agents and solvents; deodorants, shoe-polish etc.In the country a few of the useful aromatics include thesandalwood oil, muhuhu oil, camphorwood oil, clove oil. Cedaroils, extracted from Juniperus procera wood is used as a
laboratory clearing agent in microscopy studies. Of potentialimportance is the Cassie oil, obtained from flowers of Aca,ciafarnesiana, a tree whose distribution is restricted to Morogororegion only. For many aromatics, maximum concentration withinthe plant is to be found in those plants inhabiting drier sites.
2.2.0 Extractives
2.2.8.] Tannins:
In the tanning, strongly astringent tannins are reacted withproteins present in animal hides and skins, to form the strongand resistant, flexible product leather. Although tannins arevery widespread in plants, relatively few species are known tocontain a sufficient proportion to be of commercial importance.In Tanzania, the wattle mimosa and mangrove barks are the mainsources of tannin extract.
., Pap" in, nn p.l1zyme ohtoined from popayn plnnt, ~.!.1Lica Q.~.n.a'y'£ fruits though of limited use in medicine, is f'mploypd as a digE'5tive en7.yme for treatment of intef>t.innl anel qClstrir: disorders. Other pot.ential notable sources of mE'dicinal druqs include thE' RgriclIlturnl fibrous product - Agave sisa.L<u!.~. whir'h is llGed in the:> prodllction of a steroidal sapogenin called Hecogin <15 j tr, by-product. Hecogin is an important thf'rapellt: ie aq~;!flt Ilsed in modern mp.dicine:>. The sisal plant is used t.o a v~ry limi.t"ed p.xtent for the synthesis of these dr.ugs in Tanzaniel, though its potential is great. The exotic Nf'em trE'E', Az~.9i.r.il.!;I.l!.C! J.r!~!i~a is grown in the count r.y as a mill t ipllrpose t t'f.'e [or [l1e1woocl, shade and ornamental as well 115 medicinR,1 SOllrc'P uf AZRdirachtin that is widely used for the manufactllre o( insecticides elsewhere. Locally, the decoction from the bark of the Neem is believed to cure a number of ajlment5 inelu(Hnq malaria. Among the introduced blue gum trees, E·_.sI.tQP',!!h,U~" h ~,i!Um'!9., ~. maiQftnii and ~ regnans are known to proclllc'e eucalypt.us oil Cineole from their leaves that is ext.ensivply IH1P.t1
in medicine for the treatment of nose and throat dir;()["o('rr;. Actual prodllction of cineolE' in the country has not bp.en developed. Shortly, there ar.e mnny species of plants in Tnn~nnio (more than 90% of thE' flora) whose significance as potent.i.al sources of important drugs and/or cosmetics have not been appreciated, simply because their chemiral compoRitJon has not beE'n studied (Rlllangaranga, 1991).
2.2.7 Aromatics:
Essential oils or volatile types as stated elsehere, have a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odour, easily volatilizing in ajr. They are complex in chemical composition but are readi ly removed by distillation, or solVent extraction from the plants that produce them. Their major uses are for Rcpntinq, flavouring, or medicinal purposes for example in the manufact.ure o[ soaps, perfumes, and other toilet preparat.ions. Other uses are as clearing agents and solvents; deodorants, shoe-polish etc. In the country a few of the useful aromatics inrlude the sandalwood oil, muhuhu oil, camphorwood oil, clove oil. CE'dar oi Is, extractnd from Juniperus procera wood is usp.(l as a laboratory clearing agent in microscopy studies. Of potential importance is the Cassie oil, obtained from flowers of Ac~ci!!. farnesiana, a tree whose distribution is restricted to Morogoro re~Jion only. For many aromatics, maximum concentration within t.he plant is to be found in those plant.s inhahiting drier sites.
2.2.0 Extractives
2.2.R.l Tannins:
In the tanning, strongly Rstringrmt tannins are reactp.(l with prot'eins present in animal hides and skins, to form the strong and resi.stant, flexible product leather. Although tannins are very widespread in plants, relatively few species are known to ('(1I\toin a sl.l[fi(~ient proportion to be of commerc.1.ql importallr.f'. In T.qn~ania, the wnttle mimosa and mangrove barks are the main soul'ces of tannin extract.
2.2.8.2 Natural dyes:
Stains and natural dyes obtained from plants are especiallyuseful in dyeing fabrics and other products. These normally areextracted from seeds and fruits, flowers, leaves, wood, bark,roots and even tubers. A redish-brown dye obtained from the bar);of wild kapok Bombax rhodognaphalon; in used to dye fabrics(Bryce, 1967). Due to recent competition from synthetic dyesobtained from coal-tar products, the use of vegetabln dyos 11.1sbeen on a decline.
2.2.8.3 Latex:
Of the products obtained from the milky juice (latex) ofvarious plants, rubber is by far the most important. Crudernbber is mainly used in tyre manufacture and inner tubing;footwear, packaging, tubing, electrical insulation and waterproofclothing etc. Of a number of woody plants that produce rubber,the plantation rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis is by far the mostimportant source of rubber. In Tanzania, the rubber tree inplanted in the bumid East Usambara Mountains at Muheza andKwamkoro areas, Nguru ranges in Morogoro at Turiani and ZanzibarIslands, where about 1270 ha. are planted to support the domesticas well as export trade in tyre manufacture. Rubber is alsotapped from wild sources, though of no much economic value.
2.2.8.4 Gums:
The gums which exude from plant stems either natura.) ly orin response to wounding, and the resins which are secreted indefinite cavities (resin ducts) are both exudates. Gums whichcan dissolve in water, does not dissolve in organic solvents likealcohol or ether. Main uses of gums include as adhesives, assizing for paper, in medicines and polishing, in cosmetics,chewing-gum and ice-cream making, etc. Gum arabic is one of thechief commercial varieties, obtained from Acacia trees notablyA..._sepegal A. seyal, A. tortilis and A. spirocarpa. Gum arabicis of considerable economic importance in,some African countrieswith arid and semi-arid climates like the Sudan, Kenya, Senegal,Chad and Tanzania, to mention a few.
2.2.8.5 Resins:
These, are more important than gums, though tapping isessential to obtain resins in commercial quantities. Resins ofpotential development in Tanzania include the turpentines,obtained by tapping coniferous trees and yielding ondistillation, oil of turpentine (oleo-resin) and rosin. Oil ofturpentine is used in the paint and varnish industryas a solventand thinning agent. Rosin is the chief sizing material forpaper, and is also used in manufacture of adhesives, printinginks, rubber products, greases and lubricants. Of the introducedindustrial pine species, Pinus patula, P. elliottii and p,caribaea, their resinous woods could be utilized as sources for
88
2.2.0.2 Nnlural dyes:
fll:ainl" flnd naturfll dyeR ohtained from plflnt.!'l ilr~ e!lpP('i<lJ ly 1I~p.f\ll in dyeing fabrics and other products. Thp!'>e normally ar.e extrflct.ed from seeds and fruitR, flow!?t'!" lE'avp.!'l, wooel, hill'k, roots Clnd p.ven tuber.s. A r",dish-brown dyp ohtainf'd from t.llp bfll'l~
of \.i.1rl kilpok ~J!!.Q~~, r.bQdomL~Illi.<!.:1Q!l; i.r, usecl to (lye fill>ri(~r; (Bryce, 1967). Dup t.o recent competition from !'lynthetic' dy!?s ohlai1l0d from eoal-tar productr" t.he lise of vegf~t.i1bl(\ rl~'(\H 1I .. w been on a decline.
/..2.0.) Latex:
Of the products obtained from the mi.lky JUlee (liltex) of vori ous p] ants, rubber is by far the most .i mportant. Cruc'le "l1bher. is mainly used in tyre manufacture and jnner t'lIhing; footwear, packaging, tubing, electrical insulat ion and waterproof elothing etc. Of a number of woody plants that produce rllhbpr, the plantation rubber tree Heyea brasiliensis is by far the mORl i.mportant source of rubber. In Tanzania, the rubber tree ir. planted in the humid East Usambara Mount.ains at Muheza and Kwamkoro areas, Nguru ronges in Morogoro at Turian i nnd Zi-lIlzibar Islands, where about 1270 ha. are plant.en to support the domestic as well as export trilde in tyre manu facture. Rubber is a Iso tapped from wild sources, though of no much economic value.
2.2.8.4 Gums:
The gums which exude from plant st"ems either nat.ut'n.lly OJ:
in response to wounding, and the res ins whj ch are Sf'cretpd .i.n ne(jnite cavities (resin ducts) are both exudates. Gums wlti(~h ean dissolve in water, does not dissolve in organic solVents like alcohol or ether. Main uses of gums include as adhesiveR, as si7.ing for paper, in medicines and polishing, in cosmetic!;, ('hewing-gum ann ice-cream making, etc. Gum arabic is one of the ~hjef commercial varieties, obtained from Acacia trees notably ~.!_§...~ne~ b. seyal, A. tortilis and A. spirocat;.p_C!.. Gum arabi(~ if> of consjderable f'conomic importance in'some African cOlllltrien with arid and semi-arid climates like the Sudan, Kenya, nenegal, Chad and Tanzania, to mention a few.
?.2.8.~ Resinr.:
'T'hPRP, are more important than gums, t.hough tappinq if; pSRE'nt.ial to obtilin rf~sins in commerdAl quantities. Rl?nins of potPlltiCll c1evelopmpnt in 'T'an;:o;an.ia include the turpenti.neR, obtai.ned by tappin9 coniferous trp.es and yielding on distillaUoll, oil of tllrpentine (oleo-n~sin) and rosin. Oil of turpent.ine is used in thl';> paint and varnish industry as a f>O]VPllt fine! thinni.ng agp.llt. Rosin is the chief sizing mat.<>rial for pClper, and is also used in manufacture of adhesives, printing in kn, rubber procllwts, greaRes i'lnd 1 uhr icants. Of the 1n t roduced indllRt.rial pine species, Pi!1uS patula, ~elliott.iJ. and P-,_ (~~rj.t~.<.!.~_~, t.he.i I' r.efl inolls woods could be Ilt i 1 ized as sOllreps for
9
naval stores - turpentine And ros in. The best turpentine eomesfrom P. elliottii, followed by P. caribaea. On the otherhand,P. pa_tula at maturity produces a resin - free wood. These navalbases haVe so far not yet been tapped in this country, despitetheir potential.
2.2.9 Services Functions of Forest Lands
2.2.9.1 Amenity:
Trees are planted sometimes mainly for their aesthetic andamenity values. Amenity forestry together with environmentalprotection and tourism form part of Services Functions of ForestLands Sector. Amenity plantations include roadside trees, parksand plantations to beautify the landscape and to make livingconditions more pleasant. The value of these plantations isextremely high, though cannot be assessed in terms of cash.Multipurpose plantations are of great use; for instance, thosethat have roadside trees that bear honey flowers and also act aswindbreaks to conserve the soil; or those that,have trees likeBlack wattle for fuelwood which may also yield bark from whichtannin can be extracted. In the country a number of tree specieshave been planted with the cooperation of the public, as amenitytrees on different sites. In the high mountainous areas,conifers, eucalypts and Cedrella odorata are used. On thecentral plateau species like Neem, Casuarina, Grevillea, Sennasiamea and Eucalyptus species are often planted. Under more aridconditions, Acacia species, some eucalypts, Azadirachta indicamay be planted. On humid lowlands and coastal plains Saracaindica is favoured. Where flowering trees are desired, Dekoni?;.r.pclia, Jacaranda species; Senna siamea, Grevillea robusta, Acacia.$pp. and certain eucalypts are planted.
2.2.9.2 Environmental protection:
Forests for environmental protection and climaticimprovement-checking soil erosion and water run off, stabilizingsoil surfaces, shelter-belts and windbreaks to protect fields,enhancing soil fertility and rehabilitation of wastelands andindustrial sites all play a desirable role. The impacts offorests in ensuring environmental stability and productivity bymitigating the effects of climatic fluctuations, by improving themicro-climate for animal and plant production and by conservingsoil and water resources, cannot be overemphasized; becauseattempts to disturb various ecological systems have had seriousimplications to Man and his surroundings. The economic returnof the protection plantations is indirect.
2.2.9.3 Tourism:
In Tanzania, the touri8m industry to a greater extentdepends on services functions of Forest Lands, since land hasbeen gazetted as National parks/game reserves which providehabitats for wildlife populations that provide touristattractions. Within these reserves, we also find varied floracommunities.
9
IHlVrI) fitor'pfi - t:urpentille And rosin. The b("st tllrpent..i.T10 (~(lm(>n
from P. elliottii, followed by P. caribaea. On the othprhrlno, r!J2ilt!LL~. at maturity produces a res(n-'-·::fr-ee wood. These fleWi'lt
hrlSRS have ~o far not yet been tapped in this country, despite t.hf-'ir pot(>lltinl.
~.2.9 Services Functions of Forest Lands
2.2.9.1 Amcnjty:
Tre("!" f\re plilnted I'lometimes mainly for their.' f\Pst:hpl i(' ;\lHI
Amenity values. Amenity forestry togt:>ther with environment"l protect jon and tOIJrism form part of Services Functions oF. Forf'r.;1. Lan(lr.; Sector. Amenity plantations include roadsidp. t rt:>("s, pi'lrk~ and plantations to bf'r1utify the landscape and to m;ll~e 1 ivillq conditions more plf'asant. The value of these plantatjonR il> extrf'mt:>ly high, though cC\nnot he assessed in tel'mR of ('M,h. MIIltipurpose plantations are of great use; for instance, those that have roadside trees that bear honey flowers "nd also act as windbreaks to conserve the soil: or those that have trpeR like Black wattle for fUf'lwood which may also y.lf'ld bArk from whil.'ll tannin can be extracted. In the country a number of tree species have been planted with the cooperation of the public, AI> amenity trees on different sites. In the high mountainous areas, conifers, eucalypts and Cedrell!!. odorata_ are used. On the central plateau species like Neem, Casuarina, Grevill~~, Senna siamea and Eucalyptus species are often planted. tJnd€'r more arid conditions, b.cacia species, some ellcalypts, Azadiracht<! indica mRY be planted. On humid lowlands and coast.al plainR ~_ar,.<!!;~ indica is favoured. Where flowering trees are d€'sired, Delonix r_~a, JacrJranda species: Sen.Jla siamea, Greville.!!. robus!.~_,-Ac:~'£lj\ app. and certain eucalypts are planted.
2.2.9.2 Environmental protection:
Foreflts for environmental protection and clim"t i(' i mprovemen t: -dwck i ng flO i 1 eros ion and wa tel' run 0 r f, f.: t ab i I 17 i nq soil surfaces, shelter-belts and windbreaks to protect fields, enhancing soil fertility and rehabilitation of wastp.lamls anrl industrial sites all playa desirahle role. The imp.:lcts of forests in ensuring environmental stahility and productivity by In i t igat ing the effectR of climatic fluctuat ions, by imnrov ing the micro-climate [or animal and plant production and by conserving soi 1 and water resources, cannot be overemphas i zed; beeauf;e Clttempts to disturb vClriolls ecological systems have had Redolls impl i eat ions to Man and his surroundings. The economic rt:>tul-n o[ the protect ion plantati.ons is indirect.
2.2.9.3 Tourism:
In Tanzania, the tourism inrlu"t 1'Y to a greater extent. r]pppnds on services functions of Forest Lands, sinct:> land has been gazet ted ilS Nat: iona 1 pflrks/qflme reserves which provi de' habitats for wildlife populations that provide tourist at.tl'actions. Within these reserves, we also find varied flora communities.
10
1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
With the exception of industrial production of forestproducts, it is very difficult to establish the currentproduction levels of some of the products because the same areproduced -in small scale by private individuals who sell theirproduce to the local markets, or outside markets that offerattractive prices.
3.1 At Community Level
3.1..1 Forage:
One of the main preoccupation of rural people in Tanzania,especially in the savannah woodland of Tabora and semi-arid zoneslike Shinyanga, Mwanza, Singida, Dodoma, parts of Arusha andKilimanjaro regions where animal husbandry forms a major incomesource is to cultivate enough fodder to meet food scarcityespecially for their livestock. To a greater extent, the forageneeds for their huge stocks of cattle, goats and sheep still isafforded from the wild sources - the grasslands and forests closeto their habitats. During the dry season, grazing animals mayhave only branches and leaves of fodder trees to live on. Insome of these areas, we also find higher concentrations ofwildlife in the parks and game reserves which depend upon dryseason browse for their survival. Crude protein contained in theleaves of some trees, makes* certain tree species to be verypalatable for animals. Several species of Prosqpis: P. juliflora,P. chilensis which produce pods that are highly palatable andnutritive, and the leaves are eaten by cattle. Thesemultipurpose trees also yield poles and timber and can beestablished on saline soils in arid areas where other fodderplants are rare. Pods and leaves of browse species of Acacias -A. nilotica, A. arabica, A. tortilis, A. senegal, A. farnesiawiand Faidherbia albida are readily eaten by both cattle andwildlife populations, and these species can be established insemi arid zones on commercial basis: Tamarindus indica, with itswide, rounded crown and drooping branches provides both shade andfodder crop to grazing animals in dry savannah sites. However,in densely populated highland areas of Arusha, Kilimanjaro,Southern highlands, Usambaras, Uluguru mountains and Kagera,fodder trees and shrubby species which have high productionpotential and produce good quality fodder are cultivated.Leucaena leucocephala, L. diversifolia, Pithecelo.bipmAcacia farnesiana, Erythrina spp., Senna siamea,robusta and Prosopis juliflora are planted, sometimes as greenhedges (living fences). These species are also useful foragroforestry activities as soil conservation and nitrogen fixingspecies.
Tree Eodders may complement, but will not replace herbaceousfodder species, such as elephant grass, in montane areas wherezero-grazing in animal husbandry is largely practised. Sellingof fodder crops in these fertile and densely populated areas isa lucrative business at commnnity level.
10
J . SOC 10 - ECONOM T C TMPOR'1'ANCf: OF NON WOOD FORm.:'1' PRODllC'l'S
WHh the excp.ption of inoustdol prod1lction (If forest p,'nll,WI'", it is very rliffil'ult to estohU,sh the current pl'oduct ion levels of. flome of the products because the somp. ore Pl'otlllcp.(lin r-;mClll scale by private inrlividuills who Hell "heir' produce to the lOC'ClI markets, or outside mClrkets that offer attractive prices.
:3.1 At Commun i Ly r,eve]
1.1..1. Forage:
Olle of the main pn~oc(~upat.jon of rllral people in 'l'all7.alli"l, esppcjally in the savonnClh woodlClnd of Tabora and semi-arid zones I i,ke Hhinyanqa, Mwan7.CI, Singida, Dodoma, parts of Arllsho Clno KilimClnjoro regions where animal husbondry forms a mojar inrome !">Duree is to cultivate enough fodoer to meet food scarcit.y espp.cially for their livestock. To a greater extent, the forage neeos for their huge stocks of cattle, goats and sheep slill in Clfforded from the wild sources - the grasslands and forestA closp to theil' habitats. During the dry season, grazing animfll" may hove on ly branches and leaves of fodder trees to Ii ve on. In some of these areas, we also find higher concentr;~tions of wildlife in the parks and game reserves which depend upon dry Reason browse for thei r sllrvi val. Crude prote tn conta ineo in the l('aves of some trees, makes' certain tree species to be very polat.i\hlp. for animals. Several species of ProsW_!!.: r_!-JJ~l.i.tlor~_, P. chilensis which produce pods that are highly palatable and lIutritive, and the leaves are efiten by cattle. These mllltipurpose trees also yield poles and timber ano can he estRbJ j shed on sal ine soils in arid areas where ot.her fo{1I1r-T' plonts fire rare. Pods and leaves of browse species of Acncias -~_f)ilotic1!, ~Labi~~, A. tortilis, A. seneqa~, A._faJ'n~~i~J)_;;!, and Faidherbia ~lbido are readi ly eaten by both cattle and \dl(Uife populations, and these species Gan be pstahliRhp.cl jn fjemi. add zones on commercial basis. Tamarindus indica, wi.th .its wiclf', rOllnded crown and drooping hranches provide;-'both Rhode ond fo<kler Cl'Op to grazing animals in dry savannah si tP.~. Hnwevf'r, in c\f'!lsely populiltec1 highland areas of Arm,hfi, Ki.1inHlnjilro, flollthern highlands, Usambaras, Uluguru mountains alH'! KRg0ra, f~)(ic1p.r trees and shruhby species which havehjgh prootIC'\: it)1I potential and produce good quality fodder are cuJtivotp.d. !"~!!.ra en.E.. JeucoceQhaln, 11. divers if 0 lia , P ithec~J_q.J;) i t.IlD dulc p_,
Acacia farnesiana, Erythrina spp., Senna siamea, GreviJ,1J>:3 r9h}~,!'i.!:..~, and P-1-:,(Lsopi~ tl!liJ).oro are plan ted, some t. j me!; 0 fi gref~n hedges (living fenr.es). These species are also uf,f'ful for aqroforentry activities as soil conservotion and nitrogen fixing 5pecies.
Tree ('odrlel's mAY complement, bllt will not replacr~ hf'r\)oceous fodder spe(~ies, such oS elephant grass, in montane areaR wherp. 7.ero-graz i ng in an ima 1 hURballdry is large ly pra(~t: 15P(1. Sf> 11 j rlf)
o[ fooder crops in these fertile and densely populated areas is a luC'r(\tivp. bludnes::; (\t community level.
11
Nowpro and Hofstad (1989) have reviewed economic aspects ofTanzanian forestry. They have estimated a theoretical totalannual output from fodder crops of about 900 m Tsh. as shown inTable 1 below, reproduced from their report:
Table 1: Total vnluP of Primary forest production
Item Value (m Tsh)
Industrial wood 169Non-traded wood fuels 515Non-traded construction materials 210Non-traded wood for implements etc. 2
Fruits, medicines etc. 2,000Game meat 200Honey and beeswax 8,500Fodder (forage) 900Water 20Soil conservation 1,000Climate ameliorationGene pool
Total 13,516
On this basis, from their work, fodder contributes about 7% tothis estimated total value of primary forest production.However, the actual contribution of fodder crops, like other nonwood forest products to total annual value of primary forestproduction is usually more than these figures presented above.This is so because, for example, fodder crops that are browsedby wildlife populations in most cases, their contribution is notsupported by statistical evidence.
3.1.2 Fibres:
Most of the handicrafts are woven in the rural Tanzania, asa source of income, not only to the rural communities, but alsofor urban traders, who huy these from rural craftmen and resellthe products to urban dwellers and tourists. Bamboo grass andBorassus palms are the major sources of woven handicrafts. In1989, about 280,000 nil of bamboo grass Arundinaria alpina. wereextracted from bamboo forests for handicrafts as well as buildingpurposes. Lowland bamboo species have already become extinct.In Tanzania, like other East African countries, the bamboo ispotentially among the most important non wood product resources,yet, it is one of the least developed (Ogana, 1991). However;bamboo cultivation and processing provide employment and income
11
I\ow(>I.'O and HoFst<Hl (19flq) have revif3wed economi.c nfipPctS of '1'nnzflnian forestry. '1'hey have estimnted a theoretical total <HUlllil 1 outPlit from fodder crops of about 900 m '1'sh. as shown in T~h]e 1 below, reproduc~d from their report:
TahIr> ]: '1'ot'll villllP of Primary forest production
It("m
111dllstriCll wood Non-traded wood fuels Non-traded construction materJals Non-traded wood for implements etc. Fruits, mf3dicines etc. nam~ mpat Honey and beeswax [o'odc1p.r (forage) water Soil conservation Climate amelioration Genf3 pool
Total
Value (m '1'1'11)
169 515 210
2 2,000
200 8,500
900 20
1,000
13,516
On this h<lsis, from their work, fodeler contributes about 7'1; t.o this estimRtecl total value of primary forest production. However, the actual contribution of fodder crops, like other non wood forer,t products to total annual value of primary foreRt: production is usually more than these figures presented above. This is so because, for example, fodder crops that are browfled by wi le11 i Fe populations in most cases, their contribut i on is not supported by statistical evidence.
3.1..2 Fibres:
Most of t.he hanelier'afts are woven in the rural '1'ntlzitllia, as a source of income, not only to the ruritl commun.ities, but n1so for Ilrban traders, who buy these fr.om rUT'nl crnftmen itnc1 resell the products to urban dwellers and tourists. Bamboo gr.ass and ~grass_us pa Ims are th)' major sources of woven hanc1ieraf ts. In 1989, about 280,000 m of bamboo grass Arungin3!!'.i1!. alpi.pa. wen'! ~xtracted from bamboo forests for handicrafts as well itS building pllrposp.s. I.,owland bilmboo spee ie5 have already bp.come ext lnct . In '1'anzania, like other East African countries, the bamboo is potentially among the mORt jmportant non waoo prodllct reSOllr.ces, yet, it .is one of th~ ll?ast developed (Og<lna, 1<)91). Howf'ver, hamho(l rllltivation alld procensing provide employment ann .income
12
generating opportunities for rural communities. Some of the mostdiverse uses of the bamboo can be found in the handicraft tradeon the.domestic market, though the indigenous species A.a.1pi,pa_is not as versatile as bamboos found elsewhere for example inSouth East Asian countries. At present, there is an insatiablemarket for bamboos in the country for basket making, tooth picks,matts weaving, tree seedling's support, fencing, building polesand making of baskets for tea picking. Bamboos are also used inonion and tomato gardening especially in Arusha, Tringo and Mboyaregions. Borassus palms woven handicrafts are important atcommunity level, especially in Kigoma, Tringa, KilimanjaroMorogoro, Mwanza, Tabora, Singida and Shinyanga regions.
The legume Erythrina excelsa which occurs naturally on htimidsites at higher ,elevWtions in Kagera region, its bark is knownto produce cork, though not of commercial value as that producedby the cork tree Quercus suber. Rural communities around LakeVictoria seldomly used the product cork from this tree to floatfishing nets. Because of its usefulness, the tree has becomeover-exploited. The floss from fruits of the wild kapok BombaNrhodognaphalon, at one time was used in upholstery. Again, thereare no reliable statistics for production and sales of fibrerelated products, because most of these items are produced andsold unofficially, though a few enter export market as touristarticles.
3.1.3 Food-vegetal:
3.1.3.1 Fruits:
Trees and other woody plants that are extensively cultivatedin Tanzania for their edible fruits of importance to mankindinclude the mango Mangifera indica, papaya Carica pava, coconutCocos nucifera, jack fruit Artocarbus communis and pears Pyruscommunis. Some of the exotic tree species like avocado Pereaamericana that are multipurpose and planted in humid, uplandparts of the country, produce edible fruits as well as provideshade and wood fuel. In the floral habitats of Tanzania, thougha number of wild trees and shrubs produce fruits and seeds thatare edible to rural communities, the variety and nature of foodand fond products obtained from trees are not fully appreciated.Moreover, many of these fruit-bearing species occur naturally inforest environments which are under Pressure to yield land foragriculture. Greater knowledge of the potential of these speciesand their capacity to improve man's way of life will add weightto efforts to conserve these forests or woodlands, while makingthem more productive (FA0,1983). A detailed study carried outby the Silviculture Research Centre of the Forest Division underthn auspices of FAO in 1983, on 40 forest food and Iruit-bearingspecies of Tanzania has helped to highlight knowledge and promotean appreciation of their usefulness. A brief description on someof the commonly used indigenous fruit-bearing trees is given:
- A.1,1pnblaqkka stuhlmannii (msambu), the seed of this treeyields an edible fal nsed for cooking, lighting and as aliniment. The species can be planted on large plantat ion
12
qPIlPl'ntinq opportllniti~s for rurnl ~ommllniti~s. SomE" of the most; div~rR~ uses of the bamboo can be found in the handicraft tra~~ lin UIP. doml='stir. market, thollgh the indiqr>nous species A. __ !!J.Q..1J.1i}. is not as versatile as bamboos found els~where for exampl(> ill BOlllh EaF;l: M;ian coulltr·ies. At present, there 1s 1m inRiltiahle markl='t for bamboos in the country for bask~t makjng, tooth picks, mnl"'R wPilvinq, tr'pe sppc1li.ng's sllpport, fE"ncing, huilrlinlJ poles and milk i ng of hctRk~ts for tea picking. Bamboos are a 1 f;0 IlSE'O ill
onion ill HI tomilto gnr(ipning p.spp.C'ially in Arllsha, Tr.inqil nIHI MhpYil regions. ~or~~_sl!p_ palms woven handicrafts arE> importallt at f~ommllnily lE"vel e!':pecially in Kigoma, Tringct, Ki] imilnjr'l"o Morogoro, Mwanza, Tabora, Singida and Shinyanga regions.
The legume !;;!'.Y!:..h£in~ excelsa which occurs naturally on h"mid Rit~s at higher elevations in Kagera region, its hark is known to prOc1Il(,f~ cork, though not of commercial value as that pr'oduced by th~ cork tree Q!!ercus suber. Rural communities around Lake Vir-toria sp](lomly used the product cork from t.his trep to flont fishing nets. BE>cause of its usefulness, the tree has hpcome oVE'r-exploited. The floss from frui ts of the wi Id kapok ~QmR~1.~ . .rhQdognaJ?lLCLlcm., at one time was used in upho Istery. Aga j n, t.hprp are 110 reliable statistics for production and sales of fibre related products, because most of these jtems are prorluceo f.lnd sold llnofficially, though a few enter export market as touri.st arti~les.
3.1.3 Food-vegetal:
3.1.3.1 Fruits:
Trees and other woody plants that are ex tens i vel y cult i vatPl.l in Tanzania for their edible fruits of importance to mf.lnkind inC' I ude the mango MangJ.t~ra indica, pApaya Carica P.AQ5'..Y.!!, r.o~onut Coco..§. nuc Hera, jAck fruit Artocarpus communis and pears Pyrlt!i ~_Q.nJ!!lJ.m . ..t!?.. Some of the exotic tree speci.es like avocado r~r..'?~~ am.~_J;"l~..E_na that are multipurpose and p1antE'!d in humjd, upJand part.s of the country, produce edible frui.ts as well flS provi(il"' shctde and wood fuel. In the floral habitats of Tanzania, though 1'1 !lumber of wi 1d trf~es ctnd shruh:=; prorluce frui ts and :=;eedF; that are E'dible to rural communities, the variety and nature of food and food prodUcts obtained from trees are not fully appre~i.atf'>(1. Morp()ver, many of these fruit-bearing species occur natura lly in forest environmE>llt:s which are under pressure to yield land for agri.('uJ tllre. Greater knowledge of the potential of these specier, and their capacit.y to improve man's way of life will odd '.Jeiqht to efforts to conserve these forests or woodlands, while moking t'hem more productive (FAO, 1983). A d(>tai led study carri~d out by the Silviculture Research Centre of the Forest Division under t.hp allr.pices of FAO ill 1983, on 40 forest food and f:ruit-bear-ing sppcil?s of Tanzania has helped to highlight knowlE>c1ge and promot p
<\11 i\pprer.iation of thejr Ilflefulness. A hrief deseripti.on 011 Flome of the commonly used indigenous fruit-bearing trees is given:
- Allanblackiil st.uhlmannii (msamhu), the seed of tid:=; tree yT;;'ids--i\-il--etlibi-e-fatlised for cooking, lighting and as il 11 n i ment.. The spec ies can be planted on large plnnt.at iOIl
13
scale in the humid montane forests. Seeds of this specieswere once exported by GAPEX, before its dissolution in1989.
7111anblakiAultigurensis (msambumkani), a tree abundant inMorogoro and Iringa Districts at higher elevetions,produces seeds that yield a white fat which is used for thesame purposes as that from A. stuhlmannii. The sapobtained from the tree produces a yellow dye.
Annona senegalensis (wild custard apple, mtopetope), a treeof widespread occurence in Tanzania, whose white pulp ofthe yellow to orange fleshy fruit is edible and has a
pleasant pineaple-like odour and sweet taste. Tf thisspecies if fully known to people, it can be cultivated andfruits sold in the markets, contributing to their economy.A yellow/brown dye is obtained from its bark. The bark,roots and leaves are used in preparation of traditionalmedicine.
Parinari curatellifolia (mbura), a tree widely distrihntedin Tanzania, produces edible pulp from its ripe fruit. Theseed can be pounded and Used to make soup. Seed kernel hasa high oil content that could be extracted for exporttrade.
Par_inari excelsa. (mbura), a species of montane rain forestproduces fruit pulp and kernel that are edible. The fruitpulp could be also used in making local beer. The bark andwood also used to yield tannins for tanning and dyeinghides.
Sy_zyqiunicuminii (mzambarau mwitn, mshwiwi, waterberry), atree of widespread occurence in Tanzania mainland, producesripe fruits that are sweet tasting and edible. Moreover,the fruit is used as a remedy for dysentry and a decoctionof the bark is used as an anti-diarrhoeic drug.
Trichilia emetica (mtimaji), is widespread in Tanzania withthe exception of Miombo woodland and dry thicket belts. Theseed aril of this species can be squashed into a fattymilky suspension that is used for cooking. The oilextracted from the crushed cotyledons is used for soap andcosmetics manufacture. Planting of T. emetica as a sourceoil for both soap making and cooking is greatly emphasizedby the government. T. emetica is reported to be ofmedicinal value.
lntrodution of these, and many other fruit-bearing forest treesto cultivated areas offers both opportunities of improvednntritional value and economic potential to provide cash incomesto the rural communities.
13
sC'ill" in thP. humin montane forPfitfi. flC"efls of this r;pPl.'iefi were once exported by GI\PEX, before its dissolution in 1909.
- bJ)a!ll)l~.~'k.i.~. !lJ.!l9\)rensi~ (msamhu,mkill1i), a tree nhllnclant in Marogoro and Iringa Districts at higher el~vC"tions, produces sC"erls tlwt yi eln a whi tP. fat \.Jhich is ur;p.<.l for ,·lIp SAme purposes as that from 1\. stuhlmannii. The SAP ohtilinerl from the tree pro(lllces n yellow dye.
- ~!!!lQ!:IJ!. !,!~Jl~9.~l.~nsis (wild eust.C\l'Cl apple, mtopetope), n trpp' of wi.despread ()C:(~IH'ence in Tnllzonia, whose white pilip o(
thP. yelJ ow to orilnge f Ip.shy frll it .is edi.hlE" and has a pll?'a~Hlnt pinenple-like odour anrl sweet taste. Tf tllifi spP.cips if fully known to people, it can be cultivaten and fndts sold in the markets, contrihuting to their' erollomy. l\ yellow/brown dye is obtained from its bark. The bork, roots and leaves ore used in preparation of troc]iUonill medicine.
- r.'<H: .. t . .HE-.r.!. Q..1,lLotelljJ'.Q~.i..i! (mh\lro), a tree wirlel~7 clifitrihlltpd in 'I'iHl7.allia, produces edible pulp from its rjpe fruit. Thp seed can be pounded and used to make soup. Seen kernpl has a high oil content that could be extracted for export trade.
r..i!!~ln~r.J._ ~xcel~~. (mbura), a species of montane rain forp.st produces fruit pulp and kernel thot are edible. The fruit pulp could be also Ilsed in making local beer. The b1'\rk ano wood also used to yield tannins for tanning and dyeing hides.
9.Yrrg.i!!!!l £!Jmil!ll. (mzamharau mwitll, mshwiwi, water'her.ry), a tree of widespread occurence in Tanzania mainland, produr.l?s ripe fruits that are sweet tasting and edihle. Moreovpr, the fruit is used as a remedy for dysentry and a deC'octinn of the bark is used as an anti-diarrhoeic drug.
- Trichqii!. emetica (mtimaji), is w.idefiprE>ad in Tanzanja with the exception of Miomho woocllano and dry thlc-'ket bp1.ts. Th(' seeo ari1 of this species can be squashed into a fatty milky suspension that is used for cooking. ThC" oi) extracted from the crushed cotyledons is used for soap and cosmetics manufacture. Planting of T. emetica as 1'\ SOUrf'€'
oil for both soap making and cooking is greatly E>mphas]zed by the government. T. emetica is reported to be o[ me d i (' ina 1 val u e . - ------
Intl-or:1lJtion of these, ono many other fruit-hp.aring foreHt trpes to cultivated 1'\reas offers both opportunities of i.mproved nlll..-it]on<l1 value and economic potelltinl to provide cash i.lleomf?s t.o the rllral r.ommunitief;.
3.1.3.2 Beverages:
Edible fruits of some wild trePs that occupy the driersavannah woodland and bushland sites of Tabora, Dodoma andSingida regions particularly Tamarthdus, indica and Adan.sorAadigjtata are used for preserves and beverage:;'. SubstantialamoInts of fruits of these two tree species are exported to theMiddle East mainly Saudi Arabia, hence they are a source of1ncom0 to the inhabitants of such rural areas.
Bamboo species Oxystehathea abyssinica yields a bamboo wine assonrce of food and income for rural people in certain localitieswhere the grass grows naturally. Recently, a privately ownedplant at Tringa has been brewing the wine for domestic demand.
3.1.3.3 Fungi:
Mushroom consumption in rural areas of Tanzania is notuncommon, especially in Miombo woodland areas of Kahama, KigomaTabora, Shinyanga, Singida, Iringa, Mbeya, Mtwara, Lindi, Ruvumaand Morogoro regions, where there are large variety of theseedible fungi compared to the few varieties found inhabiting thewetter highland sites. In Tanzania, it is estimated that theniimber of edible mushrooms exceeds one hundred species. Ediblemushrooms in these areas also act as a source of income-tocommunal people especially in the rainy season. Cultivation ofmushrooms is not practised in the country, though this couldcreate employment and provide income to people engaged in theindustry as it is commonly experienced in other countries likeJapan, China, where Mushroom cultivation is a viable economicendeavour.
3. 1 .4 Food-Faunal
3.1.4.1 Fish:
Fish for food from the many ponds, streams and rivers, whosesonrces are usually in the mountainous forested areas providefeed protein to the population in rural, as well as urban centressuch as Arusha, Moshi, Morogoro, Sumbawanga, Mbeya, Tanga,Tringa, Songea, Dodoma etc. Fish rearing is a very importantactivity in Arusha region whereby endowed with the numerous lakes- Babati, Duluti, Bassotu, Tlawi, Manyara and man made dams 7
Nyumba ya Mungu dam and the nearby Mtera dam in Tringa, and anumber of fish ponds provide nutritional supplements of feedprotein to the people within the region as well as neighbouringregions of Singida, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro and Tanga. Fromavailable regional statistics for Arusha region it shows thatthere has been n sharp increase in the consumption of fish withinthe region from 490.8 Tonnes valued at 5. 5 m Tsh to 2,839.0TonnPs valued at 72.2 m Tsh in 1986 and 1989 res'pectively (RNRO-Arusha).
1414
3.1.3.~ n~voraqeR:
Edi\l]f' fruits of Rome wi 1<1 tl'Pf'f; thill: occupy thf>. dri"",' ::;avannah woodlrmd and bushl and sites of Tabora, Doc.1oma ilnd 8ill<jjr]a l'""qionf; !Hll't.ir'lJlill"]Y T<!l!1ittl!J.dIH~, tn~:ttci!. <lnd bJl<!!1.!:,!.Q!IJ~~. gi.g.LU!!..C! are used for preservE'S ilnd bf:'Vel"ilg!'!s. Subs l illl t i;d amollll!"s of fruit!:; of th('ose t\"ro tree spp(~ies are exporteo tn thp. Niodlp EilSt ma.inly Sall(li Arilbji'l, henrf' t.hf'Y arf~ (\ SOUrf'li> of. i 111' () m (> tot. he i "It ill> i t illl t::; () f S \I ell r IJI: il I i'll' e as.
Aflmhno spli>r i es Oxy~.t~!!a tJl~~ ab'yss i.!lic~ y ie Ids a b<lmhon wine '" s ;,Ollrr~e of. foorl fHld income for rural people in cprtain locnJit'if's whp}"p the grilss grows n<lturally. Recently, a privilt'ely O\"n",c1 plilllt ill" Tringil IliH; b(>f'n brewi.ng thp. willli> for domestir opmilllo.
3.1.1.1 Fungi:
Mushroom consumpt ion in rllra 1. ill"eilS of Tam~l\n ia is not uncommon, esperially in Miombo woodland areas of Kahama, Kjgoma Taboril, Shinyanga, Singida, Iringa, Mbeya, Mtwara, Lindi, Ruvuma and Morogoro regions, where there are large variety of these pdible fungi compilred to the few varieties found inhilbiting the Wl;>ttf'l' hjghland sites. In Tanzania, it is estimated that the nllmb!'!r of f'dible mushrooms exceeds one hundred species. Edihle mushrooms in these areas also act as a source of income" to communill people especially in the rainy season. Cultiviltion of mushrooms is not practised in the country, t.hough th.is could crefll"p employment and provide 1ncome to people engaged i.n the iIH.i1lr.try as it is commonly experienced in other ('ountriF's ] ike Jilpiln, Chinfl, wher~ Mushroom cultivation 1s a viabJ~ p.~onnmic endeilVOllr.
3. L.4 Food-Faunal
3 . .1 .4. 1. Fish:
Fish for food from the milny ponos, streams and r.iverr;, whoRp. f;Ollrees ar!'! uS1laily in the mountainous forE'sted areas provide feed protein to the poplliation in rurfll ilS well as urban eentreR l'>llrh as Arllsha, Moshi, Morogoro, S1Imbilwanga, Mbeya, '{'nnga, Jl"inqa, Songea, Dodoma et.c. Fish refiring is a very import:ant M·t i vi ty in AruRha region wherehy enoowf>d wi th the numprOllS lilKes - Hahil t i, Ou lut i, Bnssotu, TlflWi, Manyar.a ilnd milll milrlp. rlilmf> -Nyumba ya Mungll dam and the nearby Mtera dam in Iring<l, and a number of f ish ponds provide nut rj t i (lna 1 supplement s of fped protf>ill to the people within the region as well as nejghbouring regionn of Singidfl, Oodoma, Iringa, Klltmanjaro and Tnnga. From avai1.abl~ regional statistics for Arllsha region it shows thilt th01'P hns bef>n il shnrp illrr~ilse in the conRumpti.on of f.i!=;h within the region from 490.8 Tonnes valued at 5. 5 m Tsh to 2,R39.0 Tonnps valued at 72.2 m Tsh in 1906 and 1909 res'pectivf>ly (RNROl\rusha) .
3.1.4.2 Edible insects:
A number of insect species are edible, these includegrasshopers, ants, beetles and termites. They all supplementprotein needs in the food for rural communities throughout thecountry. These are eaten as seasonal sources in most cases,since their availability is seasonal too. Termites, have been,and indeed are still utilized as food by man over a large areaof the World where termites occur. Where there is a scarcity ofprotein-containing food, the contribution which palatable termitespecies like Macrotermes. betlisesus and M,Aatal.ellpisL may offerin order to make up a protein deficiencY m-a'y be considerable.In some areas of rural Tanzania, the cropping of rolonies of thewinged reproductives at a time of leaving the nest, is a sourreof income since roasted alates are sold on the market. The foodprovided by the flying termites is also rich in calorific value(Hickin, 1971).
3.1.4.3 Game meat:
People living in or around forests and grasslands areprovided with food security in the form of cheap proteinsupplements. Game hunting in backward districts of Kiteto andMbulu in Arusha region, for instance is done by poisoned arrows.Certain plants are employed in manufacture of arrow poisons fromthe wild flora of Tanzania. The same toxins are used in waterpoisoning to stan fish and wild game, by the native tribes of theHadzabe and Barbaig inhabiting Mbulu and Singida districtsrespectively, who are believed to be remnants of the Bushman.The Tanzania Wildlife Cooporation (TAWICO) in 1991 hunted 2573wildgame and 25 birds, all valued at 9.6 m Tsh for game meat aswell as trophies from controlled areas outside the parks and gampreserves (RNRO-Arusha). Licensed individuals can also huntanimals for game meat to urban populations in the northerntourist circuit and elsewhere in the country.
3.1.4.4 Honey:
Honey and beeswax products are viable sources of ruralincome, not only in Tanzania, but in many areas in the SADC subregion. At the same time beekeeping provides one economicjustification for the sustainable management of the naturalforests particularily miombo and montane woodlands which possessa number of prolific nectar producing tree species. Beekeepingto a large extent, can serve as an important source of income forthose living in buffer zones surrounding conservation areas, andthe low population pressure within the forest reserves makes themparticularily excellent for Honey and beeswax production. Honeyis a high-carbohydrate food, valued as a source of sweetness anddiversity in the Tanzanian diet (Kihwele and Bradbear, 1989).Honey is highly regarded as a tonic or medicine and is given tonursing mothers and the aged. Honey in Tanzania is widely usedin the manufacture of honey beer which is a lucrative businessas income earner at community level. Honey has also socialvalue, as it is used at various important ceremonies, for examplemarriage and circumcision. This is especially true for Maasai
1515
3.1.4.2 Edihle insects:
A number of insect. specieR are edible, these include grasshoperR, ants, beetles and termites. They all supplement (Hootfdn needs in the food for rural communities throughout the country. These are eaten as seasonal sourct:>s in most cases, since ttlp.ir availnhiJ ity is seasonal too. Termites, have bpen, and indeed are still utilized as food by man over a largp area of thn World whore termites occur. Wher~ there is a scarcity of prott:dn-containing food, the contrIbution which palatable lerm.i.1 p
r; PP(' i e 5 l.i k p r.:1.~~~Lq .. t~T~~E. Q~1..!J&9.1nlJ?_ a nn ~1.! __ ~HLt!!J~I1.~.Lc;. mil y n f r e r ill order to make up a prote in de [ic ienr:'Y meW be COliS iderab.l e. Til some al'eas of rural Tanzania, the cropping of colonies of the wing~d reproductives at a time of leaving the nest, is a source of jllcotne since roasted alates are sold on the market. The food provirJp.d by the flyi.ng t.ermites is also rich in calorif.ic value ( II k I~ in, 1 971) .
1.1.4.1 Game meat:
Pp.opJe living in or around forests ilml grasfiJ'lIHl!'; <1rop
provi(lpd with fooel security in the form of chenp prot.ein supplements. Game hunting in backward dist.rictfi of Kiteto and Mbulu i.n Arufiha region, for instance is done by poisonpd <lrrow!;. Certain plants are empJoyed in m<lnufacture of arrow poi!;ons from the wild flora of Tanzania. The same toxins are used in W<lter poisoning to stan fish and wild game, by the native trihes of the lJ<ldz<lbe and Barbaig inhabiting Mbulu and Singida districtr; reRpectively, who are believed to be remnants of the Oll!;hm<ln. The Tanzania Wildlife Cooporation (TAWICO) in 1991 hunt.ed 2571 wildgame and 25 birds, all valued at 9.6 m Tsh for game mpat ~R well as trophies from controlled areas outside the parks And game reserves (RNRO-Arusha). Licensed indi vidua Is can n lso hunt animals for game meat to urban populations in the northern tourist circuit and elsewhere in the country.
3.1.4.4 Honey:
Honey <lnd bePGwax products are viable sources of rllrill income, not only in Tanzania, but in many areas in the SADe sub rpgion. At the same time beekeeping provides one economic! jllstifiC'<ltion for the sustainable management of the natural forest!; particularily miombo and montane woodlarids which possess a number of prolific nectar producing tree species. Beekeeping t~o a large extent, can serve as an important source nf .il1f'Ome for those living in buffer zones surrounding conservation areilS, and th'" low population pressure withln the forest reservps makes tl1pm p<lrlirularily excellent for Honey and beer;wax production. Honey .1." a high-carbohydrate food, vailled as a ROllrCe of sweetner;s nnd diversity in the ,!'anzClnian diet (Kihwele and Bradbear, 1989). Honey is highly regarded as a tonic or medicine and is given to nllrsing mothers and the aged. Honey in T~nzania is widely used in the mflnufaeture of honey beer which is a lucrative bllSinpl'R as income earner at communi ty leve 1. Honey has <l 1 so 80C ia J v<lllle, as it is used at various important ceremonies, for eX<lmple marriage and circumcision. This is especially true for Maasai
16
people. Since many beekeepers produce and sell their honeylocally to end-users who offer better prices than cooperativesocieties, there are no statistics on the extent of thisenterprise in rural communities. Most of the honey is consumedlocally or sold through unofficial channels.
3.1.5 Non Food-Faunal
Bees wax: The contribution of the beekeeping subsector tnthe economy is quite substantial. Tanzania was once the leaderin the world in the export of beeswax. Beeeswas is a usefulcommodity used locally in a wide range of processes, includingfloor polish, shoe-polish making, candles, taxidermy and cosmeticmanufacture. However, most of beeswax so produced is exported.In many respects bees wax production does not compete with anycrop for local consumption, hence is an ideal export crop forTanzania. Beekeeping is a small scale activity spread all overrural areas in mainland Tanzania, though mainly concentrated inthese regions:- Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, Dodoma, Rukwa,Tabora, Tanga, Mtwara and Lindi. This makes evaluation of theextent of the industry difficult.
3.1.6 Medicinal plants:
The importance of medicinal plants to rural populations-Anthe country has been pointed out under section 2.2.6 above.Suffice to say that, with the exception of Cinchona barks thatare cultivated in the tea producing areas of Lushoto, Amani,Njombe and Mufindi; and used Worldwide for the extraction ofquinine; most of medicinal plant sources come from the wildflora. As it has been pointed out elsewhere, much of forestryoutput remains unrecorded and goes to subsistence consumption aspart of peoples basic requirements such as medicinals, fuelwood,fodder, and the alike. Most of the medicinal herbs is tradedinformally in both rural and urban areas and is thereforeunrecorded. (Rulangaranga, 1991) reviewed indigenous importantmedicinal and aromatic trees from the wild flora of Tanzania thatare suitable for afforestation programmes. A few of theseinclude: Faidherbia albida, a multipurpose tree, from miombowoodlands whose bark is used for coughs and diarrhoea. Thelegume, being a nitrogen fixing species is used in agroforestrysoil enrichment programmes. The fruits provide fodder forlivestock and food for human consumption in times of famine.Acacia mellifera, also a legume from the Miombo woodlands andthorny bushland, the tannin extract from boiled bark is used asa remedy for stomach troubles, primary symphilis, malaria andsterility. Bridelia micrantha, naturally grows on Miombo-woodlands and montane forests of Coast, Iringa, Kagera,Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro and Tanga regions. A decoction ofboiled bark possess Saponins as active principle that curesstomach-ache, tapeworms, diarrhoea in young children. Erythrinaabyssinica, whose active principle(s) Erythrina alkaloids
16
['Pop 1 (>. R i nce milny h~~kf!p.pp.rs produce and ne 11 th0 i r hOIH'Y lor~11y to end-users who offer better prices th~n cooppratjv~ sod ",t i ~s, thl?re are no statistics on the extent of this entF"rpris~ in rural communitles. Most of the honpy is ('on::;lJm~d lo('~))y or so.1d through IJnofficial channp.ls.
3.1.5 Non Food-Faunal
Af'p.r; w~x: The contl'ihut.ioll of lIlp. bf!p.kel"ping fHlhnp.c'l·o,' 10 t hp pconomy is qui te substantial. Tanzania was once thp. le~dpl.in t.he worlel in the export of beeswax. Beep.swas is a 1Ir;l?ful commodHy used locally in a wide range of processes, including flor)r. po]i::;h, shoe-polish making, candles, taxidermy and ('osmetic mnllll f acturp. How~ver, most of beeswax so proc1lH~ec1 .i 13 export pd. r II many rp.f;pect:s bee::; \"ax product ion does not; comp~t e with ilny rrop for loral consumption, hence is an idl?al export crop for Tanzania. Beekeeping is a small scale activity spre~d all over rllral arp.flS in mcdnland Tanzania, though mainly concentrfltE'd in these regions:- Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Sinqjda, Oodom~, RH~~\"a, Tabora, Tanga, Mtwara and LincH. This makes evaluation of the extent of the industry difficult.
3.1.6 MedJcinal p]~nts:
The importilnce of medicinal plants to rural populations· in the country has been pointed out under section 2.2.6 abovp.. Sllffice to say thilt, with the exception of Cinchona barks that are cult i vated in the tea producing areas of Lushoto, Aman i, Njomhe and Mllfindi; and used Worldwide for the extJ"C\cl·.ion of qu.i nine; mos t of med ic ina 1 plant sources come from the wi Id flora. As it has been pointed out elsewhere, much of forestry output remains unrecorded and goes to SUbsistence consumption as part of peoples basic requirements such as medicinals, fuelwood, fodder, and the a like. Most of the medici nal herbs is traded informRlly in both rllral and urban areas and is ther'E'fore unrecorded. (Rulangaranga, 1991) reviewed indigenous important medicinal and aromatic trees from the wild flora of Tanzania that. are suJtable for afforestation programmes. A few of these inr.luor:>: fairlher~Ja 9J.bid<'!., a multipurpose tree, from miomho wood lands whose bark is used for coughs and di arrhoea. ThE' if'gllme, being a nitrogen fixing speciE'S is used in agrofOl"p.Rtr.y f;oil enrichment programmes. The fruits provide fodc1~r for J i vp.stock and food for human consumptl on in ti mes of f i\mi ne. l\<;;ii~ia. mellifera, also a legume from the Miombo woodlands ,md thorny hushland, the t.annin extract from boi.led hark is II see] as a remedy for stomach troubles, primary symphjlis, malaria and !;t(>rility. ~rJ.gelia micrantlU!..t.. nat.urally grows on Miomhowood lands and montane forest s of Coast, Iri nga, K~gera, Kilimnnjaro, Mbpya, Morogoro and Tanga regions. A de~netion of noiled barIc possess Saponins as actjve principle that Cllrl='f; r>tomach-nche, tapeworms, diilrrhoea in young chi Idren. Ery.!JH.:.1 IIi!. ~byssinica, whose active principle(s) Erythrina alkaloids
17
extractPd from the bark of young stems and roots are used totrPat a number of disorders such as trachoma, burns and generalbody swellings, malaria, anthrax, syphillis and snake bite.Rauvolfia caffra, with a wide range of distribution, yieldsalkaloids that are depressants of the Central nervous system.ThP plant also yields a bitter alkaloid that is reported tO haveanti-malaria activity. Reserpine, another alkaloid extractedfrom R..,affra, is used in the treatment of hypertension. R.vomitar la, of limitPd occurrence to Kagera and Kigoma regionsonly, is a source of the alkaloid reserpine which is used as ahypotensive and central nervous system sedative. Otherindigenous tree species of potential medicinal value are as givenin Annex I and their multiple uses are shown in Annex TV of thisreport. Though a number of speciPs of plants growing naturallyin the country are used as drugs in traditional medicine, therPare no readily available sources of information on their activeprinciples, supply, demand etc. There is only scanty informationavailable on medical botany surveys carried out in the countrythat reveal the medicinal uses of plants for differPntPthnic/tribal groups for instance. This means that knowledgelocked in the minds of indigenous peoples are less likely to bediscovered. The Maasai for example, have a reputed knowledge oftraditional medicines in Tanzania, and the selling of herbs torural and urban communities by Maasai women in the country is alucrative preoccupation. Indigenous knowledge is essential forthe use, identification and cataloguing (Farnsworth et al, 1988).
3.2 At National Level:
As previously mentioned under section 3.1.6 and elsewhere,the contribution of forestry to socio-economic development ofTanzania is felt to be substantial, though difficult to quantify.Some Of the produced products are traded informally and thereforeunrecorded. Industrially important raw materials include alsoa wide range of informal sector products (NWFP) -where there areno reliable estimates on their supply and consumption. However,without knowledge on what forests can supply and what is locallyconsumed and exported, it would be difficult to even determinethe contribution of forestry sector to the National economyMoreover, many forestry outputs and services like those relatedto improvement of climate and promoting ecological balance aredifficult to quantify despite their tremendous contribution toother sectors like agricultural livestock development, andwildlife management.
17
p:-;ITiletpo from the bAl'\{ of young f;tpmf; and roots are useel to trPAt a numbpr of djsorrters such as trAchoma, burns and gpneral body s\.el1.ings, malar.i.a, anthrax, RyphilJis and Rnake bitp. B~]lygJ(ia ~3.!J.l .. Lq, wit.h a wide range of dist.ribution, yiplds illkcl!oic.\s that fire depr€'s5AntR of the Centrill nervolls sYRtem. The plant also yields a bitter alkaloid that is reported to havp "nl:i-m<llar1.A flctivity. Reserpinp., another alkAloid extrrwlNl f:rom B .•.. r<trLra, .is used in t.he treatmf"nt: of hYPf"rt.pnr.ion. F.! Y()Jlli.t~J:~~~, of l.imitpd occurrence to Kagera and Kigoma r<'!qions only, is a source of the alkaloid reserpine which is used <IS <I
hypotensive and central nervous system sedAtivp.. Other indigenous tree species of potential medicinal value are aR given in Ann€'x I <lnd their multiple uses are shown in Annex IV of thin rpport. Though a numher of specips of plants growinq naturfl11y in the country are Ilsed as drugs -tn traditional medicine, thE'rp Are no r€'adily available sources of information on their <lctive pri.ne i pIes, supp} y, demflnd etc. There is on ly scanty in (oJ'mill' i.on available on medical botany surveys carried out in the coun1.ry that. reveal the medicinal uses of plants for differPllt ethnic/tribal groups for instance. This means that knowledge locked in the minds of inrtigenous peoplps are less likely to be dJscaverpd. The Maasal for example, have a reputed knowledge of traditional medicines in Tanzania, and the selling of herbs to rural and urban communities by Maasal women in the country is a lllr.ra t i ve preoccupation. Indigenous knowledge is essent ia I [OJ'
the use, identification and cataloguing (Farnsworth et al, 19R8).
3.2 At National Lovel:
As previously mEHltioned under section 3.1.6 and eloewhpr'e, the contribution of forestry to socio-economic development of Tan?an ia is fel t to be substantia 1, though dl fficult to quanti fy. Some of t.he produced products are traded informally and therefore unrecord€'d. I.ndustrially important raw materials include also a wide rang€' of informal sector products (NWFP) - where there are no reliable p.Rtimates on thE'ir supply and consumption. lIowpVl'~r, wi thout knowlE'rtge on what forests can supply and what is locally eonsumed and exported, it would be difficult to even dptermine the contri.bution of forestry sector to the National E'conomy. Mor~ovpr, many forestry outputs and services like those relate~ to improvement of climate and promoting ecological balance are r"liff.i.cuH to Quantify despite their tremendolls eont:rihlltion 10 other sectors Uke agricultural livestock development, and wildlife m<lnagpment.
18
Table 2: Estimated gross value of output in forestbased activities 1988 - 2008
Source: Forestry and Beekeeping Division (1989a) TanzaniaForestry Action Plan 1990/91 - 2007/8 Ministry of Lands,Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam - FirstDraft, 89 pp.
It would therefore appear a lot of vital statistics have to begenerated and recorded if the role of forestry sector to theeconomy of Tanzania is to be realized. From the availablestatistics, the role of NWFP in the economic development ofTanzania can be realized by looking at Table 2 above, extractedfrom the TFAP 1990/91 - 2007/08 (Mgeni, 1990):
From Table 2 above, it can be realized that the contribut ion ofthe Forest sector's to Tanzanian economy is significant. It
represents a total consumption of about Tsh 26 billion per year(Forestry and Beekeeping Division, 1989). Furthermore, thecontribution of wood products is reckoned to be equal to the Nonwood products sector . Forest Sector has also an impact onforeign trade in a form of exports or imports substitution. In1987, for example, about 20% of Tanzania's foreign exchangeearnings originated from the forest based activities.
1980 2008
Activity Tshsmillion
% ofgrandtotal
Tshs in1988 price
% ofgrandtotal
Fuelwwod and charcoal. 9500 34.5 12500 7.0
Building poles 1000 3.7 2200 1.2
Forest industries 3200 11.5 80300 45.3
Wood Total 13700 49.7 95000 53.5
Honey and beeswax 1100 3.8 2240 1.3
Wildlife basedactivities: 9700 35.2 74300 41.9
Others (Wattleextract, fruits,fodder, medicinalplants) 3100 11.3 5760 3.3
Non Wood Total 13900 50.3 82300 46.5
Grand Total: 27600 100.0 177000 100.0
18
T"bl~ :>. : El'itim<lt~d groBs value of. olll'put in forest: based activities 1988 - 2008
19130 ;'.008
Activity Tshs % of Tshs in % of milli01l gril1lcl }q88 Dr l<'e g,'ancl
total tot<ll
Fup)wwod <lnd char.coal 9500 34.5 12500 7.0
Aui.l<iiIH] poles 1000 3.7 2200 1.2
Fon~st industries 3200 11.5 80~00 45.3
Wood Total 13700 49.7 95000 53.~
HOlley and beeswax 1100 3.8 2240 1.3
Wi 1 ell ife ba!':ed acUvi.ti.es: 9700 35.2 74300 41..9
Oth.;>rs (Wattle extra(~t , fruits, fodder, medicinal plants) 3100 11.3 5760 3.3
Non Wood Total 13900 50.3 82300 46.5
Grand Total: 27600 100.0 177000 100.0
Source: Forestry and Beekeeping Division (1989a) Tanzania Forestry Action Plan 1990/91 - 2007/8 Ministry of [,and!), Nat.ural Resources and T01lrism, Dar es SaJaam - Firsl' Draft, 89 pp.
It \.,ould therefore appear a lot of vi.tal statistics IHlVP to he genprAted and recorded if the role of forestry sector to the pronomy of Tanzan in is to be rea] ized. From the ava i 1 ab 1 p
statistics, the role of NWFP in the economic development of Tan~anin ('<III be rea1i~pd by looking at Table 2 ahove, pxtrAct~rl from the TFAP 1990/91 - 2007/08 (Mgeni, 1990):
FI'om Table 2 above, it can be realized that the cOIlt:ribul ion of the Forest sector's to Tanzanian economy is significant. It represpnts a total con~umption of about Tsh 26 billion per year (Forpl'itry and BeekeE'p.ing Division, 1989). Furthermore, the contl'ibuUon of. wooel productr. is reckoned to be equ<ll to lhe NOll \.JOod products fleetor. ForE>st Sector has also an impact on forp.ign trade in a form of. export.s or imports substitution. Tn 1 Q87, for example, about 20% of Tanzania' s fore i.gn p.xclHlnge e~rnings originated from the forest based actjvities.
19
Wildlife ased activities are projected to increase theircontribution seven-folds by year 2008.
Table 3 shows Foreign Trade Export statistics for the majorNWFP in Tanzania between 1988 - 1992.
* Projection figures, 1992
Source: Annexes II and III of this report.
3.2.] Wildlife based activities:
From Table 3, wildlife activities contributed about 90% offoreign exchange for years 1989 and 1991. Wildlife basedactivities include trade in Animal trophies, live animals andTourism itself. By far, tourism is the biggest revenue earnerin the NWFP Sector. The contribution of Tourism to economicdevelopment of the country has been increasing especially since1986 when the number of tourists who visited the National parksand game reserves for game hunting, viewing, photography,trophies collection has doubled (Annex III). This newdevelopment, is partly due to the concerted efforts by theGovernment in making tourism a more profitable industry.
A number of animal trophies. harvested from controlled gamereserves enable the country to earn substantial amounts in termsof foreign exchange. The animals so killed provide food securityand income generation, employment opportunities in theircollection, trade and foreign exchange from the sale of collected
Table 3: Export Trade Statistics for Selected NWFP 1988/92
Valne in Mill. US $
Product 1988 1989 1990 1991 (.Jan-Tuno}1992
Honey 0.024 0.015 0.078 0.117Roes wax 0.793 0.510 0.566 2.451 0.720Gum arable 0.356 0.264 0.370 0.940 0.099Cinchona bark 0.163 0.266 0.265 0.258 0.098
Wattle mimosaextract 4.371 2.855 1.787
Raw rubber 0.369 0.914Wood carvings 0.728 0.195 0.104Wildlife acti-vities:Animal trophies 0.258 0.395 0.587 0.013 1.338Live animals 0.856 1.057 3.964 0.593 0.080Tourism 40.400 60.974 65.000 94.730 138.300*
Grand Total: 67.974 104.064
J9
Wi lel Ii fp. bClsp(j act i vi ties C\r~ projected to iucreClfH:> I hp i r c(mtribllt.ion sevl?n-folds by year 2008.
TRhll? 3 shnwf' FOl'eign Trade Export nl.atisticf' for the major NWFP i.n TRllzania between 1988 - 1992.
Product
Jlol1PY npPrl wax Gum Clrahic C ilH'hona hark
Wattle mimosa extrRct
Raw rubber Wood r'Clrvingf' W ildl He activHies: Ani.mal trophies Live animals Tourism
Grand TotCll:
1988
0.024 0.793 0.356 O. 163
0.258 0.856
40.400
* Projection figures, 1992
1989
0.015 0.510 0.264 0.266
4.371
0.369 0.728
0.395 1. 057
60.974
67.974
V"lI1P in Mlll. llH $
1990
0.078 0.566 0.370 0.265
0.587 3.964
65.000
1991
0.117 2.451 0.940 0.258
2.855
0.914 0.195
0.013 0.593
94.730
104.064
(.J ,m-.Tlln!") lQC}?
0.77.0 0.099 0.0<)8
1.7fl7
0.1.04
1 .330 0.080
1:10.300*
Source: Annexes II and III of this report.
3.2.1 Wildlife bafied actj.vities:
From Table 3, wildlife activities contributed about 90% of [ort?ign exchange for years 1989 and 1991. Wi.1dJ ire hRsp,d activi.ties include trade in Animal tr.ophies, live animals and Tourism itnelf. By far, tourism is the biggest revenue el'lrnpr i.n t.he NWFP Sector. The contribution of Tourism to ~conomic dpve1.opm~nt. of the country has been increasing especiAlly sinre ]906 when the number of tourists who visited the National pl'lrks Rnd gl'lme reserves for game hunting, viewing, photography, trophi~s collection has doubled (Annex III). This nt?w rlf>vt? I opment:, is partly due to the concerted ef forts by the Govt?rnment in making tourism a more profitable industry.
A numhpr of nnimal trophies harveRtecl from (·ontro1.1pd qnme reserv~s enable the country to earn substantial amounts i.n terms of forPlqn f=>XChnngfl. The anjmals so kil1.ed provide foocl RerUI"ity and income gl?neration, employmf>nt opportunities in thplr co]l~ction, t.rade and foreign exchange from the sale of collected
20
trophies. Tourist hunting for live anima ].s including birds, isdone by a number of Tourist companies, mostly found in Arusha andMara regions. Owing to Government ban on illegal bird trade ofsuch species like brown parrots, lovebirds etc; the earnings fromliVP animals has decreased substantially from about 4 mili. US$in 1990 to less than 0.6 mili US $ a year after. The majormarkets for Tanzania 's wildlife products include Japan, FederalRepublic of Germany, Belgium, Norway, USA, UK, Canada and France.
crocodile rearing is being encouraged by the private sector,as seen in Dar es Salaam and Kilombero valley in Morogoro, forskins to support the leather industry in future.
3.2.2 Honey and bees wax:
potential honey and beeswax producing areas include western,central as well as southern Tanzania which have good environmentfor the product ion of these products. Since most of the honeyis sold unofficially, it is difficult even to know the level ofdomestic demand for this product. It is believed that bees waxand honey are also exported unofficially, largely to neighbouringKenya, where price offered is more attractive. Estimates put theannual production levels of honey and beeswax at 5000T and 330Trespectively. Currently known honey and bees wax exports arevalued at a minimum of 2.5 mill. US $ per annum. Prior to 1991,there has been a decline in exports of honey and beeswax, becauseof the policies within Tanzania, while world demand for theseproducts has increased rapidly.
The major markets for honey has been the Middle Eastcountries particularly the U.A. Emirates; whereas for bees waxmain importers are Germany Federal Republic, Japan and the UnitedKingdom.
3.2.3 Tannin Extract:
Tannin extract from wattle bark as raw material, is prodncedby two export-oriented milis (Tanganyika Wattle Company Ltd. inNiombe, and Giraffe Extract Company in Lushoto) where totalcapacity is 11000 tons per annum; but actual production is in theregion of 5,000 tons of extract per year. The Giraffe Extractmill has a rated capacity of 2000 tones per annum of grannulartannin and the other mill 9000 t/a of ordinary powder, highquality solid and green strips. Production at the TanganyikaWattle Company has in the 1980s been 4500 to 5000 tonnes ofextract per annum, whereas in recent years the ontput hasdeclined to between 3500 and 4000 t of extract per annum. Theraw material wattle bark for these mills come from the TanWatt'sown wattle plantations as well as individual farmers' woodlots.For the Giraffe Extract mill at Lushoto, the raw materials areextracted from Magamba Forest Project nearby as well asoutgrowers in the vicinity.
The mangrove species Rhizophora. mticrouta and Ceriops tagalalong the coast, were widely used for tannin extraction until thelate l960s in Tanzania (Bryce 1967); but their harvesting has
20
tl'ophi'!5. 1'nudst hunting for live anim<lls inclucUng b.il.'Cls, is c1nllf'> by " T1llrnhl?r of Tourist cnmpanies, mostly found in J\ruRh<l i'l1l(l Mi'lra p'0inlls. Owing to r;overnm~nt biln on illegal bird tracle of such specips like brown parrots, lovebirds ~tc; the earninql; from live iHl i mn 1 s heH; decreflRed subr; t<lnt. 1.n 11 y from ahout 4 mil]. UflC in 1990 to lp.ss thnn 0.6 mill us $ <I YE'ilr <lfter. The miljor Oli'lrkp\.s (or Ti'lTl7.flnia's wildlifp prnol1els include .1<1Pi'lll, FNlerfll Rppllb 1 j c 0 f Germany, Be 19 j urn, Norway, US.~, UK, Cilnnda and Fri'll1rf!.
cl'flCoclile r'~orillg is bpillC] enc'ollraqed hy t.he pI'h·;"I ('" spr:t.01', nS p,p('n in Di'lr el; Sal;"'lm nnd Kilombf"ro v<ll.lPy in Moroqnrn, for skin" 1'0 support the leather inclufltry 1n future.
l.??. Honey one) bees WrlX:
poI~1l1 in1. hOlley nnd bep.swnx pro(lucing iH"PM; ilwllldt"> wp"tern, ('plltrfll nS w~ll as sOllthprn 'ranzania which havp good ~nvi ronmpnt fOl' I he PI'oollct i.on of these pr.oducts. Sinr.e most of the horH"Y is sold Illlofficiillly, it is difflcult p.ven to know th,.. Ipvpl of dompr;tjc demilnd for this product. It is believed that bp.ps W<lX and hOlley are also exported unoffir.i<llly, largely to neighbouring Kf'nYfl, where price offerpd is more attracti.ve. Estimates Pllt the annual prodllction lpvels of honey and beeswax at 50001' and 330'1' rE'spect iv(>ly. Currently known honey and bees wax I;!xport.s are valupo at a minimum of 2.5 mill. US $ per annum. Prior to lQql, thern has been a decline in exports of honey and beeswax, beCaURp. of thp policieR within 'J'nnzania, while world demand for tllp.RI;! prociucts has increased rapidly.
The major markets for honey has been the Mi.ddlp East ('ollnt:rif's parUcularly the U.J\. Emirates; whereils for h(>PR WilX mn i n importers are Germany Federal Rl;!public, Japan and the Uni t~d Kingnom.
3.2.3 Tannin Extract:
Tannin p.xt:ract fr.om wattle bark as raw material, is proc\lIr.en hy two export-oriented mi Us (Tanganyika Wattle Company rJtd • .in N jomhe, and Giraffe Extrar.t Company in IJushoto) where I.oti'll r.APilf:' i. ty is 11000 tons per annum; but actual product i.on is in t.he rpgion of 5,000 tons of extract per year. Tile Glraffe Extra~t mill has a rated capacity of 2000 tonE'S per annum of grF.lnnulnr t;1I1Tlin ann the othp.r. mill 9000 t/a of ordinary powder, high qUAlity soli.d and green strips. Production at the Tang<lnyika Watt.le Company hilS in the 19ROs ]'(>en 4500 to 5000 t.onrlPs of ext rae't PP.t" annum, whp.reas in reCE'nt ye<lrs thp. output 11<\15 dp.c.1 inNl t.o hetwPp.Tl 3500 And 4000 t of extract per <lnnum. 'rhe rnW matE'rial wattle bark for these mills come from the 'J'anWatt's own wattlE" pl<lntations as well as individual farmers' woodlotR. For the Giraffe Extract mill at Lushoto, the raw materials are extrflcted from Magamba Forest Project nenrby as well as olltgrowers in the vicinity.
The mnl1grovp. spec j eR Bhizoph0T:.Cl 1!1.1.!£!,_qI\9ta And ~erlQI?.~ __ t~.g~.! a long the coast, were widely used for tann in extract ion lint i 1 Lhe Inte 1960s in Tanznnia (Bryce 1967); but their har.vesting has
21
been restricted since then. In view of the nPeds to protectmangrove forests, it is not realistic to consider them as a
potential source of raw material for tannin production, thoughthe Government has again opened them for harvesting. Themangroves, besides providing tanning barks and poles; they alsoprovide good breeding zones for certain types of fish along thecoas t:
The bulk of the extract produced continues to be exportedmainly to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Syria and Thailand.Average annual exports of 4000 tonnes earning the country over2.5 mill. HS $ in foreign exchange is supplied by Tan Watt alone.A small quantity of wattle extract is used in the local tanneriesas well as natural glue in plywood manufactpre of potentialvalue.
3.2.4 Gum arabio:
Annually, about 1000 tonnes of gum arable are collected.Half of this amount is exported to Austria, Germany FederalRepublic, India and Sri Lanka, earning the country foreignexchange.
Like other non wood products, gum arable is sold locally andis also exported unofficially. The product is tapped from wildacacia woodland trees in the semi arid natural forests ofSingida, Arusha, Shinyanga and Tabora regions. The products havea great potential for increased exports with sufficient economicreturn.
3.2.5 Cinchona barks:
The barks, collected from cultivated Cinchona. species -c41isaya, C. ledgeriana, C. officinalis and C. pubescens areimportant export produce that earns Tanzania foreign exchange inthe region of 0.25 mill. US $ per year. Most of the product isproduced by the private sector (Mazumbai Quinine factory)alongside with tea cultivation.
The bulk of Cinchona bark produced is exported to Belgium,United Kingdom and the Netherlands to be utilized inphamaceuticals. Together with Cinchona tree species, there isa large number of medicinal and aromatic plants, many of whichcould offer possibilities for small scale collection andprocessing.
ohly small amounts of essential oils are exported, mainlyto the United Arab Emirates.
3.2.6 Raw rubber
Labour costs in rubber tapping from living rubber trees inplantation may account for 70-80% of total production costs.Though at present, only about 20 tonnes- of crude rubber isexported to mainly Singapore and Syria; the product has a highdemand in the tyre industry. More land has to be planted with
21
I.IN>1l ,'pstrich:,o sinep. thpn. Tn view of thf' npe(lfi t.o [H'otpcl: m<lnqrovE' forests, it is not rE'alistic to consiof'r thpm nS n potenl:inl sourcp. of raw materjal for tannin produrl'ion, tholl<]h the Govprnmp.nt has again opE'ned them for harvesting. The mf'lnqrovps, hesidps providing t.anning bArlu; <'md poles; thpy nlso provide good brpeding ~onps for certain types of fish nlong tl,p COil S t: •
Ttlp 1)11] k of the pxl:rrwt produced cOlll·i.nl1es t.o he l'>)\pol'I(~c1
mAinly to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Syria and Thailand. 1Iv(>" .. 1<1'" (lnnufll I"'xports of 4000 t'orlllPS pnrnin<] thp c'ntllltr'y ov(\r' 2.~ mill. tIS $ in foreign exchange is supplied by Tan Watt alolle. 11 smn\) ql1<lntity of w(lU-lf' extraet is lHHHi in the lor.fll tflnnf'rips as w",ll as natural glue in plywood manufartJlre of potp.ntial vallle.
],?.4 Gum arabi.c::
1Innuf'llly, flbollt lin 1 f of th is amount Rppllh 1 i (' , I nd in and exchange.
]000 tonnes of gum arabic arf' c'ol.lpctp(]. j 5 exported to lIufltria, Germany FNlprnl. Sri LAnka, earning the country foreiqn
L,ike other non wood products, gum <'Ir(\bic is sold loc<lll.y and is also exported unofficially. The product is tapped from wild aCAcia woodl(\nd trees in the semi arid natural forests of Singicla, lIrusha, Shinyanga and Tabora regions. ThE' product shave A grf'at potE'nti(\l for increased exports wi th sufficient economic return.
::1.2.5 Cinc:hona barks:
The ba['ks, collectE"'d from rultivated ~inch2.!li\ specips - L~ £_~)..i~'!Ya, C. ledgeriana, C. officinalis and C. pubesc~ns al-e important export produce that earns Tanzania foreign ex~h~ngE' in thp rE'gion of 0.25 mill. US $ per year. MOnt of thE' pro(11lrt if; produced by the pri.vate sector (Mazllmbai Quinine factory) Rlongflide with tea CUltivation.
The blllk of. r.inchona bark produced is export-pd to B~lgi\.lm, llnited Ki.ng~lom and the NetherJanos to be utilized in phamc'H'f'ut i en j s, To~~ethp.r with C; nchona tn~e spec i P.S, thp.T'f' i.I; a ]a,'gE' number of medicinal and aromat.ic plants, many of. whir'lI could offer possibjljties for small scale collec.'tion .\11(1 processing.
nnly small amounts of essential oils are exported, m(\illly to thp United Arab Emirates.
l.;),.fi Raw rubher
r,(lhollr eor.ts ill rubher ti'\ppinq from 1 ivhlg rllhhpr t:r'(,(>s .in plalltation may accoull1- [0)- 70-80% of total production costs. Though (It present, only about 20 tonnes' of crude rl.lbbp.r i.n E'xported to mainly SingRpore and Syria: t.he product has a hifJh clpmand in the tyre indufitry. More land has to be plnntPfl wi t.h
22
rubber trees in the humid, sub-tropical areas so as to meet thegrowing demand for rubber products both internally andexternally.
3.2.7 Wood Carvings:
The famous Makonde carvings from Tanzania, have high demandin Japan, USA, Germany, Uganda and other countries. The mainwood species used in carvings are Dalbergia melanoxylon,Combretum molle, Brachylaena huillensis etc. In most cases thewood that is used in carvings could otherwise be left in theforest to rot. For the country, it is necessary to makeconcerted efforts to achieve drastic improvement in the exportperformance through better marketing of traditional exports anddevelopment of non-traditional exports like wood carvings. Mostof wood carvings are made by small craftsmen in rural Tanzaniaespecially in Lindi and Mtwara regions.
3.2.8 Naval stores:
As out.]ied under section 2.2.8.5 above, the existing pineplantations could be a source for naval stores, gum rosin andturpentine obtained by tapping mainly from the living trees ofPinus elliottii, P. caribaea and to a lesser extent, of young P.p_pla. Major potential sources of supply are within theseforest projects; Sao Hill in Iringa; Buhindi and Rubya inMwanza; Rondo in Lindi; Matogoro in Ruvuma; Ruvu in Coast region;Rubare in Kagera and Ukaguru in Morogoro region. Preliminarytapping yield trials done at Sao Hill Forest project to find outthe likely yields, have indicated that there is an abundantpotential supply of resins from the industrial forests; hencejustifying the development of naval stores-based industry inTanzania. The product quality and market acceptabilities havealso been studied, and initial results suggested that the qualitywould be acceptable for export.
Since the sizing chemicals for paper making are presentlyimported to Tanzania by the Southern Paper Mills (SPM) as wellas the Kibo Paper Mill; the development of gum rosin extractionwould therefore, be well suited for the country to substitntethese imports.
4. INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
As stated elsewhere in the proceeding chapters that, despitethe potential importance of the NWFP to community as well asnational economies, these products have not received desirableattention in forestry activities, which inclnde Research,Development, Investment and Planning. The NWFP Sector, likeother sectors in the country is being faced with a host ofproblems that hinder its development with available limitedresources. However, once the constraints are identified then dueattention ought.to be directed towards sustainable utilisationof those NWFP that have the greatest potential for development:-Wildlife related activities, Tannin extracts, Beekeepingproducts, Gum arabic, traditional medicines and naval stores.
7.2
ruhher: lrCPFi in the humid, r.ub-tropicil1 growjng demilnd for ruhber products P.X" P rnil 11 y •
J.2.7 Wood Carvi.ngs:
ilrear. so as to m0pt th~
both interna lly ann
Th~ f",nouR MnkOTlrle cnrvlngs from TCln7.an.ia, helVe hiqh demand ill Jnpan, USA, Germany, Uganda and other count.ries. Thp main woo(l spec'tel'; used in carvings are J2<lH?~_~gia mej..i!!}9.lCy.l9n, ~.Q.!J.l.!?ret.~.!Lmolle, Brachylaena huillensis .etc. In most caspf'i t hp wood that is Uflp.d in cClrvil1gs could othprw.ise be left in the forl?Pot to rot. For t.he country, it is neCPI';I';I\ry to mnb~ roncprled efforts to achieve drastic improvpment in thp pxport ppr fOl"manee through bet tel' market ing of tradi tiona 1 export.s ill1(l !.lr>vplopment of non-traditional export5 lik~ wood cilrvinqr.. Host of wood carvings are made by sma 11 cra ftsmen in rura 1 '1'an7.an i il espeL'ially in Lincli and Mtwnra regions.
3.2.8 Naval stores:
AI'; ouUiTlp.d IHlder sect.iotl 2.7..fl.!) ahove, t.he pxistillc,t pil1P plantations could be a source for naval storps, gum rosin And tllrprmtine obtained by tapping mainly fr.om the living trees or .r.illl!E __ ~liottil., P. caribaea and to a lesser extent, of young ~ Il.CJ.U!Ja. Najar. potpnti,al sources of supply are with.in these forest P,"ojPcts; Sao Hill in Iringa; Buhindi and Rubya in ~lwi'ln7.il: Rondo .in t,indi; Matogoro in Rllvuma: Ruvu in COnst ,'egion: Rllbare in Kagera and tlkaguru in Morogoro region. PrE'liminnry tapping yield trials done at Sao Hi 1.1 Forest projPct to find Ollt the likely yields, have indicated that there is an abundant pot(mt ial supply of resins from the inrlustrial fOr.f~st.f>: helwe just Hying the development of naval stores-based industry in Tnnzrm ilL The pr.oduct qua Ii ty and market accepti'lhi Ii t..i es hi'lve ",150 bl?en studied, and inHial results suggested that the qualil'y would be accE'ptahle for export.
Since the si7.ing chemicals fo~ paper mi'lking are prPRPntly imported to Tanzania by the SOllthern Pap€'r Mj lIs (RPM) 1\1'; we] I HS the Kibo Paper Mill: the development of gum rosin extraction would therefore, be wp.ll suited for the country to 1>uhstHlll'p. thpse imports.
4. INSTITUTIONAl, RERPONSIBTl,ITY
As stated elsewhere i.n the proceeding chapters that, despi tP. the potential importance of the NWFP to community as wp.ll ilFi nat.ional p.conomjes, these products havE' not receivpd flesh'able attention in forestry activities, which include Research, Dl?ve lopment, Investment and Planni ng. The NWFP flector, like other se(~torn in the conntry is heing faced with a host of prob lems thClt hinder its development with ava i lable limit eel resourcp.s. However, once the constraint.s are i.dentified then dlw Clttention ought to bp. directed towards sustainAble 'Itiljs~tion of thosp. NWFP that have the grentp.st potential for rlevelopment:Wildli.fe rp.latec1 activities, Tannin extrClcts, 13el?k('eping products, Gum arabic, traditiollC\l menieinps i'lnd nC\val storeR.
4.1 Organisational structure
1.1.1 Responsibilities:
The Wildlife Division together with the Tourism Division areresponsible for state activities in the management and controlof wildlife related activities. These, together with theTanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) control theutilization of animal trophies, live animals throngh permits totourist companies, individuals in the national parks and othercontrolled game reserves.
The Forest nd Beekeeping Division on the othet- hand, is
responsible for a wide range of state activities in theManagement and control of wood and non-wood products such ashoney and beeswax, tannin extract, bamboo and other fibreproducts, resins, latex and gums. The Division controls theutilization through permits and royalty collection from sales ofvarious products. To a large extent the Private Sector, andCooperatives (e.g. Tabora Beekeepers' Co-operative Society -TBCSan(1 Arusha Beekeepers' Association - ABA etc) and parastatalorganisations like Handeni Honey Processing Plant HHPP areresponsible for honey and beeswax production. For tanninextract, the jointly - owned Government and CDC mill is to alarge extent responsible for the bulk of tannin extract productsexported annually. To a lesser extent, the parastatal mill theGiraffe Extract is also responsible for production and marketingof wattle mimosa extract. Mangrove bark export has been on adecline for some time now. The General Tyre (E.A.) Ltd.. aparastatal organisation is wholly responsible for crude rubberproduction and manufacture into rubber products in the country.The Fisheries Division, is responsible for state activities andmanagement and control of fisheries. Indeed, the traditionalpractitioners in Tanzania, are still responsible for primaryhealth care to the majority of the puplation; hence with theestablishment of the Traditional Research Unit of MuhimbiliMedical. Centre, the Government has recognized the need to gatherknowledge and attitude of traditional medicines, to cultivateboth medicinal and aromatic plants and consequently conservetraditional medicinal plants.
The Private Sector plays an important role in the cosmeticsindustry both meeting domestic and export trade. For cinchonabarks production, the bulk of the export is handled by theprivate sector. This is also true with gum arabic extraction andmarketing. The Government, through its Wildlife Division ismobilizing the private sector to establish crocodile and frogsrearing farms to support leather industry, and provide game meat,as evidenced at Hambo Crocodile farm, Boko 'village near Dar esSalaam.
4.1.2 Coordination structure
The present organization of the forestry sector as well asother related sectors of Natural resources, is characterized bylack of a direct chain of command, which in itself is a serious
2323
4.1 Organifiational fitructure
J.l.1 Refiponfiihilities:
Till" Wildlife OiviRi.on together wi.th the 1'ourism Oivinion are reRponRibll" for state activities in the management and control of wildlifp rr-~lated a~tivitier,. TheRe, together wil:h tht:> Till1zania National Parlts Authority (']'ANAPl\) cOl1trol tht:' 111';1 iZ(lt.ion of (lll;mal trophies, live flnim(llR thro"gh pp,-mits 1:0 tOllriRt compan]Ps, innividuals in the national parl~s ann other ('on ITO I 1 t:'d gC'lme reserves.
'l'h~ FOT'PRt. illHl Rpr>Ke('ping njvisioll Oil the oIIH'I- halHl, in r P f;pol1sihlf'> for a w.ide rangl" of statp activities ill thp ~li'llHlqp.mf'>nt i\no control of wood and non-t%od pro(h1<~ts hlldl aH
honey Rnd beeswax, tannin extract, bamboo and other fibre pror:iuet:s, resins, latex and gum5. The Divir.ion eontrol" the l.lt.i l;7,i\tion through permits and royalty collection fl'om salt:'!; of V1\r.io11s products. To a large extent the Privatl" Sector, and CooperativE'S (e.g. Tabora Bt:>ekeepers' Co-opE'rativE' Society - TRCS anel Arusha Beekeepers' Association - ABA etc) ilnd paT'ilRtatl.ll organisations like Handeni Honey Processing Plant HHPP arp respons ible for honey and beeswax pronl.1cti on. for tiU1I1 i.lI extract, the jointly - owned Government and CDC mill iA to a large extpnl refiponsible for the bulk of tannin extract pro~ucts f'>xported annually. To a lesst:>r extent, the parastatal mill thp GirAffe Extract is also r~sponsible for production and m~rkeli"g of wattle mimosa extract. Mangrove bRrk export has been on a dE>rlinf.' for some time now. The General Tyre (F..A.) Ltn. n paral3tatal organisation is wholly responsi.ble for cr1lde rubber prodlH't ion and mnnuf<lcture into rubber products in t.he cOllntJ-Y. ThE' Fisheries Division, i.s responsible for state activitif'>s and mnnagement and Gontrol of fisheries. Indeed, the trndi.tionnl pract.itioners in Tanzania, are still responsible for· pri.mary health care t.o the majority of the puplation: lienee \o/i.t.1l t:h~~ pstahl i.shment of the Traditional Research Unit of Mul1imbi 1 i. Mediral Centre, the Government hRS recoqnizen the need to gather knowledgE' and attitude of traditional medicines, to cultivnte both medici.nal and aromatic plants and consequently conse,-ve traditional medicinal plants.
The Pr.ivate Sector plays an import<Hlt roll" in the ('()mn~ti('r:; indu5try both meeting domestic and export trade. For cinchona bClrks production, the bulk of the export is hnndlN] by the private sector. This is also true with gum arabic extr~ction and mi\rl~eting. The Government, through its Wil(llife Divis.ion is mobilizing the private sector to establish crocodile and frogs renri.ng farms to suppor.t leathf'r industry, and provide gamp meat, as pvidenced at Hambo Crocodile farm, Bokovillage near Dar el3 Hi'lliHlm.
4.1.2 Coordination structure
The present organization of the forestry sector as well ClS ot.her reUtted Rectors of Natural resources, is chllracter i zed hy lack of ~ direct chain of command, which in itsf'lf ih a F.<>rious
24
structural hindrance to any kind of smooth flow of commnnicationand implentation of various policies.
Suffice to say that the role of the Government extensionservices in NWFP informal sector is ineffectual, despite the factthat Tanzania has a large number of Government employees thatpossess qualifications in various fields such as beekeeping.Generally, there is a lack of information and ro-ordination atnational and sub-national levels in.most fields. With theGovernment policy on decentralised organisation system wherebyrespective sectoral District Natural Resources Officers andrespective sertoral Regional officers are responsible to RegionalNatural Resources Officers; neither District nor Regional NaturalResources officers need have knowledge in every field of theNatural resources sub-sector. Moreover, none of theextensionists are answerable to Divisional Directors al theMinistry. Hence, it is impossible for NWFP sector to functionin a unified way. For products like gum.arabic, cinchona harksand traditional medicine, generally, there is no line authorityto national agency since the Private sector buys and processesthe products from producers themselves. The private sector alsomarkets aromatic products without much intervention from theCentral Government. However, there is a weak coordinationstructure between the Government and the private sector too.
4.1.3 Rel at onsh ip wi th producers/Market agents .
There is limited Government intervention in production,processing and trade of major non-wood forest products throughimport and export duties. For certain NWFP like honey, woodcarvings, handicrafts, dyeing and colouring materials etc tradeis between the producer and importer. The public sector however,provides transport infrastracture for NWFP for instance, tanninextracts from Tanwatt Company, rail/road transport to Dar esSalaam port; and shipping facilities. Road and air transportfacilities for live animals, birds and other related products.
Individual enterprises, such as TanWatt and Board ofExternal Trade are represented on marketing boards. These, toan extent, do influence government policy on NWFP development.
4.1.4 Financial aspects
As stated elsewhere, nearly all. large NWFP enterprises areprivately owned, with exception of wildlife related products thatare run by local and Central Governments. Honey and beeswaxprodncts are owned by Cooperatives as well as parastatals. Noneof major NWFP enterprises have ever received any government-support in terms of machinery or foreign funds. Capital basestructure of various plants is inadequate, hence financialconstraints that affect production capacities are not easened.However, with the Government's wise decision to liberalise tradein 1986 and to make foreign exchange readily available byintroducing incentives to exporters in the form of retentionschemes and opening of Bureau de Change shops; the mills andCooperative Societies within NWFP sector will benefit more, since
24
strllctural hindr.ance to ;IIlY ki.nd of smooth flow of commllnicntioll amI jmplentation of vari.o1ls policies.
Rllff.ice to say t.hrlt. the role of the r,ovP,t:"nment eX\."Pllsinll HPJ'vices in NWFP info1'ma 1 sect.or is ineffectual, despite the filct that: Tanzania hfls a lar'ge number of Governmpnt employeps t'hi'lt possess qllali fir.ations in various fields such as beeltepping. nf'T1erally, there is (\ Ji'lek of .inform<\tion an(\ co-onlin«t ion itt nf\tion;~l ilnd sllb-national levels in' most fields. Wit.h thp (;OV'!T'nmf>lIt po] ir:y 011 c]'H'E>ntr:nJ i.nNl org;lIlin"I' ion syr.I nm whprehv rpf>pp('t i ve sect.ora 1 Di.st1'i ct Natura I Resources Of f icers An(l T'f'sppctivP. sertorAl Regional offi.cen; Are responsible to Reqionn\ Natural Regollr<~f"S Officers: neither District nor Rp9i.ona] Nnt.ul'n) Rf'SOllrr'eR officprs llPed hClve knowledge in every field of tile Nnt1lrAl rpf>ourcpS sub-sector.. Moreover, nOI1P. of thP. pxtPIIsionistr. «rP. answerable to Divisi.on«} Djn:'rton; ill' I'lIp Millistry. Hence, 1.t is impossible for NWFP sector to fllnction in a unifiP.o way. For products ]jke 9um.arahic, ein<'hol\rl hilr'k!; ,mc] trMlit.ional mp.djcine, generally, there is no Une allthority t.o nati,onrl] agency flince the Pr.iv<\te sector buyr; and prO('er;flNi t.hP. products from pr.oducers themselves. The private sector also mflrketfl aromat i.e pro(lucts wi.thout milch intervention from the Cent ra 1 Government. However, there is a weak coordj na t i all
5trll(~tul'e between the Government and the pr i vate sector too.
1.1.3 Relationship with producers/Mnrket agents.
There is limited Government intP.rvent.ion in produc'tion, proeeflsinq <\n(1 trade of major. non-wooel forest proollC'ts t:hrol\qh import and export dut ies. For certa in . NWFP like honey, wood carvings, handicrafts, dyei.ng and colouring mrlteriflls etc trnde is bp.t ween the producer and importer. The publ i.e f;C?ctor howevp.r, provides trflnsport infrastractllre for NWFP for inr.tnnre, tiHlllill px t rart s from T<\nwa tt Company, ra i l/road tranfiport. to Dar es ::l<\l<lam port: and shipping faci.lit.ies. Road And air t:rflnsport fa('ilities for live animals, birds and other related products.
Individual enterprises, such as TanWatt Clnd Board of External Trade are represented on marketing boards. These, to an extent, do influence government policy on NWFP devp.]opm~IIt..
4.1.4 Financial aGperts
As ,,;tRt.p.d elsewhere, neClrly all ]rtt'ge NWFP P.l\tf'l'[ll'iIH~r-; .1r0.
privi\tC?ly owned, with exception of wi.ldlife related prodllC'tfi thi\t. C1re run by local and Centra 1 Government r.. Honey and hep.RWi\X
prodllcts are owned by roopprrltives as well as pClrastat.als. Nonp of major NWFP enterpr iRes have ever received Flny gove1'fJntfmt support in terms of machinery or foreign funds. CClpital bage strllcture of variour. plClnts is inrldef1l1atc?', hptlce filHIl\cinl constraints that affert prodllct1.on capacities are not p.asened. lIol"pvP.r, with the Government.'s wi.se decifdon to libpl'alis0 ITflrle jll 1986 and to mi\ke foreign exchange rPR(li1y availab]p hy int.roclucing incentivps to exporters in the form of n'tPlltioll sC'hemes rlnd opE'ning of Bureall de Change shops; t.he m.ills illlcl Coopertltive Societies within NWF'P sector will ben~fit mor p , flillr'e
25
the much needed foreign exchange will be available, with whichto import necessary spare parts and inputs necessary forimproving the efficiency of these mills, paving the way forincreased productivity and sales (Ndepanya, 1992).
4.2 Human Resources involvement
Proper utilisation of human resources in various spheres ofthe economy to promote productivity efficiency and improve thelives of the people is a pre-requisite for any sustainabledevelopment.
4.2.1 Technical capabilities
Generally, there is limited degree of scientific trainining,research, and dissemination of knowledge regarding productiontechniques applicable to NWFP sectoral activities in the countrywith the exception of beekeeping and tannin extracts industries.There is a lack of comprehensive training policy (government andprivate sector) to ensure that the right people are receiving theright training. In many cases, it will be noted that there isno liaison between one research institute and other instituteswithin the same sector. Lack of skilled manpower constitutes amajor problem that results in ineffective extension services.Most of the NWFP - based mills, like many industries in Tanzaniaemploy labour intensive production methods. The cooperatives onthe other hand, employ fewer numbers of full-time staff, forexample Tabora Beekeeping Cooperative Society has about 10 full-time staff and a membership of about 5400 beekeepers drawn fromthe five districts within Tabora Region. Research Institutionsneed Government subvention to support active research programmes.Usually, through extension services; local staff will beperiodically informed of relevant advances in their fields.
4.2.2 Local management skills
In Tanzania, it can be generalised that there is inadegnatemanagement of the existing forest resource to sustain futuredemand both for wood and non-wood products. These forestS arebeing abused in many parts of the country due to inadequatesupervision.
However, local knowledge of management techniques, productprocessing technologies do exist; though not well documented inthe following areas:
Traditional medicines. The amount of informationavailable at the species level is inadequate forassessing the status of medicinal plants.Fibre/handicrafts (including wood carvings) production ofcompetitive quality.Aromatics/oils production, and spice processing.Game hunting and fish catching using toxins.Gum arabic tapping/collection from wild Acacias.
25
Ulp mlH'h lIE'edl?Cl fore ign p.xchange wi1l be ava i l"b.lf>, wi I" wh i ('" to import necessary spare parts and inputs necess~ry for Impnwillg the efflclpnry of thpse mills, p;wing the wny f.or incrf'aRPd productivity and sales (Ndepanya, 1992).
4, ? lIumnn R~!;C)Un:efi involvement
PropP!' uti liRation of human resources in various f;phf"rl'>s o[ '110 economy t-o promot.e peoducUvity effi<:i.enry i'lnd improve 1 hI" liver; of t.he ppopl(~ in a pre-requisitp. for any sllst;dnahll:' devplopment..
4.2.1 Technical capabilities
C;pnprnlJy, thp.t'p. is limited degrep of scip.ntific tri'linininq, l'p~f:'arr'h, cHId ctisseminalion of knnwleclge n~g"rrling proc111ct:inn techniques applicable to NWf'P sectoral Clctivitier; in t.he rOllnlTY with thl'> ex(~eption of. heek~eping and tanni.n extract.s industrif's. There is a lack of comprehensive training policy (government and privnte sector) to ensur.e that the r.i.ght people arp re('pi\'inq t-hp. right training. In many cases, it wlll he noted that thl'>re iR no ] i;dson between one research institut.e and other it]!;!:; lute!; within the same sector. Lack of skilled manpower constitutes a m"jor problem that: re"n}ts in ineffective extension Rervic·ps. Most of the NWFP - based mills, like many industries in TRnzaniA emy.,l.oy If\bnur intensi.ve production methods. The cOOpel'{\t:ivPs on thp. other hand, employ fewer numbers of full-time staff, for example 'fabor.a BeeKepping Cooperative Societ-y hRS Clhout 10 runtime st{\ff and a membership of about 5400 beekeepers drawn from the five ~istricts within Tabora Region. ReseArch Tnstitut Ions need Government subvention to support active research proqrammPR. IJSUCllJy, through p.xtension services; local stRff wj II he periodically informed of relevant advances in their fields.
4.2.7. I,ocal management skills
In Tanzania, it can be generalised that there is inaclPQIJRte mRllagpment- of the pxisting for.est ref>OllrCe to sltRt:ain flJt.llre demand both for wood and non-wood products. These fOt'ests are beinq <lbused in many parts of the country clue to inadpqu<lte fillpervi.sion.
"owever, 10c<l1 knowledge of management teehniqlJes, prl)(l\H't: procpssinq technologies do exist: though not well documented in thf1 following an~as:
- Traditionol medic.ines. Thp. amount of inform"llnn available at the species level is inadequate for. <lssessing the status of medicinal plants.
- Fibre/handicrafts (including ,wood carvings) produet ion of compet i t ive qllal lty.
- Aromntics/oUs pro(luction, f\nc1 spic'p proressing. - G<lme hunting nnd Lir.h catdlinq ufiing toxinl;' - Gum arabic tflpping/rollect. i on from wi lel Arnc ia~;.
26
on the other hand, imported technologies and well tapped localskills are found in the Tannin extract industry, rubber industry,Cinchona bark production, Tourist based activities and thetraditional beekeeping industry that accounts for the hulk ofhoney and beeswax production. However, there is an urgent needlo reorientate and strengthen training in practica], skills andextension, at the Beekeeping Training Institute (tIU) in Taboraand establishment of a Bachelor of Science degree course innopkpeping at the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoroto impart local mangement skills at professional level tailoredto Tanzanian conditions. The course could also cater for theneeds of other African countries.
1.3 Efficiency and impact
Banking loans to NWFP industries in most cases is notsufficient to meet various needs, which in turn leads to lowproductivity, low efficiency and lower revenues. Personnel andfacilities utilized in NWFP sector are mostly not suffficient,in experienced and adequately not maintained respectively, toimpart the desirable impact on capacity utilization of mills.In order to reverse this trend, the NWFP subsector like others,should be provided with professional skills, together withrequisite resources, notable capital, trained personnel,transport, provision of incentives to use and develop forests bythe private sector etc.
4.4 Policy and begislation
4.4.1 Review of policy and legislation
Forestry and Beekeeping Division is charged withresponsibility of developing and managing the forest resourcesin Tanzania. Furthermore the division has the main duty ofcontributing to the national economy by providing goods andservices pertaining to the forestry activities together with thecollection of lawfull dues attached to these goods and services.These policies and legislations are aimed at stopping people fromcutting forestry products as if they are free commodities, butat the same time promoting better utilisation of these on a
sustainable basis.
Revitalisation of existing legislative codes and policiesregarding use, access (land tenure etc.), processing and tradeof NWFP for instance, once implemented would lead torevitalisation of the industry. Forest policies that are bothenvironmental protection and market oriented should beinstituted. The proposed forest policy encourages private sectorinvestment not only in wood industry but also in the non-woodproducts sector. The beekeeping policy prior to 1986 forinstance, put more emphasis on modern methods of beekeeping inorder to increase honey and beeswax production, though the bulkof these products are still produced by traditional methods.Hence, the proposed policy must acknowledge that most beekeepingin the country is done by traditional and non-chemical methods.Beekeepers in that case need assistance to obtain maximum quality
26
Oil ,-!tf' 01 her hrtlld, impor'led technolog"i~s and w".ll tClPlled loc<ll ,,\,ills nre fonnd in the Tannin extract industry, rllhbp.r jnrlustry, r.iJH'hona bClrk production, Tourist based activiti.es ,lIlcl thp. trfld i_t ionfll beekeeping industry that ac~ounts for thp. hllik of lHllley ilnrt hf'f'swax proc1l)('t ion. Howf'!ver, I-her.e is <'In urgpnt. need 10 rf'orip.ntate <'Ind strpngthen training in pra~tical skills <'Inrt P:xI-p.IH;1on, at the Bpekeeping Training InRtitllt.e (RTf) in'T'il!loril <lllrt pstflhl iHhmpnt of a BachE'lor of Science rlf'grpp cOllrr;e in Ae(~kf'ppjIHJ fit tllp flnkoine University of "C]riclIltllre in MoT'cHJoro to .impflrt local mnngement sldllR <'It pr'ofps!donal levpl tailorpd tn Trttl7.<1ninn ronditiotls. The course eould al:>o cal.er rOT- t-hf' IlPprls of othpr "frican count".ips.
1.1 Rffieiency and impact
Bilnkjng lonns to NWFP industrips in most. caBer, is nol. ::::uffieient to m",pt v<'lri.ous needs, whirh in t.urn leads to low proolJ<:t.ivity, low effiriency <'ItJrt lower rf'!venues. Pel'r,onnf'\ <'11111 facUities utili?:ed in NWFP sf?ct.or rtre most.1y not sllfffiejent, in experienced ilnd cHlpr:]llately not. m:lintcdned respectively, to imp<'lrt. the desirahl", impact. on capadty utilization of mjl}s. In order to revet'Sf? th j s trend, t.he NWFP Sl.lbRector 1 ike othpt:s, ShOll lc1 be provided with profeRs ional ski 11s, toget-hf"!r wi th I'Pqlliflite resources, notable cClpital, trained peT'sonnp.l, transport, provision of incentives to use and develop forests hy the private sector etc.
4.4 Policy nnd Legisl<'1tion
4.4.1 Revi.ew of policy and legislation
Forestry and Beekef?ping Ojv1Rion is chargE'd with n~spnnsjbil ity of developing and managing the .fOJ'eRt reRoueeeR in Tanzania. Furthermore the division has the main duty of contri.buting to the national economy by providing goods mHl sprvices pertaini.ng to the forestry activities togf?ther with the collect.i.on of lawfull dues attached to these goods and ne"vic~f's. These policies and legislations are aimed at stopping ppopJe from rutting forestry products as if they are free commodities, hut at thp same time promoting better utilisation of these on" sustAinahle basis.
Revil.Cllis<'Ition of existing legislntive (~0r.lP5 Mlft policie:> rpg<'lrding lise, access (land tenure et.c.), proces6ing and t.rildf? of NWFP for instance, once implemented would lead to rpvitalisation of the industry. Forest policies that rtre both F;'nv ironmentCl1 protect ion and market ori.entpd shou lel he instituted. The proposed forest policy encourClges private SP('tOI' investment not only in wood industry but also in the non-wooct prodl)('t s sector. The beekeppi ng po 1 icy pr ior t.o 1986 fot' .inRti'lnr~, flllt more f!mphasis on mod.;>rn mf'thods of bp~kp.pping ill orr.1p.r 1:0 increase honey and b.;>eswax production, though t.he bulk of th",se products are still produced by trnditional Inethortr,. Henre, thp proposect policy must acknowledge that mo::::t hepkepping ill the country is done by traditi.onal and non-chf'm.i.cill mp.thods. Aepkp.epers in that case need assistan('p to obt.ain maximum qlHll i ty
27
and quantity crops using materials that are now available tothem. Rather than promoting only modern hives, the policy shouldadvocate the use of whichever hives Are appropriate for a givensitnation; whereby modern hives should only be encouraged wherethey have proven ecological or economic advantages.
Legislation must be drawn-up and enforced quickly to preventtire finport and export of honey bees and used beekeeping egnipmentto avoid over exploitation of the bees, introduction of diseasedstrains and contamination through used equipment.
Forest policy and Forest ordinance as stated above, arecnrrently being revised so as to make sure that they reflectpresent day and future vision of the place of forestry in theNational Development. After revision, an aggressive campaignwill be carried out to, educate not only the forestry personnelhnt also leaders and the general public on the provision of thesetwo instruments.
4.4.2 Effectiveness of policy and legislation
In Tanzania, and elsewhere, it is recognised that somepolicies have encouraged deforestation through market and policyfailures (Mbonde, 1992). The forest policy at present is beingreviewed and will involve participatory dialogue among stakeholder both in public and private sector. For example, intobacco growing areas deforestation rate is high owing tofuelwood exploitation for curing the crop. It is the intentionof the Government that some functions are transferred to localcommunities and the private sector and strengthening institutionsto ensure that new and leaner forestry agencies have capacityneeded for effective forest management. Amongst key challengesfacing Tanzania to date in the forestry sector, include:Enhancing social and cultural benefits of forest i'esources - thatis, increasing the production of non-wOod forest products toenable rural and urban people to benefit from intact forests andthereby give these people an incentive to preserve the forests.One example whereby market and policy failures has beenexperienced in the country, involved the establishment of GAPEX -a government export organisation in 1978/79. Since itsestablishment, there were no honey exports to European marketbecause only limited quantities were produced. After itsdissolution in 1988/89, more honey has been reaching Europeanmarket. The cooperatives, private sector and parastatals engagedin beekeeping handle the products themselves. The Government hasto look a new at various policies which affect the NWFP sectordevelopment, especially on management of forests, financing, andnew investment opportunities, with a view to increasingproductivity and hence their contribution towards GDP.
5. TECHNICAL ASPECTS
5.1 Major NWFP
Traditionally, NWFP which have been exported from Tanzaniahave mainly been Tannin extract, honey, beeswax, gum arabic and
?7
illlC 1 q II Illl I- i t. Y (" r 0 p S \I ~ i. IHJ mal el' i a 1 s I_ 11 il I. a r p n () w n viii 1 "h 1 p t () thpm. Rather t.h;m promoting only modern hives, th€' policy f;hollhi iHlvocilte the mje of whiehever hives are appropriate for i'l givp,n 5i1I1Cl\-,on; wh€'reby modern hives should only be en("oltraged wher€' I:llpy have proven p,c010gical or economic advantages.
T.pgiF:lilt.ion mll!;l he c1ri\wn-up and enforced quiC'Kly to prevent t ll(~ import and export. of honey bees and Ilsed bpekep[.li 11<) eqld pmpnt to avoid over explojtation of the bees, introduction of diseClspd r.II'nin~ and r.ont-f1minatioll thro\1gh used pqllipment..
ForE'st policy and Forest ordinan<.'E' as staIN] ahow" an-' ('lIlTPntly being r'evispc1 so as to mi\Ke sure thi\t th .. y ref I prt prPRE'nt day and future vision of the place of forestry in the Ni'll-ioni\] Development. After revision, an aggref>sivf> campi'lign wi 11 bp eClrried out to, €'ducate not only the forestry pprsonnpl hut al~o leaders and the general puhUe on the provision of Ihp.~p t\~O instrllm€'nts.
1.4.7. Rrfectiveness of policy and legislation
In Tanzania, and elsewhere, it is recognisE'<l thi'lt. somo:> pol ir'ies have encouraged dpforl;'stntion through market and pol icy failllrf>s (Mbonde, 1992). The forest policy at present it; bE'inq r'p,\,dpwprl and w.i 11 involve partiel_patory dialogl.lf> i\moWJ t;ta~:e holder both in public nnd privrtte sector. For eXilmp]e, in tohilCr.O growing areas deforeflt:ation rate is high owing to fuelwood exploitation for curing the crop. It is t.hf> intention of the GOVF~rnmp.nt that some funct ions are trans ferred to loca 1. commlln it ies Clnd the pri vat.e sector and strengthening inst i tilt ions to ensure thnt new and leaner forestry agencies have capi\city IIPpded for effective forest management. Amongst key challenges fiH'jng 'J't\Ozania to date in the forestry sector, .include: Enhnn~ing social and cultural benefits of forest ~esourcps - that i R, increas ing the pronuction of non-wOod forest product.s to enable rural and urban people to benefit from intact forests and lherehy give these people an incE'ntive to preserve the forests. One example whereby market and policy failures has been f'xper.iE'nced in the country, i.nvolved the estrtblishment of GAPf,X -a government export organisation in 1978/79. Since its PsI flhlishment, there were no honey exports to European market. bpeallse only limited quantities were produced. Aft.l;'r its eli 6S0 l\ltion in 1988/89, more honey has been reachlnq European market. The cooperat ives, private sector and parastatals €'ngngpc1 in br:>r:>keepi ng hnndle the products themselves. The Govel'nmc>nt hfl!3
to look a new at various policies which affect the NWFP sector development, especially on manngement of forests, financing, and nE'W i.nvestment opportunities, wjth a view to increClsing productivity and hence their contrihutjon towards GOP.
5. 'rECflNICAL ASPECTS
:).1 Ma jor NWFP
TrcHlit .i onn 11 y, NWFP \.Jh ieh hnve hl"l;'ll r:>~p()rted fl'om Tall7.0ld il have mai.nly bE'en Tallnin extract, honey, beeswax, gllm arabic and
28
Cinchona barks. In recent years, animal trophies and live animalexports have been introduced. Traditional medicinal herbs,though of vital importance to rural populations, are notexported. These major NWFP have been discussed in detail underchapter 3 ahoye and their contribution to the economy of Tanzaniahas also been outlined, (Annex II on Statistical Data).
5.2 Geographical distribution
.Suffice to say that the principal sources of the major NWFPare as follows:
Tannin extract from grassland watt le plantations ofTanWatt Company at Njombe, Iringa region and theGiraffee Extract Company at Lushoto, Tanga region.Scattered farmers' wattle wood lots are also found in thenearby Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions.
Honey and beeswax, scattered throughout the country, butconcentrated in Miombo woodlands, high rain forest areas,Acacia woodlands and agricultural lands (coffee, sunflowerestates etc). Amongst the Miombo woodland high potentialbeekeeping Districts in the country include the Western:Tabora, Urambo, Kahama, Kibondo, Mpanda, Chunya andManyoni Districts; the North-Eastern: Handeni, Kilosa,Kiteto and Kondoa Districts; and the South-Eastern:Liwale, Mbinga, Songea and Tunduru Districts.
Gum arabic, from Acacia woodlands in semi arid areas ofTanzania such as Urambo in Tabora Region; SingidaIramba Districts in Dodoma Region; Bariadi and ShinyangaDistricts in Shinyanga Region; Kiteto, Mbulu and HanangDistricts in Arusha Region; Same, Hai and MwangaDistricts in Kilimanjaro Region and Handeni Districts inTanga Region.
Cinchona barks, from commerical tea estates in themountainous areas of Usambaras.and Southern highlands
Animal trophies and live animal s, in (ame reserves,National parks and controlled public areas. The majorNational Parks include the World famous SerengetiNational Park; Lake Manyara, Tarangire and ArushaNational Parks in Arusha Region; Kilimanjaro NationalPark in Kilimanjaro Region; Mikumi and Udzungwa NationalParks in Morogoro Region; Rubodo Island National Park onLake Victoria; Kitavi Plains National Park in RukwaRegion; the Ruaha National Park in Iringa Region andGombe River National Park in Kigoma Region. Among thefamous game reserves in the country are the Seleous GameReserve occupying parts of Morogoro, Lindi, Ruvuma-andIringa Regions; Ngorongoro Conservation Area in ArushaRegion; Mkomazi Game Reserve in Same District,Kilimanjaro Region and Maswa Game Reserve in Mara Region.There are also a number of game controlled areas in thepublic lands including the Loliondo forming part of the
28
Cirlf'honfl hileks. In recent ye'l)'S, (lnimal trophip.s (lnd liv(' 'lllimni f'xports hRve been introduced. Tr'ldit.ional me<.1icin'll herhr" I houqh of vit'll import<lllce to rur'll popul'ltions, ,U'P not: (lxportE'd. ThE'se major NWFP have been d i "cussed in detAi 1 IIJH:1!?)' c'llilptpr 1 nhOV!? and their. contribllUon to the economy of TanzAn iii has also been outlined, (Annex 11 on fltatistici'll Dilt'l).
S.2 Geoqraphiea] clistrihution
. SlIffic'e to say that the prinr:-ipCll 1)Ollrc",,, o[ \lIP mi'ljor NWF'P ill',.. ilR fol.lows:
- T"nnin ('xt.rnf't [rom qrAf;fllillld wilttle p]allt'al innfl of TAnWCltt Company Clt Njomhe, lringa rE'gion and the Giraffep Ext:r(lct Company at Lushoto, Tangn reqir'l'l. flcCltt.E'rf'd fClrmers' wattle wood lotfl are also founo in thl'> neflrby Kilimanjilro and Arusha regionfl.
- lIon",y and beeflwClx, sCfltterE'd throughout the country, but cOllc'pntrilted in f>liombo woodlands, high rain foreflt ilre<lS, Acaf'lfl woodlands and agricultural lands (coffee, sunflower pstntes etc). Amongst the Miombo woodl<lnc1 hi!]h potelltial b!?ekeeping District.s in the country jnclude the West",rn: T<loorA, Urambo, KahAma, Ki bondo, MpandA, ClllInya and Manyoni Districts; the North-Eastern: Handeni, Ki los a , Kiteto and Kondoa Districts; and the South-Eastern: L.iwClle, Mbinga, Songea And 'J'unduru District.s.
- Gum nrabie, from ACneiil woodlands in semi 'lrid HreHR of 'T'anzanifl sllch as Urambo in Tabora Region; Singicl<1 «nd Irambil Districts in Donoma Regi on; AAr fad i and Sh j r;yang<l Districts in Shinyanga Region: Kiteto, Mbulu and HAnang Districts in Arusha Region; Same, lIai and MWAngA Districts in Kilimanjaro Region and Handeni Distrjcts in TAngil Rpgion.
C inl.'hona bilrks, from commerical tea estates in the mOllnt" i nOli!'> arp-as of U!'>ambaras· and Southern high 1 ancIs
- l\nim'll tr'oph.ies and live animals, in Game reservefl, Nationnl parks and controlled publ.ic areas. The major National PArks include the World fAmolls Serengp-ti National Pilrk: Lake Manyara, Tarangire and 1\rusha Nntional Parks in Aru!'>ha Region; Kilimanjaro Niltional Pnrk in KilimClnjaro Region; Mikum.i and Udzungwa Nat.ion<'ll Porks in Moro90ro Reqion: Rubodo Island National P<lrK on Lake Victoria: Kitavi Plains National PArk in Rukw'l Region: the Rllaha Nat lonal Park in lr j nga Regi on ano Gombe River NAtional Park in Kjgoma Region. Among the famous gnme resp-rves in the country are the Seleolls Gnmf' Reserve occupy ing part.s of Morogoro, LincH, Rllvuma· and Iring'l Regions: Ngorongoro Conser.vation Area in Arushn Region; Mkomazi Game Reserve jn Same District, Ki]imanjaro Region and Mnflwa GAme Rpserve ln Mar'l Rpgion. 'J'here arp also a number of game controlled area!'> jn the public lands including the Lolionoo forming part of the
29
Serengeti Ecosystem in Ngorongoro District; Ngorongoro,Mto wa Mbu in Arusha Region; Umba River, Rungwa River,Utengule Swamps and Kilombero. Others are the SanyaPlains and Rau Forest in Kilimanjaro Region and thosefonnd on the Tsles of Pemba and Zanzibar.
- Medicinal plants as outlined in detail under section3.1.6 and elsewhere in the report, together with planttoxins are obtained largely from the wild sources in theforested areas of the country.
5.3 Yield/Management of principal resource base
5.3.1 Tannin extract
Tannin extract from black wattle has world-wide markets,though production has been on a decline overtime. This is chip
to declining supplies of wattle bark by farmers and plantationsowned by the Government (Magamba Forest plantation, Kilimanjaro,Meru Mts, and in Mbulu District) and the TanWatt's own wattleplantations. Also the decline, is due to competition fromsynthetic materials, development of non-tanning uses and regionalmarketing stabilisation. Yields of bark for tannin extract overthe past two decades has also declined due to restrictedexploitation of the mangroves along the coast. For instance, inthe 70's, exports of wattle bark extracts averaged about 9000tons whereas in the 80's both production and exports averagedabout 4000 tons only. Production has again improved from 1990onwards (Annex TI).
5.3.2 Honey and bees wax
Areas with the greatest potential for beekeeping includeforests, woOdlands, bushlands and wooded grasslands, and theseaccount for over 7095 of Tanzania 's total land area. From thehigh rainfall forests; miombo woodlands; bushlands and Acaciathickets; wooded grasslands with minmbo spp. Dombeya andParinari as excellent sources of light coloured honey of pleasantflavour; Desert and semi-desert type of vegetation.though too drybnt have high potential in certain areas, EuphorbiaL spp. andXerophytes are good for honey production; to cultivated areas -most fruit and vegetable crops are good sources of forage forbees and in high rainfall zones, coffee produces high qualityhoney; have excellent beekeeping potential. Grasslands e.g.Masai steppe, are important beekeeping areas, thongh generallyhave lower potential due to low rainfall, but the associatedAcacias, attract high honey bees populations. Permanent swamps,are good beekeeping zones due to presence of flowering trees andan ample water supply. Despite the fact that the silviculturaimanagement of miombo species is largely unknown; any managementinterventions mnst consider possible effects on the flowering-oftrees and thereby on beekeeping. Like other NWFP, yield of honeyand beeswax for the last decade has been on a decline. Tu the70's Tanzania used to be one of the leading producers of beeswax,with an annual output of approximately 600 tons. Many beekeepersproduce and sell their honey locally to end users. In 1988, for
7.9
Rp l'f'llqet.i E('n5y~tf'01 in NC]oronqoro Olf;\r'ic l-; Nqnrnl1(jol'O, Mto w~ Mbu .in lu'usha Region; Umha River, Runqwrt River, Ulp.nguJe Swamps and Kilombero. Others Arp the RaIlY~
Plains alld Rau Forest in Kilimanjaro Rpgion ancl those fonml on the Isles of Pembrt and 7..~nzibcn'.
- Mp.di.cjl1<ll plants as ouUinE-d in dp.t.ail Ill1dpr sec'l.inn 3.1.0 ancl p]r,ewhp.re in t.he report, togp.t.her wil-h pl<'1nl toxins are oht.ained largf'>ly from thf'> w.i ld SOllrc~P5 .in thf> forp.sted areas of the country.
5.3 Yield/Management of principal resource base
~.1.1 Tannin extract
Tannin p.xtract from blcwk wattle has world-wi(lp O1II1'I,(>\s, I-hollqh pr.odllct 1.on has been on a decl ine oVE-rtime. This i r, c1up I-n (If'('linillg supplies of WAttle bar.k h~' farmers and pli\nl-<ltioIHi owned by thf'> Government. (Magamba Forest plantation, Kilirn<1njAro, t-1pru Mt.r,. and in Mbulll Distri.et) and thp 'I'AnWatt's own WAt:I~le plantations. Also t.he decline, is due to competition from synthetic mllt.erials, development of non-tanning IIses and rf'>C]ional market.ing stabilisation. Yields of bArk for tannin pxtr<'lrt over the past two deCAdes has also decUnp.n due t.O rpstTictec1 p.xploitAt.jon of the mangroves along the roast. For instanrp, in I.hp. 70' s, exports of wattle bark extr;wts averaged about 9000 tons whE-reas in the 80' s both pronuct i on and export s a\,p.rag~d ahout 4000 tons only. Production has again improved from 1990 onwards (AnnE-X TI).
5.3.~ 1I0ney and bees wax
l\reas with the greatest potential (or bp.ekN~pil1g illC'lllc1e rnre~ts, woodlands, bushlands and wood~d grasslands, and these nccollnt for over 70% of Tanzania's total land a['(~a. Fl'om thp. high rainfall forests; miombo woodlands; bushlRnns and Acacia thickets; wooded grasslands with miombo spp. Dombeycl and Parinari as excellent sOllrees of light colollred honey o[ pleasant flavnllT'; Desert and semi-desert type of veget.t\tion though \'00 dl'Y bllt have high potential in certain ar~as, EUI!.horbia. spp. and !(erQR.tJy.t.r-s are goon [or honey procluction; to clI.1tivated ill'I'>(\S -IUOSt: f rid t and vegetab] e crops are good sources of foraC]€' for hpe!'i ann in high rllinfall zones, coffee prOnUCp.5 high quality honp~n have excellent beekeeping potential. Grasslands P..g. Ni'lsa i steppe, ar"! impor.t ant. beekeepj ng areas, though genera 11 y have lower potential. due to low rainfall, hilt t.he assoeiatp(l Ac~Acia~, ilttraet hiqh honey bep.s popu.1ations. Permanent: fiwampr" t\r~ good beekeeping zones due to presence of flowering treE-S and fln i'lmpJe water supply. Despite the fact thflt the silvicull:l.1ral manaq~ment of miombo species is largely uhknown; any mflnagpment illiervelltiom; m"st (~onsidp.r pO!'lsJhle effects on the flOWP.I'ill<] of trees and therehy on beekeeping. Like other NWFP, yield of hnnpy llnd hef'swax for the .last der.ane has been on a decline. Tn I-hI." 70' s 'I'flnZRn i a Ilsed to be one of the lead i ng producers 0 f hN~5wax, 'vi til an ann1\1'\] output of approximately 600 tons. Many bep){pepers prorluce and sell their honey locally to end users. In Ic)RR, for
30
instance, the private sector was responsible for the export ofat least 20 Tonnes honey (worth about 23000 US $) to the MiddleEast and 324 Tonnes beeswax (worth around 800 000 US $) to Enropeand Japan. Export of honey and beeswax by private sector reducedconsiderably during 1989-90 period, hut is showing signs ofrecovery since then (Annex II).
5.3.3 Gum arable
The product could have potential for increased exports,since after liberalising trade in 1986, there has been anincrease in the product ion of gum arable, which has resillted intothe increase of quantities being exported. More and more peoplphave now gone into export trade. Frequent devaluation of localcurrency, has also encouraged many exporters of gum arable forinstance, to increase their export quantities. The product is
being tapped by individual farmers from the Acacias. Export ofgum arable jumped from 383.8 Tonnes in 1986 to 740.2 Tonnes in1990 (Annex II).
However, for sustainable yields, the acacia resources shouldhe inventoried and the natural stock should be increased byplantations, since gum arable producing trees can be easilypropagated by seeds. Gum collection and sales should headequately organized, presumably on Cooperative society basisinstead of individual farmer's approach.
5.3.4 Cinchona barks
Stivicultural practices for the Cinchona trees is a well.known fact. Increased acrage on suitable sites will ensuresustainable yields for the products. Tanzania, is one of themain Cinchona - producing countries. The most importantalkaloids contained in the bark and used in medicine are qninineand quinidine. While quinine is used as an antimalarial,quinidine is used as a cardiac depressant to control curicularfibrillation (Husain, A. 1988). At one time, the use of gninineas an antimalarial drug had gone down and production of Cincjignabark as well as alkaloids had decreased considerably due tocompetition offered by synthetic drug sources. Because ofdevelopment of resistant strains of the malarial parasites, theuse of quinine as an antimalaxial drug has increased recentlyand it is expected that with the reappearance of malaria inAfrican and Asian countries, the use of quinine wilt increase inthose countries. For example, exports of Cinchona barks declinedfrom 160.9 tones in 1906 to about 119.8 tonnes in 1990, but ayear later, exports increased to 755.9 tonnes in 1991 (Annex II).
5.3.5 Wildlife based activities
The Tourism Division is charged with the wildlife relatedresources that include the National parks, game reserves andcontrolled areas in the country. In these reserved areas, alllegal wildlife hased activities are operating, like live animalcropping, animal trophies harvesting and tourism itself asoutlined under section 3.2.1 above. Moreover, of lately the
30
illr;\'ullc'e, t'hp pr'ivate sector wos responsihlp. for the ('>xpnrl'. of at least 20 Tonnes honey (worth about 23000 US $) to the Ml~llle Enf>t onel 37.4 Tonner, beeswax (worth arollnd 800 000 US $) to Ellt'orH~ (\ncl J ap,:tO. Export 0 f honl"Y and beeswax by pr i vat.e sector I'poucpd ronsi(lprobly durinq 19139-90 peri.od, hilt is showi.ng l';igns of recovpry since then (Annex II).
:'.:3.3 ,,11m <1rahic
The PI-O(ltH't cOllld havfl potent inl (01" inCI-pilf)Pc] (':-':\>01" R, sill('~e nfter Ubera1ising trade in 1981'), there hns t,p('>n rtn in(TP;HH~ in "hp prorlllC'tion of gum aroh.ir., whi,c'h has reBIlltpc1 into the inr.rpoRe of quantities being exported. More ond morp ppoplp hovp nnw gone into export trade. FreqllE'nt devaluotion o( lOCi'll currpncy, hos also encouraged many exporters of gum orahie for inRtollf'p, to incrpi'lsp. their export quantities. The prorlll('t if; heing tapped by individual farmers from the Acacias. Export of gum arnhic jllmped from 383.8 Tonnes in 1986 to 740.7. TOlllles ill J 990 (Annex II).
lIowpver, for sustoinnble yields, the acoein resou,"('pr, shoulcl he invpnt.oripd and thl? natural stock should be incrposed by plul1ti\tions, sinC'e gum arrlbic producing trpes crln hp. eani 1y propfllJoted by seeds. Gnm coller.tion and sales should bp adequute]y organized, presumably on Cooperative society bnf.lil1 jnsl.pad of individual farmer's approach.
5.~.4 Cin~hona barks
R1.1vi(·ultural pr<lctices for th~ Cinchonn I:r~e:. is i\ WI> 11, known fact. Increased acrrlge on sui table s'i t.E'S wi]] enSlJl'e RIlf;I;dnnhle yields for the product.s. Tanzania, is one of Ule main Cinchona producing countries. The most importilnt allwloids ("olltrlined in the b<'lrk and used in medicine are qllinine and quinidi.ne. While quini.ne is used as an rlnl:imf\li\l'jrll, C1l1inidine is USE'd as a r.ardii\c depressrlnt to control r.Ut"ir.IILfU" fibdllation (1I1Isrlin, A. 1988). At one time, the lise of quinine ar. an ant.imalarial drug hrld gone down rind productioll o( Cill<:'hol\f\ brlrk as we 11 as a1ka loids had decreased cons iderab ly du-e-1;·o·· .. __ ·-rompetition offered hy synthetic drug sources. Becell\!>!' of development of resistant strains of the malarial parrl!>ites, the use of Cluininp as an i'll1timala-.rial drug has incr-PtlRNl rpC'pnt ly nncl it is expected that wi th the reappE'arance of mrl 1 ar i.a in AfriC'An Hnd Asi.an countries, the use of quinine will inrrp.ilRe in those countries. For examp.1 e, exports of Cinr.hona barl;s dee1 j npd [rom 160.9 tonps in 1<)06 to about 119.8 tonnes in 19QO, b1lt (l
yeAr ]rlter, E'xport!> increased to 755.9 tonnes in 1991 (Annex II) .
5.J.5 Wildlife based activities
Thp Tourism Division is charged with thp wildlifp rplrlted rPfiOlll'Cefi tlwt inrJllde the Nrltionn.1 pal"kl'l, game rf~r.erv(">n nn<1 controlled areas in the country. In thf'se rer,prved nrPFlfl, all le(J~l \.JUdlife hased ilctivities are operrlting, like liVf~ ,1nimAl c-ropping, animal trophies harvesting and tOllrifim itself as oul'linpd under" section 3.2.1 ahove. Moreovpr, of lately the
31
(lovernment has taken deliberate measures in making tourism a morosustainable industry by encouraging more private investors'involvement in this sector. More tourist hotels are planned tobe ruin on either joint venture with the Government nr by theprivate sector so as to improve the efficiency and accommodatothe projected booming Tourist industry.
6. MAIN PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
There are a number of problems and constraints that hinderthe promotion and further development of NWFP in the country ashigh lightened in the preceding chapters. These are summarizedhereunder:
6.1 Resource base
(i) In relation to all major NWFP:'There is over exploitation of natural resourcese.g. forests due to indiscriminate harvesting oftrees and other woody plant materials ofmedicinal value; wild animals due to poaching;dwindling fish supplies due to siltat ion ofdams/water sources that has been caused bydeforestation of catchment forests.
Most of the reserved natural forests are withoutappropriate management plans and harvesting onpublic lands is widely without any control.
There is unreliable statistical data on NWPP forsmooth planning and management.
(ii) Specifically, in the Tannin extract industry:(a) Control of bark quality from various suppliers
(farmers) is difficult at the Giraffe ExtractCompany, resulting in lower processing yields.
(h) Owing to technological advancement, the (ira fíeExtract mill has now to face the change in marketrequirement in preference of powdery extractwhile the present product is being sold as a
solid extract. At Tan-Watt Co. modernization ofproduct processing has been aCcomplished toproduce a variety of products from high qualityand ordinary powder to green strips.
(c) Some wattle growers are exporting bark to Poland,Kenya and India, probably encouraged by higherprices than offered by local producers or mills.However, for long-term interests of the country,trade should be properly controlled by offeringremunerative prices to producers of bark.
31
(;IlVprllnlpnt: hilS t(l~~f''' dp\ihp.1'1'IH' mNlSllrps ill nmking I'ol1r'i::;m tl mnp' ::;11"ti.li.n1'lble industry by encouraging more privatp. jnvp::;1 ors' i.nvnlvempnt in t.his sector. More tourj~t. hotpl,; f\re plnnnNl to bp 1'1111 on eith",r joi.nt venture with the Govprnment or by thp pt'ivtlt p sPr'tnr. 1)0 a,; to .improvp. th€' p.fri('lenC'y illH1 ilC'r'nmmnrinlr> thn prnjp.f'tpd hooming Tnllrist industry.
(, . MJ\ 1 N PROm ,1'~MS J\Nn CONSTRAINTS
'rhprp al-e il nUlObnr of prohlems and cnnstri\ints thflt binrl",,' 1'lIp pl-omntinn and further development of NWFP in thp ('ol1lll'ry M,
hi!]h lightpn€'d in the precerling chaptp.rs. These f\re slImm<lrizpd hpl'Pllndp.T' :
6.1 Re"ol1rc~p. hase
(i) Tn relation to all major NWFP: (11) There i::; over exploitati.on of nl'lt:ut'aJ rp50111-('p::;
e.g. forests due to indiscriminate hArvp.sting of tree,; f\nd other woorly plant matpri<lls o(
meclicinAl value; wUo i'll1imals dul'> to pn1'l(~hing; dwindling fish supplies due to ,;ilti:ltion of dams/water sources that has be€'11 causp(l hy deforesti:ltioll of catchment forests.
(b) Most of the reserved natural forests al-e without. appropriate management p)ilns and har~~sting on public lands is widely without any cdntrol.
(c) Then~ is unre1.i.ahle stilt.i::;tical ont.a on NWPP for smooth planning and management.
(ii) sppcifical.ly, 1n t.he TiUlJ1in extract ind\lstry: (a) Control of bark quality from various supplier::;
(far.mer,;) is difficult at the Giraffe Exl.rnr't Company, resulting in lower processing yipldG.
(h) Owing to technologici'll advancement, the (Hnlr:r~ Extract mill has now to face the changp in markrl requirement in preference of powop.ry extrnct while the present product is being sold as a solid extract. At Tan-Watt Co. mo~erni~ntjnn of produrt processing has been accomplJ,;hpd to prodl1cE" f\ variety of proc1llcts from high qnality Rnd ordinary powder to grpen strips.
(co) Some wattle growers are expor1'lllq bark to Polano, Kenya and India, probably encouraged hy h i.gh~lprices than offered hy lncal prodl1cers or mills. How€'ver, for long-term interests of the country, tri'lcle nhollld he properly controJlpd by off~rinq remllnerative pricps tn producers o[ barIc.
32
(iii) For honey and beeswax production:
Traditional beekeepers lack marketing supporteither from the Government or Cooperatives etc..This is also true for other prodnets liko gumarabic, traditional medicines, handicraftsincluding carvings, aromatics industry that areprivately run, toxins preparation by peasantfarmers or hunters.
Traditional beekeepers are unable to both produceand market table honey commercially because theydon't have the transport facilities orcontainers.
Money is needed to buy honey and beeswax frombeekeepers by the coperatives since the societydoes not rece ive payment from subsequent salesuntil several months later. With more funds, thecooperatives or parastatals could offer morecompetitive prices and hence handle largervolumes of products and ultimately be able tooffer dividends to members, further stimulationbeekeeping and the local economy.
(iv) For Food-vegetal products like edible mushrooms bothresearch aimPd at increasing production and marketingsupport is totally lacking, rendering this product tobe of little economic value.
(v) For Cinchona barks produce, due to technologicaladvancement, the Mazumbai Quinine factory is beingfaced with the option of rehabilitation of the agingfacilities so as to produce semi-processed drugs tomeet domestic as wellrexport demand.
(vi) The acreage under plantations can not support thelocal tyre manufacturing industry, hence necessitatingimportation of raw materials from elsewhere.
6.2 National capacity
There is a low rate of capacity utilization of millsand other production units due to low workingcapital/weak capital base. Of particular emphasis,Tanzanian Tourism industry is facing the same drawhack of low capacity utilisation due to weak capitalbase.
Shortage of foreign exchange which could he used tofinance imports of necessary spare parts forrehabilitating aged machinery and equipment.
32
(iii) For honey ann hel='swax prodllction:
(il) Tr flc1 it i ona1. tH~e" N'PP r R 1 ilC k mill'~~p I- i ng ~lIppC.H' t I='ith~r from the Government or CooperativPR etc. Th.i 5 is fl1.50 t rue for other prmll1('t R ) i kp (Jllm arClbir., traditional merljcines, hlln(lirl'i~ftr.
i IH' J I] r1 i 11 CJ C' " I'V i n q fi , <I rom ;'I t· irs i n nu s try t ";'I taT' P privClt~ly rlln, tox:ins preparfltion by peaRMII [flrmers or hunters.
(h) 'I'rMlitiol1<11 beekeeper!'; <Ire unahle to both proc1u('p <lIH.1 m<lrket table honey rommprr i fill Y hecilllsP they don't have the transport fad. tit i efi Ot'
contai lien;.
(e) Money if; needed to huy honey ilnc] her-Rwilx from bel='kp.ppeT's by the coperativl='s since the society does no\: re(~e i \'P prtyment. from fiuhseqllent· Ra J P.r,
unt.i.1 fiPvera 1 months tater. Wi th more fuml .. , thp cooper<ltives or parant-ntals could offer mOl'p competitive prices and hence llandle largpr volumes of products and u.1timat~ly he ClhllO' to offp.r dividends to memhers, further st.imll.1ation bee"eeping and the local flconomy.
(iv) For Food-vegl='tal products 1 jJ~e edihle mushrooms 1I0"h rp.fi~arch Climed at increasing production and market:inq suppor't is totally lacking, rendering t.his product to be of. little economic value.
(v) for r.inC'hona barks pro(lucp., dill" to terlmolo,:!ir'flJ advancement, the Mazumbai Quinine faC'toJ'Y i.s being faced with the option of rehabil.itation o{ the aging fllr il i t i P.fi so as to produrJ:' Flemi-proc~ef;sp.(l clrllCJfi to meet domestic as wellrexport demand.
(vi) The acreage under p]imt<lt-iollfi can not Rllppr)l·t: til", local tyre manufacturing industry, hence ne~efifiilat ing importation of raw materials from elsewhere.
fi.2 National capacity
(i) There is a low rate of capacity uti]i~ation o[ mills and other production unjts due to low working crtpHill/weak cilpital base. Of parUcular flmphar.ifi, Tanzanirtn Tourism industry is facing t.he srtmp. draw hack of low capacity utilisation due to wp.nk capital base.
(i i) Ghol't.aqp. of fot'Piqn exdlilnq(~ whi('~h ('0111(1 be llRPrj to finance imports of neceFlsary spare part.s for rehrthilitatinq aged machinp.ry and eqtdpment.
33
High cost of transport for both raw material andfinished products resulting from the bad state ofroads and railway network as well as the ever risingcost of fuel and spare parts.
Clearing .imports may delay up to 6 months theavailability of necessary suppliers.
Certain NWFP industries like the Tan-Watt Co. andMazumbai Quinine factory are not connected witb thynational grid and 'hence, generating their ownelectricity is costly.
Poor management and inexperienced personnel in certainmills acts as a bottle-neck in the development of theNWFF sector.
Working skills and low working capital are the majorproblems hindering the establishment of the navalstores industry in the country.
Lastly, in the past the awareness of decision makersand the general public on the contribution of NWFPsector to the GDP and the physiological needs of therural communities was very low, leading to such goodsbeing called "minor forest products". This attitudehas not changed much, though of lately, the Tanzaniangovernment has embarked on a number of programmesaimed at the sustainable supply of NWFP.
7. . RECOMMENDATIONSMuch as there has been increased efforts by the Government
in exporting wood and non-wood forest products as evidenced inthe export performance in recent years, Tanzania is not a majorsupplier of these products in the international markets (withexeption of Cinchona barks and Wildlife related products) and ithas failed to exploit the existing market potential despite itshaving very big reserves
In recognition of these problems, the Government shoniddevelop comprehensive strategy to these diverse factors that cantransform the social and economic processes. The key elementsof this strategy are:-
7.1 Tmproved Resource Base
The present production levels of both wood and non-wOodproducts are too low to adequately satisfy the growing demand ofboth domestic and export markets. Improvement of productionlevels can be done through:
(I) Increasing caPacity utilization of non-wood processingmilis.
33
(ii i) High cost of transport for both raw m.:tt.er i ills .:tnc:1 finishE'd products resulting from the bad state of roads And railway network as well as the ever risjng cost of fuel and spare parts.
(i.v) Clpnring imports may deJay up to 6 months t.he availability of necessary suppliers.
(v) Certain NWFP industries like th~ 'T'an-\~iltl: r.o. Ma::wmbai Quinine factory an~ not connertPrl wit.h na tiona 1. qr id and henee, genera t. i Ilg the i r electricity is costly.
nnel tlw OWIl
(vi) Poor manAgement and inexperienceo pernonnF:'.l in ri"rl'Aln mills acts as a bottle-neck in the development of the NWFP sector.
(vii) Working skills and low working capital are the major problems 11 i nder ing the estab 1 ishment of the nava] stores industry in the country.
(viii) Lastly, in t.he past the awareness of der.ision mf.tkel's and the general puhlic on the contributjon of NWPP sector to the GOP and the physiological needs of till? rural communities was very low, leading to 511('h gO()flf:
being called "minor forest products". This attitlld(> has not changed much, though of. late} y, the Tan7.fHl i.an government has embarked on a number of progriimmps aimed at the sustainable supply of NWFP.
7. RECOMMF.NDJ\'J'IONS NIJr.h flS thF:'re has been JncrE"flR~d efforts by th~ r.overnrn~nt:
in ~xporting wood and non-wood forest products as pvi~en~0d in the export performance in recent yeflrs, Tanzania is not a major Rupplier of these products in the internationa 1 markets (w.i th exeption of Cinchona barks and Wildlife related products) and it has failert to exploit the existing market potentjal despite its having very hig reserves
In rf>cognition of these proh.1ems, the r.ovp.rnmf:'nt r:;hClllld c1evelop comprehensive strategy to these divprse [act.ors th~t can ,. Pll1R form the soe 1a 1 and economic prOC P 5SI?S. The key (> 10mf.'11 ts of tltis st.rategy are:-
7.1 Improved Resource Base
The present prodllction levels of both wood and nOli-wood products are too low to adequately satisfy the growing demand of both domest.ic and export markets. Improvement of producti.on levels can be done through:
(.i) Increasing capacity utilization of non-wond proc'(>nninq mills.
34
Ensure proper maintenance of product ion machinery andequipment.
Application of modern technology in products harvestingand processing. Most of the milis in the country needrehabilitation so as to enhance productivity.
(j y) TmprovementVLowledge relevant to forest and non-woodproducts management - both basic and applied researchshould be emphasized in order to improve techniques offorest management, and provide specific inventory datafor investment opportunities in both the wood and non-wood forest products sectors.
Introduction and evaluation Of new forage crops -
trees, grass, bushes for multiple use. Carry outphenological observation to provide necessaryinformation on species availabilities.
Increased planting of various indigenons fruits-bearing forest tree species on large plantation scaleis highly recommended. The introduction of forest andfruit species to agricultural areas and their possibledomestication and improvement through breeding offerconsiderable possibilities, not only in the improvednutrition of rural populations but in their economicpotential to provide cash incbmes derived from thesale of their raw fruits or processed products.
(viL) National inventories of medicinal plants, and othernon Wood forest products like Acacia woodlands for gumarable production; rubber plantations, naturalaromatic tree species etc. are essential if soundprogrammes for their rational use and exploitation areto be developed. Such inventories, still largely tobe effected in Tanzania; need to describe thegeographical and climatic distribution of variousproducts, their source and an indication of theirrelative abundance or scarcity. For the scarceproducts, efforts on their resource managementincluding estabishment should he put into practice.
(viii) Improved market and marketing strategy by:
Product advertisement through participation attrade mission/fairs.
Formulating intergrated promotional strategiesthat would enable to attract more buyers
Offering best quality products to the exportmarket.
(d) Quotation of most competitive prices forproducts.
34
(i 1.) EI18IJrp proper m~d n t (3nance 0 f prodllc t .i. on marl! i I1 pry <'IIH1 equipment.
( .i. i .i) App 1 i.ca t ion 0 ( modern techno logy in prooll<!t s hrt rves t i llq
and processing. Most of the mi U.s i.n the country IlP('>d rp.l1abi J.i tat.i on fiO as to p.nhilllce pr'oduct: i vi ty.
(jv) Tmprovement~tnowlec1ge re]eVilnt t.o forpst Clllrl l1on-\oJ()o(l pronuctr. mnn(HJp.m~n t - hoth 1);"lS ic ilnd npp 1 i 0(1 r'p.H";) reh shollid hI?! emphasized in order to jmprove techniquPR of foreRt manilgement, ilncl provide specif.ic: inventory dnta for investment opportunities in both thp. wood ann nnnwood forest products sectors.
(v) Introduction and evaluation of new fornge crops trees, grass, bushes for multiple use. Cnrry ()1lt.
phenological observation to provide npCPSRnJ'Y jnformntion on specJes availnbilit.les.
(vi) Increased planting of various indjgenoll~ fntit'F>bparing forest tree spp.cies on large plantHt:ion SC'nle is highly recommended. The introduction of forest and frui.t r-;pecies to agr.icultural nreas nn(1 thfdr pOf\sihle domesticntion and improvement through breeding offer considerable possibUities, not only in the improv(l(l nutrition of rural populations but in their economjc' potentiill to provide cash incomes ded.vpd from thp. sale of their raw fruits or processed products.
(vi i.) N<'Itional inventories of medicinal p.1antR, nnd ot.her non wood forest products like Acacia woodlands for gum arabic product ion; rubber plantat. ions, natUl'n 1 aromatic t.ree species etc. are essenti<'ll if sound programmes for their rationnl 1.lRP. nnd e:xploih1t:ion nrE' to be developed. Such inventories, still largely to be effected in Tanzania; need to describe ttl('> geographica 1 <'Ind c 1 imat ic c1 ist r ibut j on of Vn J' j olin products, the i r source and an indi.r.a t i on () f t hf' i. r re 1 a t i ve abundnnce or scare i ty. For the sen rCE.'
products, efforts on thei.r. resourC'e milTlilgement. including estabi shment should he put int.o prnct i ('''.
(viii) Improved market and marketing strntegy by:
(a) Product advert i sement throllgh part. i c ipt:l t i 011 at: trade mission/fairs.
(b) Formulating intergrated promotional strategies that would enable to attract more buyers.
(c) Offer ing best qual i ty products to the eXpoL~t murket.
( d ) Quo t· n t :i 0 n prodllC't.s.
of most r.ompetjtive pr ic'ps for
35
Ensuring strict adherence to sales contractualstipulations in relation to specification of theproduct (packaging, storage), protection duringtransport, punctuality of delivery etc.
Diversify products range by promoting andintroducing products which have traditionally notbeen put in the export markets - e.g. NWPP liketraditional medicines, aromatics, rubberproducts, naval stores etc.
7.2 Improved National Capacity
(i) As of lately, the Government's decision toliberalise' trade, this has accelerated latestdevelopments in mili productivity whereby in somemills has already started to pich-np, and thistrend is expected to continue. Tradeliberalisation has contributed positively towardsincreases in importation.
(i i) Improved infrastructure (Telecommunication, road,railjpower supply) in areas to be harvested andprovide accessibility and transport to marketdestinations.
Local transport agencies, like (TRC). 7 TanzaniaRailways Corporation, (TAZARA) - Tanzania ZambiaRailways Authority, and (THA) - Tanzania HarboursAuthority should introduce preferential rates forupcoming non traditional exports.
Improve the welfare of workers in variousindustries. Utilize properly trained personnelboth in Management and production.
Improving capital base structure in order to Pasefinancial constraints which affect production.
The Government should give exporters specialincentives eg. higher retention rates, access toforeign exchange, simplified exportdocumentation.
Promotion of Tourism.and wildlife basedactivities through building of better-run touristhotels; joint venture with Private investors.Taking drastic steps to prevent total loss of thecountry's endangered wild animal populationse.g.black rhinos, one of great attractions fortourists. New projects of translocating variousspecies into high security game sanctuaries thatare fenced could be launched. Once animals aretranslocated into sOch areas and let alone, canbreed well. Management of wildlife/humaninhabitants coexistance scheme's shonld be
35
(e) Ensuring strict adherence to !'>nlpl> ('(lIlt.l"flctl.l<ll !'>tipulations in relation to specification of the product (packaging, storag~), protection during transport, punctllality of delivpry E'tc.
(f) Divers1 fy products l'anqp. by promnt i.nq al1cl introducjng productB which have tradition~lly not been pu t i.n the expor t markets - e. g. Nwrr ) iJt,P t rad i t.i ana 1 mec1 i C' i nPR , aromat :i ("'I'; , T'lIhhr>r products, navfll stores etc.
7.2 Improved National Capacity
(j) As of lately, the Governm~nt's dpcisinn to 1 ihernl Lse' trade, this hn!'> acce]et'nted lat PRt
developments in mill productivity wherehy in nome mills hnS alrendy started to picl\-llp, nnd thin t rend is expected to cont inue. ','rflClp. liberalisation has C'ontribl1tE'r:l pO!'>il'ivp.ly t.()wnl~(15 increases in importntion.
(.i i) Improver] in fras tructure (Te lE'COmmllll i.('~ t. ion, rOrH1, rai].1 power supply) in areas to be harveFit r->(] and provide access ,i bili ty and transport to rna !'ke1: destinations.
(iii) LOCol transport agencies, like (TRC) -: 1'HIl7.flni.o Railways Corporation, (TAZARA) - Tanzania Zambia Ra ilwnYs Author i ty, and (THA) - Ton7.an i a Iiarhours Authority should introduce preferential rates for upcom.ing non trad1.tional exports.
(iv) Improve the welfare of workers in various industries. UtiUze properly trained pel'SOnllp.] both in ManagE'ment and production.
(v) Improving capital base structure in order to ~n5~ financial constraints which affect production.
(vi) ThE" Government should give eXpOT'tf~l's spE'c:ii\1 incentives ego higher retention rates, ac~eSR to foreign exchange, simplifieo export documentation.
(vii) Promotion of Tour.ism' and wildlife haspd act ivi ties through bui lding of better-rlln to\l1' i st hotels; joint venture with Private iTlvel>tol's. Taking drastic steps to prevent total loss of the coun try's endangered w.i Id nn ima 1 popu la t ions e. g. black rhinos, one of great attractions for tourists. New projeptR of translocating VC'll'in1lf;
species into high security game sanctllflrjp5 t.hnt are fenced cOlllo bp 1 Hunched. Once an i.ma ls nJ'e translocatE'd into s\Jch areas ana let alon p , can brped well. Management of wi 101 i fe/humnn inhflhitants coexistonce s("'hpmp5 shollld be
36
encouraged such as the Ngorongoro ConservationArea Authority whereby, the Maasai people attendtheir livestock using forage from the NationalPark, and are allowed to crop for game meat ¿inri
trophies, while at the same time providP toughersecurity against poachers. Such measures areaimed at giving local communities incentives topreserve the endangered wildlife populations.The Government should think more on how toprovide game meat to the people around wildlifeconservation areas instead of leaving the animalsto roam the widerness.-
(viii) More national programmes should be drawn up topromote awareness on environmental conservation.Similar programmes involving local communitiesare also necessary. These programmes mnstinclude sharing benefits accrued from snstainableuse of the resource, in accordance with theresolution of the Rio de Janeiro Pnited NationsConference on Environment and Development. Fullinvolvement of the people during the planningstage and implementation of these programmes isa pre-requisite to ensure their success.
8. CONCLUSION
The demand for nonwood forest products is very big/loth in the local and export markets. The GovernmPnt,Private investors etc. should endeavour to exploit allpotential markets in order to increase sales volumes,so as to earn more money which will guarantee thesurvival of the NWFP sector, and increase thecontribution of the sector to the Economic RecoveryProgramme (ERP)
Concerted efforts should be geared towards documentation(identification, and evaluation), preparation,cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants usedin traditional medicine. Quality, efficacy and accuracyin labelling the constituents of medicinal plantremedies is critical for safety evaluation and drugcontrol.
Since, the present production levels are insufficientto satisfy the few markets which are being served now,it is necessary that production capacity is increasedthrough rehabilitation of present mills and installationof new capacity.
36
P.IlCOll rogp.d sueh as the Ngorongoro f'on:=;erVil t ion l\rea l\uthority whereby, the Maasol p~ople at.t~nd their livestock llsing foroge from thp. Nat:iollrll Park, and are allowed to crop for go me meRt and t.rophies, whJle at the :=;0101" timp. provirtP. t'otlqllPr spcur tty aga inst pO.:lchp.rs. Such m!?RSllrr;>s ar!? aimp.d nt giving 10co1. C'ommlmitip:=; incelltiv0s to preservp the endang!?r!?d wiJ.(lli.fe populations. The Govp.rnment should think morp on how to provide game meat to the ppople orollnd wildlife conservation areas instead of leaving the nnimills to roam the widerness.
(vi.i i) Morp. not ional programmes should bp. drRwn tip to promote awareness on environmental conservation. 8imilar programmes involving local commllllitips are also nec~ssary. Th!?se programm!?:=; mlll-lt include sharing bp.nefits accrued from slIstaillflhlp use of the resource, in occorc1oncp with tIlt" resoluti.on of the Rio de l1aneiro \!JIHed Nations Conference on Environment. and Development.. Fu] 1 involvement of the people during the planning stage and implementation of thp:=;e programm!?s 10 a pre-requisite to ensurf' thei.r succefiS.
O. CONCI,USION
(i) The demand for nonwood forest products is vpry I>iq hoth in the local and export markets. The Government, Private invest.ors p.t.e. should endeavour to exploi t al1 potential markets in order to increase salps volllmes, so as to earn more money which will gnarantee the survival of the NWFP sector, and increase the contribution of the sector to the Economic RAcnvpry Programme (ERP)
(ii) COllcel~tec1 efforts should be gea.red towards clo('lImnnl at.ioll (identification, and evaluation), preparation, cultivRt.ion and ('onservation of medicinal plflnl's IlRP(l in traditional mpdicine. Quality, efficacy and RC(~Urocy in la·be 1 U ng the cOl1sti tuents of med i c ina 1 plan t rpmedies is critical for safety evaluation .:Ind ell'u9 control.
(i.ii) Sin('p, the preRent producti.on levels are jllsllffi.r.iPIlt. to satisfy the few markets which are heing sl?rve(l no,-" it .i s necpssary thot. pro(luC't i.on rapaci ty is incrPiu;ed through rehabili tation of present mills and install,,\: i.on of new capacity.
37
Private investments should be encouraged to develop theNWFP sector by investing in the infrastructure, becausethe Government has little ability to do so now due tothe poor state of the economy.
Reliable Data analysis is a key element in any mat ional,regional forestry development process as stipnlated inthP Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).
The success of TFAP depends on the programme beingbarked and guided by a strong research base, of whichin Tanzania, like other developing tropical countries,is very weak.
(vi. i) Single sector approaches in forestry development needto be replaced by a broader approach to sustainablemanagement of forest resources within the national aswell subregional resources management framework.
37
(jv) rriv;lt:p jnveRtmpnls should he enr.ollraged In df'vr>lop thr> NWfP 5P('t 01" by j nves t ing in t he in f1'(\5 t.l'll(.'t lin', ))pr;:H\se l h Pr.o v p r n men t has 1.i ttl e a b.il i t y t 0 don () II () W rIll n. t () the poor state of the economy.
{v} R0liuhle nnl"fI nnnlysis is fI keyelpment ill flllY Ilrtf in";I', regionfll forestry devE>]opmpnt process as 51"ipll1<'1tN] in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).
(v i) The success 0 f TF'AP depends on t.he progrnmml=' hp i WJ ba('}~f'c] and guic]pd I)y a strong rf'nearch bnse, of \.Jhir'h in'T'Rllzania, U.ke othpr developing tropicnl cOllntr.ies, in very WE'nk.
(vi i.) 8ingle sectol" approachen in forestry deVfdopm0.nt Ilpr~(l to be rE>placE'd by a broader approRch to sllR1"fI.innhlp ffinllngement of forest re50urC0n within thp nnlinllnl as well subregional resources mnnagem.;:>nt framework.
Fibre
38
ANNEX I
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP IN TANZANIA
Bark 3
Matts 2
Bamboo 2
Baskets 2
Cork 3
Forage Grass, leaves, branches,live hedges 1
Food (Vegetal) Condiments 3
Spices 2
FruitsFungi (Mushroom) 2
Beaverages 2
LeavesSeeds 3
OilsNuts, Betel 3
Nuts, Shea Butter 3
Food (Faunal) Fish (meat, feed protein, oil) 1
EggsGame meat (mammals, birds,reptiles) 1
Honey 1
Frogs meat 3
Invertebrates 2
Non-Food (Faunal) Feathers of (Ostrich etc.) 3
Bees Wax 1
Live Animals 1
Animal Trophies:Mammal Furs 1
Mammal Horns 2
Mammal Teeth (ivory, hippo) 1
Shells (tortoise, etc.) 3
Skins of larger ',mammals 1
Skins of Reptiles 1
CATFGORY OF NWFP PRODUCT IMPORTANCEoF NWFP
38
CLASSIFICATION OF NWFP IN TANZt\~IA
Fihre
Forage
Food (Vegp.t.al)
Food (Fauna 1)
Non -Foo(l (Fauna I)
PRODUCT
Bark Matts B(lmboo Biu:; kets Cork
Grass, leavp-s, branches, live hedqp.s
Condiments Spicp.s Fruits Fungi (NlIshroom) Beaverages Lf>Clves Seeds Oils Nuts, Betel Nuts, Shea Butter
IMPORTANCE OF NWFP
3 ;),
;>,
2 3
1
3
3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
Fish (meat, feed protein, oil) 1 Eggs :3 Game meat (mammals, birds, reptiles) 1 Honey 1 Frogs meat 3 Invertebrates 2
Feathers of (Ostrich etc.) 3 Bees WHX 1 Live Animals I Animal Trophies:
Mammal Furs 1 Mammal Horns 2 Mammal Teeth (ivory, hippo) 1 Shells (tortoise, etc.) 3 Skins of larger ,mammals 1 Skins of Rpptilps 1
39
CATEGORY OF NWFP PRODUCT IMPORTANCEOF NWFP
MPdicinal
Cosmetics(Aromatics)
Azadirachta indica 2
Cinchona barks 1
Caesalpinia decapitala 2
Croton megalocarpus (bark) 3
Agave sisalana 2
Carica papaya (Cruit) 3
Clove oil (Eugenia paryOphyllata)1Faidherbia albida (bark) 2
Acacia mellifera (bark) 2
Alchornea cordifolia (leavPs) 2Annona senegalensis(bark, roots) 2
Bridelia micrantha (bark, roots) 2
Byrsocarpus orientalis(roots, leaves) 2
Combretum molle (roots) 2
Entada abyssinica (seed, roots,bark) 2
Maytenus buchananii (Leaves,stPm wood) 2
Rauvolfia caffra (bark, root) 2Trema orientalis 2Trichilia emetica (bark, roots) 2
Eucaly0tus oil/cineole
Sandalwood Oil(Zanthoxylum gillettii) 2
Brachylaena huillensis Oil 2
E.A. green heart oil(Warbugia stuhlmannii) 3
Cedarwood oil(Juniperus procera) 2
Cineol oil/camphor(Ocotea usambarensis,Cinnamonum camphora)Cassie oil (Acacia farnesiana) +Clove oil (Ellgeniacaryophyllata 1
Eucalyptus oil (5, globult4S,E. maidenii, E. regnans,E. saligna)Piper capense oil
CATEGORY OF N\';FP
Cosmet i.cs (Aromntics)
39
PRODUCT IMPORTANCE OF N\.;rr
~zadirachta indica /. Cinchona barks 1 CaesalQinia decapitala /. ~~:~tQn mega lOC_9J;:QJ!!<L-..LQ~.rkt 3 Agave sisalana 2 Carica Pill>_~ ((ruit) 3 Clove oj I (Eugenia caryor!.b..Y..llat.il~l Faiqherpia~J11rJ.~ (bork) 2 Acacia mellifera (bark) 2 Alc!lorneacordIIo lia (] eavPfj) /. Ann(lllCL_ senega 1 enSiSTbark, root s) 2 Brillelia micrantha (bork, rootf» 2 B\;}:-§QCa-rpii s 0 r i elrt ali s (roots, leaves) 2 Co~r~tu~ molle (roots) 2 EtLt~c1a al;>yssinica (seed, roots, bark) 2 ~i1..Y.tenu~ buchananii (Leaves, stpm wood) 2 B~uvolfia caffra (bark, root) 2 Trema oriental is 2 T...richllia emetica. (bark, root.s) 2 Eucalyptus oil/cineole +
- Sandalwood Oil C~_anthoxylum g.i 11~tJ i iJ 2
- Brachylaena huillensis Oil 2 - E.A. green heArt oil
(Warbugia stuhlmannii) 3 - Cedarwood oil
(Juniperus procera) 2 - Cjneol oil/camphor
(Ocotea usambarensis, Cinnamonum Ca.!1)r~9ra) +
- Cas 5 i e 0 i I ( A cal' i a far n e 5 i a IU1) + - Clove oil (~~~nia
caryophyllata 1 - Euca l.yptus oi 1. (r:_~31ob\~
E. rna ideni 1, E. regllans, ~ __ • _5 a U.lli!!!) +
- Piper capense oil +
Extractives
40
CATEGORY OF NWFP PRODUCT IMPORTANCEOF NWFP
Legend: 1. Very importantModerately importantLess important
+ High potential product
Tannins:Wattle mimosa extractMangrove extract
Textile Dyes:Lac Latex:Crude rubber (Heveabrasiliensis)(Eunlumia africana)
Gums:Gum arable (Acacia species)
Naval stores:gum rosins (P. elliottik,P. caribaea)waxesturpentines, oleo-resin,(P. elliottii, P. ca_ribea)
1.
3
3
2
3
2
Others:
Amenity Various tree species 2
Toxins Various tree species 3
Environmental Forests, Woodlands, Grasslands,Protection and Green hedges, etc. 1
Improvement
Parks and Floral and faunal conservation,reserves: Tourism, Recreation, Hunting,
etc. 1
rl\TEGORY OF NWFP
E'xtractivE'f:
Othl?r::::
[\JI1011ity Toxins
Environmentnl Protp.ct.ion and Improvement
PArks nnd reserves:
40
PRODUCT IMPORT"NCF. OF NWFP
Tannins: - W~ttlp mimosA extrRct - MAngrove extrRct 'rext i IE' Dy('>s: Lac Latex: - Crude ruhber Oievect
brasiliensis) (r.~l!.u..th,-mig fI fr_t~~~!laJ
Gums:
1. 1 )
2 J
- Gum arAbic (}\(,R(~ia species) 2 Naval stores: - gil m r 0 sin s Cp....!-_e-.!..Li:. 0 t t.LL
P. car ibaea) + - WAxes + - tllrpl?ntines, oleo-renin,
( P. e 11 J 0 ttiL ~_ c i\.r iJt~~ aJ +
VnriollS tree species Various tree species
Forests, Woodlands, Grasslands, Green hedges, etc.
Floral and fallnal conservation, Tourism, Recreation, Hunting, etc.
2 3
1
.1
Leg~Jl(]: 1. V~ry important 2. Mod~ratply important 3. Less important + High potentiAl product
STATISTICAL DATA ON NWFP
PRODUCTYEAR OFREFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*
US $IMPORTING COUNTRIES
(Where known)
Wattlemimosa 1980 T E 6,065.00 28,533
Cuba, Italy, India,U S A
Extract
Honey 1980 T E 176.00 128,000 Middle EastBees wax 1980 T E 285 (217) 612,465 GFR, Japan, UK
Honey 1981 E
Bees wax 1981 T E 442 (437) 1,748,552 Belgium,GF R, Japan,USA
Honey 1982 E 39.00 31,200 U A E
Bees wax 1982 T E 148 (197) 478,336 GF R, Japan, UK
ANNEX II
SPECIES
Acaciamearnsii(Black Wattle)
Julbernadia,Brachystegia,Isoberlinia,Acacia andCombretum spp.
Acacias,Brachystegiaand Julbernadiaspp.
Miombo woodlandtree spp. andHigh Rain Forestspp. of Croton,Albizia, Ficus,Melicia excelsaetc.
Al\i"NEX II
STATISTICAL DATA ON NWFP
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE * IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US S (Where known) ~ ~
Acacia Wattle Cuba, Italy, India, mearnsii mimosa 1980 T E 6,065.00 28,533 USA (Black Wattle) Extract
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, Honey 1980 T E 176.00 128,000 Middle East Isoberlinia, Bees wax 1980 T E 285 (217) 612,465 GFR, Japan, UK Acacia and Combretum spp.
Acacias, Brachystegia Honey 1981 T E and Julbernadia Bees wax 1981 T E 442 (437) 1,748,552 Belgium,GF R, Japan, spp. USA
Miombo woodland tree spp. and High Rain Forest spp. of Croton, Albizia, Ficus, Honey 1982 T E 39.00 31,200 U A E Melicia excelsa etc. Bees wax 1982 T E 148 (197) 478,336 GF R, Japan, UK
Annex contd..
SPECIES PRODUCTYEAR OFREFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*
US $IMPORTING COUNTRIES
(Where known)
A. mearnsii Wattle 1985 T P 5,026.00Mimosaextract 1985 T E 3,889.00 153,706
Miombo woodland Honey 1985 T E 1.00 750 U A Etree species Bees wax 1985 T E 66.7 (90) 168,084 GF R, Japan
A. mearnsii Wattlemimosa
1986 T P 2,902.90
extract T E 2,439.00 65,325
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1986 T E 383.80 255,000
Julbernadia,Acacia,Comlovetum,
HoneyBees wax
19861986
T
T
E
E
3.0021.7 (106)
2,25058,590
Kuwait
Brawtegia spp.
Cinchona spp. Cinqhona 1986 T E 160.90 138,00010,-KS
A. mearnsii Wattlemimosa
1987 T P 3,497.00 -
extract 1987 T E '4,985.00 61,138
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1987 T E 283.90 312,138
Miombo woodlandspp. and
Honey 1987 T E 17.84 25,020
Euphorbia spp. Bees wax 1987 T E 216.00 616,124
Cinchona spp Cinchonabarks 1987 T E 131.43 234,308
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US S (Where known)
~ mearnsii Wattle 1985 T P 5,026.00 Mimosa extract 1985 T E 3,889.00 153,706
Miombo woodland Honey 1985 T E 1.00 750 U A E tree species Bees wax 1985 T E 66.7 (90) 168,084 GF R, Japan
A. mearnsii Wattle 1986 T P 2,902.90 ~
mimosa N
extract T E 2,439.00 65,325
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1986 T E 383.80 255,000
Julbernadia, Acacia, Honey 1986 T E 3.00 2,250 Kuwait Com~etum, Bees wax 1986 T E 21. 7 (l06) 58,590 Braclstegia spp.
Cinchona spp. Cin~ona b<l.t- S
1986 T E 160.90 138,000
A. mearnsii Wattle 1987 T P 3,497.00 mimosa extract 1987 T E "4,985.00 61, 138
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1987 T E 283 . 90 312,138
:1iombo woodland Honey 1987 T E 17.84 25,020 spp. and Euphorbia spp. Bees wax 1987 T E 216.00 616,124
Cinchona spp Cinchona barks 1987 T E 131. 43 234,308
Annex contd..
SPECIESYEAR OF
PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*USS
IMPORTING COUNTRIES(Where known)
A. mearnsii Wattlemimosaextract 1988 3,350.00
Miombo woodlandspp Honey 1988 E 20.50 23,475 Kuwait, UAE, Saudi
ArabiaCoffee planta-tions Bees wax 1988 E 324.00 792,514 GFR, Japan, UK
Arilual Trophies:--Elephants Ivory 1988 Kg E 2,543.73 254,373 Belgium, GFR, USA,
UK-Crocodiles Crocodile
skins 1988 No. E 1.00 500 UK-Zebras Zebra skins 1988 No. E 3.00 3,000 Canada
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1988 E 427.00 356.000 UK, Australia,India, Sri Lanka
Live Animals:- Ostriches Birds 1988 Nos. E 92,000.00 794,465 Belgium, UK, Portugal- Vervet monkeys,
Gazelles,Mammals(small)
1988 Nos. E 353.00 18,470 USA, GFR, UK
Impalas etc.
- Crocodiles,snakes
Reptiles 1988 Nos. E 1,036.00 42,350 Soviet Union, SaudiArabia, Japan
- Termites,grasshoppers,millipedes
InsectsandAnthropads 1988 Nos. E 380.00 390 Netherlands, Italy
- Frogs Frogs 1988 Nos. E 90.00 90 Japan, HongKong(Amphibians)
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
USS (Where known)
A. mearnsii Wattle mimosa extract 1988 T P 3,350.00
Miombo woodland spp Honey 1988 T E 20.50 23,475 Kuwait, UAE, Saudi
Arabia Coffee planta- ~
IN tions Bees wax 1988 T E 324.00 792,514 GFR, Japan, UK
~~al Trophies:--Elephants Ivory 1988 Kg E 2,543.73 254,373 Belgium, GFR, USA,
UK -Crocodiles Crocodile
skins 1988 No. E 1.00 500 UK -Zebras Zebra skins 1988 No. E 3.00 3,000 Canada
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1988 T E 427.00 356.000 UK, Australia, India, Sri Lanka
Live Animals: - Ostriches Birds 1988 Nos. E 92,000.00 794,465 Belgium, UK, Portugal - Vervet monkeys, Mammals 1988 Nos. E 353.00 18,470 USA, GFR, UK
Gazelles, (small) Impalas etc.
- Crocodiles, Reptiles 1988 ~os. E 1,036.00 42,350 Soviet Union, Saudi snakes Arabia, Japan
- Termites, Insects grasshoppers, and millipedes Anthropads 1988 Nos. E 380.00 390 Netherlands, Italy
- Frogs Frogs 1988 Nos. E 90.00 90 Japan, HongKong (A.mphibians)
Annex contd..
SPECIESYEAR OF
PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*US$
IMPORTING COUNTRIES(Where known)
Cinchona spp. Cinchonabarks
1988 E 94.4 163,100 UK, Belgium,Netherlands
A. Mearnsii Wattle
mimosa
1989 4,305.00
Thailand, USAextract E 1,648.40 4,370,988 Zambia, Canada
Julbernadia,Brachystegia,IsoberliniaAcacia, Combreturnetc.
HoneyBees wax
19891989
E
E
62.00221.10
14,565510,231
UAE, UK, SwedenGFR, France, UK,Japan
Animal Trophies:- Elephants Ivory 1989 Kg E 1,609.50 160,950 Australia, Belgium- Crocodiles Crocodile
skins 1989 Nos. E 142.00 131,928 France, UK, USA- Zebras Zebra skins 1989 Nos. E 7.00 7,000 Canada, GFR, Spain-Hippopotamus- Ostriches,
parrots
Hippo teeth
Birds skinsand Feathers
1989
1989
Kg.
Kg.
E
E
65,860.00
400.00
34,983
963
Belgium, Spain,FranceNorway, UK,Australia
- Tortoise Tortoiseshells
1989 Kg E 22.00 1,219 UK, Italy, Pakistan
- Colubus &vervetmon4evs, otter
Fur skins 1989 E 3,912.00 57,474 Hong Kong, India,Paskistan
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US$ (Where known)
Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1988 T E 94.4 163,100 UK, Belgium, barks Netherlands
A. Mearnsii Wattle 1989 T P 4,305.00
mimosa Thailand, USA extract E 1,648.40 4,370,988 Zambia, Canada
~
Julbernadia, ~
Brachystegia, Honey 1989 T E 62.00 14,565 UAE, UK, Sweden Isoberlinia Bees wax 1989 T E 221.10 510,231 GFR, France, UK, Acacia, Combretum . Japan etc.
Animal Trophies: - Elephants Ivory 1989 Kg E 1,609.50 160,950 Australia, Belgium - Crocodiles Crocodile
skins 1989 Nos. E 142.00 131,928 France, UK, USA - Zebras Zebra skins 1989 Nos. E 7.00 7,000 Canada, GFR, Spain - Hippopotamus Hippo teeth 1989 Kg. E 65,860.00 34,983 Belgium, Spain, - Ostriches, France
parrots Birds skins 1989 Kg. E 400.00 963 Norway, UK, and Feathers Australia
- Tortoise Tortoise 1989 Kg E 22.00 1,219 UK, Italy, Pakistan shells
- Co1ubus & Fur skins 1989 T E 3,912.00 57,474 Hong Kong, India, vervet Paskistan mon:~eys, otter
Annex contd..
SPECIES PRODUCTYEAR OFREFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*
US $IMPORTING COUNTRIES
(Where known)
Live Animals:- Ostriches, Birds 1989 Nos. E 9,000.00 983,865 Japan, Netherlands
Love birds,parrots
- Vervet Monkeys,Serval cat, Mammals 1989 Nos. E 1,361.00 33,540 USA, Belgium, UKImpala
Crocodiles, snakes Reptiles 1989 Nos. E 2,084.00 39,165 UK, France, USA
- Termites,grasshoppersetc.
Insects 1989 Nos. E 200.00 200 Portugal, SaudiArabia
Cinchona spp. Cinchonabarks
1989 T E 150.1 265,758 Belgium, UK,Netherlands
Acacia seyal,A. Senegal,
Gum arabic 1989 E 503.3 262,646 Australia, GFR,India, Sri Lanka
A snirocarna
Hemea brasiliensis Raw rubber 1989 E 2.7 368,733 Syria and Singapore
Quercus sppErythrina excelsa Cork 1989 T E 70.8 21,368 Italy, Zimbabwe
Zanthoxylum Essentialoils,Resinoids
1989 E 40.0 15,645 UAEgilletti,Pinus spp. etc.
Areca catechu Betel Nuts 1989 E 1.0 2,520 Zambia
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US S (Where known)
Live Animals: - Ostriches, Birds 1989 Nos. E 9,000.00 983,865 Japan, Netherlands
Love birds, parrots
- Vervet Monkeys, Serval cat, Mammals 1989 Nos. E 1,361.00 33,540 USA, Belgium, UK Impala
~ Crocodiles, snakes Reptiles 1989 Nos. E 2,084.00 39,165 UK, France, USA 111
- Termites, grasshoppers Insects 1989 Nos. E 200.00 200 Portugal, Saudi etc. Arabia
Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1989 T E 150.1 265,758 Belgium, UK, barks Netherlands
Acacia seyal, h Seneqal, ! s(!irocar:Qa Gum arabic 1989 T E 503.3 262,646 Australia, GFR,
India, Sri Lanka Hevea brasiliensis Raw rubber 1989 T E 2.7 368,733 Syria and Singapore
Quercus spp" Ervthrina excelsa Cork 1989 T E 70.8 21,368 Italy, Zimbabwe
Zanthoxylum Essential 1989 T E 40.0 15,645 UAE qilletti, oils, Pinus spp. etc. Resinoids
Areca catechu Betel Nuts 1989 T E 1.0 2,520 Zambia
Annex contd...
SPECIES PRODUCTYEAR OFREFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*
US $IMPORTING COUNTRIES
(Where known)
Mpingo, muhuhu, WoodCombretum spp. carvings 1989 184.7 728,302 USA, Sweden, UgandaAcacia mearnsii Dyeing,
1989 E 18.0 12,969 Pakistan, USA
mangroves Tanning &colouringmaterials
Miombo woodland Honey 1990 E 36.0 78,100 UAE, UKspp. Bees wax 1990 E 234.0 565,540 UK, GFR, Japan
Animal Trophies:- Elephants Ivory 1990 Kg. E 4,929.25 492,925 Belgium, GFR, India
- Zebras Zebra skins 1990 Nos. E 10.00 10,000 Canada, Spain
Live Animals:- OstriCh,
Flamingo, Birds 1990 Nos. E 91,200.00 3,803,475 UK, AustraliaLove birds,Guinea fowl,Parrots
- Vervet monkeys, MammalsImpala, Gazelle
1990 Nos. E 779.00 104,495 UK, France, USA,Japan
- Crocodiles, Reptilessnakes
1990 Nos. E 1,272.00 49,715 UK, France, USA
- Termites, grass- Insects andhoppers, Anthropad
1990 Nos. E 904.00 5,504
Annex contd •••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US S (Where known)
Mpingo, muhuhu, Wood Combretum spp. carvings 1989 T E 184.7 728,302 USA, Sweden, Uganda Acacia mearnsii Dyeing, mangroves Tanning &
colouring materials 1989 T E 18.0 12,969 Pakistan, USA ,c,.
0'\
Miombo woodland Honey 1990 T E 36.0 78,100 UAE, UK spp. Bees wax 1990 T E 234.0 565,540 UK, GFR, Japan
Animal Trophies: - Elephants Ivory 1990 Kg. E 4,929.25 492,925 Belgium, GFR, India
- Zebras Zebra skins 1990 Nos. E 10.00 10,000 Canada, Spain
Live Animals: - Ostrich,
Flamingo, Birds 1990 Nos. E 91,200.00 3,803,475 UK, Australia Love birds, Guinea fowl, Parrots
- Vervet monkeys, Mammals 1990 Nos. E 779.00 104,495 UK, France, USA, Impala, Gazelle Japan
- Crocodiles, Reptiles 1990 Nos. E 1, 272 .00 49,715 UK, France, USA snakes
- Termites, grass- Insects and 1990 Nos. E 904.00 5,504 hoppers, Anthropad
Annex contd....
SPECIES PRODUCTYEAR OFREFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*
US $IMPORTING COUNTRIES
(Where known)
- Cinchona spp. Cinchonabark5
1990 E 119.8 265,000 Netherlands,Belgium, UK
Acacia mearnsii Wattlemimosaextract 1990 E 5,538.15
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1990 E 740.20 370,100 India, GFR, Austria
Acacia mollissima Wattlemimosa
(A. mearnsii) extract 1991 5,466.51
E 4,282.67 2,854,260 Italy, Egypt,Pakistan, Kenya,Thailand, USA,Canada, Zambia,Bangladesh
Mpingo, muhuhu,combretum spp.
Woodcarvings
1991 T E 78.40 194,750 UK, USA, Japan,HongKong
Brachystegia, Honey 1991 T E 140.60 116,790 UAE, Saudi ArabiaJulbernadia,Isoberlinia,Acacia,Terminalia,Dombeya andParinari spp.
Annex contd ••••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US $ (Where known)
- Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1990 T E 119.8 265,000 Netherlands, "'"r"'S Belgium, UK
Acacia mearnsii Wattle mimosa .c. extract 1990 T E 5,538.15
-..,J
Acacia spp. Gum arabic 1990 T E 740.20 370,100 India, GFR, Austria
Acacia mollissima Wattle mimosa
(A. mearnsii) extract 1991 T P 5,466.51
T E 4,282.67 2,854,260 Italy, Egypt, Pakistan, Kenya, Thailand, USA, Canada, Zambia, Bangladesh
Mpingo, muhuhu, Wood 1991 T E 78.40 194,750 UK, USA, Japan, combretum spp. carvings HongKong
Brachystegia, Honey 1991 T E 140.60 116,790 UAE, Saudi Arabia Julbernadia, Isoberlinia, Acacia, Terminalia, Dombeya and Parinari spp.
Annex contd...
YEAR OFSPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US$ (Where known)
Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1988
barksE 94.4 163,100 UK, Belgium,
Netherlands
A. Mearnsii Wattle 1989
mimosa
4,305.00
Thailand, USAextract E 1,648.40 4,370,988 Zambia, Canada
Julbernadia,Brachystegia,IsoberliniaAcacia, combretunaetc.
Honey 1989Bees wax 1989
62.00221.10
14,565510,231
UAE, UK, SwedenGFR, France, UK,Japan
Animal Trophies:- Elephants Ivory 1989 Kg E 1,609.50 160,950 Australia, Belgium- Crocodiles Crocodile
skins 1989 Nos. E 142.00 131,928 France, UK, USA- Zebras Zebra skins 1989 Nos. E 7.00 7,000 Canada, GFR, Spain- Hippopotanus- Ostriches,
parrots
Hippo teeth 1989
Birds skins 1989
and Feathers
Kg.
Kg.
E
E
65,860.00
400.00
34,983
963
Belgium, Spain,FranceNorway, UK,Australia
- Tortoise Tortoise 1989shells
Kg E 22.00 1,219 UK, Italy, Pakistan
- Colubus &vervetmon!kevs, otter
Fur skins 1989 E 3,912.00 57,474 Hong Kong, India,Pa kistan
Annex contd •••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US$ (Where known)
Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1988 T E 94.4 163,100 UK, Belgium, barks Netherlands
A. Mearnsii Wattle 1989 T P 4,305.00
mimosa Thailand, USA extract E 1,648.40 4,370,988 Zambia, Canada ~
CX)
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, Honey 1989 T E 62.00 14,565 UAE, UK, Sweden Isoberlinia Bees vax 1989 T E 221.10 510,231 GFR, France, UK, Acacia, CombretUIQ Japan etc.
Animal Trophies: - Elephants Ivory 1989 Kg E 1,609.50 160,950 Australia, Belgium - CrOcodiles Crocodile
skins 1989 Nos. E 142.00 131,928 France, UK, USA - Zebras Zebra skins 1989 Nos. E 7.00 7,000 Canada, GFR, Spain - H~ppopotaIll1s Hippo teeth 1989 Kg. E 65,860.00 34,983 Belgium, Spain, - Ostriches, France
parrots Birds skins 1989 Kg. E 400.00 963 Norway, UK, and Feathers Australia
- Tortoise Tortoise 1989 Kg E 22.00 1,219 UK, Italy, Pakistan shells
- Colubus & Fur skins 1989 T E 3,912.00 57,474 Hong Kong, India, vervet Pa kistan mon !keys, otter
Annex contd..
SPECIESYEAR OF
PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*US $
IMPORTING COUNTRIES(Where known)
DombeyaiParinariand other Miombospp.
Beeswax 1991 E 473.87 2,450,450 GFR, Japan, UK
Animal Trophies:- Elephants,
Zebras, Lions,Leopards,
Ivory andskins
1991 E 255.67 1,012,770 Australia, Belgium,GFR, Japan
Pythons,Cheetah
Live Animals:- Ostrich, Parrots, Birds 1991 Nos. E 135,159.00 346,810 HongKong, Japan
Love birds
Cinchona spp. Cinchonabarks
1991 E 755.92 258,000 Belgium, UK,Netherlands.
Acacia senegal,Gum arabic 1991 E 385.54 904,110 Austria, GFR, IndiaA. spirocarDa etc.
Hevea brasiliensis Raw rubber 1991 E 10.453 913,820 Syria, Singapore
Acacia mearnsii Wattle Jan/Junemimosaextract
1992 E 1,114.50 1,787,330 Thailand, USA, Cuba,Pakistan, India
Julbernadia,Br& ciptegia,Combretum,
Honey
Beeswax
Jan/June1992
T E
E
262.26
265.00 719,490
UAE, Kuwait, SaudiArabia, UK, SwedenUK, GFR, Japan
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE* IMPORTING COUNTRIES
US S (Where known)
Dombeya.lPar inari Beeswax 1991 T E 473.87 2,450,450 GFR, Japan, UK and other Miombo spp.
Animal Trophies: ~ - Elephants, '0
Zebras, Lions, Ivory and 1991 T E 255.67 1,012,770 Australia, Belgium, Leopards, skins GFR, Japan Pythons, Cheetah
Live Animals: - Ostrich, Parrots, Birds 1991 Nos. E 135,159.00 346,810 HongKong, Japan
Love birds
Cinchona spp. Cinchona 1991 T E 755.92 258,000 Belgium, UK, barks Netherlands.
Acacia senegal, ~ spirocarpa etc. Gum arabic 1991 T E 385.54 904,110 Austria, GFR, India
Hevea brasiliensis Raw rubber 1991 T E 10.453 913,820 Syria, Singapore
l\cacia mearnsii Wattle Jan/June mimosa 1992 T E 1,114.50 1,787,330 Thailand, USA, Cuba, extract Pakistan, India
Julbernadia, Honey Jan/June T E 262.26 UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Bra. ch!stegia, 1992 Arabia, UK, Sweden Combretum, Beeswax T E 265.00 719,490 UK, GFR, Japan
Annex contd..
LEGEND:
T: Tonne Kg: Kilogramme Nos: Numbers P: Production figures E: Export figures:US$ United States dollar* Indicative Export World Market values. For honey and bees wax February 1989 prices: Honey 1800 USS perT. bees wax 2360 USS per T respectively. Export values are in United States Dollars (USS). July/August 1992
prices: honey 1070 USS per T f.o.b, bees wax (sorted/refined) 2800 US$ per T; gum arabic 500 USS per T.
SPECIESYEAR OF
PRODUCT REFERENCE UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY VALUE*US S
IMPORTING COUNTRIES(Where known)
Animal Trophies: Various Jan/June1992
E 222.30 1,337,710 Japan, GFR, Belgium,Norway
Live Animals:-Ostrich, Guinea-fowl, Parrots,Flamingo,lovebird
Birds Jan/June1992
Nos. E 22,108.00 47,550 HongKong, Japan
- Vervet monkeys Mammals Jan/June Nos. E 112.00 32,170 Japan, USA, GFR, UKGorillas, 1992Impala, Gazelles
Cinchona spp. Cinchonabarks
Jan/June1992
E 147.00 98,290 Netherlands, Belgium,UK
Mpingo, muhuhu,Combretum spp.
Woodcarvings
Jan/June1992
E 36.27 103,870 USA, Japan, Belgium,GFR.
Hevea brasil iensis Raw rubber Jan/June E 20.60 Singapore, Syria1992
Acacia seval, A. Gum arabic Jan/June E 311.85 99,150 GFR, India, Austriasenegal, A. 1992spirocarpa
Annex contd ••
YEAR OF SPECIES PRODUCT REFERENCE
Animal Trophies: Various Jan/June 1992
Live Animals: -Ostrich, Guinea-
fowl, Parrots, Birds Jan/June Flamingo, 1992 lovebird
- Vervet monkeys Mammals Jan/June Gorillas, 1992 bnpala, Gazelles
Cinchona spp. Cinchona Jan/June barks 1992
~pingo, muhuhu, Wood Jan/June Combretum spp. carvings 1992
Hevea brasiliensis Raw rubber Jan/June 1992
Acacia seval, A. Gum arabic Jan/June senega.l, .\ . 1992 spiroc<lr-pa
LEGE~m:
UNIT SCOPE QUANTITY
T E 222.30
Nos. E 22,108.00
Nos. E 112.00
T E 147.00
T E 36.27
T E 20.60
T E 311.85
VALUE* US $
1,337,710
47,550
32,170
98,290
103,870
99,150
IMPORTING COUNTRIES (Where known)
Japan, GFR, Belgium, Norway
HongKong, Japan
Japan, USA, GFR, UK
Netherlands, Belgium, UK
USA, Japan, Belgium, GFR.
Singapore, Syria
GFR, India, Austria
T: Tonne Kg: Kilogramme Nos: Numbers P: Production figures E: Export figures:USS United States dollar * Indicative Export World Market values. For honey and bees wax February 1989 prices: Honey 1800 USS per T. bees wax 2360 USS per T respectively. Export values are in United States Dollars (USS). July/August 1992
pric~s: honey 1070 USS per T f.o.b, bees wax (sorted/refined) 2800 USS per T; gum arabic 500 USS per T.
~
SOURCE: Honey and bees wax 1980 - 1988, Customs Department and Central Bank of Tanzania.
Alternative figures in brackets for bees wax are from Foreign Trade Statistics 1986,Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam, December 1988. For 1989 - 1992 figures, are fromForeign Trade Statistics, DSM June 1992.
: Wattle mimosa extract 1985 - 1991 Production figures (P) from Bureau of Statistics,Dar es Salaam, December 1991. Export figures (E) 1980 - 1987, Customs and Sales TaxDepartment and Central Bank of Tanzania. Export figures 1988 - June 1992, Foreign Trade Statistics,Dar es Salaam.
: Animal Trophies and Live animals 1988 - 1990 figures, Wildlife Division, Ministry of Naturalul
Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, December 1990. Export figures 1991 - 1992, Foreign TradeStatistics, Dar es Salaam, June 1992.
: Other products - Cinchona bark, Wood carvings, gum arabic, raw rubber and essential oils 1986 - 1992Export figures Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam, and Customs & Sales Tax Department,Dar es Salaam, June 1992.
NB - No figure available.
: World market prices for forestry and non-forestry products on international market as given bythe BoT journal "Trade Current" are just indicative. There are no official/government controlledprices for export. However, the exact prices for export are fully negotiable, based on quality andother terms (e.g. handling, packaging, after packaging etc., time of delivery) and consideration.
SOURCE: Honey and bees wax 1980 - 1988, Customs Department and Central Bank of Tanzania.
Alternative figures in brackets for bees wax are from foreign Trade Statistics 1986, Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam, December 1988. For 1989 - 1992 figures, are from Foreign Trade Statistics, DSM June 1992.
Wattle mimosa extract 1985 - 1991 Production figures (P) from Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam, December 1991. Export figures (E) 1980 - 1987, Customs and Sales Tax Department and Central Bank of Tanzania. Export figures 1988 - June 1992, Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam.
Animal Trophies and Live animals 1988 - 1990 figures, Wildlife Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, December 1990. Export figures 1991 - 1992, Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam, June 1992.
Other products - Cinchona bark, Wood carvings, gum arabic, raw rubber and essential oils 1986 - 1992 Export figures Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam, and Customs & Sales Tax Department, Dar es Salaam, June 1992.
NB - No figure available.
World market prices for forestry and non-forestry products on international market as given by the BoT journal "Trade Current" are just indicative. There are no official/government controlled prices for export. However, the exact prices for export are fully negotiable, based on quality and other terms (e.g. handling, packaging, after packaging etc., time of delivery) and consideration.
U1 -
ANNEX III
CONTRIBUTION OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM TO TANZANIA FCON0MY
Key
A Projection figures
Sgurce: Tourism Division, Ministry of Tourism, NaturalResources and Environment, Dar es Salaam, 1992;Central Bank of Tanzania, August 1992.
52
YEAR OF REFERENTE NO. OF FOREIGN CURRENT)? EARNINGSTOURISTS US $ MILLIONS
1980 84,021 18.001981 92,000 20.001.982 71,290 15.001983 54,000 16.001984 64,000 10.001985 81,821 10.001986 103,363 27.001.987 130,851 31.051 988 130,343 40.401989 137,889 60.001.990 153,000 65.001991 186,800 94.731992 227,900* 138.30*
5'2.
ANNEX TIl
CONTR InUTION OF INTERNATIONAL TOURT 8M TO TAN7.l\N f,\ r.C()Nrl~lY
YEAR OF REFERENCE
Key
1980 1qRl 1982 1983 1984 1905 1986 J.987 ]Q80 19139 1990 1991 1992
"* Project]oll figures
NO. OF TOURISTS
84,021 92,000 71,290 54,000 04.,000 81,821
103,363 130,851 130,343 137,nOq 153,000 186,800 227,900*
FORETGN CURRENry EARNINGS US $ MTLI.,TONS
18.00 20.00 15.00 16.00 10.00 10.00 27.00 3].0':') 40.40 60.00 65.00 94.73
138.30*
Q.QJ.!..r~p.: Tourism n.ivisjon, Ministry of Tourism, Natured. Resources and Environment, Dar es Sn1aam, 1992; r:entra1 Ronk of Tan?:nni.a, Allgust 1992.
W17. TV
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REFERENCE
Akerole, O. (1988). Medicinal Plants: Policies and PrioritiesProceedings of an International Consultationorganized by WHO, TUCN and WWF. 21-27 Mauch 1988 hold atChiang Mai, Thailand.
Bryce, J. M. (1967). Commercial Timbers of Tanzania. Utilisationsection Mnshi, Forest DivisiOn, Ministry of Agriciiltlirpand Cooperatives.
FAO (1983). Food and Fruit-bearing forest species 1:Examplesfrom Eastern Africa. FAO Forestry paper No.44/1.
FAO (1991). Non-wood forest products: The way ahead. Romo:FAO Forestry Paper No. 97.
Farnsworth, N and Soejarto, D. (1988). Global Importance ofMedicinal plants. Proceedings of an Intornationalconsultation organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March1988 held at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Forestry and Beekeeping Division (1991a). Tanzania FnrostryAction Plan 1990/91-2007/8. Ministry of Lands, NaturalResources and Tourism. Dar es Salaam. First Draft, 89pp.
Goor, A.Y. and Barney, C.W. (1968). Forest Tree planting in AridZones. The Ronald Press Company; New York.
Hickin, N.E. (1971). Termites a World Problem. The RontokilLibrary.
Husain, A. (1988). Economic Aspects of Exploitations.Proceedings of an International Consultation organizedby WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March 1988 held at ChiangMai, Thailand.
Kihwele, D. and Bradbear, N. (1989). Beekeeping. TFAPTanzania. Sector Review Mission Report No. 15,Dar es Salaam. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resourcesand Tourism.
Kowero, G.S. and Hofstad, O. (1989). Economic Aspects ofTanzanian Forestry. TFAP Tanzania Sector Review MissionReport No.7. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources andTourism.
5555
HEFERF.NCF.
1. !\ I; p r p 1 I?, n. (1 fl n A). Me die ina 1. PIa n U;: Pol i d 0. S n. 11 r1 P I' .i n,' i ti p s ProceecH ngr; 0 f an Int erna tj on., 1. Con suI t n I i (Ill
orq~ll;7.p(l hy \Vl{O, IUCN and W\vf. 7.1-27 Nf1rr'h lflflfl lipId ill.
ChiAng Moi, Thailand.
?. f\"yr'e, LT.t-1. (lC1()7). Commf'rcinl Timber-s of TRIl7i'lni;). \11'; 1 1,,,,1' inn spction Moshi, Forest Division, t-1inistry of l\9,-if'lIllll"p and Cooperntives.
3. FAO (1981). Food and Fruit-bearing forest SpP~iAS 1 :ExRmplps from Eastern l\fri~a. FAO Forestry paper No.44/l.
4. FM) (19<)1). Non-\.JOod forest products: The way .,l1eac1. RomE': Fl\O forestry Papf'r No. 97.
~l. F('Irnsworth, Nand Soejarto, O. (l9IHl). Gloh.:\l Importfllwe of i'1p.dieinnl plants. Proceedillgs o( an Intr>rnntiollf11 consllltation organized by WHO, IUCN and W\,'F. 2]-27 March 1988 hE'ld at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
6. f (I)' P ;, t ,- Y and Bee k e e pin 9 0 i vis ion ( 1 99] a). l' an 7. ani a for pst r y J\eti.on Plan 19'10/91-2007/0. Ministry of Lflnrlr., Ni-llll",,\ Resources and Tourism. Dar es Salaam. First. Drflft, 89 pp.
7. no ()J:, A. Y. and Bar n e y, C. W. ( .l 968). For est T r e e pIn lit: i.1l q inA I' i ('1 Zones. The Ronald Press Company; New York.
13. Hickin, N.E. (]Q7l). 'I'ermitp.s a World Problem. Thp Rr>nt~)I~i 1 Library.
9. H1Istlin, A. (1980). Economic Aspects of Explojtatjol1H. Proceedings of an Internationtl1 Consllltation orgRnizpd hy WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March 1988 he]r1 at Chiang Moi, Thoi1and.
10. KillWp.le, D. alH1 Bradhear, N. (l'10'1). Oep.kp.epinq. TfAP Tanzania. SE'ctor Review Missjon Report No. 15, Dar e s Sal a am. Min i s try 0 f Lan rl s, Nat 11 r R 1 Res 0" n.' P. r,
and Tourism.
Lt. Kowero, G.S. anr] Hofstad, O. (1909). Economic Aspects of Tall~anian Forestry. TfAP TanzRnia Sector RE'vipw Mission Report. No.7. Ministry of Lm1c1s, Natural Resources Hnd Tourism.
56
Mbonde, G.P,L. (1992). Forest Policies and the role of theprivate sector. Paper presented at seminar on InvestmentOpportunities in forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam,November 10, 1992.
A. (1990). Tanzania Forestry Act ion Plan TPAP 1990/912007/08. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources andTourism. Dar es Salaam. Sept. 1990.
Morgan, W.T.W. (1972). East Africa: Its peoples andResources. Oxford University Press.
Ndepanya, A. (1992). Markets for forest products: Wood andnon-wood products. Paper presented at Seminar onInvestment Opportunities in forestry in Tanzania.Dar PS Salaam,. Nov. 10, 1992.
Nicholas, P. (1960). Introduction to Plant Geography.Longmans.
Ogana, W. (1991). Bamboo: Kenya's untapped green gold.Science and Technology features service. All AfricaPress Service.
O'Ktingati, A. (1992). Financial returns from tree crops.Paper presented at Seminar on Investment Opportunitiesin forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, November10, 1992.
Rulangaranga, Z.K. (1991). Conservation of medicinal andaromatic plants in Tanzania. Proceedings of a workshop onPriority species for Tree planting and Afforestation inTanzania held at Morogoro Tanzania. May 14-18, 1990.
Watkins, G. (1960). Trees and Shrubs for planting inTanganyika.
Sf;
I:>'. Hhnll1.1n, G. p" L. (.1992). Fores t Po 1 ic iE's "ncl th(l 1'01(> 0 f t.\lp PI' i.Vl'lt P. sector. Paper present ed at semi nar on I nv/?s '" nlPIl t OpportuniUes in fon~st:ry in Tanzania. Dar e5 S.:ll(l,lm, November 10, ]992.
]3. M~011i, A. (1990). T~nzania Forestry Action Plan TFAP lQ90/91 /,007/08. Ministry of Londs, Nat.ural. Res(lllr<"'('s fmd Tourism. Dar es Sill"nm. ~ppt. 1990.
1,1. ~1orqflll, W.T.\v. (1972). East Africa: It.s peoplp;. and ReSOllrCf>s. Ox fo,'(l Un i vel'S i ty Press.
15. Nc1epanya, A. (1992). t-1arkpts for fOrF~st products: Woorl nnd non-wooel products. Paper prespnted at SemilHlI' on Investmf>nt Opportunitips in forestry in Tan7.C1nia. Dar PS Snlnnnl, Nov. 10, 1992.
16. Njc'llnl~s, P. (1960). Introduction t.o Plant Geography. loon9mans.
]7. OCJ;~lln, \v. (1991). BC'lmboo: KellY"'s untopped gre~n <.}ol(l. Se i ence ona Technology fea tures service. All A [r jr'<'1 Pres::; Service.
18. o'Kt"illgati., A. (1992). Finollciol r("tl.lrns from trpe crops. Paper presented at Seminar on Investment Opportunjtip::; in forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, November 10, 1992.
19. Rulangaranga, Z.K. (1991). Conservation of mediein;tl an(l aromatic plants in Tanzania. Proc~~oings of a workshop Oil
Pdor'ity specips for Tr~e planting and Afforestati.on in Tanzania held at Morogoro Tanzania. May 14-16, 1990.
20. WCltkJns, G. (1960). Trees ano Shrubs for plCllltinq .ill TangClnyika.
Mist icat ion :
Beneficiaries:
51
PROJECT PROFILES
Profile No. 10*
Project Title: Research: Beekeeping in Miombo woodland.
Priority High
Location Beekeeping Training Institute (BTI) and/orTanzania forestry research Centres based nearMiombo woodland.
Duration Two years
Objectives Immediate: - Investigate the management of minmhowith respect to beekeeping potential
Evaluate the effect and extent of use of harkfor hives and other domestic containers.
Identify wood-efficient methods of hivemanufacture
Establish reliable figures for the current andpotential extent and value of beekeeping withinMiombo woodland
Development: - To encourage beekeeping as aneconomic sustainable source of income from miombowoodland, and thereby help to safeguard itsconservation.
Develop strong sectoral linkages betweenbeekeeping, forestry and conservation.
Miombo woodland is being cleared at the rate of anestimated 300 000 ha. per annum. However,beekeeping can provide an economic reason forthe retention of miombo.
Local people living in or near miombo benefitfrom a sustainable source of income for themselvesand future generations. There is, and is likelyto continue to be a strong market for the prodnetsof beekeeping.
Tanzania through stimulation of the economy andexport earnings (particularly of beeswax).
Tanzania and the whole region through conservationof the environment.
PRO\TECT PROFILES
Profile No. ]0*
Project Ti t 1e: ReseCl1'ch: Beekepping in Niornbo \.JoocllClllcl.
Prj or.i l'y
Lncotion
Duri'lt.ion
Objectives
Jllstificat:ioll:
High
Beekeeping Training Institute (BTl) oncl/o1' Tanzania forestry reseorch Centres haRed ne~r Miombo woodland.
T\.JO years
Immediate: - Inves t iga te the management () f lO,t omho with respect to beekeeping potentjal
- Evalunte the ef [ect and extent of llse of hild~ for hjves and other domestic containers.
- Identify wood-efficient methoc1s of hive mnnufacture
- Est.abl ish reliable figllres for the curTPnt alHl potentjal extent and value of beekeeping withjn Niornbo woodland
Development: - To encourage beekeeping as Rn economic sustainable source of income from OIl nrulHI woodlnnc1, and thereby help to safegllard it f; conservation.
- Deve lop 5 trong sec torn 1 1. i. nkage5 be\'wPf>1l beekeep:i ng I forestry and conserva U OIl •
Hi ombo \.JQodlnnd .i s be:i I1g c lea red at the r'il b> () [ an es ti lOoted 300 000 ha. p(~r annum. Jlm.Jpw'l' , beekeeping con provicle an economic reRSOll fnl.' t.he reten ti on of miombo.
Local people living in or near m.iolIlho hpll(-'Eit: from R sustainable source (If income fot' t.hPflI.S0]VPS
i'I nc] f \l t II reg e 11 ern t i OilS • 'Th ere 1. s, tll1(1 i s 1 i ), A 1. ~7 to cont:i 11 lie to be a strong mark(~ t. for the pr(l(ll1c t s of beekeeping.
't'nnzRnia through stirnula t ion (If t.he eeonoll1,X' 011<1
export earnings (particularly of beeswax) .
Tnn~ania and t.he whole ret/ion through conservfl1' i on of the environment.
5$
Activities:- Experiment on hive manufacture and production ufbark hives with least damage to trees.
Establish a team to gather reliable data.
Investigate management practises within miomho withregard to beekeeping.
Institutional framework: BIT, TaboraTanzania Forestry Research TnstituteNjiro Wildlife Research Centre, ArushaForestry and Beekeeping DivisionInternational Bee Research Association, UK.Funding agency.
Special considerations: Information on miombo tree speciesvaluable for beekeeping already exists, but alldiscussion of the value of beekeeping is hindered bylack of reliable data (statistics)
Cost estimate: Foreign input 300 000 US $ (1989 Estimates).350 000 US $ (1992 Estimates).
State of preparation: Profile.
* From the Sector Review Mission Report No. 15 of Tanzania TFAPby Kihwele, D. and Bradbear, N.
5S
Act i v it ies : - Exper iment on hive manu f act lln~ and product i Oil (I r bark hives with least dRmage to trres.
- Establish a team to gather reliable data.
- Inv(-.'st ieJilte management practises wiUdn lIIiOllllll) \.;;,,,
regard to beekeeping.
Institl1tional framework: BIT, Taborn Tanzania Forestry Research Institut.e Njiro \.Jilcllife Research Centre, Arusha Forestry and Beekeeping Division International Bee Research Association, UK. Funding agency.
Svecial consiclpratinns: Information on miombo tree species valuable for beekeeping already exists, bllt. aU discussion of the value of beekeeping is hillc1el~ecl hr lack of reliable data (statistics)
~ust estimate: Foreign input 300 000 US $ (1989 EstimateR). 350 000 US $ (1992 Estimate~).
state of preparat.io)): Profile.
* From the Sector Review Mission Report No. 15 of TanzAllia TrAP by Kihwe1e, D. and Bradbear, N.
59
Project Proposal
Project Title: Comparative studies on grass/tree foddercrops utilization in three ecological zones ofTanzania - semi arid, Savannah woodlands andHumid highlands.
High
Semi arid zone (Shinyanga, Dodoma); Savannahwoodlands (Tabora) and Humid highlands (Arusha,Kilimanjaro Mts.)
2 years
Immediate: - To investigate the management ofthese 3 ecological zones - semi arid, miomhoand montane with respect to livestock foragecultivation potential.
Establish reliable figures Eor the currentand potential extent and value of foddercultivation within the 3 zones.
Identify economical foddet cultivationmethods.
Development: - To encourage fodder cropcultivation as a socio-economic sustainablesource of income of the rural people inlivestock keeping areas in Tanzania; andhelp overcome overgrazing and bush encroachmentfor fodder.
To meet food scarcity for livestock especiallyduring the dry season.
Develop strong sectoral linkages betweenforestry, agriculture and animal husbandry.
Justification: To a greater extent, the forage needs forcommunal domesticated animals (cattle, goats,sheep) still is afforded from the wild sources,which it entails overgrazing of grasslands andforest encroachment close to their habitats inthe high stocked-livestock farming areas.However, forage management can halt ihe raleof bush encroachment, for instance.
Priority :
Location
Duration :
Objectives :
59
p)'O ject Proposa 1
Project Title: Comparative studies on grAss/tree fo~dpr crops utilization in three ecolngiral zon~s of Tanzania - semi arid, Savannoh wooc1lanclf, (111(1
Humid h:ighlands.
Priority High
Location Selni ariel zone (Shinyan(Ja, Dodolflcd; RavClnnClh woodlands (Tabora) and Humid highlands (Arlls}w, Kilimanjaro Mts.)
Durntion 2 years
Objectives Immediate: - To investigate lhe management o[ these 3 ecological zones - semi arid, miomho and montane with respect to lIvestock forage cUltivation potential.
- Establish reliable figures Eor the currenl: and potential extent and value of fodder cultivation within the 3 zones.
- IdentIfy economical fodder cultivatjon methods.
Development: - To encourage fodder crop cultivation as a socio-economic sllstainHh.Jp source of income of the rural peopie in livestock keeping areas in Tanzania; and help overcOIoe overgrazing and bush encroflchment: for fodder.
- To meet food scarcity for livestock esp0cial1y dllring the dry season.
- Develop strong sectoral ] inknges he tween forestry, agriculture and animal husbandrj'.
JI]sLi(Lcation: To a greater extent, the forage needn (or communal domesticated animals (CAttle, goats, sheep) still is afforded from the wild SOllt'C('S, which it entail.s overgrazing of grasslands And forest encroachment close to their IJnbitatn in the high stocked-livestock farming AreRS. However, forage managetnen t can ha 1 \. 1 h~ rat p
of bush encroachment, for instRflce.
60
Beneficiaries: Local people living in rural areas whoro entliograzing is a preoccupation as a source of income,food for themselves.
The Nation, through environmental conserva t:by planting of multiple tree fodder crops.
Activities - Investigate management practises withinthe 3 ecological zones with regard to foragecultivation.
Establish a team to gather reliable statisticsso as to overcome the paucity of information.
Institutional: Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, Morogoro;framework Ministry of Agriculture Training Institutes
located in these three zones;
Funding agency.
Special considerations: Information of good fodder trees andgrasses within each ecological 7,01)e alreadyexists, but the paucity of information on thevalue of the fodder crops, their contribution tothe economy of rural people in those areas whorelivestock keeping is an important activity; isdue to lack of reliable data.
Cost estimate: Foreign input 25,000 US $ (1992 gstimates)National input 2,500 US $
State of Preparation: Profile (proposal).
60
fienefJciarJes: Local people living in rural areRS whpfP elll 1]0 gL'azing is a preoccupation as a source of i..llC.·()lIlf',
food for themselves.
l\ctiviti0~";
lllstit.utional: f r a me\~or k
The Nation, through E"IlVir01111l0ntal cCHlfiel'vati()1\ by planting of multiple tree fodder crops.
- Investigate management practiR~n within the 3 ecological zones with regard to forage cultivation.
- Establish a team to gather reliable stiltint: leS so as to overcome the paucity of information.
Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, Morogoro; Ministry of Agriculture Training Institutes located in these three zones;
Funding agency.
Rpecial considerations: Information of good fodder trees an~ grass0B wj thin each ecological ZOJW a] n:>acly' exists, but the paucity of information 011 t.he value of the fodder crops, their contribution t() the 0C0l1mny of rural people in those arens \.,rhpl'(>
livestock keeping is an important activity; is due to lack of reliable d~ta.
\.ost estimate: Foreign input Natiolli'll input
25,000 2,500
us $ 0992 Estilllates) US $
Rtate of Preparation: Profile (proposal).
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - UGANDAPILOT COUNTRY STUDY - UGANDA
A REPORT ON A PILOT COUNTRY STUDYOF NON-WOOD FOREgl' PRODUCTS (NWFP)
1N
UGANDA
BY
J. T. NALUSWA (BSc (1-lons) Forestry, MSc
NAKAWA RESEARCH CENTREP.O. BOX 1752, KAMPALA
UGANDA
AUGUST 1993
A REPORT ON A PILOT COUNTRY STUDY OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS (NWFP)
IN
UGANDA
BY
J. T. NALUSWA (SSe (HonsT Fo1'CGtJy. MSc
NAKA W A RESEARCH CENTRE P.O. BOX 1752, KAMPALA
UGANDA
AUGUST 1993
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report would not have been possible without theconsent of Mr. L.S. Kiwanuka the Commissioner forForestry to utilise the available facilities anddocuments in the Department.
I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to Dr. J.R.S.Kabogoza the Head of Forest Department, MakerereUniversity and Dr. A.Y. Banana for having allowed me touse the Department Library.
This report also benefitted from_detailed discussion withDr. J.R.W. Aluma, the Director of Forestry Researchinstitute (National Agricultural Research Organisation,(NARO), and Mr. P.W. Kityo, Principal ForestOfficer/Senior Utilisation Officer, Nakawa ResearchCentre.
Special thanks go to Mr. F. Kigenyi the AssistantCommission for Forestry in-charge of Nature Conservation,Forest Department for offering secretarial facilities inthe Natural Forest Management & Conservation Project forthe writing of the report. Mr J.P. Elokaokich SeniorForest Officer for assistance in proof reading of thedraft is very much appreciated. Mrs. M. Naluswa isthanked for encouraging me to work on this pilot countrystudy on NWFP in Uganda.
Finally I am grateful for the financial support renderedby the Commonwealth Science Council to enable me preparethe report.
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report would not have been possible without the consent of Mr. L.S. Kiwanuka the Commissioner for Forestry to utilise the available facilities and documents in the Department.
I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to Dr. J.R.S. Kabogoza the Head of Forest Department, Makerere University and Dr. A.Y. Banana for having allowed me to use the Department Library.
This report also benefitted from_det~iled discussion with Dr. J.R.W. Aluma, the Director of Forestry Research institute (National Agricultural Research Organisation, (NARO), and Mr. P.W. Kit yo, Principal Forest Officer/Senior Utilisation Officer, Nakawa Research Centre.
Special thanks go to Mr. F. Kigenyi the Assistant Commission for Forestry in-charge of Nature Conservation, Forest Department for offering secretarial facilities in the Natural Forest Management & Conservation Project for the writing of the report. Mr J.P. Elokaokich Senior Forest Officer for assistance in proof reading of the draft is very much appreciated. Mrs. M. Naluswa is thanked for encouraging me to work on this pilot country study on NWFP in Uganda.
Finally I am grateful for the financial support rendered by the Commonwealth Science Council to enable me prepare the report.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The pilot country study of non-wood forest products(NWTP) in Uganda was initiated by the CommonwealthScience Council, based in the Commonwealth Secretariat,London when I was invited to prepare a report within aperiod of two and half months.
The invitation was received at the end of July 1993, workstarted immediately and this is a result of the finding.
The objective of the pilot country study is to provide abrief, concise and realistic overN4iew of the importanceof NWFP of Uganda and prospects for further promotion anddevelopment.
The main topics to be investigated during this studyreads as follows:
1 Brief definition as well as a classification of NWFPwhich are mainly used for subsistence as well astrade purposes i.e. locally, domestically andinternationally.
2 Assessment of the importance of NWFP at thecommunity, district and national levels.
3 Description of different institutional aspects inorder to demonstrate the organizationalresponsibilities of NWFP, human resources involved,technical responsibilities of the appropriateorganisation, sources of funds.
4 Identification of NWFP which have relevant role inlocal communities in terms of food securitynutrition, health, job opportunities, income,cultural aspects, religous ceremonies, etc.
5 Technical description concerning cultural practices,harvesting, transportation processing, storage,marketing and trade of the most relevant NWFP.
6 Statistical data on NWFP.
7 Overview of the main problems and constraints whichhalt the promotion and further development of NWFP.
8 Formulation of recommendation which should beimplemented in order to further promote NWFP.
Following the assignment an extensive study of literatureand consultation with concerned people and institutionswas carried out.
ii
This report focuses on resource use and management issuesrelated with plants, bee-keeping and honey collection,
ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The pilot country study of non-wood forest products (NWTP) in Uganda was initiated by the Commonwealth Science Council, based in the Commonwealth Secretariat, London when I was invited to prepare a report within a period of two and half months.
The invitation was received at the end of July 1993, work started immediately and this is a result of the finding.
The objective of the pilot country study is to provide a brief, concise and realistic ·overv.iew of the importance of NWFP of Uganda and prospects for further promotion and development.
The main topics to be investigated during this study reads as follows:
1 Brief definition as well as a classification of NWFP which are mainly used for subsistence as well as trade purposes i.e. locally, domestically and internationally.
2 Assessment of the importance of NWFP at the community, district and national levels.
3 Description of different institutional aspects in order to demonstrate the organizational responsibilities of NWFP, human resources involved, technical responsibilities of the appropriate organisation, sources of funds.
4 Identification of NWFP which have relevant role in local communities in terms of food security nutrition, health, job opportunities, income, cultural aspects, religous ceremonies, etc.
5 Technical description concerning cultural practices, harvesting, transportation processing, storage, marketing and trade of the most relevant NWFP.
6 Statistical data on NWFP.
7 Overview of the main problems and constraints which halt the promotion and further development of NWFP.
8 Formulation of recommendation which should be implemented in order to further promote NWFP.
FoLlowing the assignment an extensive study of literature and consultation with concerned people and institutions was carried out.
This report focuses on resource use and management issues related with plants, bee-keeping and honey collection,
basketry, traditional medicines and traditional medicalpractioners and birth attendants, bamboos, natural gumand resins, forest birds, mammals new natural productswith commercial potential, biological diversity inUganda.
There are specialist user groups within rural communitiessurrounding the forests. They represent groups ofresource users with a common interest and good knowledgeof plant resources.
Many are already members of organizations establishedeither on community initiative or.through their interestsof the community, Uganda government and internationalorganisations.
Recommendations for forest products by specialist groupwithin multiple-use were made with emphasis on:
carrying out taxonomic studies, inventories andsurveys of the Uganda's biological diversity inorder to fill the gap in about it;
involve the local people and their communities inall relevant aspects of biological diversity usesand conservation including use of indigenousknowledge, compensation and equitable share of thebenefits;
the development of sustainable and appropriatemethods of techniques of land use and naturalresource management;
institutionalising biological diversity conservationthrough policy and legislation so that it isreflected in the national plans and theirimplementation in all relevant sectors;
train and educate the nationals in the relevantsubjects to create the necessary personnel e.g.taxonomists, ecologists, biochemists, environmentaleconomists etc.;
the equitable partnerships about an additional newcategory of plant resources is almost ideal, as theycan be extracted with low impact and some which havepotentially high commercial value e.g. chemicalstructures and genetic materials from the forest;
the exploratory efforts of the natural productsshould be pursued by a partnership of developing anddeveloped nations, in such a way that the benefitsare shared in a fair measure to all participants.
i j j
basketry, traditional medicines and traditional medical pr.actioners and birth attendants, bamboos, natural gum and resins, forest birds, mammals new natural products with commercial potential, biological diversity in Uganda.
There are specialist user groups within rural communities surrounding the forests. They represent groups of resource users with a cornman interest and good knowledge of plant resources.
Many are already members of organizations established either on community initiative or.through their interests of the community, Uganda government and international organisations.
Recommendations for forest products by specialist group within mUltiple-use were made with emphasis on:
carrying out taxonomic studies, inventories and surveys of the Uganda's biological diversity in order to fill the gap in about it;
involve the local people and their communities in all relevant aspects of biological diversity uses and conservation including use of indigenous knowledge, compensation and equitable share of the benefits;
the development of sustainable and appropriate methods of techniques of land use and natural resource management;
institutional ising biolo~ical diversity conservation through policy and legislatjon so that it is reflected in the national plans and their implementation in all relevant sectors;
train and educate the nationals in the relevant subjects to create the necessary personnel e.g. taxonomists, ecologists, biochemists, environmental economists etc.;
the equitable partnerships about an additional new category of plant resources is almost ideal, as they can be extracted with low impact and some which have potentially high commercial value e.g. chemical structures and genetic materials from the forest;
the exploratory efforts of tIle natural products should be pursued by a partrlership of developing and developed nations, in such a way that the benefits are shared in a fair measure to all participants.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGEACKNOWLEDGEMENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 EDIBLE PLANTS IN UGANDA 3
2.1 Cultural Aspects to some local plantspecies 6
3 BEE-KEEPING AND HONEY COLLECTION 7
3.1 Wild plants and bee-keeping 7
3.2 Sustainability, Bee-keeping andHoney-hunting 7
4 WILD PLANTS AND BASKETRY 8
4.1 Granaries 9
4.2 Sustainability: Basketry resources 9
5 BAMBOO 9
6 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND PHARMACOPOEIAIN UGANDA 10
7 TRADITIONAL MEDICAL PRACTIONERS (TMP's)AND TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS (TBA's)(MIDWIVES) 13
7.1 Sustainability: Traditional medicine 13
8 TRADITIONAL VETERINARY MEDICINE 14
9 FOREST BIRDS OF UGANDA 14
10 MAMMALS 16
11 NATURAL GUM AND RESINS IN UGANDA 19
11.1 Physical and Chemical properties oflocal gums 19
11.2 Market evaluation 19
11.3 Production of gum arabic 20
12 NEW NATIONAL PRODUCTS WITH COMMERCIALPOTENTIAL 21
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
EDIBLE PLANTS IN UGANDA
2.1 Cultural Aspects to some local plant species
BEE-KEEPING AND HONEY COLLECTION
3.1 Wild plants and bee-keeping
3.2 Sustainability, Bee-keeping and Honey-hunting
WILD PLANTS AND BASKETRY
PAGE i
ii
1
3
6
7
7
7
8
4. 1 Granaries 9
4.2 Sustainability: Basketry resources 9
BAMBOO
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND PHARMACOPOEIA IN UGANDA
TRADITIONAL MEDICAL PRACTIONERS (TMP's) AND TRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS (TBA'~) (MIDWIVES)
9
10
13
7.1 Sustajnabillty: Traditional medicine 13
TRADITIONAL VETERINARY MEDICINE 14
FOREST BIRDS OF UGANDA 14
MAMMALS 16
NATURAL GUM AND RESINS IN UGANDA 19
11.1 Physical and Chemical properties of .1 ocal gums 19
11.2 Market evaluation 19
11.3 Production of gum arabjc 20
NEW NATIONAL PRODUCTS WITH COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL 21
V
13 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (BIODIVERSITY)IN UGANDA 23
13.1 Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda 23
14 CONCLUSIONS 24
15 RECOMMENDATIONS 25
16 REFERENCES 28
13
14
15
16
v
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (BIODIVERSITY) IN UGANDA 23
13.1 Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda 23
CONCLUSIONS 24
RECOMMENDATIONS 25
REFERENCES 28
1 INTRODUCTION
The pilot country report of the NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTSin Uganda is based on research cárried out in Bwindi-Impenetrable National, the Rwenzori and Semliki ForestReserves in Western Uganda which carry natural forestsand were managed by the Forest Department until recentlywhen Bwindi has been proclaimed a National Park (Figure
The area is recognised internationally as a forest richwith flora and fauna peculiar to Africa. It is thehighest biodiversity site in East Africa for birds plantsbutterflies and primate and contains half of the world'sendangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei)population.
The report also is based on multi disciplinary fieldmission and ethno-botanical and floristic researchundertaken in Uganda in 1991. It was the second specificmission on the use of medicinal plants and other productsof traditional african medicine.
A study also has been carried out on the edible plants ofUganda and the Natural Gum and Resins in Karamoja.
Finally the study took into consideration the report ofpreliminary survey of Uganda's biological based naturalresources carried out by the National Biodiversity Unitof the Department of Environment Protection in October1991 under the auspices of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP).
1 IN~RODUCTION
The pilot country report of the NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS , in Uganda is based on research carried out in Bwindi-Impenetrable National, the Rwenzori and Semliki Forest Reserves in Western Uganda which carry natural forests and were managed by the Forest Department until recently when Bwindi has been proclaimed a National Park (Figure 1 ) .
The area is recognised internationally as a forest rich with flora and fauna peculiar to Africa. It is the highest biodiversity site in East Africa for birds plants butterflies and primate and contains half of the world's endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei) population.
The report also is based on multi disciplinary field mission and ethno-botanical and floristic research undertaken in Uganda in 1991. It was the second specific mission on the use of medicinal plants and other products of traditional african medicine.
A study also has been carried out on the edible plants of Uganda and the Natural Gum and Resins in Karamoja.
Finally the study took into consideration the report of preliminary survey of Uganda's biological based natural resources carried out by the National Biodiversity Unit of the Department of Environment Protection in October 1991 under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Lake
ZAIRE
!-SEMLIKI
uGANDA
RWENZORI KNIALE
KAMM/MAR ANIAGANBO
G
o 17- "5. .414
BUDONGO
)(AS YOliAKrTOMIC-1/^" Lae Victoria
UGANDA
o
o
sAtqc.o rm.(
-:13 WINDI(jNIPt:I/ETR ABM - - -1.4. caeNb.
Elq5G,t.,"\
A,)'
o KENYA
NZANI A100 km
kec, V tr
...MOUNT ELGON
RWANDA -1 FOT r
ObShkFigure 1. Showing the locality of Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park,AUganda In relation to otherforest in Uganda, showing the former extent of forest cover (from Hontard, 1991).
- SUDAN
2
UGANDA
ZAI RE ~ 1 . "
LV) ,
"L . .'"
KENYA
......: "
n IOOkrn '. IL ____ ----', ....
R lAJQA.vXO t-(,' ~~ Figure 1. Showing the locality of Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park~Uganda In relation to other forest in Uganda, showing the former extent of forest cover (from HcMard, 1991).
3
The report concerns itself with some of the Non-WoodForest Products (NWFP) including all biological material(other than industrial round wood and derived sawntimber, wood chips, wood based panels and pulp) that maybe extracted from natural ecosystems, and be utilised inhousehold be marketed or have social, cultural orreligious significance. The main objective of the pilotcountry study is to provide the Commonwealth ScienceCouncil (CSC) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation(FAO) a brief, concise and realistic overview of theimportance of NWFP of Uganda and prospects for furtherpromotion and development. The report will be utilizedfor the Africa Regional Expert Consultation on NWFP.
2 EDIBLE PLANTS IN UGANDA
The people use the leaves, stems,' roots and fruits whichare often eaten raw and a variety of mushrooms (Table 1).
Most rural people know local plant species of their areasbut not always familiar with plants in other parts of thecountry. Local species are valuable in the dietespecially where green leaves are required to provideadequate vitamin A or where protein supply is low.
In rural areas most people possesses land near theirhome, where they grow crops and keep a few animals. Ingeneral it is the women who look after the home gardensand it usually comprises food, crops, fruits andvegetables and possibly with a few medicinal plants orherbs.
Women are usually responsible for planting fruits andvegetables as part of domestic food production and forfeeding the family with an adequate diet.
Vegetables are gathered randomly from either the bush orcultivated land nearby. In northern Uganda species ofHibiscus are grown this way whereas in the eastern andBuganda solanum species and Gynandropsis gyandra arecommonly planted.
Many local plants have uses other than food. They mayhave medicinal properties or they may be used forproduction of homestead articles. Some leaves impart amucilaginous consistency to the sauce, others, add abitter flavour.
Several types or teaves and fruits are sun dried andstored for use in dry season. Children eat a variety offruits on their.way to school or herding livestockssupplementing the vitamin A intake needed for the bodies.
Vitamin B is abundant in tropical foods, in cereals,grains, leafy vegetables, fish, meat, milk and fruits.
3
The report concerns itself with some of the Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP) including all biological material (other than industrial round wood and derived sawn timber, wood chips, wood based panels and pUlp) that may be extracted from natural ecosystems, and be utilised in household be marketed or have social, cultural or religious significance. The main objective of the pilot country study is to provide the Commonwealth Science Council (CSC) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAa) a brief, concise and realistic overview of the importance of NWFP of Uganda and prospects for further promotion and development. The report will be utilized for the Africa Regional Expert Consultation on NWFP.
The people use the leaves, stems " roots and fruits which are often eaten raw and a variety of mushrooms (Table 1).
Most rural people know local plant species of their areas but not always familiar with plants in other parts of the country. Local species are valuable in the diet especially where green leaves are required to provide adequate vitamin A or where protein supply is low.
In rural areas most people possesses land near their home, where they grow crops and keep a few animals. In general it is the women who look after the home gardens and it usually comprises food, crops, fruits and vegetables and possibly with a few medicinal plants or herbs.
Women are usually responsible for planting fruits and vegetables as part of domestic food production and for feeding the family with an adequate diet.
Vegetables are gathered cultivated land nearby. Hibiscus are grown this Buganda solanum species commonly planted.
randomly from either the bush or In northern Uganda species of
way whereas in the eastern and and Gynandropsis gyandra are
Many local plants have uses other than food. They may have medicinal properties or they may be used for production of homestead articles. Some leaves impart a mucilaginous consistency to the sauce, others, add a bitter flavour.
Several typps of lcavP8 nnd frui t.8 are sun dried and stored for \lSP in dry season. Ch:iJdren eat a variety of fruits on their way to school or herding livestocks supplementing the vitamin A intake needed for the bodies.
Vitamin B is abundant in tropical foods, in cereals, grains, leafy vegetables, fish, meat, milk and fruits.
4
Vitamin C is mainly got from vegetables and fruits.Green leaves are either steamed with the staple food,boiled and served on their own. In some cases greenleaves are boiled and added to a sauce just beforeserving.
Purseglove (1943) described forty three herbs and plantswith edible roots and seeds used as vegetables byUgandans. He commented that while these plants may formpart of the normal diet of the people, some are eatenonly in time of food shortage.
Information about species of mushrooms is very little.Indigenous edible fruits are widely distributed in allregions of Uganda and constitute 37 families and 75species.
4
Vitamin C is mainly ~ot from vegetables and fruits. Green leaves are either steamed with the staple food, boiled and served on their own. In some cases green leaves are boiled and added to a sauce just before serving.
Purseglove (1943) described fbrt1 three herbs and plants with edible roots and seeds uRed as vegetables by Ugandans. He commented that while these plants may form part of the normal diet of the people, some are eaten only in time of food shortage.
Information about species of mushrooms is very little. Indigenous edible fruits are widely distributed in all regions of Uganda and constitute 37 families and 75 species.
TABLE 1 SOME EDIBLE PLANTS AND FRUITS EATEN IN UGANDA
Scientific name Common name Part wood
VEGETABLES
Amaranthus dubius Amaranthus spinach LeavesPhaseolus ¡una tes Lima beans SeedPhaseolus vulgaris French beans Leave. and seedAmaranthus lybridus Amaranthus spinach LeavesVisas unguiculata Cow peas LeavesGynandropsis gynandra African spinderherb LeavesLagenovia siceraria Calabash gourd LeavesSo!swum gito Bitter berries LeavesSolanum nigrum LeavesCucurbita 1112XiM3 Pumpkin Leaves and fruitZingiiber officinalis Ginger Stem
Capsisum fiuessoens ChiIlia FruitSolanum indkum Bitter berries FruitVigila unquiculata Cow peas FruitColocasia schimperi Cocoyam LeavesOxylenanthera abyssinica Bamboo shoots Stem
FRUITS
Caries papaya Pawpaw FruitPsidium quajara Guava FruitAfratnomum sanguineum Ginger lily FruitMusa spp Sweet banana FruitSaccharum offioinarutn Sugar cane Stem
Artocarpus integer Jack fruit FruitCitrus sirtensis Orange FruitMangifera indica Mango FruitAnanas comosvs Pineapple FruitCitrus limon Lemon FruitPerms americana Avocado pear FruitAnnons reticulata Custard apple FruitCitrus retuculata Tangerine FruitCanariun schweinfurthii Incense tree Fruit
Physalia peruviana Cape gooseberry FruitCitrus aurantiifolia Lime FruitPassiflora edulis Passion fruit Fruit
EDIBLE FUNGI
Lentinus proliferi Fungus (whole) Whole Fungi
Small white mushrooms Whole Fungi
Fairy big white mushrooms Whole Fungi
Very big brown and tall stem Amakangago Whole Fungi
Found in forest area Whole Fungi
Medium dark cream cap Whole Fungi
Fawnish cream Whole Fungi
GRASSES BATEN
Dactylocterium aegyptiumSetaria pallidefussaSorghum verticillifiorumSorghum pellucidusSorghum panicoides
Table adapted from Goode P M FAO/42/1
5
TABLE 1 SOME EDIBLE PLANTS AND FRUITS EATEN IN UGANDA
Scientific name
VEGETABLES
Amaranthus dubius
Phageo/us /unatus
Phageo/us vulgaris
Amaranthus Iybridus
Vigna uDguicu/ata
Gynandropsis gynandra
Lagenovia siceraria
Solanum gito
Solanum nigrum
Cucurbita maxima
Zingiiber officina/is Capsisum frutJ'sotIntr
Solanum indioum
Vigna unquiou/ata
Colocasia sohimperi
Oxy1enanthera abyssinica
FRUITS
Carica papaya
Psidium quajara
Aframomum saDguineum
Musaspp
SlOOharum offioinarum
Artocatpus intJ'ger
Citrus sinensis
Mangifera indica
Ananas comosus
Citrus limon
Pr:rsea americana
Annona reticu/ata
Citrus retucu/ata
Canariun schweinfurthii
Physalia peru"iana Citrus aurantiifoJia
PassiflOl'8 NUJiS
EDIBLE FUNGI
Lentinus proliferi
Small white mushrooms
Fairy big white mushroom.
Very big brown and tall stem
Found in forest area
Medium dark cream cap
I'awnish cream
GRASSES EATEN
Dactylocrerium aegyptium
Setaria palJiderussa
Sorghum verticiJIiflorum
Sorghum pe/Jucidus
Sorghum panicoides
Common name
Amaranthu. spinach
Lima beans
French beans
Amaranthu. spinlch
Cow pelS
African spinderherb
Cilabash gourd
Bitter berries
Pumpkin
Ginger
Chillis
Bitter berries
Cow peas
Cocoyam
Bamboo ,hoots
Pawpaw
Guava
Ginger lily
Sweet banlnl
Sugar cane
Jack fruit
Orange
Mango
Pineapple
Lemon
Avocado pear
Custard apple
Tangerine
Incense tree
Cape gooseberry
Lime Passion fruit
Fungus (whole)
Amakanglgo
Table adapted from Goode P M FAO/42/l
Part uPed
Leave.
Seed
Leave.and~
Lelve.
Lelvea
Leave.
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Leave. and fruit
Stem Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Leave.
Stem
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Stem
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Fruit
Whole Fungi
Whole Fungi
Whole Fungi
Whole Fungi
Whole Fungi
Wbole Fungi
Whole Fungi
6
People are conversant with a number of wild plants thatcan be eaten raw and cooked. Women use a variety ofplants in preparing sauce for use with stable food. Theyknow where to find the plants, when to collect them andhow they are prepared.
2.1 Cultural Aspects to some local plant species(Goode 1989)
In many cases the vegetable plant is in some wayconnected with childbirth. There may be little on notruth in some of these stories but they illustrate thatlocal plants found in the country. feature considerably inthe lives of the people.
2.1.1 The fatal "Bisunsa" incident (cucurbita maxima)
In Toro traditionally a woman should not eat "bisunsa"after giving birth because it may cause scouring "Biteeramunda" in Rutoro.
2.1.2 Ekicuraganyi (Urtica massaica)
It is believed that women who are picking the youngtender shoots and leaves of this plant remain very quietexcept if greeted by someone passing by. If in theprocess of greeting the name of the plant is mentionedthen the plant will never be cooked properly and theleaves will remain hard and tough.
2.1.3 Enderema (Basella alba)
In Buganda this vegetable is eaten by women because it isbelieved that any man who dares eat it will lose hissexual potential for ever. The superstition may havegrown up because women wanted the vegetable forthemselves. Some men will not even eat food cooked inthe same pot as enderema.
2.1.4 Ensugga (Solanum nigrum)
The pregnant women are forbidden to eat "ensugga" becauseit is believed that to eat ensugge has an effect onunborn child. The effects reveals when the baby beginsto crawl and it seems that the child produces largequantities of saliva so that the baby's clothes arealways wet.
2.1.5 Katunkuma CSolanum indicumj
This vegetable (katunkuma) is used by women after birthbecause they'believe it increases milk production.
6
People are conversant with a number of wild plants that can be eaten raw and cooked. Women use a variety of plants in preparing sauce for use with stable food. They know where to find the plants, when to collect them and how they are prepared.
2.1 .Culj;'l.Jr~L~ects to some local plant species (Goode 1989)
In many cases the vegetable plant is in some way connected with childbirth. There may be little on no truth in some of these stories but they illustrate that local plants found in the country. feature considerably in the lives of the people.
2.1.1 The fatal "Bisunsa" incident (cucurbita maxima)
In '1'01'0 traditionally a woman should not eat "bisunsa" after givin~ birth because it may cause scouring "Biteera munda" in Rutoro.
2.1. 2
It is believed that women who are picking the young tender shoots and leaves of this plant remain very quiet except if greeted by someone passing by. If in the process of greeting the name of the plant is mentioned then the plant will never be cooked properly and the leaves will remain hard and tough.
2.1. 3 Enderema (Basella alba)
J n Bu~anda th i s ve~e Labl e is eat,en by women because it is believed that-. any lIIarl who darp.!-; eat it will lose his sexual potential for ever. The superstition may have grown up because women wanted the vegetable for themselves. Some men will not even eat food cooked in the same pot as enderema.
2.1. 4
The pregnant women are forbidden to eat "ensugga" because it is believed that to eat ensugge has an effect on unborn child. The effects reveals when the baby begins to crawl and it seems that the child produces large quantit,j es of snl iva so that the baby's clothes are always wet.
2.1. 5
This vegp.table (katunkuma) is used by women after birth because they believe it increases milk production.
7
3 BEE-KEEPING AND HONEY COLLECTION
Bee-keeping is an important seasonal activity in almostof all the parts of Uganda where traditionally bee hivesare constructed either from timber, bamboo boruss palmsor woven from forest climbers. Honey is usually takenfrom hives twice a year.
The most favourite honey bees are tApis melliferaadansonii with two recogni_séd varieties - the aggressivebrown and darker. These lelw produce honey. Six types ofTrigonid bees are recognised all of which nest in thehollow of trees stems or branches.
3.1 Wild Plants and Bee-keeping
People have a good knowledge of bees, plants and hillsfavoured for bees hence placing of productive hives.Forest plants are an important source of nectar andpollen to bees and provide resin for Trigona bee hiveconstruction. Forest tree species susceptible to heart-rot are important sites for wild bee nests (Cunningham1992). The bee hunters know which plants have toxicpollen, producing honey causing diarrhoea, e.g. pollenfrom Lobelia gibberoa and forest climber Urerahippsellodendron.
Trigonid stingless bees are known to be pollinators ofcertain tree species. The knowledge about this aspect oftree biology has not been studied and unrecorded but iswith honey-bee hunters.
There is also an observation of many bee-keepers inBwindi forest that where there are tea plantations nearthe forest, bee production drops. This is attributed bybee-keepers to the insecticides used to spray the teabushes. It needs further investigation (Cunningham1992).
Bee hunters prefer placing of bee hives in forestscompared to the open field because of three reasons.Hives hidden in forests are away Trom the smoke which isoften made in the fields due to burning clearedvegetation. The hives are protected from wind in forestbut not in the fields facilitating the bees to move fromhive to hive. Hives in the forest are hidden away fromscrupulous public who might either steal them or jealousyspoil them because of high productivity of certain hives.Hives kept away from homestead prevents family membersfrom being stung.
3.2 Sustainability: Bee-keeping and Honey-hunting
It is noted that wooden hives from Faurea can last forover 20 years and those poorly protected from rain aresaid to last 5-8 years. Woven hives from bamboo, papyrus
7
3 BEE-KEEPING AND HONEY COLLECTION
Bee-keepjng is an important seasonal activity in almost of all the parts of U~anda where traditionally bee hives are constructed either from timber, bamboo boruss palms or woven from forest cljmbers. Honey is usually taken from hives twice a year.
The most favourite honey bees are fApis mellifera adansonii with two recogn~s~d varieties - the aggressive
'.1 , .
brown and darker. These 1Jow produce honey. Six types of Trigonid bees are recognised all of which nest in the hollow of trees stems or branches.
People have a good knowledge of bees, plants and hills favoured for bees hence placing of productive hives. Forest plants are an important source of nectar and pollen to bees and provide resin for Trigona bee hive construction. Forest tree species susceptible to heartrot are important sites for wild bee nests (Cunningham 1992). The bee hunters know which plants have toxic pollen, producing honey causing diarrhoea, e.g. pollen from Lobelia gibberoa and forest climber Urera hippsel.l odendron.
Trigonid stingless bees are known to be pollinators of certain tree species. The knowledge about this aspect of tree biology has not been studied and unrecorded but is with honey-bee hunters.
There is also an observation of many bee-keepers in Bwindj forest that where there are tea plantations near the forest, bee production drops. This is attributed by bee-keepers to the insecticides used to spray the tea bushes. It needs further investigation (Cunningham 1992).
Bee hunters prefer placing of bee hives in forests compared to the open field because of three reasons. Hives hidden in forests are away 1rom the smoke which is often made in the fields due to burning cleared vegetation. The hives are protected from wind in forest but not in the fields facilitating the bees to move from hive to hive. Hives in the forest are hidden away from scrupulous public who might either steal them or jealousy spoil them because of high productivity of certain hives. Hives kept away from homestead prevents family members from bei~g stung.
3.2 Sustainabili ty: Bee-kee~lJg_~nd Honey-hunting
It is noted that wooden hives from Faurea can last for over 20 years and those poorly protected from rain are said to last 5-8 years. Woven hives from bamboo, papyrus
8
or some climbers if well constructed can last 5-6 yearsand 1-2 year when not protected from rain. (Cunningham1992).
Large trees are felled to construct hives and somesmaller trees also felled to clear each hive (Butynski1984). These are concerns which must be studied.
Bee-keeping has two dangers in the forest. Fires startedin the forest when bee-hunting causes runaway fires andfelling of trees for construction of wooden hives.Mwesigye(1991) recorded 63 bee-keepers with a total of469 hives around southern sector of Bwindi-ImpenetrableNational Park.
Large trees are felled (> 30 cm at DBH) for hiveconstruction. The majority of hives (106) - 93.5%) weremade) from Faurea saligna and the remainder (5) -45% fromPolyscias fulva wood
4 WILD PLANTS AND BASKETRY
Baskets area household uLensil in Uganda. They are usedfor harvesting, drying, winnowing, grinding and storingagricultural produce. Basketry combines traditionalskills and local materials to produce a range wovenbaskets and mats used in homes.
Plant materials used vary from fast growing, productivewetland species (Cyprus papyrus to scarce, slow growingclimbers that are found at low density in forest -Loesneriella apocynoides (Table II).Basketry techniques and plant materials are also used toweave granaries, fish traps, stools and tables. Skilledbasket makers are relatively few in number.
TABLE II MAIN PLANT MATERIAL USED FOR BASKETRY
Source: Cunningham 1992
Family Plant species Life form Part used
Ara Ca9 0 Raphia farinifem palm leafAraceae Phoenix reclinata palm leaf, stemCalastraccae Cyperus papyrus climbers stemCyperaceae Cyperus papyrus edge leaf cuticlePlantaginaceae Plantago palmara herb flower stalk
8
or some climbers if well constructed can last 5-6 years and 1-2 year when not protected from rain. (Cunningham 1992).
Large trees are felled to construct hives and some smaller trees also felled to clear each hive (Butynski 1984). These are concerns which must be studied.
Bee-keeping has two dangers in the forest. Fires started in the forest when bee-hunting causes runaway fires and fellin~ of trees for construction of wooden hives. Mwesigye(1991) recorded- 63 bee-keepers with a total of 469 hives around southern sector of Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park.
Large trees are felled (> 30 ern at DBH) for hive construction. The majority of hives (106) - 93.5%) were made) from Faurea saligna and the remainder (5) -45% from Polyscias fulva wood
Baskets area household ulensil in Uganda. They are used for harvesting, drying, winnowing, grinding and storing agricultural produce. Basketry combines traditional skills and local materials to produce a range woven baskets and mats used in homes.
Plant materials used vary from fast growing, productive wetland spec.ies (Cyprus papyrus to scarce, slow growing climbers that are found at low density in forest -Loesneriel1a apocynoides (Table II).
Basketry techniqueH and plant mat.erials are also used to weave granaries, f.ish traps, stools and tables. Skilled basket makers are relatively few in number.
TABLE II MAIN PLANT MATERIAL USED fOR BASKETRY
Family Plant species Life form Part used
Arnccae Raphia farinifera palm leaf Arnccae Phoenix reclinata palm leaf. stem CaJaSlrnccnc Cyperus papyrus climbers stem Cypernccae Cyperus papyrus edge leaf cuticle PJantagi11Jlceae Plantago palmata herb flower stalk
Source: Cunningham 1992
9
Types of baskets widely used are the flat, circularbasket placed adjacent to the grinding stone to collectground flour, the deep bowel-shaped millet basket, alarger and shallower bowl shaped basket for grainflargerbasket or carrying head-loads of crops and the winnowing.Women make mats for sitting on or sleeping mats as wellas for drying food stuffs (Figure 2).
There are baskets made for tea leaves collection, basketsfor putting in dirty laundry and baby cots.
4.1 Granaries
Food security is a fundamental world problem today.Post-harvest losses of cereal crops is between 10-20% indeveloping countries (FAO 1981). These loses areattributed to insects, and fungi;
Granaries are the major means of storing crops in ruralareas in Uganda. (Figure 3)
4.2 Sustainability: Basketry Resources
Basketry materials could be divided into five categoriesfor resource management purposes.
Species common in disturbed sites and old fields(Eleusine indica)
Species found in wetland (Cyperus papyrus)
Bamboo, climber and scandent scrub of disturbedscrub and forest, with (Smillax kraussiana,Arundinaria alpina) and the scandent shrub GreviaSp.
Species restricted to moist valleys and gulleys inthe forest (Marantochloa leucantha, Raphiafarinifera).
Climbers found in older secondary forest and matureforest (Loesnerialla apocynoides). The first twocategories are common widespread and use would besustainable.
5 BAMBOO
Bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) is a widely used forestproduct to rural communities in Afro-montane forest inEast African between 2400-3000 m.
In Uganda bamboo is cut in the Mt Elgon, Rwenzori,Mgahinga, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, and Echuya (Howard1991).
9
Types of baskets widely used are the flat, circular basket placed adjacent to the grinding stone to collect ground flour, the deep bowel-shaped millet basket, a larger and shallower bowl shaped basket for grain, larger basket or carrying head-loads of crops and the winnowing. Women make mats for sitting on or sleeping mats as well as for drying food stuffs (Figure 2).
There are baskets made for tea leaves collection, baskets for putting in dirty laundry and baby cots.
4.1 Granaries
Food securi t,y is a fundamental world problem today. Post-harvest losses of cereal crops is between 10-20% in developing countries (FAa 1981). These loses are attributed to insects, and fungi;
Granaries are the major means of storing crops in rural areas in Uganda. (Figure 3)
4.2 Sustainability: Basketry Resources
Basketry materials could be divided into five categories for resource management purposes.
Species common in disturbed sites and old fields (Eleusine indica)
Species found in wetland (Cyperus papyrus)
Bamboo, climher and scandent scrub of disturbed scrub and forest, with (Smillax kraussiann, Arundinaria alpina) and the scandent shrub Grevia sp.
Species restricted to moist valleys and gulleys in the forest (Mnrantochloa Jeucantha, Raphia far ini fern) .
Climbers found in older secondary forest and mature forest (Loesnerialla apocynoides). The first two categories are common widespread and use would be sustainable.
5 BAMBOO
Bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) is a widely used forest product to rural communi ties :i n Afro-montane forest in East African between 2400-3000 m.
In Uganda bamboo is cut in the Mt Elgon, Rwenzori, Mgahinga, Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, and Echuya (Howard 1991).
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Bamboo was one of the important "minor forest products"sold by the Forest Department in former Central and LocalForest Reserves (almost 500,000 bamboos annually) between1961/62 -1963/64.
In 1961/62 - 515,000 bamboos were sold;1962/63 - 450,000 bamboos were sold;1963-64 - 459,882 bamboos were sold (Forest Department1964).
Young bamboo culm provide a valuable material forbasketry for commercial sale and home use.On Mt Elgon bamboo shoot& are eaten by people. Bamboosare also usefu] in house construction, making fences,granaries and baskets. In other parts it is used asfirewood. Young shoots are also eaten by animals (mainlyprimates).
The previous system of selling licences to people as ameans of controlling and monitoring the harvesting offorest produce (including bamboo) failed because ofdeclining purchasing power of salaries, Forest Officerslaxed their supervision and unofficial sale of forestproduce to supplement income became the order of the day(Howard 1991). It would be important to avoid thisproblem by paying living wages to employees if sustaineduse of forest produce is to be implemented.
6 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND PHARMACOPOEIA IN UGANDA
A multidisciplinary field mission and ethno-botanical andfloristic research was undertaken in Uganda from 20thSeptember to October 20th 1991, the area covered wereTororo, Lira, flushenyi and Kabarole (represented theUganda region Figure 4). It was the second specificmission on the use of medicinal plants and other productsof traditional African and Research Commission of theOrganization of African Unity (OAU/STRC). 302 specieswere identified and remarkably well drawn. Theparticular habitat of each medicinal plant is describedas is its African or Tropical biogeographic distribution.Some of its medical uses are mentioned and a detailedaccount of phytontherapeutic uses. The number ofdiseases treated is 200; the therapeutic indicationsmentioned are covered by a total of 500 recipes and thedata were gathered from 90 traditional healers andsuppliers of information (Adjanohaun 1993).
Main diseases and the plants used to treat them has beengiven. Certain number of diseases and symptoms have beengrouped together as
Disease and conditions according to the systemsInfectious diseaseParasitic diseases (not of the digestive system)Specific diseases and conditions (miscellaneous)
.10
Bamboo was one of the important "minor forest products" sold by the Forest Department in former Central and Local Forest Reserves (almost 500,000 bamboos annually) between 1961/62 -1963/64.
In 1961/62 - 515,000 bamboos were soldi 1962/63 - 450,000 bamboos were soldi 1963-64 - 459,882 bamboos were sold (Forest Department 1964).
YOlltlJ,{ blllllhoo eu 1111 pt'ov i de a va luable material for basketry for commercial sale and home use. On Mt Elgon bamboo shoots- are ~aten by people. Bamboos are also useful jn house construction, making fences, granaries and baskets. In other parts it is used as firewood. Young shoots are also eaten by animals (mainly primates) .
The previous system of selling licences to people as a means of controlling and moniCoring the harvesting of forest produce (including bamboo) failed because of declining purchasing power of salaries, Forest Officers laxed their supervision and unofficial sale of forest produce to supplement income became the order of the day (Howard 1991). It would be important to avoid this problem by paying living wages to employees if sustained use of forest produce is to be implemented.
6 .TRADITI_m'!A~_M.~lUCJ:NE AND PHARMACOPOEIA IN UGANDA
A multidisciplirlary field mission and ethno-botanical and floristic research was undertaken in Uganda from 20th September to October 20th 1991, the area covered were '1'01'01'0, L.i I'n, Hushenyi. and Kabarole (represented the Uganda region Figure 4). It was the second specific mission on the lIse of medicinal plants and other products of traditional African and Research Commission of the Organi 7.a L:i on 0 f /\ f'r i CHn Un j ty (OAU/STRC). 302 species were identified and remarkably well drawn. The particular habi 1",at of each medicinal plant is described as is its African or Tropical bi.ogeographic distribution. Some of its medical IIses are mentioned and a detailed account of phytontherapeutic uses. The number of diseases treated js 200; the therapeutjc indications mentioned at'p coveT'ed by a total of 500 recipes and the data wer(~ qnLh0.r(~d from 90 tradi.tional healers and suppliers of information (Adjanohaun 1993).
Main dis0ases nnd the p]ants Ilsed to treat them has been given. Ce rta i. tI numb£' T' 0 f diseases and symptoms have been groupnd together as
DiseaRe and condit.i.ons according to the systems lnfectious diReaRe Parasitic dJseases (not of the digestive system) Specific diseases and conditions (miscellaneous)
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Specific symptoms not mentioned elsewhereChildhood disease and conditionsDirections for medico-magical use.
An overview of these recipes reveals certain pathologicalor symptomic tendencies primarily, female genitalpathology, particularly the treatment of fertility andsecondary sterility. The approach to various type ofdigestive, skin and nervous diseases are also dealt with.
Some recipes for rare cases are also dealt with such asasthma, epilepsy, parasitoses, childhood and eye disease,sexual asthenia in male, sickle cell anaemia, fractures,snake bites, anasarca, fever, headache, jaundice,asthenia - malaise, functional psychosis etc. (TableIII).
TABLE III INDEX OF SOME OF MEDICINAL PLAN'I'S COLLECTED INSIDE OR AT PER1FERRYOF FORESTS IN UGANDA (Adjjinohoun et al J.E 1993)
Species Names Fart yil1 Location Medical Use
Adenia rumicifolia Passilloraocae Forest edge plant usod to treat neuroticillaAdhatoda engleriana Acanthaccae closed high Forest Leaves trait abnormal painsAlchornea corclifolia Euphorbiaccae Fringing forest Root treats snake biteAristolochia elegans Aristolochiaccae Eucalyptus plantation Root treats snake biteBrillantaisia Kirungae Acanthaccae Forest edge Leaves treat urethritisBrillantaisia mahonii Acanthacme Forest edge Leaves treat psychotic excitementCardamine trichooarpa Brassicaceae In Forest l'ops treat KwashiokorCardiosperrnum grandillorum Sapindaccae Fares( edge Shoots treat feverChasrnanthera dependent Menispermaceae Forest Rhizome treat gonorrhoeaChlorophytum sp. Liliaccae Fore,st ed ge Tubercules treat infertiEty
Clerodendrum cordifolium Verbenaceaae Forest edge Roots treat pelvic diseaseaerodendrurn discolor Verbenaceane Forest ed ge Roots treat ulcersClerodendrum myricoides Verbenaceaae Forest edge Leave treat dizziness
Clutraabyssinicca Euphorbiaceae Forest edge Leaf treats shockCal.= canephora Rubia cene Rubiaccae In Forost Leaf treats diarrhoeConbratum paniculatum combietaccae Forest edge Leaf treats coughCommelina benghalensis Commelinaccae In Forest Root treats excitementCraisocephaltun mannic Asteraceae In Forest Root treats polioCryptolepsis sanguinolenta Asclepiadaccae In Forest Root treats malariaCyathula prostrata Amaranthaceae Forest edge Whole plan treat leucorrhoe
12
Specific symptoms not mentioned elsewhere Childhood disease and conditions Directions for medico-magical use.
An overview of these recjpes reveals certain pathological or symptomic tendencies primarily, female genital pathology, particularly the treatment of fertility and secondary sterility. The approach to various type of digestive, skin and nervous diseases are also dealt with.
Some recipes for rare cases are also dealt with such as asthma, epilepsy, parasitoses, childhood and eye disease, sexual asthenia in male, sickle cell anaemia, fractures, snake bjtes, anasarca, fever, headache, jaundice, asthenia - malaise, functional psychosis etc. (Table III) .
TABLE III INDEX OF SOME OF MEDICINAL PLANTS COLLECTED INSIDE OR AT PERIFERRY
OF FORESTS IN UGANDA (Adjjinohoun et al J.R 1993)
Species Names Family Location Medical Use
Adenia rumicifolia Pa.<;sil1oroceae Forest edge plant used to treat neuroticilla
Adhatoda engleriann AcnntJUlceac closed high Forest Leaves treat abnormal pains
Alchomea corcliJ'olia Euphorbiaceae Fringing forest Root treats snake bite
AriGlolochia elegnns Aristo/ochiaceae Eucalyptus plantation Root treats snake bite
Brillsntsisis Kirungnc Acnnthncxne Foref;l edge Leaves treat urethritis
Brillantsisia mnhonii Acanthaceae Forest edge Leaves treat psychotic excitement
Cardamine trichocarpa BroR.<;icaCClle In Forest Tops treat Kwashiokor
Cardiospcrmum grondit7orum SapindnCC<le Forest edge Shoots treat fever (''hasmanthero dependent Menispermaceae Forest Rhizome treat gonorrhoea
Chiorophytum sp. Lilinceae Forest edge Tubercules treat infertility
Clerodendrum cordiJ'olium Verbenaceane Forest edge Roots treat pelvic disease
Clerodendrum disc%r Verbenaceane Forest edge Roots treat ulcers
Clerodendrum myricoides Vcrbensceane Forest edge Leave treat dizziness
Clutroa byssiniccs Euphorbillceae Forest edge Leaf treats shock
Coffea canephom RubinCCIJe RubiaCC<le In Forest Leaf treats diarrhoe
Conbrelum panicu/stum combrelnceae Forest edge Leaf treats cough
Commeiina oonghn/cnsis Commelinaceae In Forest Root treats excitement
CrossocephaJum mnnnic Asteroceae In Forest Root treats polio
Cryptolepsis sanguinolent8 Asc/epindaceae In Forest Root treats malaria
Cysthuls prostmta Amn ronthaceae Forest edge Whole plan treat leucorrhoe
13
Analysis of the table show the richness of Uganda forestswith regard to medicinal plants. It also indicates thatrural people who are far from medical servi ces can betreated in a variety of diseases using medicinal plants.
The use of Rytigynia kigezinsis (Rubiaceae) bark to treatintestinal parasites (worms) in Bwindi is high. Anexamination of stool samples from 35 people 89% (31) wereinfested with round worm (Ascaris) and 34% (11) withwhipworm (Trichuris) mematodes in addition to ten othertypes of intestinal parasites (Ashford et el, 1990). Thebark is used by TMP's as a household remedy hence thelocal people look at it as a. great saviour of theirlives.
7 TRADITIONAL MEDICAL PRACTIONERS (TMP'S ANDTRADITIONAL BIRTH ATTENDANTS (TBA's) MIDWIVES)
No data is available on the ratio of TMP's or TBA's tototal population in Uganda. No doubt there are morenumerous TMP's and TBA's than medical doctors. A ratioof a medical doctor to total population 1:20,000 is citedfrom the Ministry of Health (M.O.H) (Kakuru 1991).Although clinics are mushrooming in the city, towns andcounties these are difficult to get to for many peopleand the exorbitant fee charged is prohibitive. In mostcases drugs are non-existent.
Uganda government has recognised the need and services ofthe TMP's and TBA's. The government has registeredmembers of TMP's and TBA's assoctations using cardsconnected with UNICEF. The government has undertaken acomprehensive long-term health development strategy inmaternal and child health, primary health care, healthstrategy in diarrhoeal control, education network, andassistance of women needs.
Traditional medicinal plants are mainly gathered from thewild. Traditional birth attendants (TBA's or traditionalmidwives) play an important role in assisting home birthsin Uganda.
7.1 Sustainability: Traditional medicines
Forests outside Forest Reserves which were a source oftraditional medicines in the past has been cleared foragriculture. With the low level of urbanisation inUganda (6% of total population) there is a correspondinglow level commercial trade in traditional medicines (IUCN1991). In Owino market in Kampala only 10-12 men selltraditional medicines in small quantities (Cunningham1992) (Figure 5).
Leaf material is the most common part of the plant usedby TMP's, TBA's and cattle owners.
13
Analysis of the table show the richness of Uganda forests with rC~llrd to mecticinnl plnnts. It also indicates that rural pcopJ(~ who arc far from merUcal services can be treated in a variety of diseases using medicinal plants.
The use of RytiRynia kigezinsis (Rubiaceae) bark to treat intestinal parasites (worms) in Bwindi is high. An examination of stool samples from 35 people 89% (31) were infested with round worm (Ascaris) and 34% (11) with whipworm (Trichuris) mematodes in addition to ten other types of intestinal parasites (Ashford et el, 1990). The bark is used by TMP's asa household remedy hence the local people look at it as a grea.t saviour of their lives.
7 TRADITIONAL MEDICAL PRACTIONERS (TMP'S AND TRADITIONAL BI~.TH AT'rEN_DABTS--1..TBA' s) MIDWIVES)
No data is available on the ratio of TMP's or TBA's to total population in Uganda. No doubt there are more numerous TMP's and TBA's than medical doctors. A ratio of a medical doctor to total population 1:20,000 is cited from the Ministry of Health (M.O.H) (Kakuru 1991). Although clinics are mushrooming in the city, towns and counties these are difficult to get to for many people and the exorbitant fee charged is prohibitive. In most cases drugs are non-existent.
Uganda government has recognised the need and services of t,he TMP's and TBA' s. The ~overnment has registered members of TMP's and TBA's assocLations using cards connected with UNICEF. The government has undertaken a comprehensive long-term health development strategy in maternal and child health, primary health care, health strategy in diarrhoeal control, education network, and assistance of women needs.
Traditional medicinal plants are mainly gathered from the wild. Traditional birth attendants (TBA's or traditional midwives) play an important role in assisting horne births in Uganda.
Forests outside Forest Reserves which were a source of traditional medicines in the past has been cleared for agriculture. With the low level of urbanisation in Uganda (6% of total popUlation) there is a corresponding low level commercial trade in traditional medicines (IUCN 1991). In Owino market in Kampala only 10-12 men sell traditional medicines in small quantities (Cunningham 1992) (Figure 5).
Leaf material :is the most common part of the plant used by TMP's, TBA's and cattle owners.
14
Data for medicinal plants gathered by TMP's in Bwindiare given leaves 38.9% 159 species], roots (21.7% [33species] bark 29.6% [45 species] stems (1.3% [2 species)fruits 4.6% 1.7 species1 whole plant 2.6% (4 species]flowers (1.3% [2 species] (Cunningham 1992).
The three most important categories of uses of medicinalplants by TBAs were for symbolic or magical purposes (asprotective charms against had omens to ensure safejourney or assist in love affairs and court cases) [22%134 species] to assist women either prior to or shortlyafter child birth, preventing premature labour, assistinglabour, removal of placenta, treat swollen breasts orimproved lactation [18% (29 species)] treatment ofinternal parasi tes (de-worming) [7%, [11 species].Although the data are incomplete, they-show that of theplant parts used, at least 62% (96) is leaf material, themajority from herbs growing outside the forest.
7.2 Dental care: chewing sticks
In many rural areas in Africa, traditional tooth brush orchewing sticks from thin branches or roots of localplants are in common use because tooth brush and toothpaste are expensive. Chewing sticks particularly thosewhich have anti-bacterial properties is important as aprimary health care.
8 TRADITIONAL VETERINARY MEDICINES
Cattle has important economic and social significance inparts of Uganda e.g. Ankole and Karamoja. Veterinarymedicines and formally trained veterinary doctors arescarce and expensive. Wild plants are commonly used totreat a wide variety of livestock diseases in .cattle andgoats. Over 20 different types of ailments affectingcattle are recognised. Leaf material forms the bulk ofplant parts used (64% (16). There is no commercialtrade in plants for veterinary medicines.
More detailed work is required on traditional veterinarymedicines before firm conclusion can be drawn on majorailments treated in livestock.
The most commonly used remedies.are diarrhoea disease,swelling on the legs, ears or groins, mastitis andswelling of the udder.
9 FOREST_BIRDS OF_UPANDA
The Uganda Forests are recorded the richest areas inAfrica for forest birds and this is due to a number offactors (Penford & Francis 1991).
14
Data for medicinal plants gathered by TMP's in Bwindi arr~ ~ i vell 0' eav(>s 38. ~% r fl9 species], roots (21.7% [33 speciesl hark 29.6% [45 species] stems (1.3% [2 species) fruit.s 't.G% '°7 SP(~ci('sl whoJ{~ plant 2.6% (4 species] flowers (1.:~% [2 species] (Cunningham 1992).
The three most important categories of uses of medicinal plants by TBAs were for symbolic or magical purposes (as protective charms against bad omens to ensure safe journey or assist in Jove affairs and court cases) [22% r:H sp('c ips 1 to assi s t. ,,,omen either prior to or shortly after child birth, preventing premature labour, assisting labour, removal of placenta, t~eat swollen breasts or improvod lactation [18% (29 species)] treatment of interna.l paras i tes (de-worming) [7%, [11 species]. AlthoulSh the data are incomplete, they show that of the plant parts used, at least 62% (96) is leaf material, the majority from herbs growing outside the forest.
In mflny rural arpllS in Africn, traditional tooth brush or chewjng sticks from thin branches or roots of local plants are in common llse because tooth brush and tooth paste are expensive. Chewin~ sticks particularly those which have anti-bacterial properties is important as a primary health care.
Cattle bas importflnt economic and social significance in parts of Uganda e.g. Ankole and Karamoja. Veterinary medici nes and forma 1.1 y t ra:i ned veterinary doctors are scarce and (,xl)(~nsi ve. Wi Id plants are commonly used to treat a wide variety of livestock diseases in cattle and goats. Over 20 different types of ailments affecting catt 1 e are rnco~tl i SPcl. Leaf material forms the bulk of plant parts IIsnd (fH% (If)). There is no commercial trade in plnllts ror v{~t.erinary medicines.
More detailed work is required on traditional veterinary medicines before fjrm eonc]usion can be drawn on major ailments treated in livestock.
The most-. eommonly llsed rOlllndiesoare diarrhoea disease, swelling on the legs, ears or groins, mastitis and swelling of the udder.
The Uganda Forests a1'0. recordnd the richest areas in Afrjca for forest birds and this is due to a number of factors (Penford & Francis 1991).
15
The forests provide a great diversity of food and habitatfor the birds. Many food resources are available atdifferent levels throughout the forest.
Swifts, swallows, rollers and bee-eaters are seenhawking through the air above the canopy catchinginsects, returning to the branches to eat them.
Flowers in the canopy attract a number of sun birdswith thin down curved beaks which reach into theflowers and reach nectar hence help to pollinate theflowers.
Fruits in the canopy support birds such as pigeons,hornbills and the turacos. These birds help in seeddispersal in the forest.
Forests provide other features necessary for birdcommunity such as song perches from where birds canproclaim territory. Boles in trees are useful forhole nesting birds such as hornbills and dead treessupport woodpeckers that depend on insects in deadwood.
Greenballs, robins and thrushes live mainly in theshrub layer of the forest and are mainly insecteaters.
The forest floor with termites, fallen fruits andseeds, support ground living birds such as guineafowl and francolins.
Rivers and streams provide habitats for black duckand several species of king fisher.
Birds of prey occur at different levels in theforest. Sparrow hawks catch small birds at theshrub layer while the crowned eagle catches monkeysat the canopy.
Eco-tourism is increasingly being based on bird watchingand photographic safaris. Birds 'are beautiful andconspicuous creatures and many people find it interestingto learn their names and habits and this is the basis forornithologica] safaris. Uganda has a great potential forthis kind of tourism.
Eight families, 345 genera and over 1000 specieshave been listed for Uganda.
15
The forests provide a great diversity of food and habitat for the birds. Many food resources are available at different levels throughout the forest.
Swifts, swallows, rollers and bee-eaters are seen hawking through the air above the canopy catching insects, returning to the branches to eat them.
Flowers in the canopy attract a number of sun birds with thin down curved beaks which reach into the flowers and reach nectar hence help to pollinate the flowers.
Fruits in the canopy support birds such as pigeons, hornbills and the turacos. These birds help in seed dispersal in the forest.
Forests provide other features necessary for bird community sllch as son~ perches from where birds can proclaim territory. Holes in trees are useful for hole nest.ing birds such as hornbills and dead trees support woodpeckers that depend on insects in dead wood.
Greenballs, robins and thrushes live mainly in the shrub layer of the forest and are mainly insect eaters.
The forest floor with termites, fallen fruits and seeds, support ground living birds such as guinea fowl and francolins.
Rivers and streams provide habitats for black duck and several species of king fisher.
Birds of prey occur at different levels in the forest. Sparrow hawks catch small birds at the shru b J Ilye r wh j 1 f' Lhe c r'owned eag Ie catches monkeys at the canopy.
Eco-t.our·jslTl is increasingly bei.ng based on bird watching and photograptd c safaris. Birds 'are beautiful and conspicuous creatures and many people find it interesting to learn their names and habits and this is the basis for ornithological safaris. Uganda has a great potential for this kind of tourism.
Eight families, 345 genera and over 1000 species have been listed for Uganda.
10 MAMMALS
Mammals have attracted the attention of a variety ofpeople ranging from the amateur naturalists to theprofessional zoologist. This has been to the large andconspicuous nature of some members of the group (TableIV).
In the early mid 1960s there were studies on elephantsand other mammals. Later studies on large mammalscontinued such as those on the waterbuck, buffalo and theUganda Kob.
According to the International Union for Conservation ofnature (IUCN) there are currently five mammalian specie5on the "endangered" list in Uganda. These include theMountain Gorilla - Gorilla beringel, Northern WhiteRhinoceros - Ceratotherisus semum cottoni, BlackRhinoceros - Diceros bicornis, African Wild Dog - Lycaonpictus, as well as Rwenzori Black fronted Duiker -Cephalophaus nigrifrons rubidus.
In addition to those there are three other species thatare definitely extinct in Uganda. The Bongo -Tragelaphus cepahlophus leucogaster is believed to havebeen present in forests of south western Uganda such asSemliki but has since been exterminated.
The Yellow backed Duiker - Cephalophus silvicultor andthe mountain Red buck - Redunca fulvarufula areendangered. The former occurs in the forest of westernUganda and was originally common but illegal hunting hasreduced the population. The creation of Mgahinga andBwindi National Parks may perhaps allow the species torecover.
Eight species that occur in Uganda are designated as"vulnerable" by the IUCN. These ,include five primates;the chimpanzee-Pan troglodytes, Crested Mangabey -Cercocebus galeritus, L'Hoest's quenon - Cercopithecusl'hoestii, Owl faced quenon - Cercopithecus haralyni andthe Red Colobus Procolubus badius.
The primate as well as mountain squirrel are threatenedby forest destruction. Elephant numbers in Ugandadeclined due to unprecedented poaching during the 1970sbut such poaching now appears to be on the wane. DeBrazza's Monkey - Cercopithecus neglectus occurs in a fewforest patches in the eastern and western Uganda whichare under intense human pressure. If such habitats arelost to human beings, that will probably exterminateCercopithecus neglectus.
1616
10 MAMMA-L.S
Mammals havA attracted thA attAntion of a variety of people ranging from the amateur naturalists to the professional zoologist. This has been to the large and conspicuous nature of some membArs of the group (Table IV) •
In the early mid 1960s there were studies on elephants and other mammals. Later st~dies on large mammals continued such as t.hose on the waterbuck, buffalo and the Uganda Kob.
According to the International Union for Conservation of nature (IUCN) there are currently five mammalian species on the "endangered" list in Uganda. These include the Mountain Gorilla - Gorilla beringei, Northern White Hhinoceros - Cern tother.i SIIS semllm cot toni, Black Rhinoceros - Diceros bicornis, African Wild Dog - Lycaon pictus, as well as Rwenzori Black fronted Duiker -Cephalophaus nigrifrons rubidus.
In addition to those there are three other species that are definitely extinct in Uganda. The Bongo -Tragelaphus cepahlophl1s leucogaster is believed to have been present in forests of south western Uganda such as Semliki but has since been exterminated.
The Yellow backed Duiker - Cephalophus silvicultor and the moun til i n Hed huck - Ur.dl1nCR fill varufu18 are endangered. The former occurs in the forest of western Uganda and was originally common but illegal hunting has reduced the population. The creation of Mgahinga and Bwindi National Parks may perhaps allow the species to recover.
Eight species that occur in Uganda are designated as "vulnerable" by the IUCN. These ,include five primates; the chimpan~ee-Pnn troglodytes, Crested Mangabey -Cercocebus galeritus, L'Hoest's quenon - Cercopithecus l'hoestii., Owl faced guenon - Cercopithecus haralyni and the Red Colobus Procolubus badius.
The primate as well as mountain squirrel are threatened by forest destruction. Elephant numbers in Uganda declined due t.o unprecedentAd poaching during the 1970s but such poaching now appears to be on the wane. De Brazza's Monkey - Cercopithecus neglectus occurs in a few forest patches in the eastern and western Uganda which are under intense hl1man pressure. If such habitats are lost to human beings, that will probably exterminate Cercopithecus neglectus.
1 7
The Black fronted Duicker - Cephalophus nigrifrona is amontane forest specie occurring in the Rwenzoris, MtElgon, Bufumbira volcanoes and Bwindi. Its populationhas declined markedly due to intense hunting pressure.
The conversion of Mgahinga, Bwindi and Rwenzori forestreserves to national parks statusis likely to limithunting and allow the population to recover.
Bates' pygmy Antelope is a very scarce antelope occurringin lowland rain forests of South western Uganda such asMaramagambo - Kalinzu, Kasyoha-Kitomi, Kibale andSemliki. There is need to survey these forest toestablish the current status of this species.
There are several rodent species that are of conservationconcern in the "indeterminate" category. Theherbivorous, forest dwellings Otomys dent", the marchdwelling Delanymys brooks', the high altitude Praomysdenniae and Thamnomys verustus as well as two relentedwetland species, Pelomys hopkinea and Pelomys isseli.
The Mill rat Mytomys dybowskii is also in this categoryin addition to a montane species Rousetus lanosus(ternonycteria lanosus). There is little or noinformation on the population and in some cases precisehabitat requirements for all of the "vulnerable" species.There is need for research in the ecology of all thesespecies on a country wide basis.
With the recent proclaimation of Bwindi forest as aNational Park, the mountain gorilla peculiar to Ugandahas started to attract many tourist hence boosting theforeign currency to the country.
17
The Black fronted Duicker - Cephalophus nigrifrona is a montane forest specie occurring in the Rwenzoris, Mt Elgon, Bufumbira volcanoes and Bwindi. Its population has declined markedly due to intense hunting pressure.
The conversion of M~ahin~a, Bwindi and Rwenzori forest reserves to national parks statusis likely to limit hunting and allow the population to recover.
Bates' pygmy Antelope is a very scarce antelope occurring in lowland rain forests of South western Uganda such as Maramagambo - Kalinzu, Kasyoha-Kitomi, Kibale and Semliki. There is need to survey these forest to establish the current status of this species.
There are several rodent species that are of conservation concern in the "indeterminat.e" category. The herbivorous, forest dwellings Otomys denti, the march dwelljng Delanymys brooksi, the high altitude Praomys denniae and Thamnomys verustus as well as two relented wetland species, Pelomys hopkinea and Pelomys isseli.
The Mill rat Mytomys dybowskil is also in this category in addition to a montane species Rousetus lanosus (ternonycteria lanosus). There is little or no information on the popillation and in some cases precise habitat requirements for all of the "vulnerable" species. There is need for research in the ecology of all these species on a country wide basis.
With the recent proclaimation of Bwindi forest as a National Park, the mountain gorilla peculiar to Uganda has started to attract many tourist hence boosting the foreign currency to the country.
TABLE IV: MAMMALS OF UGANDA
18
Source: Uganda Country Study on Costs, Benefits, and Unmet Needs of Biodiversity Conservation - January 1992
Family Genera Species Remarks
Tenrecidae 2 2
Chrysochloridae 1 1
Erinaceidae 1 1
Soricidae 5 32
Macroscelidne 2 4
Pteropodidae 10 12
Emballonuridae 2 5
Nycteridae 1 7
Megadermatidae 2 2 Insufficiently known
Rhinolophidae 1 10 Insufficiently knownHipposideridae 2 6 Insuffioiently knownVespertilionidae 10 32 Insufficiently known
Molossidae 3 20 Insufficiently known
Galagidac 1 4 Insufficiently known
Lorisidae 1 1 Insrufficiently known
Cercopithecidae 5 14 not known
Pongidae 2 2 Extinct, venerable
Leporidac 2 3
Sciuridae 4 10
Anomaluridae 2 4
Bathyergidae 1 I
Rhizoinyidae I 1
Cricetidae 11 17
Muridae 20 39
Muscardinidae 1 1 Insufficiently known
Histricidae 2 3 Insufficiently known
Thryonomyidae 1 2 Insufficiently knownCanidae 3 4 Not known, extinot, insufficiently known
Mustelidae 5 6 Insufficiently known
Viverridac 11 14 RareHyaenidae 3 3 NT Insufficiently known
Felidae 3 7 Insufficiently known
Elephantidae 1 1
Equidae 1 1
Rhinocerotidae 2 2 Extinct
Hippopotamidae 1 1
Suidae 3 3 Insufficiently known
Tragulidae 1 1 Insufficiently known
Giraffidae 2 2 ExtinctBovidae 17 31 Rare, ExtinctProcovidae 3 5 Insufficiently known
Manidae 1 3 Insufficiently known
Orycteropodidae 1 1 Insufficiently known
TOTAL 154 321
TABLE IV: MAMMALS
Family
Tenrecidae
Chrysochloridae
Erinaceidae
Soricidae Macr(l!<Calidne
Ptcropodidae
Emballonuridae
Nycteridae
Megadermatidae
Rbinolophidae Hipposideridae
Vespertilionidae
Molo~sidae
Galagidae
Lorisidae
Cercopithecidae
Poneidae
Leporidae
Sciuridae
Anomaluridae
Bathyereid3e
RhizomyiJae
Cricetidae
Muridae
Muscardinidae
Histricidae
Thryonomyidae
Canidae
Mustelidae
Viverridae
Hyaenidae
Felidae
Elephantidae
Equidae
Rhinocerotidae
Hippopotamidae
Suidae
Tragulidae
Giraffidae
Bovidae Procovidae
Manidae
Orycteropodidae
TOTAL
18
Of UGANDA
I Genera I Species
I I
2 2
1 1
1
.5 32
2 4
10 12
2 .5
7
2 2
1 10
2 6
10 32
3 20
1 4
1 1 .5 14
2 2
2 3
4 10
2 4
1
1
11 17
20 39
1
2 3
2 3 4
.5 6
11 14
3 3
3 7
1
2 2
3 3
1 1
2 2
17 31
3 .5
1 3
154 321
Remarks
Insufficiently known
Insufficiently known
Insuffioiently known
Insuffioiently known
Insuffioiently known
Insufficiently known
Insuffioiently known
not known
Extinct, venerable
Insufficiently known
Insufficiently known
Insufficiently known Not known, extinot, inllUffioiently known
Insufficiently known
Rare
NT Insufficiently known
Insuffioiently known
Extinot
Insuffioiently known
Insufficiently known
Extinct Rare, Extinot
InllUfficiently known
Insufficiently known
Insufficiently known
Source: Uganda Country Study on Costs, Benefits, and Unmet Needs of Biodiversity ConllerVation - January 1992
19
11 NATURAL GUM AND RESINS IN UGANDA
A research project funded by IDRC and implemented byNakawa Forest Research Centre of the then Minister ofEnvironment Protection looked into the possibilities ofreviving gun arabic industry which had collapsed due tothe civil unrest in the country.
The research also looked into the extent, type andquality of the gum resource and to evaluate the currentutilization and market potential of the local gums. Theproject area was in Karamoja north-east of Uganda. Theextent of this resource has largely been unknown (Kityo1993). The utilization and marketing of gum arabic wasembarked on in 1960s and showed some promise as animportant export earner, source of rural employment andan alternative to costly import. The gum arabic industrywas completely abandoned by the early 1980s.
The Forest Department has for sometime been developingthe effective utilization of gum arabic for ruraldevelopment in Karamoja region where it occurs naturallyin dry sandy thorn scrub areas, valley depressions androck hills. The species include Acacia senegal, Acaciaseyal, Acacia polyacantha and Commiphora abyssinica etc.The actual extent and composition of these species islittle known nor the types, qualities of the exudate(Kityo 1993).
11.1 Physical_and _Chemical Properties of Local Gums
Gum arabic has a variety of uses which are in printingand book binding. Some potential users of the local gumare eminent if the chemical properties, purity,viscosity, absorption and solubility are established.
11.2 Market Evaluation
The Forest Department organized the handling andmarketing of gum arable in late 1960 purposely to offsetcostly imports. Government departments, institutions andprivate industries which had depended on this gum arabicwound up due the civil strife while others resorted tousing inferior gum and others imported it (Kityo 1993).
Now that there is peace in the country these industriesare being revived and are keen to use local gum arabic(Table V).
It is not known how much gum arabic can be produced inthe country and where it can be utilised.
19
11 NATURA~ GUM AND RESINS IN UGANDA
A research project funded by ID\W and implemented by Nakawa Forest Research Centre of the then Minister of Environment Protection looked into the possibilities of reviving gun arabic industry which had collapsed due to the civil unrest in the country.
The research also looked into the extent, type and quality of the gum resource and to evaluate the current utilization and market potential of the local gums. The project area was in Karamoja north-east of Uganda. The extent of this resource has largely been unknown (Kit yo 1993). The ut.ili?ation and marketing of gum arabic was embarked on in 1960s and showed some promise as an important export earner, source of rural employment and an alternative to costly import. The gum arabic industry was completely abandoned by the early 1980s.
The Forest Department has for sometime been developing the effective utilization of gum arabic for rural development in Karamoja region where it occurs naturally in dry sandy thorn scrub areas, valley depressions and rock hills. The species include Acacia senegal, Acacia seya] , Acacia polyacantha and Commiphora abyssinica etc. The actual extent and composition of these species is little known nor the types, qualities of the exudate (Kit yo 1993).
Gum arabic has a variety of uses which are in printing and book binding. Some potential users of the local gum are (~nd Tlen L if I.he ('.I1P1II1 cal propprties, purity, viscosity, absorptiotl and solubility are established.
11.2 Market EvaluatioTl
The Forest Department organized the handling and marketing of gum arabic in late 1960 purposely to offset costly imports. Government departments, institutions and private indust.ries which had depended on this gum arabic wound up due the civil strife 'l1h:ile others resorted to using inferior gum and others imported it (Kit yo 1993).
Now t,hat then'! i H peace in the country these industries are being revived and are keen to use local gum arabic (Table V).
It is nol. known how much ~um arabic can be produced in the country and h,here it can be uti lised.
20
PABLE V: MAIN CONSUMER OF GUM ARABIC IN UGANDA IN 1970s.
Institution Yearly consumption
Government PrinterMugonza & Co Ltd
1 - 2 tons2 - 3 tons
tonstonstons
tons
Basing on the past consumptions and population growth,the current domestic requirements of gum is estimated tobe between 5-8 metric tonnes annually. This is likely toincrease with improved awareness of the potential users.(Kityo 1993)
11.3 Production of gum arabic
There is no tapping of trees for gum collection inKaramoja, all that is collected exudes naturally. Thegum exudation process is not very clear since gummosis isknown to follow bark damage by some kind of pathogen.There are variations on yield depending on tree, withinthe tree, area and season.
Information of yields in Uganda is still lacking. Gumcollection is done once in an area with no follow up.Most of the gum is collected by herdsmen who wonder aboutwhile grazing cattle. There is a general agreement that200 gm may be collected from each tree every season(Kityo 1993). Assuming a stocking of 425 tree per ha,then between 85-127.5 kg gum arabic per ha could becollected (Table VI).
A man may collect between 0.5 - 1.5 kg a day depending onthe stocking of the area. Some gum is however, eaten bythe herdsmen as they go along. Whatever remains is soldto the buyers - who is mainly the Forest Department. Thecost of a kilogramme of gum arabic is paid USh. 300 =(June 1991 figures)
Lands and Survey Dept 0.2Kampala Textile Crafts School 0.1Associated Match Company 0.3
Total 3.4
20
TABLE V: MAJN CONStJHER. OF GUH ARABIC IN UGANDA IN 1970s.
InsU t.ution Yearly consumption
Government Printer I 1 - 2 tons
II Mugonza & Co Ltd I 2 - 3 tons Lands and Survey Dept I 0.2 tons I Kampala Textile Crafts School 0.1 tons Associated Match Company 0.3 tons
Total 3.4 tons
Basing on the past consumptions and population growth, t,he CUI'rp-nt. domr.st,j c. requi rement,s of gum is estimated to be b8 t.WP0tl 5 -R 111(' t. t' j C t.onnes annuall y. Thi s is I ikely to increase with improved awareness of the potential users. (Kit yo 1993)
There is no tapping of trees for gum collection in Karamoja, all that is collected exudes naturally. The gum exudation process is not very clear since gummosis is known to follow bark damage by some kind of pathogen. There are variations on yield depending on tree, within the tree, area and season.
Information of yields in Uganda is still lacking. Gum collection is done once in an area with no follow up. Most, 0 r the ~um j ~ collected by herdsmen who wonder about while grazin~ cattle. There is a general agreement that 200 gm may be collected from each tree every season (Kit yo 1993). Assuming a stocking of 425 tree per ha, then between 85-127.5 kg gum arabic per ha could be collected (Table VI).
A man may collect between 0.5 - 1.5 kg a day depending on the stocking of the area. Some ~um is however, eaten by the herdsmen as they go along. Whatever remains is sold to the buyers - who is mainly the Forest Department. The cost of a kilogramme of gum arabic is paid USh. 300 = (June 1991 figures)
21
TABLE VI GUM ARABIC PRODUCTION FROM KARAMOJA IN THEEARLY 1970S
Source: Forest Department
The Forest Department in 1973/74 and 1974/75 collected3953 and 1084 kgs respectively from an area four km apartin Bokoro County. There was a steady increase of the gumcollected from 1969/70 up to 1973/74 which declined from1974/75.
It is reported that collection, of gum arabic was limitedto Bokoro County because it was easily accessible byvehicles. It is therefore assumed that if all theproductive areas in the region are involved an estimatedamount of between 15-20,000 kg of gum arabic could becollected every season (Nov-March). This could increasewith the improvement of stocking and tapping methods.
The cost of collecting 1 kg of gum is UShs. 300=Hence cost of 1 ton of gum is USh. 300,000=Basing on transportation costs a tonne FOB Kampala is39,714 or US$ 377.
The present stocking is quite variable with somescattered stands of Acncin senegn1 often entangled withthe other species, making gum tapping difficult. Most ofthe areas of high intensity are on public land.
12 NEW NATIONAL PRODUCTS WITH COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL
Tropical forests are a source of potential medicines orother natural products or wild relatives of crops plants.
Conserving tropical forests for potential new naturalproducts e.g. pharmaceutical drugs has had a widepublicity by international conservation agencies(Cunningham 1992).
Season Quantities (in Kg)
1969/70 400
1970/71 986
1971/72 1936
1972/73 3970
1973/74 3952
1974/75 1084
1975/76
21
TABLE VI GUM ARABIC PRODUCTION FROM KARAMOJA IN THE EARLY 1970S
Season Quantities (in
1969/70 400
1970/71 986
1971/72 1936
1972/73 3970
1973/74 3952
1974/75 1084
1975/76
Source: Forest Department
Kg)
The Forest Department in 1973/74 and 1974/75 collected 3953 and 1084 kgs respectively from an area four km apart in Bokoro County. There was a steady increase of the gum collected from 1969/70 up to 1973/74 which declined from 1974/75.
It is reported that collection of gum arabic was limited to Bokoro County because it was easily accessible by vehicJes. It is therefore assumed that if all the productive arCIl-R in the region are involved an estimated amount of between 15-20,000 kg of gum arabic could be collected every season (Nov-March). This could increase with the improvement of stocking and tapping methods.
The cost, of collec ting 1 kg a f gum is UShs. 300= Hence cost of 1 ton of gum is USh. 300,000= Basing on transpo['LaLion costs a tonne FOB Kampala is 39,714 or US$ 377.
The present stocking is quite variable with some scattered stands of Acncin Rpn~Rnl often enlan~led with the other species, making gum tapping difficult. Most of the areas of high intensity are on public land.
Tropical forests are a source of potential medicines or other natural products or wild rel.atives of crops plants.
Conserving tropical forests for potential new natural products e.g. pharmaceutical drugs has had a wide publicity by :interna1~.ional eorH~ervn1~ion agencies (ClInninl,(hllJII I!lH2).
22
There is also a need to conserve wild relatives of newcrop plants. If these new products are discovered in anarea they add to means of improving income to ruralpeople living in or near forests as a means of earningincome from forest without destroying it.
Bwindi impenetrable forest contains a number of wildplants falling in this categOry (Cunningham 1992). Forexample Allanblackia kinbillensis seeds are pOtentialsource of fat which might be used in cosmetics.Allanblackia stuhimannii seeds contains an edible fatwhich is harvested and sold to Gapex (GeneralAgricultural Products Export.Company) by local people inUsambara mountains, Tanzania for extraction of fat (FAO1983a).
Local people in Bwindi extract anion from Carapagrandiflora seeds and use it as a substitute for vaseline(Cunningham 1992) Myrianthus arboreus and Myrianthusholstii have high prospects as new crop plants and havebeen proposed for planting and fruit production (FAO1983a).
Bwindi Impenetrable Forest contains many representativeplant families of interest as potential sources of newdrugs, such as the Rubiaceae and Apcocynaceae both ofwhich are rich in alkaloids. Edible fungi which may havepotential for cultivation e.g. Lentinus prolifer exists.
Bwindi Impenetrabie forest is a rich source of soilmicro-organisms such as actinomycetes which are a sourcein new antibiotics.
Western Uganda is rich in plants with horticulturalpotential in the genus Impatiens.
Vigna luteolus (the cow pea relative) Coceiniamildbraeddii, (cucumber and pumpkin relatives) and coffee(wild coffee) have international interest for their valuein breeding programmes for forage plants. Local farmershave a greater knowledge of these new natural products.
A mechanism is needed to link the recognition of theorigin and value of these resources as one of theincentives for habitat conservation in developingcountries, so that they are seen as a regional resourcesrather than global common property.
Those who benefit from biological resources should paymore of the costs of ensuring that such resources areused sustainably (Mac Neely et al, 1990).
22
There is also a need to conserve wild relatives of new crop plants. If these new products are discovered in an area they add to means of improving income to rural people living in or near forests as a means of earning income from forest without destroying it.
Bwindi impenetrable forest contains a number of wild plants falling in this category (Cunningham 1992). For example Allanblackia kinbillensis seeds are p~tential source of fat which might be used in cosmetics. Allanblackia stuhimannii seeds contains an edible fat which is harvested and sold to Gapex (General Agricultural Products Export·Company) by local people in Usambara mountains, Tanza.nia for extraction of fat (FAO 1983a).
Local people in Bwindi extract an' oil from Carapa grandiflorn seeds and lIse it as a substitute for vaseline (Cunningham 1992) M;vrianthlls arboreus and Myrianthus holstii have high prospects as new crop plants and have been proposed for planting and fruit production (FAO 1983a).
Bwindi Impenetrable Forest contains many representative plant families of interest as potential sources of new drugs, such as the Rubiaceae and Apcocynaceae both of which are rich in alkaloids. Edible fungi which may have potential for cultivation e.g. Lentinus prolifer exists.
Bwindi Impenetrable forest is a rich source of soil micro-organisms such as actinomycetes which are a source in new antibiotics.
Western Uganda is rich in plants with horticultural potentjal in the genus Impatiens.
Vigna luteolus (the cow pea relative) Coceinia mildbraeddii, (cucumber and pumpkin relatives) and coffee (wild coffee) have international interest for their value in breeding programmes for forage plants. Local farmers have a greater knowledge of these new natural products.
A mechanjsm is needed to link the recognition of the origin and value of these resources as one of the incentives for habitat conservation in developing countries, so that they are seen as a regional resources rather than global common property.
Those who benefit from biological resources should pay more of the costs of ensuring that such resources are used sustainably (Mac Neely et aI, 1990).
23
Consideration should be taken to develop these productslocally to a greater degree. Prices paid for rawmaterials at source are low, leading to a low returns tolocal harvesters and over-exploitation of medicinalplants in the wild.
The commercialization of new wild plant for new products(e.g. seeds, bark) and harvesting them on large scale canhave major effect on forest.
13 BIOLOGICAL DTVERSITYJBIODIVERSITY) IN UGANDA
Biodiversity is a term used to describe the total varietyof living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microbes)that exist on this earth.
Biological diversity exists virtually everywhere in awide range of habitats capable of supporting some form oflife. Species diversity within habitats varies widelyand correlates well with the annual rainfall, with wetterareas tending to be richer in species.
In Uganda the highest number of species identified areplants and the great proportion of these is found inforests.
Tropical deforestation is a continuing process. Rapidpopulation growth both by natural increase as well as byimmigration has resulted in broad-scale clearing anddegradation of forest habitats causing species extinction(Etoori 1991).
In Uganda, the tropical high forest which used to cover12.7% of total land in 1900 covered only 3.0% in 1987(UNEP 1988). A major problem has been encroached in thegazetted forest reserves. Since then, this problem hasbeen addressed to and some encouraging signs ofregeneration can be seen in forests. However, theproblem of rapid degradation of tree resources bypitsawyers and charcoal burners still exists and needfurther Lo be addressed.
13.1 Biodiversitv Conservation in Uganda
The recently revised Forest Policy (1988) has gone a longway to strengthen the conservation of biodiversity. TheEuropean Economic Community (EEC) financed Natural ForestManagement and Conservation Project is emphasizing onthis aspect of forest management and setting aside atleast 20% of the reserved forest as strictly protectednature reserve and 30% as buffer zone.
Human activities have accelerated the rate of extinctionof species to an alarming level, hence the need tostrengthen conservation measures. Conservation heremeaning both protection and management for sustainable
23
Consideration should be taken to develop these products locally to a greater degree. Prices paid for raw materials at source are low, leading to a low returns to local harvesters and over-exploitation of medicinal plants in the wild.
The commprciali~ntion of new wild plant for new products (e.g. seeds, bark) and harvesting them on large scale can have major effect on forest.
Biodiversity is a term used to de~cribe the total variety of livin~ organisms (plnnts, animals, fungi and microbes) that exist on this earth.
Biologica.1 diversity exists virtually everywhere in a wide range of habitat.s capable of supporting some form of life. Species di ver~d ty w.i thin habitats varies widely and correlates well with the annual rainfall, with wetter areas tending to be richer in species.
In Uganda the highest number of species identified are plants and the great proportion of these is found in forests.
Tropici'll deforestation is a continuing process. Rapid population growth both by natural increase as well as by immigration hl'ls resultcd in hrond-scale clearing and degrfldat.lotl of fOJ'cst'. habitats eausing species extinction (Etoori 1991).
In Uganda, the tropicfll high forest which used to cover 12.7% of tota] land in UH)O covered only 3.0% in 1987 (UNEP 1988). A ma,jor problem has been encroached in the gazetted forest reserves. Since then, this problem has been addressed to and some encouraging signs of regeneration can be seen in forests. However, the problem of rapid degradation of tree resources by pitsawyers and charcoal bl1rners still exists and need further to he addressed.
The recently revised Forest Policy (1988) has gone a long way to st.ren14then the conservation of biodiversity. The European Economic Community (EEC) financed Natural Forest Management and Conservation Project is emphasizing on this aspect of forest management and setting aside at least 20% of the reserved forest as strictly protected nature reserve and 30% as buffer zone.
Human activities have accelerated the rate of extinction of species to an a.1arming Jevel, hence the need to strengthen conserva~ion measures. Conservation here meaning hoth protection and management for sustainable
26
Government should carry out an inventory of theweaving material in the forest reserves so as toknow the amount available in the country.
Ecological research is needed on the biology ofclimbers and their biomass production and spacing inrelation to canopy gap dynamics.
15.4 BAMBOO
Cultivation of bamboo should be considered as animportant component of Agro-forestry programme.
Research needs to be done to find out the biomassproduction and effects of harvesting on Arundinariaalpina.Research should be carried out on the populationbiology and gap dynamics of Arundinaria alpina withregard to resource use and maintenance of thevegetation type.
Stock taking and mapping of available bamboo thicketneed to be taken.
How the bamboo is establish must be researched -fire induced, elephant or canopy gaps.
15.5 MEDICINAL PLANTS
Planting of popular medicinal plants (trees andscrubs) should be included in the afforestationprogrammes.
To produce scarce and popular medicinal plantspecies from cuttings for distribution at co/ts to
Aherbalists and interested farmers.
Investigations probably by medical schools, to findout the efficacy of popular herbal remedies thedesirability of producing medical plants of knowntaxicity.
15.6 BIRDS
Monitoring of bird population as indicators ofenvironmental change.
Promotion of bird related tourism and promotion ofsustainable utilization of e.g. the guinea fowl.
15.7 MAMMALS
Research should be undertaken to determine thepopulation and habit requirements for all"vulnerable" species of mammals.
26
Government, Rhould carry out an inventory of the weaving material in the forest reserves so as to know the amount aVid lable in the country.
Ecological research is needed on the biology of climberR and their biomaRR production and spacing in relation to canopy gap dynamics.
15.4 BAMBOO
Cultivation of bamboo should be considered as an important component of Agro-forestry programme.
Research needs to be done to find out the biomass production and effects of harvesting on Arundinaria alpina.
ReRearch should be carried out on the population biology and gap dynamicR of Arundinaria alpina with regard to resource use and maintenance of the vegetation type.
Stock taking and mapping of available bamboo thicke~ need to be taken.
How the bamboo is establish must be researched -fire induced, elephant or canopy gaps.
Planting of popular medicinal plants (trees and scrubs) should be included in the afforestation programmes.
To produce scarce and popular medicinal plant species from cuttings for distribution at cats to herbalists and interested farmers. ~
Investigations probably by medical schools, to find out the efficacy of popular herbal remedies the deRirability of producing medical plants of known t..axicity.
15.6 BIB.Jl~
Monitoring of bird population as indicators of environmental change.
Promotion of bird related tourism and promotion of sURtainable utilization of e.g. the guinea fowl.
15.7 MAMMALS
Research should be undertaken to determine the population and habit requirements for all "vulnerable" species of mammals.
27
Research should be done into the ecology of all thespecies on a country wide basis.
Ecological studies should be done to resolve thestatus of "not known" and "indeterminate" categoriesof mammals.
15.7 NATURAL GUM AND RESINS
Forest Department should gazette some areas withhigh intensities of Acacia senegal.
The government should solicit funds for developmentof gum industry in Uganda.
The government to create public awareness of theavailability and utilisation of gum arabic in thecountry and encourage investments in its productionby potential users.
Training in gum production technique be instituted.
Gum collection could help the idle Karamojapopulation and boost their financial out look andliving standards. It would increase the country'sexport diversification.
15.8 NEW NATURAL PRODUCTS WITH COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL
Profits arising, if a new natural product isdeveloped, to be returned to the region of thatproduct (oil, resin, organic chemical geneticmaterial).
Prices for raw materials at source are low, leadingto low returns to local harvesters and over-exploitation of medical plants in the wild.
Steps should be taken to cultivate the material inshort supply in a region in order to offset the overexploitation of the wild stock.
National infrastructure to develop these productslocally need to be looked insto.
Assistance be provided to develop and strengthenlocal expertise in screening of extracts.
27
Research should be done into the ecology of all the species on a country wide basis.
Ecological studies should be done to resolve the status of "not known" and "indeterminate" categories of mammals.
15.7 NATURAL GUM AND RESINS
Forest Department should gazette some areas with high intensities of Acacia senegal.
The government should solicit funds for development of gum industry in Uganda.
The government to create public awareness of the availability and utilisation of gum arabic in the country and encourage investments in its production by potential users.
Training in gum production technique be instituted.
Gum collection could help the idle Karamoja population and boost their financial out look and living standards. It would increase the country's export diversification.
15.8 NEW NATURAL PRODUCTS WITH COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL
Profits arising, if a new natural product is developed, to be returned to the region of that product (oil, resin, organic chemical genetic mat,erial) .
Prices for raw materials at source are low, leading to low returns to local harvesters and overexploitation of medical plants in the wild.
Steps shouJd be taken to cuLtivate the material in short supply in a region in order to offset the over exploitation of the wild stock.
National infrastructure to develop these products locally need to be looked into.
Assistance be provided to develop and strengthen local expertise in screening of extracts.
16 REFERENCES
28
Adjanohoun J.E., Ahy M.R.A., Ake'Assil L., Acia A.M.,Amal C.A., Gbile Z.O., Johnson C.L.A., Kakooko Z.O.,Lutakome H.K., Morakinyo O., Mubiru N.K., Ogwal-Okeng, J.W. Sofowora, E.A. 1993. Traditionalmedicine and Pharmcopoeia - Contribution toEthnobotanical and Floristic studies in Uganda -unpublished.
Ashford R.W., Reid G.D.F. and Butynski T.M. 1990. Theintestinal faunas of man and mountain gorillas in ashared habitat. Annals of Tropical Medicine andParasitology.
Butynski T.M. 1984. Ecological survey of theImpenetrable (Bwindi) forest; Uganda andrecommendations for its conservation and management.Unpublished report to the Uganda government.
Cunningham A.B., People and Plant use - unpublishedreport prepared for Care - International, KampalaJuly 1992.
Etoori D.K. What is biodiversity? Nature Conservationin Tropical forests: Principles and practice - apaper delivered during the proceeding of symposiumfor district and Regional Forest Officers, MakerereUniversity, Kampala, May 1991.
FAO 1983a. Food and fruit bearing forest speciesexamples from eastern Africa. Forestry Paper 44/1.
FAO 1981. Food loss prevention in perishable crops. FAOAgricultural services Bulletin 43, FAO, Rome.
Forest Department. 1964 Annual report of the ForestDepartment 1963/4. Uganda Government Printer,Entebbe.
Goode P.M. 1989. Edible plants of Uganda. The value ofwild and cultivated plants as food. FAO Food andnutrition paper 42/1. FAO Rome.
Howard P.C. 1991. Nature Conservation in Uganda'sTropical Forest Reserves. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
IUCN 1991. Biodiversity in sub-saharan Africa and itsislands. Occasional papers of the IUCN speciessurvival commission, no. 6 lUCN Switzerland.
Kakuru W. 1990. The potential of the Impenetrable(Bwindi) forest for medicinal plants BSc (Forestry)project, Makerere University, Kampala.
28
16 REFERENCES
Adjanohotltl .LE., Ahy M.R.A., Ake'Assil L., Acia A.M., Amai C.A., GbLle Z.O., .Johnson C.L.A., Kakooko Z.O., Lutakome H.K., Morakinyo 0., Mubiru N.K., OgwalOkeng, J.W. Sofowora, E.A. 1993. Traditional medicine and Pharmcopoeia - Contribution to Ethnobotanical and Floristic studies in Uganda -unpublished.
Ashford H.W., Reid G.D.F. and Butynski T.M. 1990. The intestinal faunas of man and mountain gorillas in a shared habitat. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology.
Butynski T.M. 1984. Ecological survey of the Impenetrable (Bwindi) forest; Uganda and recommendations for its conservation and management. Unpublished report to the Uganda government.
Cunnin~ham A.B., People and Plant use - unpublished report prepared for Care - International, Kampala .July 1992.
Etoori D.K. What is biodiversity? Nature Conservation in Tropical forests: Principles and practice - a paper delivered during the proceeding of symposium for district and Regional Forest Officers, Makerere University, Kampala, May 1991.
FAO 1983a. Food and fruit bearing forest species examples from eastern Africa. Forestry Paper 44/1.
FAO 1981. Food loss prevention in perishable crops. FAO Agricultural services Bulletin 43, FAO, Rome.
Forest Department. 1964 Annual report of the Forest Department 1963/4. UgRnoa Government Printer, Entebbe.
Goode P.M. 1989. Edible plants of Uganda. The value of wild and cultivated plants as food. FAO Food and nutrition paper 42/1. FAO Rome.
Howard P.C. 1991. Nature Conservation in Uganda's Tropical Forest Reserves. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
IUCN 1991. Biodiversity in sub-saharan Africa and its islands. Occasional papers of the IUCN species survival commission, no. 6 IUCN Switzerland.
Kakuru W. 1990. The potential of the Impenetrable (Bwindi) forest for medicinal plants BSc (Forestry) project, Makerere University, Kampala.
29
Kityo P.W. 1993. Natural gums and resins Uganda 3p-86-0239. Technical report 1st July 1987 - June 30,1991, Nakawa Research Centre, Kampala.
Mwesigye V.M. 1991. Beekeeping in the Impenetrableforest unpublished field training report. Institutefor Tropical forest conservation, Ruhija.
MacNeely, J.A. Miller, K.R. Reid, W.V. Mittermeier, R.A.and Werner T.B. 1990. Conserving the World'sbiological diversity. IUCN Gland.
Penford N. and Francis I. 1991. _Forest Birds in Uganda apaper delivered to District and Regional ForestOfficers, Makerere University, Kampala May 1991.
29
Kit yo P.W. 1993. Natural gums and resins Uganda 3p-86-0239. Technical report lRt July 1987 - June 30, 1991, Nakawa Res~arch Centre, Kampala.
Mwesigye V.M. 1991. Beekeeping in the Impenetrable forest unpublished field training report. Institute for Tropical forest conservation, Ruhija.
MacNeely, J.A. Miller, K.R. Reid, W.V. Mittermeier, R.A. and Werner T.n. J990. ConRerving the World's biological diversity. IUCN Gland.
Penford N. and Francis I. 1991. ,Forest Birds in Uganda a paper delivered to District and Regional Forest Officers, Makerere University, Kampala May 1991.
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - ZAMBIA-
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - ZAMBIA
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTSZAMBIA
A Country pilot study for the expert consultation forEnglish Speaking African Countries.
by
F.C. NovuConsultant
May, 1993
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS ZAMBIA
A Country pilot study for the expert consultation for English Speaking African Countries.
by
F.C. Njovu Consultant
May, 1993
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations
GRZ - Government of the Republic of Zambia
GTZ - Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit
NGO - Non - governmental Organization
NWFP - Non Wood Forest Products
TFAP - Tropical Forest Action Plan
ZFAP - Zambia Forestry Action Plan
iii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
FAO
GRZ
GTZ
NGO
NWFP
TFAP
ZFAP
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Government of the Republic of Zambia
Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit
Non - governmental Organization
Non Wood Forest Products
Tropical Forest Action Plan
Zambia Forestry Action Plan
iii
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Map of ZambiaAcronyms and AbbreviationsList of TablesExecutive Summary
1.0 Introduction1.1 General1.2 Geographical description1.3 Forestry sector
2.0 Definition and classification3.0 Identification4.0 Institutional Aspects
4.1 Institutional responsibility4.2 Legislation4.3 Policy4.4 Training, Research and Development
5.0 Problems and Constraints5.1 Lack of Information5.2 Shortage of Manpower5.3 Inadequate funding5.4 Infrastructure5.5 Poor economic environment5.6 Under developed marketing structure
6.0 Technical description6.1 Beekeeping6.2 Basket making
7.0 Statistical data8.0 Recommendations
8.1 Infrastructure8.2 Manpower8.3 Financial assistance8.4 Information distribution system
9.0 Conclusion10.0 Bibliography
iv
Page
iiiiiiv1
1
2
47
889141516171718181919202020252729303131323239
LIST OF TABLES
PageTable I Distribution of Forest Types 6
Table II Statistical data Sheet 28
iii
1.0
2.0 3.0 4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0 8.0
9.0 10.0
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Map of Zambia .................................... . Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................... . List of Tables .................................. . Executive Summary ............................... . Introduction .................................... . 1. 1 General .................................... . 1.2 Geographical description ................... . 1.3 Forestry sector ............................. . Definition and classification ................... . Identification .................................... . Insti tutional Aspects ........................... . 4.1 Institutional responsibility ............... . 4.2 Legislation ................................ . 4.3 Policy ..................................... . 4.4 Training, Research and Development ......... . Problems and Constraints ........................ . 5.1 Lack of Information ........................ . 5.2 Shortage of Manpower ....................... . 5.3 Inadequate funding ......................... . 5.4 Infrastructure ............................. . 5.5 Poor economic environment .................. . 5.6 Under developed marketing structure ........ . Technical description ........................... . 6 . 1 Beekeeping ................................. . 6 .2 Basket making ............................... . Statistical data ................................ . Recommendations ................................. . 8.1 Infrastructure ............................. . 8.2 Manpower ................................... . 8.3 Financial assistance ....................... . 8.4 Information distribution system ............ . Conclusion. . . . .................................. . Bibliography .................................... .
LIST OF TABLES
Table I Distribution of Forest Types .............. . Table II Statistical data Sheet ..................... .
iii
iv
Page i ii iii iv 1 1 2 4 7 8 8 9 14 15 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 25 27 29 30 31 31 32 32 39
Page 6 28
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In assessing the role that forests play in the daily livesof the people who live in and around forests we often overlookthe importance of Non-wood forest products (NWFP). This is oftenthe result of a biased ideas that the major benefits derived fromforests is wood and environmental protection.
Rural populations depend on the forests for a number ofother products. Forests provide food in form of fruits, leaves,roots and mushrooms. They also provide building and constructionmaterials in form of fibre, bamboo, rattan and so on. For mostrural people, medicinal plants from the forest provide about theonly form of medicines throughout their lives. The collection ofthese items provide people with employment and their salesupplements their income. With about 60% of Zambia's populationresiding in rural areas, it is not difficult to realise theimportance of forests.
Over 55% of Zambians's total land area of 752,600 squarekilometres is covered by forest type comprises species of theBrachystegia, Isoberlinia and Julbernadia genera.
The government has overall responsibility over NWFP throughfour government departments, namely:-
Forest DepartmentNatural Resources DepartmentWildlife Department
- Fisheries Department
These institutions have assumed the responsibility because of thenature of their main operations. These and other organizationsare involved in conducting research in NWFP. Other organizationsare:
- The University of ZambiaThe National Council for Scientific researchPublic and Private CompaniesAssociations and other interested groups
These conduct research in those NWFP in which they have vestedinterests.
Funding for research for government institutions is providedby the government. Donor agencies and other interest groups alsoprovide funding for special purposes.
Of all NWFP in Zambia, the ones that are highly promoted anddeveloped are those connected with beekeeping activities andbasket/mat making.
iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In assessing the role that forests play in the daily lives of the people who live in and around forests we often overlook the importance of Non-wood forest products (NWFP). This is often the result of a biased ideas that the major benefits derived from forests is wood and environmental protection.
Rural populations depend on the forests for a number of other products. Forests provide food in form of fruits, leaves, roots and mushrooms. They also provide building and construction materials in form of fibre, bamboo, rattan and so on. For most rural people, medicinal plants from the forest provide about the only form of medicines throughout their lives. The collection of these items provide people with employment and their sale supplements their income. With about 60% of Zambia's population residing in rural areas, it is not difficult to realise the importance of forests.
Over 55% of Zambians's total land area of 752,600 square kilometres is covered by forest type comprises species of the Brachystegia, Isoberlinia and Julbernadia genera.
four The government has overall responsibility government departments, namely:-
- Forest Department - Natural Resources Department - Wildlife Department - Fisheries Department
over NWFP through
These institutions have assumed the responsibility because of the nature of their main operations. These and other organizations are involved in conducting research in NWFP. Other organizations are:
- The University of Zambia - The National Council for Scientific research - Public and Private Companies - Associations and other interested groups
These conduct research in those NWFP in which they have vested interests.
Funding for research for government institutions is provided by the government. Donor agencies and other interest groups also provide funding for special purposes.
Of all NWFP in Zambia, the ones that are highly promoted and developed are those connected with beekeeping activities and basket/mat making.
iv
v
Traditional beekeeping is widely practiced in Zambia. Theactivity depends on forest resources for all inputs and outputs.The hives in which the bees are kept are made from tree bark.The bees are found in any forest especially where rainfall isover 1000mm per annum. The bees collect nectar and pollen fromthe forest to produce honey. The beekeepers harvest honey forconsumption and trade. The combs are processed into beeswax whichis marketed. The income from these products goes a long way toassist the rural populations.
Baskets and mats are made from bamboo, reeds or rattan andother plants that produce similar materials.
The importance of identified NWFP and classificationaccording to use have been tabulated with statistical informationon selected products. Statistical information on NWFP is notavailable because the harvesting, processing and marketing ofthese products is done by individuals who keep no records or onsmall-scale basis.
A number of constraints that hinder the development of NWFPhave been identified and these are:
Shortage of man-powerInadequate fundingPoor infrastructurePoor economic environmentUnder developed economic structure
Recommendation have accordingly been made that ifimplemented would alleviate some of the problems in this sector.Based on these recommendations, a field project has beenrecommended to address the problem of lack of information on NWFPin Zambia. The project is nation - wide survey and it fallswithin the framework of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan whichZambia is in the process of formulating. In addition the surveywould augment the efforts of other surveys that have beenconducted in the country.
vi
Traditional beekeeping is widely practiced in Zambia. The activity depends on forest resources for all inputs and outputs. The hives in which the bees are kept are made from tree bark. The bees are found in any forest especially where rainfall is over 1000mm per annum. The bees collect nectar and pollen from the forest to produce honey. The beekeepers harvest honey for consumption and trade. The combs are processed into beeswax which is marketed. The income from these products goes a long way to assist the rural populations.
Baskets and mats are made from bamboo, reeds or rattan and other plants that produce similar materials.
The importance of identified NWFP and classification according to use have been tabulated with statistical information on selected products. Statistical information on NWFP is not available because the harvesting, processing and marketing of these products is done by individuals who keep no records or on small-scale basis.
A number of constraints that hinder the development of NWFP have been identified and these are:
Shortage of man-power Inadequate funding Poor infrastructure Poor economic environment Under developed economic structure
Recommendation have accordingly been made that if implemented would alleviate some of the problems in this sector. Based on these recommendations, a field project has been recommended to address the problem of lack of information on NWFP in Zambia. The project is nation - wide survey and it falls within the framework of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan which Zambia is in the process of formulating. In addition the survey would augment the efforts of other surveys that have been conducted in the country.
v
vi
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY FOR ZAMBIA ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
The importance of forests as a source of livelihood andsustenance for the rural population in Zambia dates back to thetime before people begun to cultivate the land on which to growfood. During this time people gathered fruits, roots and leavesand also hunted birds and animals for food. In addition theforests provided shelter against adverse weather conditions andpossible predators. To date forests continue to play a major rolein the provision of wood and non-wood forest products andservices to the population living in and around the forest areasfor their subsistence.
For most rural people forest foods add variety to diets,improve palatability and provide essential vitamins, protein andcalories. Medicines from forest species are usually the mainmedicines for rural populations. Many people rely on sale ofrattan and bamboo products, grass medicines wild fruits andothers to supplement their income.
The objectives of the pilot study is to "provide a brief,concise and realistic overview of the importance of non-wood forestproducts to the country and prospects for further development".
This paper presents the results of a pilot study carried outto gather and collect information on "non-wood forest products"in Zambia. It gives information and statistical data on the useand importance of non-wood forest goods and services that arederived from the forests and their biomass for commercial,industrial and subsistence use.
1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION
Zambia is entirely landlocked and lies between latitudes 8and 18 degrees south and longitudes 22 and 34 degrees east. Itis bordered by Zaire, Tanzania, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe,Malawi, Botswana and Namibia.
The total area of Zambia is 752, 600 square kilometres. Thepopulation of the country currently stands at nearly 8 millioninhabitants with a very high growth rate of 13.2% per annum. Withover 42% of the total population residing in areas designated asurban Zambia is one of the highly urbanised countries in Africa.
The main part of the country is a plateau which ranges from1000 to 1300 metres above sea level. A range of mountains on thenorth eastern border rises to move than 1800 metres. The majorriver is the Zambezi from which the country derive its name. Its
1
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY FOR ZAMBIA ON NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
The importance of forests as a source of livelihood and sustenance for the rural population in Zambia dates back to the time before people begun to cultivate the land on which to grow food. During this time people gathered fruits, roots and leaves and also hunted birds and animals for food. In addition the forests provided shelter against adverse weather conditions and possible predators. To date forests continue to playa major role in the provision of wood and non-wood forest products and services to the population living in and around the forest areas for their subsistence.
For most rural people forest foods add variety to diets, improve palatability and provide essential vitamins, protein and calories. Medicines from forest species are usually the main medicines for rural populations. Many people rely on sale of rattan and bamboo products, grass medicines wild fruits and others to supplement their income.
The objectives of the pilot study is to "provide a brief, concise and realistic overview of the importance of non-wood forest products to the country and prospects for further development".
This paper presents the results of a pilot study carried out to gather and collect information on "non-wood forest products" in Zambia. It gives information and statistical data on the use and importance of non-wood forest goods and services that are derived from the forests and their biomass for commercial, industrial and SUbsistence use.
1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION
Zambia is entirely landlocked and lies between latitudes 8 and 18 degrees south and longitudes 22 and 34 degrees east. It is bordered by Zaire, Tanzania, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana and Namibia.
The total area of Zambia is 752, 600 square kilometres. The population of the country currently stands at nearly 8 million inhabitants with a very high growth rate of 13.2% per annum. With over 42% of the total population residing in areas designated as urban Zambia is one of the highly urbanised countries in Africa.
The main part of the country is a plateau which ranges from 1000 to 1300 metres above sea level. A range of mountains on the north eastern border rises to move than 1800 metres. The major river is the Zambezi from which the country derive its name. Its
1
small tributaries dry the western part of the country. the Kafueand Luangwa rivers are the main tributaries of the Zambezi andthese drain the central and eastern parts of the country. TheLuapula river drains the northern part of the country and poursits water into the river Zaire. In addition to these rivers thereare a number of lakes which are shared with neighbouringcountries. In the north is the southern tip of Lake Tanganyikaand Lake Mweru which are shared with Tanzania and Zairerespectively. In the south is found the man-made lake Karibawhich is shared with Zimbabwe. Lake Bangweulu lies wholly inZambia.
The climate of Zambia is sub - tropical with threeidentifiable seasons. The warm wet season, the cool/dry andwarm/dry seasons. The unimodal rain season stretches fromNovember to April. The rainfall varies from 700mm in south toabout 1400mm per annum in the north. The cool/dry season runsfrom May to August while the warm and dry season is fromSeptember to November. Temperature vary from 17 to 32 degreesjust before the rains and between 15 and 27 degrees during Mayto September.
As a result of varying elevation and rainfall distribution,the country is divided into four major agro - ecological zonesand there are
The Northern high rainfall zone covering the Copperbelt,Luapula, Northern and North-western provinces. In theseareas soils are highly leached sand velds of low fertility.
The medium rainfall Central, Southern and Eastern plateauwhich also has the most fertile soils with the highestpopulation density. Rainfall in this zone averages 800 -1200mmm per year
The low rainfall Luangwa - Zambezi rift valley with anaverage of about 700mm of rainfall per annum. The soils aremainly shallow chestnut sands.
The western semi-arid plains which cover the western part ofthe country. The area is covered by infertile Karaharisands. Average rainfall varies between 700 and 1000mm perannum.
2
small tributaries dry the western part of the country. the Kafue and Luangwa rivers are the main tributaries of the Zambezi and these drain the central and eastern parts of the country. The Luapula river drains the northern part of the country and pours its water into the river Zaire. In addition to these rivers there are a number of lakes which are shared with neighbouring countries. In the north is the southern tip of Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru which are shared with Tanzania and Zaire respectively. In the south is found the man-made lake Kariba which is shared with Zimbabwe. Lake Bangweulu lies wholly in Zambia.
The climate of Zambia is sub - tropical with three identifiable seasons. The warm wet season, the cool/dry and warm/dry seasons. The unimodal rain season stretches from November to April. The rainfall varies from 700rnrn in south to about 1400rnrn per annum in the north. The cool/dry season runs from May to August while the warm and dry season is from September to November. Temperature vary from 17 to 32 degrees just before the rains and between 15 and 27 degrees during May to September.
As a result of varying elevation and rainfall distribution, the country is divided into four major agro - ecological zones and there are :
1. The Northern high rainfall zone covering the Copperbelt, Luapula, Northern and North-western provinces. In these areas soils are highly leached sand velds of low fertility.
2. The medium rainfall Central, Southern and Eastern plateau which also has the most fertile soils with the highest population density. Rainfall in this zone averages 800 -1200rnrnrn per year
3. The low rainfall Luangwa - Zambezi rift valley with an average of about 700rnrn of rainfall per annum. The soils are mainly shallow chestnut sands.
4. The western semi-arid plains which cover the western part of the country. The area is covered by infertile Karahari sands. Average rainfall varies between 700 and 1000rnrn per annum.
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1.3. FORESTRY SECTOR
It is estimated that about 55% of Zambia's total land areais covered by indigenous forests. In land tenure terms land inZambia is basically classified as
Statelands 6%Reserves 36%Trustland 50%National Parks 8%
Specific areas in Statelands, Reserves and Trustland aredeclared as either National forests or Local forests. National andLocal forests constitute slightly under 10% of the total area.
The distribution of vegetation and forest types followaltitude and rainfall patterns. The more important forest typesinclude:
The dry forests particularly in the west where thehighly valuable Baikiaea plurijuga is found.
The Mopane woodland comprising Colophospermum mopane inalmost pure stands
The acacia woodland which is more savanna like andcharacterised by species of Acacia, Combretum andTerminalia genera.
The miombo woodlands characterised by Brachystegia ,Julbernadia and Isorberlina species and covering almost 60% ofthe forested area. The miombo woodland is found in the high andmedium rainfall areas of the northern and central Zambia.
In addition to the above forest types there are grasslandvegetation types associated with flood plains of major rivers andlake basins while evergreen forest are found in high rainfallhighland areas occurs. The dry forests are found either as dryevergreen or dry decidious such as the Zambezi Teak Forests.Table 1 below shows the percentage distribution of theseforest types.
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1.3. FORESTRY SECTOR
It is estimated that about 55% of Zambia's total land area is covered by indigenous forests. In land tenure terms land in Zambia is basically classified as
State lands 6% Reserves 36% Trustland 50% National Parks 8%
Specific areas in State lands , Reserves and Trustland are declared as either National forests or Local forests. National and Local forests constitute slightly under 10% of the total area.
The distribution of vegetation and forest types follow altitude and rainfall patterns. The more important forest types include:
The dry forests particularly in the west where the highly valuable Baikiaea plurijuga is found.
The Mopane woodland comprising Colophospermum mopane in almost pure stands
The acacia woodland which is more savanna like and characterised by species of Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia genera.
The miombo woodlands characterised by Brachystegia , Julbernadia and Isorberlina species and covering almost 60% of the forested area. The miombo woodland is found in the high and medium rainfall areas of the northern and central Zambia.
In addition to the above forest types there are grassland vegetation types associated with flood plains of major rivers and lake basins while evergreen forest are found in high rainfall highland areas occurs. The dry forests are found either as dry evergreen or dry decidious such as the Zambezi Teak Forests. Table 1 below shows the percentage distribution of these forest types.
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Table 1 : Distribution of Forest Types
Open forestsMiombo 58.3Kalahari 15.8Mopane 7.2Munga (Acacia) 6.1
OtherTermitaria etc 4.4
2.0 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
Non-wood forest products are defined as all biologicalmaterial (other than industrial roundwood and its derivatives)that may be extracted from natural ecosystems and managedplantations and utilized within the household, be marketed orhave a social, cultural or religious significance. NWFP includeflora and fauna.
NWFP play an important role in the Zambian household. Theyprovide the people living in or around forests with a variety ofproducts that are employed in their day to day life. Examples ofactivities where NWFP are important are:-
2.1 Food Security
This is in farm of nutritional supplements. Leaves of foresttrees provide a welcome additional source of nutrition especiallyduring the dry months when fresh vegetables become scarce. Forestfruits ripen at different times of the year thereby supply acontinuous source of vitamins especially for children. Fruits fromtrees such as Uapaca kirkian, Parinari curatellifolia, Strychnosspp, Syzygium spp, Anisophyllea etc are very popular when they arein season.
Wildroots have saved many a life in the remote parts of thecountry especially during drought, examples are Colocasia edulis,Dolichos elipticus and Eriosema buchananii, wild animals, birds andfish provide an important source of protein to all Zambians.
4
87.4
4.4
Forest Type % of totalforested area
Closed forestsDry (evergreen and deciduous) 7.7Swamp and riparian 0.5 8.2
100 100
Table 1 : Distribution of Forest Types
Forest Type
Closed forests Dry (evergreen and deciduous) Swamp and riparian
Open forests Miombo Kalahari Mopane Munga (Acacia)
Other Termitaria etc
2.0 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
% of total forested
7.7 0.5
58.3 15.8
7.2 6.1
4.4
100
area
8.2
87.4
4.4
100
Non-wood forest products are defined as all biological material (other than industrial roundwood and its derivatives) that may be extracted from natural ecosystems and managed plantations and utilized within the household, be marketed or have a social, cultural or religious significance. NWFP include flora and fauna.
NWFP play an important role in the Zambian household. They provide the people living in or around forests with a variety of products that are employed in their day to day life. Examples of activities where NWFP are important are:-
2.1 Food Security
This is in farm of nutritional supplements. Leaves of forest trees provide a welcome additional source of nutrition especially during the dry months when fresh vegetables become scarce. Forest frui ts ripen at different times of the year thereby supply a continuous source of vitamins especially for children. Fruits from trees such as Uapaca kirkian, Parinari curatellifolia. strychnos spp, Syzygium spp, Anisophyllea etc are very popular when they are in season.
Wildroots have saved many a life in the remote parts of the country especially during drought, examples are Colocasia edulis, Dolichos elipticus and Eriosema buchananii, wild animals, birds and fish provide an important source of protein to all Zambians.
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Although there are restrictions on the harvesting of wildanimals, fish is widely available and is a major source of cheapanimal protein. Lymnophyton obtusifolium and Nidorella welwitschiiare burnt to made cooking soda and salt respectively.
2.2 Traditional Medicines
People living in rural areas and to a large extent those intowns, depend on traditional medicines to maintain their physicalor mental health. Some traditional medicines are largely based onNWFP. Although these medicines and charms may not be scientificallyproven, people believe in them and in some cases they are the onlyavailable medicines.
Leaves, bark, fruits etc are used for medicinal purposes,Parts of some animals are also utilised in the preparation oftraditional medicines
2.3 Construction Materials
Traditional dwellings and other structures such as granariesare constructed of locally available materials. The frame of theroof of such structures is made of pieces of bamboo (Oxytenantheraabyssinica) or reeds tied together with bark rope and thatched overwith grass. Blandering in the walls of pole and dagga huts may beof bamboo tied with bark rope. The best bark rope is obtained fromthe Brachystegia spp and Julbernadia spp. Triumfetta is also usedfor tying where trees are not available.
2.4 Manufacture of other items
Baskets and similar items are made from materials derived fromforest plants. Bamboo, reeds and papyrus are some of the plantsthat are used. Bark and leaves of Phoenix reclinata are used tomake temporary containers. The mid-rib of the leaves of Borassusaethiopum makes good sweeping brooms while the other part of theleaf is used for basket, hats and mats. Rope from the fibres ofSesamum angustifolium is used for stitching reed mats and makingfish nets and animal traps.
2.5 Income generation
All items mentioned in the preceding paragraphs may actuallybe traded for cash to generate income for other uses. People engagein such activities particularly during the slack periods whenagricultural activities are reduced.
During the years in which caterpillars occur, caterpillarcollection becomes a lucrative activity as the larvae are favouritedelicacy of people living on the copperbelt and in Lusaka.
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Although there are restrictions on the harvesting of wild animals, fish is widely available and is a major source of cheap animal protein. Lymnophyton obtusifolium and Nidorella welwitschii are burnt to made cooking soda and salt respectively.
2.2 Traditional Medicines
People living in rural areas and to a large extent those in towns, depend on traditional medicines to maintain their physical or mental health. Some traditional medicines are largely based on NWFP. Although these medicines and charms may not be scientifically proven, people believe in them and in some cases they are the only available medicines.
Leaves. bark, fruits etc are used for medicinal purposes, Parts of some animals are also utilised in the preparation of traditional medicines
2.3 Construction Materials
Traditional dwellings and other structures such as granaries are constructed of locally available materials. The frame of the roof of such structures is made of pieces of bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) or reeds tied together with bark rope and thatched over with grass. Blandering in the walls of pole and dagga huts may be of bamboo tied with bark rope. The best bark rope is obtained from the Brachystegia spp and Julbernadia spp. Triumfetta is also used for tying where trees are not available.
2.4 Manufacture of other items
Baskets and similar items are made from materials derived from forest plants. Bamboo, reeds and papyrus are some of the plants that are used. Bark and leaves of Phoenix reclinata are used to make temporary containers. The mid-rib of the leaves of Borassus aethiopum makes good sweeping brooms while the other part of the leaf is used for basket, hats and mats. Rope from the fibres of Sesamum angustifolium is used for stitching reed mats and making fish nets and animal traps.
2.5 Income generation
All items mentioned in the preceding paragraphs may actually be traded for cash to generate income for other uses. People engage in such activities particularly during the slack periods when agricultural activities are reduced.
During the years in which caterpillars occur, caterpillar collection becomes a lucrative activity as the larvae are favourite delicacy of people living on the copperbelt and in Lusaka.
5
The classification of Zambia NWFP according to whether theyare used for subsistence or trade purposes at local, national orinternational levels as well as the assessment of theirimportance at community, district and national levels is given inAnnex 1. The assessment is based on the observation of use of aparticular product vis a vis its natural availability in the area.For instance if a particular NWFP such as bamboo or mushroom isreadily available in the area, it is expected that the product willbe widely used and residents in that locality will depend on itsuse to some extent. And if almost every household is actuallyutilizing these products in their every day life, then products areclassified as very important at community level. The sameassessment applies at district and national level.
It has been possible to show volumes or values because suchinformation does not exist and the collection of such data isbeyond the scope of this pilot study. The indicator used in theidentification of products is the popularity of usage of aparticular product. In fact it is this aspect that the proposedproject is supposed to tackle. So the products that have been ratedas very important are those whose use in widely spread to such anextent that almost every household uses them.
The classification into traded or mainly subsistence use isbased on whether the product is actually offered for exchange at arelatively reasonable scale.
3.0 IDENTIFICATION
In line with the criteria for the identification andselection of non-wood forest products that play a relevant rolein local communities, the products listed in Annex II have beenidentified. Annex III show the analysis of the opportunities thatexist to further promote and develop NWFP in Zambia. These are theSocio-economic activities that would expand and benefit fromfurther promotion and development of the identified products.
4.0 INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
Whereas there is no particular institution responsible forall non-wood forest products in the country, there are fourgovernment departments that have overall responsibility overnational forests and wildlife. These are
The Forest departmentNatural Resources departmentFisheries departmentDepartment of Wildlife.
These four institutions are responsible for policyformulation, data collection, taxation control of exploitationand resource protection. There is hardly any overlapping or
6
The classification of Zambia NWFP according to whether they are used for subsistence or trade purposes at local, national or international levels as well as the assessment of their importance at community, district and national levels is given in Annex 1. The assessment is based on the observation of use of a particular product vis a vis its natural availability in the area. For instance if a particular NWFP such as bamboo or mushroom is readily available in the area, it is expected that the product will be widely used and residents in that locality will depend on its use to some extent. And if almost every household is actually utilizing these products in their every day life, then products are classified as very important at community level. The same assessment applies at district and national level.
It has been possible to show volumes or values because such information does not exist and the collection of such data is beyond the scope of this pilot study. The indicator used in the identification of products is the popularity of usage of a particular product. In fact it is this aspect that the proposed project is supposed to tackle. So the products that have been rated as very important are those whose use in widely spread to such an extent that almost every household uses them.
The classification into traded or mainly subsistence use is based on whether the product is actually offered for exchange at a relatively reasonable scale.
3.0 IDENTIFICATION
In line with the criteria for the identification and selection of non-wood forest products that play a relevant role in local communities, the products listed in Annex II have been identified. Annex III show the analysis of the opportunities that exist to further promote and develop NWFP in Zambia. These are the Socio-economic activities that would expand and benefit from further promotion and development of the identified products.
4.0 INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
Whereas there is no particular institution responsible for all non-wood forest products in the country, there are four government departments that have overall responsibility over national forests and wildlife. These are :
The Forest department Natural Resources department Fisheries department Department of Wildlife.
These four institutions are responsible for policy formulation, data collection, taxation control of exploitation and resource protection. There is hardly any overlapping or
6
duplication of responsibilities as their different roles arecleared defined. However, close cooperation does exist betweenthe four institutions.
The Forest department has its headquarters in Ndola whilethe other three departments have theirs in Lusaka. All the fourdepartments are represented at Provincial, district and subdistrict levels where they have personnel to man the offices.
Popular participation is assured through traditional rulerand local authorities who represent the people. Before the fourdepartments can issue a licence for exploiting any of theproducts (especially on commercial basis) authority must besought from the traditional ruler and the local authority.
Based on the available knowledge, the government can takemeasures to restrict the production of, processing and trade ofany Non-wood forest products at any time. However, theenterprises can influence government policy and practice bymaking presentations to the minister responsible.
4.1 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Organizations and institutions that are involved in researchand development of some non-wood forest products in Zambia aredescribed below.
4.1.1 Forest Department
The Forest department has three divisions that deal withresearch and utilization of non-wood forest products based inKitwe and these are
Forest Products Research DivisionForest Research (Biological) DivisionBeekeeping Division.
The Forest Products Research division has a section thatconducts research in minor forest products; the aspect ofcollection (extraction), processing and utilization andpreservation are dealt with. The area of emphasis in this sectionhas been on products that are derived from wood (trees)especially extractives. Investigations have been carried out ondyes, essential oils, gums, resins and tanins.
The Forest research (biological) division conducts researchon various biological aspects of forest plants of interest. Theemphasis is on the identification and raising of these plants toimprove production. Investigations are carried out on medicinalplants, fibres, food plants (fungi, fruits etc) and extractives(dyes, tanins and gums).
7
duplication of responsibilities as their different roles are cleared defined. However, close cooperation does exist between the four institutions.
The Forest department has its headquarters in Ndola while the other three departments have theirs in Lusaka. All the four departments are represented at provincial, district and sub district levels where they have personnel to man the offices.
Popular participation is assured through traditional ruler and local authorities who represent the people. Before the four departments can issue a licence for exploiting any of the products (especially on commercial basis) authority must be sought from the traditional ruler and the local authority.
Based on the available knowledge, the government can take measures to restrict the production of, processing and trade of any Non-wood forest products at any time. However, the enterprises can influence government policy and practice by making presentations to the minister responsible.
4.1 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Organizations and institutions that are involved in research and development of some non-wood forest products in Zambia are described below.
4.1.1 Forest Department
The Forest department has three divisions that deal with research and utilization of non-wood forest products based in Kitwe and these are :
Forest Products Research Division Forest Research (Biological) Division Beekeeping Division.
The Forest Products Research division has a section that conducts research in minor forest products; the aspect of collection (extraction), processing and utilization and preservation are dealt with. The area of emphasis in this section has been on products that are derived from wood (trees) especially extractives. Investigations have been carried out on dyes, essential oils, gums, resins and tanins.
The Forest research (biological) division conducts research on various biological aspects of forest plants of interest. The emphasis is on the identification and raising of these plants to improve production. Investigations are carried out on medicinal plants, fibres, food plants (fungi, fruits etc) and extractives (dyes, tanins and gums).
7
The Beekeeping Division conducts research in beekeepingmethods and products, marketing and extension. The main area ofinterest is in forest flowers (Bee forage), fibres for hiveproduction, honey, beeswax and propolis.
All these divisions are manned by university post graduateswith Masters of Science in forestry related fields. They areassisted by Bachelor of Science degree holders , diploma andcertificate technicians. To some extent these institutions arecapable of conducting their business. Where they are not able todo so, there is always a possibility of seeking assistance fromlocal and international institutions.
The major source of funding for the Forest department is thegovernment which provides funds to run these organizations.International agencies (FAO and FINNIDA) have been assisting withthe provision of equipment and manpower training. In addition,local organizations and companies have been helping to fundresearch and development of those non-wood forest products ofparticular interest to them, such as research on latex producingtrees, raising of mushroom in green houses and rattan production.
4.1.2 National Council For Scientific Research
This is an autonomous organization created to, among otherobjectives carry out research on the possibilities of commercialutilization of local raw materials. The council has been involvedin research and development and utilization of non-wood forestproducts. So far research is being conducted in Fibre, Vegetal,Medicinal and Extractive categories.
The human resources at the council is highly qualified someof them being Phd holders in their field of specialization. Thetechnical capability (Laboratories and other facilities) is thereas this council was established specifically for the purpose ofconducting research.
The funding of this organization is in form of grants fromthe Zambian government. Other funds are obtained fromsponsorships by organizations and companies that are interestedin particular non-wood products and sale of formulae or patentsto commercial entities.
4.1.3 The University of Zambia
The university through its many faculties and schools hasbeen involved in various aspects of non-wood forest products. Theinvolvement depends on the interest of the faculty or school inquestion such that the department of chemistry is involved inextractives, agriculture department is responsible for non-woodforest products that are of interest to farmers and so on.
8
The Beekeeping Division conducts research in beekeeping methods and products, marketing and extension. The main area of interest is in forest flowers (Bee forage), fibres for hive production, honey, beeswax and propolis.
All these divisions are manned by university post graduates with Masters of Science in forestry related fields. They are assisted by Bachelor of Science degree holders , diploma and certificate technicians. To some extent these institutions are capable of conducting their business. Where they are not able to do so, there is always a possibility of seeking assistance from local and international institutions.
The major source of funding for the Forest department is the government which provides funds to run these organizations. International agencies (FAO and FINNIDA) have been assisting with the provision of equipment and manpower training. In addition, local organizations and companies have been helping to fund research and development of those non-wood forest products of particular interest to them, such as research on latex producing trees, raising of mushroom in green houses and rattan production.
4.1.2 National Council For Scientific Research
This is an autonomous organization created to, among other objectives carry out research on the possibilities of commercial utilization of local raw materials. The council has been involved in research and development and utilization of non-wood forest products. So far research is being conducted in Fibre, Vegetal, Medicinal and Extractive categories.
The human resources at the council is highly qualified some of them being Phd holders in their field of specialization. The technical capability (Laboratories and other facilities) is there as this council was established specifically for the purpose of conducting research.
The funding of this organization is in form of grants from the Zambian government. Other funds are obtained from sponsorships by organizations and companies that are interested in particular non-wood products and sale of formulae or patents to commercial entities.
4.1.3 The University of Zambia
The university through its many faculties and schools has been involved in various aspects of non-wood forest products. The involvement depends on the interest of the faculty or school in question such that the department of chemistry is involved in extractives, agriculture department is responsible for non-wood forest products that are of interest to farmers and so on.
8
4.1.4 Public and private companies
Various private and public companies do conduct research inthose NWFP of their interest especially where they can detect acommercial possibility.
4.1.5 Associations and interest groups
These organization service various sectors of the communityand represent varying interest groups. Groups such as theTraditional Healers Association and the Zambia Council for theHandicapped conduct research in non-wood forest products fromwhich their members benefit. This is done either by theassociations themselves or through sponsoring relevant researchprogrammes in other institutions.
4.1.6 Other support institutions
Since the harvesting, processing and marketing of non-woodforest products falls in the category small scale (forest)enterprises, these activities are also catered for byinstitutions established to provide small scale industries.
1 - Village Industry Service (VIS) was established in 1978.VIS is a voluntary NGO whose object is to promoteindustries and crafts on the basis of small scalelabour intense unity with the objective of maximizingvillage employment and generating additional villageincome. VIS provides technical and financial support.
2 - Small Scale Industries Organization (SIDO) wasestablished by an act of parliament of 1981 with aprimary objective of promoting small scale industrialenterprise in Zambia.
3 - Small Scale Enterprise Promotion Limited (SEP) was setup as a joint venture of the Development Bank of Zambiaand the Frederick - Ebert Foundation of West Germany.The company provided requisite services such asfinancial and training of small scale entrepreneurs.The company has since been transformed into a financialinstitution exclusively interested in small scaleentrepreneurs.
4.2 LEGISLATION
The Forest Act Chapter 311 of 1973 with subsequentamendments is the main law that govern forestry in Zambia.Relevant sections of the law prohibit entry into the protectedforest areas for any purpose without authorization to do so. Thelaw empowers the minister to set fees and make any regulationsconcerning the harvest, removal and processing of forest products
9
4.1.4 Public and private companies
Various private and public companies do conduct research in those NWFP of their interest especially where they can detect a commercial possibility.
4.1.5 Associations and interest groups
These organization service various sectors of the community and represent varying interest groups. Groups such as the Traditional Healers Association and the Zambia Council for the Handicapped conduct research in non-wood forest products from which their members benefit. This is done either by the associations themselves or through sponsoring relevant research programmes in other institutions.
4.1.6 Other support institutions
Since the harvesting, processing and marketing of non-wood forest products falls in the category small scale (forest) enterprises, these activities are also catered for by institutions established to provide small scale industries.
1 - Village Industry Service (VIS) was established in 1978. VIS is a voluntary NGO whose object is to promote industries and crafts on the basis of small scale labour intense unity with the objective of maximizing village employment and generating additional village income. VIS provides technical and financial support.
2 - Small Scale Industries Organization (SIDO) was established by an act of parliament of 1981 with a primary objective of promoting small scale industrial enterprise in Zambia.
3 - Small Scale Enterprise Promotion Limited (SEP) was set up as a jOint venture of the Development Bank of Zambia and the Frederick - Ebert Foundation of west Germany. The company provided requisite services such as financial and training of small scale entrepreneurs. The company has since been transformed into a financial institution exclusively interested in small scale entrepreneurs.
4.2 LEGISLATION
The Forest Act Chapter 311 of 1973 with subsequent amendments is the main law that govern forestry in Zambia. Relevant sections of the law prohibit entry into the protected forest areas for any purpose without authorization to do so. The law empowers the minister to set fees and make any regulations concerning the harvest, removal and processing of forest products
9
and also empowers the forest officers to collect fees and taxesand to authorize the collection, removal and utilization offorest products. There are no guidelines or standards regardingproduct quality or testing requirements on non-wood forestproducts. However, since most forests or woodland in the countrylies outside the protected areas, the Land Act and it'ssubsidiary legislation is also relevant.
The legislation in itself is adequate and not overlyrestricted although non-wood forest products are not individuallynamed. The deficiency lies in the enforcement of the law.
4.3 POLICY
The policy of the Zambian government as regards non-woodforest products is derived from the main policy and law onnatural resources. The law states that the ownership of all landis vested in the President on behalf of the people of thecountry. The policy is that the government should manage theseresources for sustainability and for the benefit of the Zambians.
4.4 TRAINING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Scientific training at degree level in non-wood forestproducts is conducted outside the country due to lack of adequatetraining facilities locally. Below this level, training can bedone either locally or abroad. Consequently links at variouslevels do exist with other research on educational institutionsin other nations.
Technical support and infrastructure on sub-national basisis on the whole not well distributed for reasons to be discussedlater. The same applies to the dissemination of information onrelevant advances in their fields.
Whereas the number and hierarchy at nation, regional anddistrict levels are defined in the establishment for eachinstitution, together with the quality of staff training inrelation to responsibilities and whereas the government hastrained and facilitated the training of a number of personnel tofill these posts, the staffing is far below required levels. Thisis mainly due to government failure to retain trained staff wholeave after training for better conditions. The incentive forcareer advancement is there but there are no incentives to keeptrained staff from leaving.
10
and also empowers the forest officers to collect fees and taxes and to authorize the collection, removal and utilization of forest products. There are no guidelines or standards regarding product quality or testing requirements on non-wood forest products. However, since most forests or woodland in the country lies outside the protected areas, the Land Act and it's subsidiary legislation is also relevant.
The legislation in itself is adequate and not overly restricted although non-wood forest products are not individually named. The deficiency lies in the enforcement of the law.
4.3 POLICY
The policy of the Zambian government as regards non-wood forest products is derived from the main policy and law on natural resources. The law states that the ownership of all land is vested in the President on behalf of the people of the country. The policy is that the government should manage these resources for sustainability and for the benefit of the Zambians.
4.4 TRAINING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Scientific training at degree level in non-wood forest products is conducted outside the country due to lack of adequate training facilities locally. Below this level, training can be done either locally or abroad. Consequently links at various levels do exist with other research on educational institutions in other nations.
Technical support and infrastructure on sub-national basis is on the whole not well distributed for reasons to be discussed later. The same applies to the dissemination of information on relevant advances in their fields.
Whereas the number and hierarchy at nation, regional and district levels are defined in the establishment for each institution, together with the quality of staff training in relation to responsibilities and whereas the government has trained and facilitated the training of a number of personnel to fill these posts, the staffing is far below required levels. This is mainly due to government failure to retain trained staff who leave after training for better conditions. The incentive for career advancement is there but there are no incentives to keep trained staff from leaving.
10
5.0 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
The importance of non-wood forest products to the localcommunities cannot be over emphasized. Some of the non-woodproducts are not only important to the local communities but alsoto the nation. Exploitation of NWFP helps to create jobopportunities and helps the country earn the much needed foreignexchange. However the promotion and further development of theseproducts is hindered by a number of problems. These constraintsmainly stem from the institutional framework in which the NWFPare managed. The government has overall responsibility for NWFP.This has resulted in the following constraints.
5.1 LACK OF INFORMATION
Information on NWFP in Zambia is not readily available. Evenwhere research has been conducted, the results are rarelypublicised. Most of the research in academic statisticalinformation is lacking mostly because of the unorganized natureof utilizing the NWFP.
5.2 SHORTAGE OF MANPOWER
The difficulty with the arrangement of having the governmentas the sole institution responsible for non-wood forest productsis that the responsibility becomes too much. More attention ispaid to pressing matters as well as activities that appear togenerate more tangible results. This is illustrated in theterminology used to refer to NWFP. In Zambia these are referredto as "Minor Forest Products" even in the legislation.Consequently trained manpower in this field are very few. Sincespecialised training is required for this category of personnel,the government has failed to retain trained personnel due verylow salaries and poor conditions of service.
Human resources are essential to conduct research in NWFP aswell as to disseminate research findings train and educate theproducers and users of these products.
5.3 INADEQUATE FUNDING
Even in instances where human resources are available, ithas not always been possible to carry out their job becausefacilities are lacking. In order to conduct meaningful research,properly equipped laboratories should be in place. Otherfacilities such as transport to visit the areas for either samplecollection or to provide extension services are a prerequisitefor successful promotion and further development of non-woodproducts
11
5.0 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
The importance of non-wood forest products to the local communities cannot be over emphasized. Some of the non-wood products are not only important to the local communities but also to the nation. Exploitation of NWFP helps to create job opportunities and helps the country earn the much needed foreign exchange. However the promotion and further development of these products is hindered by a number of problems. These constraints mainly stem from the institutional framework in which the NWFP are managed. The government has overall responsibility for NWFP. This has resulted in the following constraints.
5.1 LACK OF INFORMATION
Information on NWFP in Zambia is not readily available. Even where research has been conducted, the results are rarely publicised. Most of the research in academic statistical information is lacking mostly because of the unorganized nature of utilizing the NWFP.
5.2 SHORTAGE OF MANPOWER
The difficulty with the arrangement of having the government as the sole institution responsible for non-wood forest products is that the responsibility becomes too much. More attention is paid to pressing matters as well as activities that appear to generate more tangible results. This is illustrated in the terminology used to refer to NWFP. In Zambia these are referred to as "Minor Forest Products" even in the legislation. Consequently trained manpower in this field are very few. Since specialised training is required for this category of personnel, the government has failed to retain trained personnel due very low salaries and poor conditions of service.
Human resources are essential to conduct research in NWFP as well as to disseminate research findings train and educate the producers and users of these products.
5.3 INADEQUATE FUNDING
Even in instances where human r~sources are available, it has not always been possible to carry out their job because facilities are lacking. In order to conduct meaningful research, properly equipped laboratories should be in place. Other facilities such as transport to visit the areas for either sample collection or to provide extension services are a prerequisite for successful promotion and further development of non-wood products
11
5.4 INFRASTRUCTURE
The development of NWFP is also hindered by lack of welldeveloped infrastructure in the country such as a good roadnetwork and staff housing. Forests by their very nature are foundaway from centres of large populations were market for theseproducts exist. If the road system is well developed NWFP thatare either bulky and heavy or highly perishable (e.g honey,bushmeat and mushroom) can easily find access to the market.Additionally if extension expertise is available on site and ableto offer advice when needed, interest in these products would bemaintained. This would in turn encourage more production of theproduct in question.
5.5 POOR ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Due the poor economic environment prevailing in the country,individuals and companies have been reluctant to invest inventures that would result in the promotion and development ofNWFP. Even where the willingness is present, the high interestrates and availability of loans discourages investment in thoseactivities that have narrow profit margins or are unfamiliar tofinanciers.
The same situation exists when it comes to short-term(seasonal) loans to enable individuals to enter into productionand processing of non-wood forest products.
5.6 UNDER DEVELOPED MARKETING STRUCTURE
The availability of a well developed marketing structure isan essential element in the promotion and further development ofany commodity. For any individual or organization to enter theproduction, processing or marketing of non-wood forest products,there must be assurance of the possibility of selling theirproducts locally or internationally.
6.0 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Four activities that involve production and processing ofNWFP are discussed. These activities are widely practiced. They arebeekeeping and basket making which are described in detail and twoways of beverage making which are briefly discussed. There are anumber of other products of local and national importance. Theproblem is that of data availability. Since as mentioned earlier,there is no particular institution that has conducted a detailedresearch in the use of these products it is not possible to showfigures in a study such as this one. In addition, the NWFP is thiscountry are mostly dealt with by the informal sector.
12
5.4 INFRASTRUCTURE
The development of NWFP is also hindered by lack of well developed infrastructure in the country such as a good road network and staff housing. Forests by their very nature are found away from centres of large populations were market for these products exist. If the road system is well developed NWFP that are either bulky and heavy or highly perishable (e.g honey, bushmeat and mushroom) can easily find access to the market. Additionally if extension expertise is available on site and able to offer advice when needed, interest in these products would be maintained. This would in turn encourage more production of the product in question.
5.5 POOR ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Due the poor economic environment prevailing in the country, individuals and companies have been reluctant to invest in ventures that would result in the promotion and development of NWFP. Even where the willingness is present, the high interest rates and availability of loans discourages investment in those activities that have narrow profit margins or are unfamiliar to financiers.
The same situation exists when it comes to short-term (seasonal) loans to enable individuals to enter into production and processing of non-wood forest products.
5.6 UNDER DEVELOPED MARKETING STRUCTURE
The availability of a well developed marketing structure is an essential element in the promotion and further development of any commodity. For any individual or organization to enter the production, processing or marketing of non-wood forest products, there must be assurance of the possibility of selling their products locally or internationally.
6.0 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION
Four activities that involve production and processing of NWFP are discussed. These activities are widely practiced. They are beekeeping and basket making which are described in detail and two ways of beverage making which are briefly discussed. There are a number of other products of local and national importance. The problem is that of data availability. Since as mentioned earlier, there is no particular institution that has conducted a detailed research in the use of these products it is not possible to show figures in a study such as this one. In addition, the NWFP is this country are mostly dealt with by the informal sector.
12
6.1 BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping is well suited to those who live in rural areasas there is plenty of space in which to scatter hives. In Zambiahoney and beeswax production depends on the natural forest.
6.1.1 Production
Zambia has many thousand of hectares of Brachystegiawoodland which provides excellent source of nectar for bees. Theavailability of bee forage varies greatly depending on theproportions of the various tree species in the woodland and onthe rainfall. In general however any wooded area with more than1000mm of rainfall may be considered a possible beekeeping area.
Although efforts have been made to introduce frame hivebeekeeping for more than 30 years, this has not been successfulmainly because of the price of the frame hives which rural peoplecannot afford. Consequently, traditional beekeeping by the ruralpeople is the major source of honey products in the country.Traditionally making of hives, baiting and harvesting (Cropping)are male roles. Women can only participate in transporting andprocessing.
Bark hives are made by stripping bark off a live tree. Thecylindrical lives are about 120 cm long and about 30cm indiameter. The joint along the length of the hive is secured withseasoned hardwood pegs, the ends are then closed either bycircular plaited grass doors made of fine thatching grass, or byanother piece of bark.The hives are then left to dry for twomonths before being hung in trees.
6.1.2 Harvesting
Harvesting is done when the flowering of trees from whichthe nectar is obtained is over. There are two flowering seasons.The main flowering period is September to November usually justbefore the rains. This is when the Brachystegia species flower.In addition over considerable areas Julbernadia paniculata and J.globif lora occur, and these flower from February to May producinga second flow.
It must be stressed that the major source of nectar are theBrachystegia and Julbernadia species. However any species whichflower out of the main season are important because they enablethe bees to keep up their stores of pollen and honey. The mostimportant species in this group are Marquesia macroura, M.acuminata, Syyzygium and Parinari species.
Even in area where Brachystegia woodland does not occur,good yields may be obtained from species such as Acacia and othershrubs.
13
6.1 BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping is well suited to those who live in rural areas as there is plenty of space in which to scatter hives. In Zambia honey and beeswax production depends on the natural forest.
6.1.1 Production
Zambia has many thousand of hectares of Brachystegia woodland which provides excellent source of nectar for bees. The availability of bee forage varies greatly depending on the proportions of the various tree species in the woodland and on the rainfall. In general however any wooded area with more than 1000mm of rainfall may be considered a possible beekeeping area.
Although efforts have been made to introduce frame hive beekeeping for more than 30 years, this has not been successful mainly because of the price of the frame hives which rural people cannot afford. Consequently, traditional beekeeping by the rural people is the major source of honey products in the country. Traditionally making of hives, baiting and harvesting (Cropping) are male roles. Women can only participate in transporting and processing.
Bark hives are made by stripping bark off a live tree. The cylindrical lives are about 120 cm long and about 30cm in diameter. The joint along the length of the hive is secured with seasoned hardwood pegs, the ends are then closed either by circular plaited grass doors made of fine thatching grass, or by another piece of bark.The hives are then left to dry for two months before being hung in trees.
6.1.2 Harvesting
Harvesting is done when the flowering of trees from which the nectar is obtained is over. There are two flowering seasons. The main flowering period is September to November usually just before the rains. This is when the Brachystegia species flower. In addition over considerable areas Julbernadia paniculata and J. globiflora occur, and these flower from February to May producing a second flow.
It must be stressed that the major source of nectar are the Brachystegia and Julbernadia species. However any species which flower out of the main season are important because they enable the bees to keep up their stores of pollen and honey. The most important species in this group are Marquesia macroura, M. acuminata, Syyzygium and Parinari species.
Even in area where Brachystegia woodland does not occur, good yields may be obtained from species such as Acacia and other shrubs.
13
Once the honey is removed from the hives, it is packed inany suitable containers and transported to the villages where thehoney can be used for beer brewing, as a sweetener or preparedfor sale.
6.1.3 Processing
Honey for sale is traded either semi processed orunprocessed. In the country there are both government and privateagencies involved in the honey trade. The would-be buyersdistributes containers to the beekeeper before harvesting. Afterharvesting the unprocessed honey is bought by the many buyers whoprocess it further. The honey that is semi processed is firstprocessed at village level.Some beekeepers have been suppliedwith honey presses which are used to squeeze the honey from thecombs. The liquid honey is sold as semi processed honey. Thecombs from the honey press together with those from honey wherethe bees have absconded are processed into beeswax.
The procedure is that the combs are melted in boiling wateronce everything has boiled the liquid is strained through sackcloth and left to cool. The beeswax will solidify on top of thedirty water. This is then marketed through the normal channels,processed honey and beeswax fetched more income for the villagebeekeeper. Processing is a family activity.
6.1.4 Renewability of the resource base
Beekeeping makes use of the high natural potential of theareas where it has been practiced for generations. Investigationsinto the most appropriate technologies (concerning ecological,economical and social relevance) have been carried out.
According to a recent study done on the impact of beekeepingon the natural resources a negative impact by bark-hivebeekeeping has been identified. Ironically the same tree speciesthat are good bee forage producers also have the best bark forhive making. In recognition of this fact, a number of measureshave been taken to ensure sustainable utilization of the trees.Beekeepers do appreciate the value of forests (trees) and theyare aware that the sustainability of their livelihood depends onthe availability of forests. To this end, beekeepers areencouraged to make three to five hives from a single tree. Othermeasures include the introduction of alternative hive makingmaterial such as grass, calabashes and planks. In fact it is notall trees of a given species are suitable for back hivemanufacture, so there is selection during the process of hivemaking. The procedure is likened to the silvicultural practice ofselective cutting employed by logging companies in the samemiombo forests. But this is at a reduced scale. The damage causedby beekeeping to the environment is therefore not as severe asthat caused by other activities such as logging, shifting
14
Once the honey is removed from the hives, it is packed in any suitable containers and transported to the villages where the honey can be used for beer brewing, as a sweetener or prepared for sale.
6.1.3 Processing
Honey for sale is traded either semi processed or unprocessed. In the country there are both government and private agencies involved in the honey trade. The would-be buyers distributes containers to the beekeeper before harvesting. After harvesting the unprocessed honey is bought by the many buyers who process it further. The honey that is semi processed is first processed at village level.Some beekeepers have been supplied with honey presses which are used to squeeze the honey from the combs. The liquid honey is sold as semi processed honey. The combs from the honey press together with those from honey where the bees have absconded are processed into beeswax.
The procedure is that the combs are melted in boiling water once everything has boiled the liquid is strained through sack cloth and left to cool. The beeswax will solidify on top of the dirty water. This is then marketed through the normal channels, processed honey and beeswax fetched more income for the village beekeeper. Processing is a family activity.
6.1.4 Renewability of the resource base
Beekeeping makes use of the high natural potential of the areas where it has been practiced for generations. Investigations into the most appropriate technologies (concerning ecological, economical and social relevance) have been carried out.
According to a recent study done on the impact of beekeeping on the natural resources a negative impact by bark-hive beekeeping has been identified. Ironically the same tree species that are good bee forage producers also have the best bark for hive making. In recognition of this fact, a number of measures have been taken to ensure sustainable utilization of the trees. Beekeepers do appreciate the value of forests (trees) and they are aware that the sustainability of their livelihood depends on the availability of forests. To this end, beekeepers are encouraged to make three to five hives from a single tree. Other measures include the introduction of alternative hive making material such as grass, calabashes and planks. In fact it is not all trees of a given species are suitable for back hive manufacture, so there is selection during the process of hive making. The procedure is likened to the silvicultural practice of selective cutting employed by logging companies in the same miombo forests. But this is at a reduced scale. The damage caused by beekeeping to the environment is therefore not as severe as that caused by other activities such as logging, shifting
14
cultivation, charcoal burning and clearing for agriculture andsettlements.
Currently research is underway to try and find suitablealternative materials for hive making that would be accepted tothe local beekeepers.
6.2 BASKET MAKING
Another NWFP based activity the is widely practiced inZambia is basket/mat making. Material used for making basketsvary but the most common is bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica). InZambia bamboos are closely related with termite mounds.
The popularity of this activity is proven by the fact thatit is the most important activity in the forest based small scaleindustries sector. Fisseha and Milimo (1986) found that of the80, 000 full time workers in this sector, 94% were inmanufacturing and of these 5%% were basket and/or makers.
Basket making is a very lucrative business entered intospecifically for income generation. The products are sold inurban centres and along major road routes.
6.2.1 Harvesting and processing
Fresh bamboo is used. Good canes with few branches arechosen and cut in lengths of more than 2m each. These are thesplit in the forest into strips before transporting to thevillage or roadside then the strips are smoothed.
Larger strips are used for the skeleton of the basket andhandles. The thin strips (about 5cm in diameter) are used forweaving the basket body. Since basket are bulky, it is usuallythese bamboo strips that are transported from the place ofproduction (mostly Copperbelt) to other marketing areas.
6.2.2 Manufacture and Marketing
Basket manufacture is usually done at or close to theselling point. Various shaped basket are made. The same rawmaterial is also used for baby cribs, wicket chairs, flowerbaskets and similar products. The activity is done by individualswith family members or one or two friends. Selling is done at themarket , at road sides and by vending.
6.2.3 Renewability of the resources base
Bamboos grow from rhizomes, harvesting does not kill theclamp unless it is dug up. So bamboo bushes keep sprouting untilthey flower at which time the whole clamp dies. this phenomenonis however very rare. The growth rate of bamboos is high such
15
cultivation, charcoal burning and clearing for agriculture and settlements.
Currently research is underway to try and find suitable alternative materials for hive making that would be accepted to the local beekeepers.
6.2 BASKET MAKING
Another NWFP based activity the is widely practiced in Zambia is basket/mat making. Material used for making baskets vary but the most common is bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica). In Zambia bamboos are closely related with termite mounds.
The popularity of this activity is proven by the fact that it is the most important activity in the forest based small scale industries sector. Fisseha and Milimo (1986) found that of the 80, 000 full time workers in this sector, 94% were in manufacturing and of these 5%% were basket and/or makers.
Basket making is a very lucrative business entered into specifically for income generation. The products are sold in urban centres and along major road routes.
6.2.1 Harvesting and processing
Fresh bamboo is used. Good canes with few branches are chosen and cut in lengths of more than 2m each. These are the split in the forest into strips before transporting to the village or roadside then the strips are smoothed.
Larger strips are used for the skeleton of the basket and handles. The thin strips (about 5cm in diameter) are used for weaving the basket body. Since basket are bulky, it is usually these bamboo strips that are transported from the place of production (mostly Copperbelt) to other marketing areas.
6.2.2 Manufacture and Marketing
Basket manufacture is usually done at or close to the selling point. Various shaped basket are made. The same raw material is also used for baby cribs, wicket chairs, flower baskets and similar products. The activity is done by individuals with family members or one or two friends. Selling is done at the market, at road sides and by vending.
6.2.3 Renewability of the resources base
Bamboos grow from rhizomes, harvesting does not kill the clamp unless it is dug up. So bamboo bushes keep sprouting until they flower at which time the whole clamp dies. this phenomenon is however very rare. The growth rate of bamboos is high such
15
that there is replacement on an annual basis. No efforts are madeto replant or regenerate bamboos in Zambia.
6.3 MUNKOYO (SWEET BEER)
Great potential for developing non-wood forest products existin Zambia.The roots of a sub shrub Rhynchosia insignis are used inthe brewing of a sweet beer locally known as Munkoyo.
6.3.1 Production and processing
Rhynchosia insignis is a sub shrub found as an under storeyplant in the Miombo Woodland. Its roots are tuber-like and fibrous.Collectors dig the roots up and either offer them for sale directlyor are beaten up into fibrous strands that are dried and then sold.
The process of brewing Munkoyo involves the preparation ofmaize meal porridge which is then left to cool. Once the porridgehas cooled, beaten roots of Rhynchosia are added to it and stirreduntil the colour changes to yellow. The liquid is then strained andleft overnight.
6.3.2 Marketing
The Munkoyo is the marketed by women to workers in industryand offices and is very popular especially as cheap lunch. It isalso taken as a beverage at home and where ever there is agathering of people such as at weddings, funerals or meetings.
6.4 MASUKU
The fruits of Uapaca kirkiana are very popular with Zambians.They ripen between September and November when they are offered forsale at markets and along roads.
The National Scientific Council has come up with formula formaking Masuku wine which a local company is using. The fruits arecollected during the period when they are in abundance andprocessed into a sweet wine.
Apart from wine, the fruits can also be used in making jam.
16
that there is replacement on an annual basis. No efforts are made to replant or regenerate bamboos in Zambia.
6.3 MUNKOYO (SWEET BEER)
Great potential for developing non-wood forest products exist in Zambia.The roots of a sub shrub Rhynchosia insignis are used in the brewing of a sweet beer locally known as Munkoyo.
6.3.1 Production and processing
Rhynchosia ins ignis is a sub shrub found as an under storey plant in the Miombo Woodland. Its roots are tuber-like and fibrous. Collectors dig the roots up and either offer them for sale directly or are beaten up into fibrous strands that are dried and then sold.
The process of brewing Munkoyo involves the preparation of maize meal porridge which is then left to cool. Once the porridge has cooled, beaten roots of Rhynchosia are added to it and stirred until the colour changes to yellow. The liquid is then strained and left overnight.
6.3.2 Marketing
The Munkoyo is the marketed by women to workers in industry and offices and is very popular especially as cheap lunch. It is also taken as a beverage at home and where ever there is a gathering of people such as at weddings, funerals or meetings.
6.4 MASUKU
The fruits of Uapaca kirkiana are very popular with Zambians. They ripen between September and November when they are offered for sale at markets and along roads.
The National Scientific Council has come up with formula for making Masuku wine which a local company is using. The fruits are collected during the period when they are in abundance and processed into a sweet wine.
Apart from wine, the fruits can also be used in making jam.
16
7.0. STATISTI CAL DATA
Statistical data on non-wood forest products is not easy tocome by. These products are collected and utilised by localcommunities, The only figures that are available are for thoseitem that are licenced by the government department. Even then, theaccuracy of such figures is questionable since the governmentdoes not have adequate facilities to monitor the licenses.Furthermore, people are reluctant to give accurate productionfigures of whatever activity that they are involved in for variousreasons. The figures given in the table below relate to the part ofproduction that goes through the government established channels oftrade such as cooperatives. It has been estimated that the bulk ofthe production is handled by the informal sector.
17
7.0. STATISTICAL DATA
Statistical data on non-wood forest products is not easy to come by. These products are collected and utilised by local communities, The only figures that are available are for those item that are licenced by the government department. Even then, the accuracy of such figures is questionable since the government does not have adequate facilities to monitor the licenses. Furthermore, people are reluctant to give accurate production figures of whatever activity that they are involved in for various reasons. The figures given in the table below relate to the part of production that goes through the government established channels of trade such as cooperatives. It has been estimated that the bulk of the production is handled by the informal sector.
17
Note: Information obtained from official figures. It has beenestimated that 50% of total production of honey is recordedand only 25% of the beeswax.
8.0. RECOMMENDATION
18
Table II Statistical Data Sheet
Year Product Scope Quantity Unit Value US$
1988 Honey M 180780 Kg 180780
1989 M 95000 Kg 95000
1990 M 205300 lit. 203300
1991 m 10014 E4 10014
1991 E 18000 Kg 18000
1992 Al ''-)QMO 4.71850 Et 171850
1988 Beeswax M 14765 Et 38390
1989 M 19895 Et 51730
1990 M 56395 E4 146630
1991 M 24635 E4 64050
1992 Al 28515 Et 74140
Table II Statistical Data Sheet
Year Product Scope Quantity Unit Value US$
1988 Honey M 180780 Kg 180780
1989 M 95000 Kg 95000
1990 M 205300 Kg 203300
1991 M 10014 Kg 10014
1991 E 18000 Kg 18000
1992 M "'J 0'001) _H~18~51)~J Kg 171850 (
1988 Beeswax M 14765 Kg 38390
1989 M 19895 Kg 51730
1990 M 56395 Kg 146630
1991 M 24635 Kg 64050
1992 M 28515 Kg 74140
--------------------------------------------
Note: Information obtained from official figures. It has been estimated that 50% of total production of honey is recorded and only 25% of the beeswax.
8.0. RECOMMENDATION
18
The further promotion and development of non-wood forestproducts requires a deliberate government policy directedspecifically at this sector. Zambia's economic performance hasbeen on the decline since the mid 1970s. The high rate ofpopulation growth and the lack of new investments has resulted infalling standards of living and reduced employment opportunities.Non-wood forest products have high potential in terms ofemployment creation and improvement of the standard of living ofthe people involved in such activities. Many people rely on saleof honey, beeswax bamboo furniture and baskets, medicine,wild fruits and mushrooms to supplement their income. Othersengage in hunting and gathering for sale seasonally either toexploit raw materials or markets available only at particularperiods or the labour available at certain times whenagricultural activities slack. NWFP are heavily depended upon inemergencies as was evident in some remote parts of the countryduring the recent drought.
As the new government which came into power in 1991 tries toput the economy of the country back on track, attention should bepaid to what should be done to the forest sector (especiallyNWFP) in order to bring the optional utilization and to derivemaximum benefits for the local communities and the nation as awhole.
According to the governments economic recovery programme,the primary goal is "to reduce unemployment, expand resources toimprove health, education and other basic social services andmeet the income and other needs of the most vulnerable members ofsociety". The government policy focus on "promoting small holderproduction by redirecting and augmenting research and extensionservices and improving rural infrastructures especially roads,storage and processing facilities".
Efforts along this line are already in progress. At presentthe government is seriously looking into the question ofretaining the already trained manpower by improving theconditions of service. But the progress is slow due to limitedfinancial resources as other sectors of the economy such asimprovement of infrastructure also urgently require attention.The following are general recommendations.
8.1 INFRASTRUCTURE
The improvement of infrastructure such as roads wouldfacilitate easy movement of the forest products especially fromthe remote rural areas. This will automatically result in moreproduct utilization and thus development.
8.2 MANPOWER
19
The further promotion and development of non-wood forest products requires a deliberate government policy directed specifically at this sector. Zambia's economic performance has been on the decline since the mid 1970s. The high rate of population growth and the lack of new investments has resulted in falling standards of living and reduced employment opportunities. Non-wood forest products have high potential in terms of employment creation and improvement of the standard of living of the people involved in such activities. Many people rely on sale of honey, beeswax bamboo furniture and baskets, mediCine, wild fruits and mushrooms to supplement their income. Others engage in hunting and gathering for sale seasonally either to exploit raw materials or markets available only at particular periods or the labour available at certain times when agricultural activities slack. NWFP are heavily depended upon in emergencies as was evident in some remote parts of the country during the recent drought.
As the new government which came into power in 1991 tries to put the economy of the country back on track, attention should be paid to what should be done to the forest sector (especially NWFP) in order to bring the optional utilization and to derive maximum benefits for the local communities and the nation as a whole.
According to the governments economic recovery programme, the primary goal is "to reduce unemployment, expand resources to improve health, education and other basic social services and meet the income and other needs of the most vulnerable members of society". The government policy focus on "promoting small holder production by redirecting and augmenting research and extension services and improving rural infrastructures especially roads, storage and proceSSing facilities".
Efforts along this line are already in progress. At present the government is seriously looking into the question of retaining the already trained manpower by improving the conditions of service. But the progress is slow due to limited financial resources as other sectors of the economy such as improvement of infrastructure also urgently require attention. The following are general recommendations.
8.1 INFRASTRUCTURE
The improvement of infrastructure such as roads would facilitate easy movement of the forest products especially from the remote rural areas. This will automatically result in more product utilization and thus development.
8.2 MANPOWER
19
Although the government with the help of various donorcountries has trained a lot of people, adequate manning levelsare far from being achieved because those with relevant expertiseleave the government and/or the country. Thus efforts andresources are wasted. Measures should be taken to improveconditions of service in the country and also provide facilitiesto promote efficient performance. Skilled workers are required toconduct research and extension.
8.3 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE
The harvesting of NWFP in Zambia starts with the localpopulations. In some instances, it is not easy for these ruralpeople to do so in an efficient way due to lack of facilities.Rural populations have no access to loans from ordinary financialinstitution because they lack security and collateral. Financialassistance in form of small seasonal loans can go a long way inassisting the rural people to develop NWFP. These loans can beused to acquire transport (bicycles), storage facilities, simpleprocessing equipment and other materials that may be necessary.These loans can be repaid after the loanee has marketed hisproduce.
8.4 INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The first step in this direction is to reorganise theexisting institutions so as to establish a system wherebyresearch findings can easily be made available to interestedparties so that those who wish to venture into developing NWFPcan have the information that they need.
9.0 CONCLUSION
The paper has highlighted some of the aspects of NWFP inZambia. Like in most countries little attention is paid to NWFPexcept for those that produce high returns. This is evident fromthe fact that there is no specific institution responsible forthese products. However, a number of organizations haveresponsibility over some NWFP this responsibility come as a by-product of the institution's main activity.
The value of NWFP to the people who live in and around theforests is quite immense and is often underestimated.Availability of information and data on consumption and trade isseriously lacking due to the fact that most of the trade is notrecorded except in cases where large organizations are involved.It is hoped that this problem will be addressed by the surveythat has been proposed within this paper.
10.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
20
Although the government with the help of various donor countries has trained a lot of people, adequate manning levels are far from being achieved because those with relevant expertise leave the government and/or the country. Thus efforts and resources are wasted. Measures should be taken to improve conditions of service in the country and also provide facilities to promote efficient performance. Skilled workers are required to conduct research and extension.
8.3 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE
The harvesting of NWFP in Zambia starts with the local populations. In some instances, it is not easy for these rural people to do so in an efficient way due to lack of facilities. Rural populations have no access to loans from ordinary financial institution because they lack security and collateral. Financial assistance in form of small seasonal loans can go a long way in assisting the rural people to develop NWFP. These loans can be used to acquire transport (bicycles), storage facilities, simple processing equipment and other materials that may be necessary. These loans can be repaid after the loanee has marketed his produce.
8.4 INFORMATION DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The first step in this direction is to reorganise the existing institutions so as to establish a system whereby research findings can easily be made available to interested parties so that those who wish to venture into developing NWFP can have the information that they need.
9.0 CONCLUSION
The paper has highlighted some of the aspects of NWFP in Zambia. Like in most countries little attention is paid to NWFP except for those that produce high returns. This is evident from the fact that there is no specific institution responsible for these products. However, a number of organizations have responsibility over some NWFP this responsibility come as a byproduct of the institution's main activity.
The value of NWFP to the people who live in and around the forests is quite immense and is often underestimated. Availability of information and data on consumption and trade is seriously lacking due to the fact that most of the trade is not recorded except in cases where large organizations are involved. It is hoped that this problem will be addressed by the survey that has been proposed within this paper.
10.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
20
Anon, ( An Introduction to Framehive Beekeeping inZambia. Forest Department. Ndola, Zambia.
Arnold, M (1992): Assessing the Multiple Values ofForests. ODI Rural Development ForestryNetwork. Network Paper 13e. pp 13 - 18.London.
Clauss, B (1992): Bees and Beekeeping in the North -westernprovince of Zambia. Beekeeping SurveyReport. Ndola, Zambia.
FAO (1985) Wood Consumption and Resource Survey ofZambia. Technical Note No.2. ForestDepartment, Ndola, Zambia.
Fisseha, Y. and Milimo J. T. (1986): Rural Small-ScaleForest Based Processing Enterprises inZambia. Report of a 1985 pilot survey.FAO. Rome. Italy.
GRZ (1992) New Economic Recovery Programme: Economicand Financial Policy Framework. 1992 - 94Lusaka, Zambia
Rudra A.B (1990): TFAP Preparatory Mission Draft IssuesPaper. Zambia.
Sida (1989) : A Regional plant Genetic Resource CentreSADCC. Plan of operation 1989-1992, SIDA.stockholm Sweden.
Annex I: Main use and importance
21
Anon, ) An Introduction to Framehive Beekeeping in Zambia. Forest Department. Ndola, Zambia.
Arnold, M (1992): Assessing the Multiple Values of Forests. ODI Rural Development Forestry Network. Network Paper 13e. pp 13 - 18. London.
Clauss, B (1992): Bees and Beekeeping in the North -western province of Zambia. Beekeeping Survey Report. Ndola, Zambia.
FAO (1985) Wood Consumption and Resource Survey of Zambia. Technical Note No.2. Forest Department, Ndola, Zambia.
Fisseha, Y. and Milimo J. T. (1986): Rural Small-Scale Forest Based Processing Enterprises in Zambia. Report of a 1985 pilot survey. FAO. Rome. Italy.
GRZ (1992) New Economic Recovery Programme: Economic and Financial Policy Framework. 1992 - 94 Lusaka, Zambia
Rudra A.B (1990): TFAP Preparatory Mission Draft Issues Paper. Zambia.
Sida (1989) A Regional plant Genetic Resource Centre SADCC. Plan of operation 1989-1992, SIDA. stockholm Sweden.
Annex I: Main use and importance
21
22
Product Subsistence Tradeda a
FibreBamboo 1 1 - 2 2 3
Bark 1 1 - 3 3
Grass 1 1 - 1 2
Leaves 3 - - - -Rattan 3 - - - 3 3
Stem 3
Vines 3
VegetalFlowers 3 3
Fruit 1 1 2 1
Fungi 1 1 2 1 3
Leaves 3 3
Nuts 2 3
Roots 2 2 2
Seed 3 3
Stem 3 3
Tuber 2 3
Faunal (Food)Bush meat 1 1 2 2
Eggs 3 3
Fish 1 1 1 1
invertebrates 1 1 2 1
Faunal (Non food)Hides 3 3
Horns 3 3
Skins 3 3 3 2 3
Tusks 3 3 3
Cosmetic & MedicinalBark 2 2 2 3
Fruit 2 3 3
Fungi 3 3
Leaves 2 3
Roots 2 3 3
Nuts 3 3
Stem 3 3
Hides & Skins 3 3
Horns 3 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------Product Subsistence Traded
a b c a b c -------------------------------------------------------------------Fibre
Bamboo 1 1 2 2 3 Bark 1 1 3 3 Grass 1 1 1 2 Leaves 3 Rattan 3 3 3 Stem 3 Vines 3
Vegetal Flowers 3 3 Fruit 1 1 2 1 Fungi 1 1 2 1 3 Leaves 3 3 Nuts 2 3 Roots 2 2 2 Seed 3 3 Stem 3 3 Tuber 2 3
Faunal (Food) Bush meat 1 1 2 2 Eggs 3 3 Fish 1 1 1 1 invertebrates 1 1 2 1
Faunal (Non food) Hides 3 3 Horns 3 3 Skins 3 3 3 2 3 Tusks 3 3 3
Cosmetic & Medicinal Bark 2 2 2 3 Fruit 2 3 3 Fungi 3 3 Leaves 2 3 Roots 2 3 3 Nuts 3 3 Stem 3 3 Hides & Skins 3 3 Horns 3 3
22
Product Subsistence Tradeda b c a
ExtractivesDyes 3 - - 3
Tanins 3 3
MiscellanousHoney 1 1 1 2
Beeswax 1 3 2 3
Propolis 3 3
Legend a: Communityb: NationalC: International
Very importantModerately importantLess important
ANNEX II IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT ROLES
23
Product Subsistence abc
Traded a b c
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Extractives Dyes 3 3 Tanins 3 3
Miscellanous Honey 1 1 1 2 Beeswax 1 3 2 3 Propolis 3 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Legend a: b: c: 1: 2 : 3 :
Community National International Very important Moderately important Less important
ANNEX II IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT ROLES
23
Category Product ImportanceFood securityand Nutrition
VegetalCondiments 3
Fruits 1
Fungi 1
Leaves 3
Nuts 1
Roots 2
Seed 1
Tubers 2
Faunal (Food)Bush meat 1
Bird 2
Eggs 3
Fish 1
Honey 1
Invertebrates 2
Health/Cosmetic & Medicinal
Bark 1
Fruits 3
Fungi 3
Leaves 1
Roots 1
Stems 3
Hides & Skins 3
Horns 3
MiscellaneousPropolis 3
Job opportunities/Fibre
Faunal (Non-food)
Extractive
Miscellaneous
Bamboo 1
Leaves 3
Rattan 3
Stem
Hides 3
Horns 3
Sericulture 3
Skins 3
Tusks 3
Dyes 3
Essential oils 3
Gums 3
Resins 3
Tanins 2
Beeswax 1
24
Category Food security and Nutrition
Faunal (Food)
Health/ Cosmetic & Medicinal
Miscellaneous
Job opportunities/Fibre
Faunal (Non-food)
Extractive
Miscellaneous
Product
Vegetal Condiments Fruits Fungi Leaves Nuts Roots Seed Tubers
Bush meat Bird Eggs Fish Honey Invertebrates
Bark Fruits Fungi Leaves Roots Stems Hides & Skins Horns
Propolis
Bamboo Leaves Rattan Stem
Hides Horns Sericulture Skins Tusks
Dyes Essential oils Gums Resins Tanins
Beeswax
24
Importance
3 1 1 3 1 2 1 2
1 2 3 1 1 2
1 3 3 1 1 3 3 3
3
1 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 2
1
Income generation/Fibre
Legend:Very importantModerately importantLess important
Annex III PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPORTANTPRODUCTS
25
Bamboo 1
Bark 3
Grass 1
Stem 3
VegetalFlowers 3
Fruits 1
Fungi 1
Leaves 3
Nuts 3
Faunal (food)Bush meat 1
Fish 1
Honey 1
Invertebrates 2
Faunal (Non-food)Hides 2
Sericulture 3
Skins 2
Tusks 3
ExtractivesDyes 3
Resins 3
MiscellaneousBeeswax 1
Cultural aspects/Faunal (non-food)Hides 2
Horns 2
Feathers 2
Furs 3
Skins 1
Tusks 2
MiscellaneousPropolis 3
Religious ceremonies/FibreLeaves 2
MiscellaneousBeeswax 2
Income generation/Fibre
Vegetal
Bamboo Bark Grass stem
Flowers Fruits Fungi Leaves Nuts
Faunal (food) Bush meat Fish Honey Invertebrates
Faunal (Non-food) Hides Sericulture Skins Tusks
Extractives Dyes Resins
Miscellaneous Beeswax
cultural aspects/Faunal (non-food) Hides Horns Feathers Furs Skins Tusks
Miscellaneous Propolis
Religious ceremonies/Fibre
Legend: 1: 2: 3 :
Leaves Miscellaneous
Beeswax
Very important Moderately important Less important
1 3 1 3
3 1 1 3 3
1 1 1 2
2 3 2 3
3 3
1
2 2 2 3 1 2
3
2
2
Annex III PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPORTANT PRODUCTS
25
1.0 Food Security and Nutrition
1.1 Fruits - good opportunities especially if preservation andprocessing can be improved
1.2 Fungi - good opportunities especially if well preserved.
1.3 Bush meat - good opportunities especially if harvesting canbe controlled to ensure sustainability
1.4 Fish - immense opportunities
1.5 Honey - immense opportunities particularly if a less wastefulmethod of beekeeping is successfully introduced to increaseproductivity.
1.6 Nuts and seed - As for fruits
1.7 Tubers - good opportunities
2.0 Health
2.1 Bark - relatively good opportunities especially if the claimsand beliefs can be scientifically proved.
2.2 Leaves - good opportunities as for bark
2.3 Roots - good opportunity as for bark.
3.0 Employment creation - Most products have a potential for jobcreation provided that the source is tamed or cultivated.
3.1 Bamboo - excellent opportunities especially at internationallevel there is no need of cultivation.
3.2 Beeswax - good opportunities if a better way of keeping beesare introduced.
4.0 Income generation - the possibility of income generation doesexist for all traded NWFP but for some of the products, theopportunities are exceptional.
4.1 Bamboo - excellent opportunities
4.2 Grass - good opportunities especially in areas that are closeto fast growing urban centres.
4.3 Fruits - good opportunities although fruit occurrence isseasonal.
4.4 Fungi - good opportunities as for fruits.
26
1.0 Food Security and Nutrition
1.1 Fruits - good opportunities especially if preservation and processing can be improved
1.2 Fungi - good opportunities especially if well preserved.
1.3 Bush meat - good opportunities especially if harvesting can be controlled to ensure sustainability
1.4 Fish - immense opportunities
1.5 Honey - immense opportunities particularly if a less wasteful method of beekeeping is successfully introduced to increase productivity.
1.6 Nuts and seed - As for fruits
1.7 Tubers - good opportunities
2.0 Health
2.1 Bark - relatively good opportunities especially if the claims and beliefs can be scientifically proved.
2.2 Leaves - good opportunities as for bark
2.3 Roots - good opportunity as for bark.
3.0 Employment creation - Most products have a potential for job creation provided that the source is tamed or cultivated.
3.1 Bamboo - excellent opportunities especially at international level there is no need of cUltivation.
3.2 Beeswax - good opportunities if a better way of keeping bees are introduced.
4.0 Income generation - the possibility of income generation does exist for all traded NWFP but for some of the products, the opportunities are exceptional.
4.1 Bamboo - excellent opportunities
4.2 Grass - good opportunities especially in areas that are close to fast growing urban centres.
4.3 Fruits - good opportunities although fruit occurrence is seasonal.
4.4 Fungi - good opportunities as for fruits.
26
4.5 Bush meat - good opportunities provided that the killing iscontrolled
4.6 Fish - immense opportunities
4.7 Honey - great opportunities provided a more sustainable way ofkeeping bees is successfully introduced.
4.8 Beeswax - as for honey.
5.0 Export - These are the products that have a potential asexport products or as raw materials in exported products.
5.1 Fungi - good if storage and transport is improved.
5.2 Honey - great opportunities
5.3 Fish - good if preservation is improved.
5.4 Bamboo - good opportunities as semi processed raw material orfinished products
5.5 Beeswax - excellent opportunities
5.6 Faunal (non food) - excellent opportunities if the ban ontrade of such products was lifted.
6.0 Import substitution - All NWFP can be used for importsubstitution to same extent. Only a few are given below
6.1 Fibre - all products under this heading have good potential ofsubstituting imported materials.
6.2 Cosmetic and medicinal - Products in this group have potentialwhich can be greatly improved it the claims were to be provedscientifically.
6.3 Dyes and Tanins - good opportunities if the sources can becultivated in order to produce sufficient quantities.
6.4 Beeswax - great potential.
Annex IV
27
4.5 Bush meat - good opportunities provided that the killing is controlled
4.6 Fish - immense opportunities
4.7 Honey - great opportunities provided a more sustainable way of keeping bees is successfully introduced.
4.8 Beeswax - as for honey.
5.0 Export - These are the products that have a potential as export products or as raw materials in exported products.
5.1 Fungi - good if storage and transport is improved.
5.2 Honey - great opportunities
5.3 Fish - good if preservation is improved.
5.4 Bamboo - good opportunities as semi processed raw material or finished products
5.5 Beeswax - excellent opportunities
5.6 Faunal (non food) - excellent opportunities if the ban on trade of such products was lifted.
6.0 Import substitution - All NWFP can be used for import substitution to same extent. Only a few are given below
6.1 Fibre - all products under this heading have good potential of substituting imported materials.
6.2 Cosmetic and medicinal - Products in this group have potential which can be greatly improved it the claims were to be proved scientifically.
6.3 Dyes and Tanins - good opportunities if the sources can be cultivated in order to produce sufficient quantities.
6.4 Beeswax - great potential.
Annex IV
27
1.0 PROPOSED FIELD PROJECT
The following field project is being proposed to facilitatethe acquisition of more detailed information on NWFP.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The tackling of the issues raised in this paper wouldrequire wide and far reaching measures to be undertaken bygovernment. It is not within the power of the author to committhe government to undertake policy measures but recommendationshave been made. Further it is not possible to come up with aproject that would address all the issues that have been coveredin this paper, for this reason only one aspect will be covered inthe project.
Recognising the need for more comprehensive information inthe field on NWFP, a field project is being proposed to look intoways and means to promote and further develop these products inZambia.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the project will be to conduct a detailedsurvey into the extent of usage of NWFP in the country. Thesurvey will also look at research activities and findings in thisfield and assess the usefulness of the results of research.
1.3 SCOPE
This national wide survey should concentrate on the northernpart of the country where wide distribution and diversity of theforests is found. In addition, this is where more activities arefound. The survey is expected to come up with information on thetype of product, method of harvesting or processing, presentmarketing possibilities, the importance of these products at thecommunity and national level and the constraints that hinderpromotion and further development. The contribution of NWFP todomestic and national income and generation of employmentopportunities will also be assessed.
It is also hoped that the survey will throw some light onthe effects of extracting NWFP on the forests and also considerways of ensuring sustainable utilization.
1.4 DURATION
The NWFP survey is expected to take 24 months. The firstthree to four months will be used to organize the project inorder to put everything in place.
1.5 PROJECT REQUIREMENT
28
1.0 PROPOSED FIELD PROJECT
The following field project is being proposed to facilitate the acquisition of more detailed information on NWFP.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The tackling of the issues raised in this paper would require wide and far reaching measures to be undertaken by government. It is not within the power of the author to commit the government to undertake policy measures but recommendations have been made. Further it is not possible to come up with a project that would address all the issues that have been covered in this paper, for this reason only one aspect will be covered in the project.
Recognising the need for more comprehensive information in the field on NWFP, a field project is being proposed to look into ways and means to promote and further develop these products in Zambia.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the project will be to conduct a detailed survey into the extent of usage of NWFP in the country. The survey will also look at research activities and findings in this field and assess the usefulness of the results of research.
1.3 SCOPE
This national wide survey should concentrate on the northern part of the country where wide distribution and diversity of the forests is found. In addition, this is where more activities are found. The survey is expected to come up with information on the type of product, method of harvesting or processing, present marketing possibilities, the importance of these products at the community and national level and the constraints that hinder promotion and further development. The contribution of NWFP to domestic and national income and generation of employment opportunities will also be assessed.
It is also hoped that the survey will throw some light on the effects of extracting NWFP on the forests and also consider ways of ensuring sustainable utilization.
1.4 DURATION
The NWFP survey is expected to take 24 months. The first three to four months will be used to organize the project in order to put everything in place.
1.5 PROJECT REQUIREMENT
28
In order to successfully conduct such a survey, a number ofinputs are needed. Similar surveys have not be conducted in thepast due to shortage of resources.
The NWFP survey project can easily be accommodated by theForest Department of the Zambian government. However, there isneed to provide resources such as financial, equipment andpersonnel.
1.5.1. Equipment
The following equipment will be required
- 1x4 wheel drive twin- cab vanette- 2 office tables
4 office chairs- 1 filling cabinet- 1 book shelf
1 computer (PC with 40 - 60 megabytes with WP-5.0 andspread software preferably window excel)
- stationerycamping equipment
1.5.2. Financial
Funding will be required to pay the drivers and staffsalaries and subsistence allowances in addition to meetingvehicle maintenance and running costs.
1.5.3. Personnel
The following personnel will be required as part time andfull time for the project duration. The project manager and thetwo assistants will be seconded from the Forest Department whilethe driver and secretary will be employed by the project.
- 1 Project Manager - Msc degree holder (Part time)- 2 Assistants - diploma holders (full time)
1 Driver1 Secretary
1.6. PROJECT BUDGET
29
In order to successfully conduct such a survey, a number of inputs are needed. Similar surveys have not be conducted in the past due to shortage of resources.
The NWFP survey project can easily be accommodated by the Forest Department of the Zambian government. However, there is need to provide resources such as financial, equipment and personnel.
1.5.1. Equipment
The following equipment will be required
- 1x4 wheel drive twin- cab vanette - 2 office tables - 4 office chairs - 1 filling cabinet - 1 book shelf - 1 computer (PC with 40 - 60 megabytes with WP-S.O and
spread software preferably window excel) - stationery - camping equipment
1.5.2. Financial
Funding will be required to pay the drivers and staff salaries and subsistence allowances in addition to meeting vehicle maintenance and running costs.
1.5.3. Personnel
The following personnel will be required as part time and full time for the project duration. The project manager and the two assistants will be seconded from the Forest Department while the driver and secretary will be employed by the project.
1 Project Manager - Msc degree holder (Part time) 2 Assistants - diploma holders (full time) 1 Driver 1 Secretary
1.6. PROJECT BUDGET
29
1.7 RELEVANCY OF PROJECT
This project will supplement other surveys that have beenconducted in connection with the utilization of the local forestresources. These are The Wood Resources and Consumption Surveywhich was sponsored by FAO and conducted from 1984 - 86, theBeekeeping survey on North-western province conducted by BernhardClauss between 1987 -91 with sponsorship from GTZ and the RuralSmall-scale Forest Based processing enterprises in Zambiaconducted by Dr. Y. Fisseha and Dr. J.T. Millimo in 1985.
This survey is within the scope of the Tropical ForestryAction Plan. TFAP is a global framework for action to promotesustainable use and conservation of tropical forests throughproper management of forested areas. The Zambia Forestry ActionPlan (ZFAP) which is in the process of being formulated sets outthe programme of sustainable use and conservation of forest
30
The total project budget for the 24 months willbroken down as shown in table 3 below:
ITEM COST US$1. Equipment
be $55, 660
1x4 wheel drive vanette 15,0001 Computer with software and printer 4,0002 Office tables 6004 Office chairs 6001 Filling cabinet 5001 Book shelf 300Stationery 1,000
22,0002. Camping Equipment 1,000 1,000
3. Salaries and Allowances
Project Manager (100x24 man months) 2,4002 assistants (2x80x24 man months) 3,800
1 driver (50x24 man months) 1,2001 secretary (50x24 man months) 1,200Allowances (4x15x150 man days) 9,000
17,6004. Operating expenses 10,000 10,000
5. Contingencies (10%) 5,060 5,060
TOTAL 55,660 55.660
The total project budget for the 24 months will be $55, 660 broken down as shown in table 3 below:
ITEM COST US$ 1. Equipment
lx4 wheel drive vanette 1 Computer with software and printer 2 Office tables 4 Office chairs 1 Filling cabinet 1 Book shelf
stationery
2. Camping Equipment
3. Salaries and Allowances
Project Manager (100x24 man months) 2 assistants (2x80x24 man months)
1 driver (50x24 man months) 1 secretary (50x24 man months) Allowances (4x15x150 man days)
4. Operating expenses
5. Contingencies (10%)
TOTAL
1.7 RELEVANCY OF PROJECT
15,000 4,000
600 600 500 300
1,000
1,000
2,400 3,800
1,200 1,200 9,000
10,000
5,060
55,660
22,000 1,000
17,600 10,000
5,060
55.660
This project will supplement other surveys that have been conducted in connection with the utilization of the local forest resources. These are The Wood Resources and Consumption Survey which was sponsored by FAO and conducted from 1984 - 86, the Beekeeping survey on North-western province conducted by Bernhard Clauss between 1987 -91 with sponsorship from GTZ and the Rural Small-scale Forest Based processing enterprises in Zambia conducted by Dr. Y. Fisseha and Dr. J.T. Millimo in 1985.
This survey is within the scope of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan. TFAP is a global framework for action to promote sustainable use and conservation of tropical forests through proper management of forested areas. The Zambia Forestry Action Plan (ZFAP) which is in the process of being formulated sets out the programme of sustainable use and conservation of forest
30
resources in Zambia. The local experience gained during this NWFPsurvey will be extremely useful in the formulation of ZFAPprogrammes and other integrated projects in other fields. It ison this basis that this project is strongly recommended.
31
resources in Zambia. The local experience gained during this NWFP survey will be extremely useful in the formulation of ZFAP programmes and other integrated projects in other fields. It is on this basis that this project is strongly recommended.
31
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - ZIMBABWEml
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY - ZIMBABWE
NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTSIN ZIMBABWE
Bruce Campbell and Tim Brigham
April, 1993
Paper prepared for the FAO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophoneAfrica).
NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN ZIMBABWE
Bruce Campbell and Tim Brigham
April, 1993
Paper prepared for the FAO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglo phone Africa).
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND 1
3 NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE 3
4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR NONWOOD FORESTPRODUCTS 18
5 LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS 25
6 KEY NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION 27
7 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS 30
a RECOMMENDATIONS 31
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 32
10 REFERENCES 32
LIST OF TABLES
Classification of non-wood forest products, their importance for various sectors and fortrade at various scales 5
The quantity and value of wildlife and livestock products and timber 7
Value of seed sales by Forestry Commission in 1990 and 1991, broken down by Pine,Eucalyptus and Other 9The marketing of tree-based craft products in Mangwende, Mutoko and UzumbaCommunal Areas (from Brigham, in prep.) 14
LIST OF FIGURES
Value of exports from Zimbabwe: livestock products, curios and lumber 6Land areas (km2) used for wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe in 1990 8
Percentage value of different functions of cattle 10The non-agricultural enterprises in communal areas, showing those which are based onnon-wood forest products 17
1 INTRODUCTION . .................................................. .
2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ................ .
3 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE .............. 3
4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS ....................................................... 18
5 LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS .......... 25
6 KEY NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION ...... 27
7 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS...................................... 30
8 RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
10 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
LIST OF TABLES
1. Classification of non-wood forest products, their importance for various sectors and for trade at various scales .................................................. 5
2. The quantity and value of wildlife and livestock products and timber ............... 7 3. Value of seed sales by Forestry Commission in 1990 and 1991, broken down by Pine,
Eucalyptus and Other .................................................. 9 4. The marketing of tree-based craft products in Mangwende, Mutoko and Uzumba
Communal Areas (from Brigham, in prep.) ................................. 14
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Value of exports from Zimbabwe: livestock products, curios and lumber ............ 6 2. Land areas (km2) used for wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe in 1990 .............. 8 3. Percentage value of different functions of cattle .............................. 10 4. The non-agricultural enterprises in communal areas, showing those which are based on
non-wood forest products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
1 INTRODUCTION
Attention on non-wood forest products in the forestry discipline is relatively recent, mostly limitedto the last decade (FAO, 1983, 1991; Rao, 1991; Poulsen, 1982), though the interest in such productsfrom botanists and anthropologists goes back many years, as evidenced by the journals EconomicBotany, Journal of Natural Products, formerly Llovdia, and Journal d'Agriculture Traditionelle et deBotaniaue Avails:wee (and its predecessor), which began publication in the 1930s and 1940s - see alsoWickens, 1990). The recent attention is a result of many influences (FAO, 1991), includingdeteriorating economies (and the need for generating and saving foreign currency), the realisation byforesters that local people are dependent on forests and woodlands for products other than wood(Poulsen, 1982; Bradley and McNamara, 1980; Bradley and Dewees, 1993), the concerns of developingcountries about conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity (Groombridge, 1992; Juma and Cable,1992), and the development of new markets for 'environmentally-friendly' products (May, 1990;Jenner, 1989).
The aim of the present paper is to examine the non-wood forest products of Zimbabwe, to identifytheir importance at local, national and international levels and to investigate the institutional and otherconstraints on their development.
2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND
Zimbabwe, covering some 390,000 km2, consists of four main physiographic regions. One of these,the eastern mountains, forms a narrow band along the Mozambique boundary. The rest of the countryis characterised by a north-east to south- west watershed, the highveld (above 1,200 m); this descendsto the Zambezi river in the north- west and the Limpopo in the south-east, in a series of plateaux,with the middleveld (900 - 1200 m) giving way to the lowveld (below 900 m). Approximately two-thirds of the country lies above 900 m.
Five main vegetation types cover Zimbabwe: Afromontane forest and grassland in parts of the easternhighlands; Zambezian miombo woodland covering the high and middleveld; mopane woodland andscrubland dominating the lowveld; large areas of Acacia scrubland in the southwest; and dry forestand scrubland on the Kalahari sands in the west.
Rainfall is the greatest physical constraint to agricultural production in Zimbabwe, and falls in asingle season (November to March) annually. Altitude and relief greatly affect temperature as wellas rainfall. Some two-thirds of the country receives on average less than 750 mm of rainfall per yearand only 5%, the eastern mountains, receives on average more than 1000 mm (Ministry of NaturalResources and Tourism, 1987). The soils of Zimbabwe, derived largely from granite and basementcomplexes, are inherently infertile. The combined constraints of rainfall and land capability reducethe area of land suitable for intensive dryland cropping to about 17% of the national area.
An overriding feature of land use, and therefore of environmental development and conservation, hasbeen the apportionment of land and the duality of the agricultural sector (Gore et al., 1992). Atindependence in 1980, there were four major land use categories: communal farming areas,commercial farm land, parks and wildlife estate (comprising mostly national parks and safari areas),and forestry land. These apportionments left farming land divided more or less evenly between blackand white farmers, although whites constituted less than 6% of the population.
The magnitude of the social and environmental problem is exacerbated by the distribution ofcommercial and communal farm land in relation to agricultural potential. The communal farming areacovers some 16.5 million hectares, the greater proportion of which falls within the areas of lowpotential. Much of the land in communal areas is under threat due to severe population-resourceimbalances. Many communal areas have population densities exceeding 50 persons/km2 (Ashworth,1990). The Zimbabwe population is presently about 10.4 million, with an annual growth rate of over3% (CSO, 1992). Over half the population is under the age of 15. Of the total population, some 20%live in urban areas, mostly in Harare and Bulawayo.
1
1 INTRODUCTION
Attention on non-wood forest products in the forestry discipline is relatively recent, mostly limited to the last decade (FAO, 1983, 1991; Rao, 1991; Poulsen, 1982), though the interest in such products from botanists and anthropologists goes back many years, as evidenced by the journals Economic Botany, Journal of Natural Products, formerly Lloydia, and Journal d'Agriculture Traditionelle et de Botanique Appliquee (and its predecessor), which began publication in the 1930s and 1940s - see also Wickens, 1990). The recent attention is a result of many influences (FAO, 1991), including deteriorating economies (and the need for generating and saving foreign currency), the realisation by foresters that local people are dependent on forests and woodlands for products other than wood (Poulsen, 1982; Bradley and McNamara, 1980; Bradley and Dewees, 1993), the concerns of developing countries about conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity (Groombridge, 1992; Juma and Cable, 1992), and the development of new markets for 'environmentally-friendly' products (May, 1990; Jenner, 1989).
The aim of the present paper is to examine the non-wood forest products of Zimbabwe, to identify their importance at local, national and international levels and to investigate the institutional and other constraints on their development.
2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
Zimbabwe, covering some 390,000 km2, consists of four main physiographic regions. One of these, the eastern mountains, forms a narrow band along the Mozambique boundary. The rest of the country is characterised by a north-east to south-west watershed, the highveld (above 1,200 m); this descends to the Zambezi river in the north-west and the Limpopo in the south-east, in a series of plateaux, with the middleveld (900 - 1200 m) giving way to the lowveld (below 900 m). Approximately twothirds of the country lies above 900 m.
Five main vegetation types cover Zimbabwe: Afromontane forest and grassland in parts of the eastern highlands; Zambezian miombo woodland covering the high and middleveld; mopane woodland and scrubland dominating the lowveld; large areas of Acacia scrubland in the southwest; and dry forest and scrubland on the Kalahari sands in the west.
Rainfall is the greatest physical constraint to agricultural production in Zimbabwe, and falls in a single season (November to March) annually. Altitude and relief greatly affect temperature as well as rainfall. Some two-thirds of the country receives on average less than 750 mm of rainfall per year and only 5%, the eastern mountains, receives on average more than 1000 mm (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, 1987). The soils of Zimbabwe, derived largely from granite and basement complexes, are inherently infertile. The combined constraints of rainfatl and land capability reduce the area of land suitable for intensive dryland cropping to about 17% of the national area.
An overriding feature of land use, and therefore of environmental development and conservation, has been the apportionment of land and the duality of the agricultural sector (Gore et aI., 1992). At independence in 1980, there were four major land use categories: communal farming areas, commercial farm land, parks and wildlife estate (comprising mostly national parks and safari areas), and forestry land. These apportionments left farming land divided more or less evenly between black and white farmers, although whites constituted less than 6% of the population.
The magnitude of the social and environmental problem is exacerbated by the distribution of commercial and communal farm land in relation to agricultural potential. The communal farming area covers some 16.5 million hectares, the greater proportion of which falls within the areas of low potential. Much of the land in communal areas is under threat due to severe population-resource imbalances. Many communal areas have population densities exceeding 50 persons/km2 (Ashworth, 1990). The Zimbabwe population is presently about 10.4 million, with an annual growth rate of over 3% (CSO, 1992). Over half the population is under the age of 15. Of the total population, some 20% live in urban areas, mostly in Harare and Bulawayo.
1
In order to redress the unequal distribution of land, the government initiated a resettlementprogramme in 1981, by which land is acquired from the commercial sector for resettlement of familiesfrom communal land. The aim was to resettle around 160 000 families on over half of the formerwhite commercial land. To date less than half the number of families have been resettled on some 2.7million hectares, and the programme contributes little to relieving land pressure in communal areas,given the magnitude of the population-resource imbalance.
Communal Areas and Resettlement Areas are characterised by small-scale, low-input, agro-pastoralsystems. They occupy just over half of Zimbabwe's land area and accommodate 57% of Zimbabwe'spopulation. Communal Areas tend to be densely populated and relatively deforested (Whitlow, 1980;Whitsun Foundation, 1981; du Toit and Campbell, 1988) and Resettlement Areas also appear to beundergoing rapid deforestation (Grundy et al., 1992).
Households in Communal Areas have small arable fields, typically about 3 ha in total area (Bratton,1987; Reh et al., 1988). Maize is the staple crop. Other important crops are finger millet, bulrushmillet, groundnuts, sunflowers and cotton. Croplands are in close proximity to grazing areas, whichare used communally. The savanna in most of these grazing areas has been opened by tree cutting fortimber and fuelwood or was previously cleared of trees for purposes of cultivation (Campbell et al.,1991). Cattle, goats and chickens are the chief livestock. They are usually kept for home use ratherthan commercial slaughter. Cattle are used for milk, manure and draught purposes and also have animportant exchange value, especially in the payment of lobola (bride price) (Scoones, 1992). Ingrazing areas, trees and their products are used communally and control of their use varies fromregion to region.
The Zimbabwe economy is dominated by the agricultural sector, with good rainfall seasons producingfavourable economic performances in most other sectors (CSO, 1987). The agricultural sector is thelargest employer of labour (25%) in the formal economy and contributes around 15% to GDP and 35%to export earnings. The large-scale sector contributes most to output, but by 1986 communal farmproduction had increased to 32% of total agricultural output (with 61% of communal production beingretained for own consumption) (Ashworth, 1990).
The forestry sector is comparatively small, mostly based on intensively managed pine and eucalyptplantations covering only 110 000 ha. It is largely located in the eastern highlands on state land underthe control of Forestry Commission or on land owned by large companies (Forestry Commission,1991). The country is self-sufficient in wood and has an expanding panel and pulp industry. Thevalue of primary processing alone is valued at US$40 million per year (World Bank, 1992). Indigenousforest resources presently only account for 5% of industrial wood output and their contribution willcontinue to decline (World Bank, 1992).
3 NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
The term 'non-wood forest products' is one of the many terms used to describe the products underdiscussion, others being the dismissive epithet 'minor forest products', 'lesser-known forest products','wild resources' and 'non-traditional forest products' (e.g. de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Rao, 1991).'Non-wood forest products' is used in the present report, but is also taken to include some productsthat would not strictly be encompassed by the term, these being: i) wood for the production ofhandicrafts (including household utensils and agricultural tools), and (ii) service functions of forestlands, including climate amelioration and maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. A note isnecessary on the inclusion of livestock products as non-wood forest products. In the FAO (1991)publication wild animal products are regarded as non-wood forest products and range products (graze,browse, shade) are also included as non-wood forest products (under service functions of forest land).The exclusion of livestock products is somewhat peculiar, as the range products are of importance toboth wild animals and domestic livestock. In Zimbabwe forage for the production of livestock andwildlife is largely derived from free-range movement in the woodlands and savannas. If the argumentis that wild animals are not managed and that livestock are managed, then this argument is weak as
2
In order to redress the unequal distribution of land, the government initiated a resettlement programme in 1981, by which land is acquired from the commercial sector for resettlement of families from communal land. The aim was to resettle around 160 000 families on over half of the former white commercial land. To date less than half the number of families have been resettled on some 2.7 million hectares, and the programme contributes little to relieving land pressure in communal areas, given the magnitude of the population-resource imbalance.
Communal Areas and Resettlement Areas are characterised by small-scale, low-input, agro-pastoral systems. They occupy just over half of Zimbabwe's land area and accommodate 57% of Zimbabwe's population. Communal Areas tend to be densely populated and relatively deforested (Whitlow, 1980; Whitsun Foundation, 1981; du Toit and Campbell, 1988) and Resettlement Areas also appear to be undergoing rapid deforestation (Grundy et at., 1992).
Households in Communal Areas have small arable fields, typically about 3 ha in total area (Bratton, 1987; Reh et at., 1988). Maize is the staple crop. Other important crops are finger millet, bulrush millet, groundnuts, sunflowers and cotton. Croplands are in close proximity to grazing areas, which are used communally. The savanna in most of these grazing areas has been opened by tree cutting for timber and fuelwood or was previously cleared of trees for purposes of cultivation (Campbell~., 1991). Cattle, goats and chickens are the chief livestock. They are usually kept for home use rather than commercial slaughter. Cattle are used for milk, manure and draught purposes and also have an important exchange value, especially in the payment of lobola (bride price) (Scoones, 1992). In grazing areas, trees and their products are used communally and control of their use varies from region to region.
The Zimbabwe economy is dominated by the agricultural sector, with good rainfall seasons producing favourable economic performances in most other sectors (CSO, 1987). The agricultural sector is the largest employer of labour (25%) in the formal economy and contributes around 15% to GDP and 35% to export earnings. The large-scale sector contributes most to output, but by 1986 communal farm production had increased to 32% of total agricultural output (with 61% of communal production being retained for own consumption) (Ashworth, 1990).
The forestry sector is comparatively small, mostly based on intensively managed pine and eucalypt plantations covering only 110 000 ha. It is largely located in the eastern highlands on state land under the control of Forestry Commission or on land owned by large companies (Forestry Commission, 1991). The country is self-sufficient in wood and has an expanding panel and pulp industry. The value of primary processing alone is valued at US$40 million per year (World Bank, 1992). Indigenous forest resources presently only account for 5% of industrial wood output and their contribution will continue to decline (World Bank, 1992).
3 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
The term 'non-wood forest products' is one of the many terms used to describe the products under discussion, others being the dismissive epithet 'minor forest products', 'lesser-known forest products', 'wild resources' and 'non-traditional forest products' (e.g. de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Rao, 1991). 'Non-wood forest products' is used in the present report, but is also taken to include some products that would not strictly be encompassed by the term, these being: i) wood for the production of handicrafts (including household utensils and agricultural tools), and (ii) service functions of forest lands, including climate amelioration and maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. A note is necessary on the inclusion of livestock products as non-wood forest products. In the FAD (1991) publication wild animal products are regarded as non-wood forest products and range products (graze, browse, shade) are also included as non-wood forest products (under service functions of forest land). The exclusion of livestock products is somewhat peculiar, as the range products are of importance to both wild animals and domestic livestock. In Zimbabwe forage for the production of livestock and wildlife is largely derived from free-range movement in the woodlands and savannas. If the argument is that wild animals are not managed and that livestock are managed, then this argument is weak as
2
numerous forest goods that are included under the term 'non-wood forest products' are managed, asevidenced by the considerable body of indigenous technical knowledge and practice (reviewed byCampbell et al., 1993). For these reasons, we include livestock products as non-wood forest products.
In Zimbabwe the term 'forest' is rather inappropriate, as most of the landscape from which non-woodforest products are collected is covered by woodland, savannas and scrubland. Non-wood forestproducts can be collected from 'natural' systems, the remnants of 'natural' systems (e.g. indigenoustrees left scattered in cultivated land) or managed systems, mostly plantations. Horticulturaldomesticated tree crops, mostly fruit trees, are not covered by the present report. There is a diversehorticultural industry within the commercial sector, and small-scale farmers usually have a few fruittrees around there homesites, from which they derive produce for local trade and home consumption.
The beneficiaries of non-wood forest products are many, including households in the small-scalesector, land-managers/owners in the large-scale sector and the national treasury. In the next sections,the importance of these products for both the small and large-scale sectors, and the importance oftrade at three scales (local, national and inter-national) is assessed. Local trade covers trade ofproducts within communities at the district level (trade at local business centres and growth points).National trade applies to products that reach the main centres in Zimbabwe and which are oftentraded through national marketing institutions. International trade refers to trade beyond the bordersof Zimbabwe. This latter type of trade is, of course, particularly important as it improves the foreigncurrency reserves of the country.
There is very little data on the value of non-wood forest products, and what data exist can seldom beused for comparative purposes. After developing a list of the products and preparing the matrix shownin Table 1, the relative importance of products to two different sectors was assessed on a 5-point scaleas follows. For the formal economy, data on some products for domestic and export production areavailable (Table 2), and the volume and value of these products can be gauged for each of the sectorsfrom production data (livestock) or estimates of relative land devoted to production (wildlife). Forthe small-scale sector, there are now some data on livestock-based non-wood forest products (e.g.Scoones, 1992) and on tree-based non-wood forest products (e.g. Campbell et al., 1991), and suchstudies have formed the basis of the ranking for subsistence products. The ranks are taken to beroughly proportional to gross benefit per hectare.
3.2 IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTS IN THE LARGE-SCALE SECTOR
3.2.1 Introduction
The benefits of non- wood forest products to the large scale sector are largely derived through trade,not subsistence. The beneficiaries within this category inclucie:
companies, individuals or the state (Agricultural Development Authority) owning commercialfarmland (covering over 12 million hectares);
the Forestry Commission, a parastatal, having control of nearly I million hectares of StateFore* these being indigenous woodlands and forests, initially established as timber reserves;
the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, which controls nearly 5 millionhectares of National Parks and Safari Ares.
It is evident that a very limited range of products are of value to the large-scale sector, the mostimportant being products from livestock and wildlife (Table 1).
3
numerous forest goods that are included under the term 'non-wood forest products' are managed, as evidenced by the considerable body of indigenous technical knowledge and practice (reviewed by Campbell et al., 1993). For these reasons, we include livestock products as non-wood forest products.
In Zimbabwe the term 'forest' is rather inappropriate, as most of the landscape from which non-wood forest products are collected is covered by woodland, savannas and scrubland. Non-wood forest products can be collected from 'natural' systems, the remnants of 'natural' systems (e.g. indigenous trees left scattered in cultivated land) or managed systems, mostly plantations. Horticultural domesticated tree crops, mostly fruit trees, are not covered by the present report. There is a diverse horticultural industry within the commercial sector, and small-scale farmers usually have a few fruit trees around there homesites, from which they derive produce for local trade and home consumption.
The beneficiaries of non-wood forest products are many, including households in the small-scale sector, land-managers/owners in the large-scale sector and the national treasury. In the next sections, the importance of these products for both the small and large-scale sectors, and the importance of trade at three scales (local, national and inter-national) is assessed. Local trade covers trade of products within communities at the district level (trade at local business centres and growth points). National trade applies to products that reach the main centres in Zimbabwe and which are often traded through national marketing institutions. International trade refers to trade beyond the borders of Zimbabwe. This latter type of trade is, of course, particularly important as it improves the foreign currency reserves of the country.
There is very little data on the value of non-wood forest products, and what data exist can seldom be used for comparative purposes. After developing a list of the products and preparing the matrix shown in Table 1, the relative importance of products to two different sectors was assessed on a 5-point scale as follows. For the formal economy, data on some products for domestic and export production are available (Table 2), and the volume and value of these products can be gauged for each of the sectors from production data (livestock) or estimates of relative land devoted to production (wildlife). For the small-scale sector, there are now some data on livestock-based non-wood forest products (e.g. Scoones, 1992) and on tree-based non-wood forest products (e.g. Campbell~., 1991), and such studies have formed the basis of the ranking for subsistence products. The ranks are taken to be roughly proportional to gross benefit per hectare.
3.2 IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTS IN THE LARGE-SCALE SECTOR
3.2.1 Introduction
The benefits of non-wood forest products to the large scale sector are largely derived through trade, not subsistence. The beneficiaries within this category include:
a)
b)
c)
companies,lndlvlduals or the state (Agricultural Development Authorlty) ownIng commercial farmland (covering over 12 million hectares);
the Forestry Commission, a parastatal, having control of nearly I million hectares of State Forest, these being indigenous woodlands and forests. initially established as timber reserves;
the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, which controls nearly 5 million hectares of National Parks and Safari Are~s.
It is evident that a very limited range of products an, of value to tlte large-scale sector, the most important being products from livestock and wildlife (Table 1).
3
Table 1. Classification of non-wood forest products, their importance tor various sectors and tor tradeat various scales. Key: blank cells = no value; **** = very valuable.
3.2.2 Livestock
4
Category ofnon-wood
forest product
Product
Meat
Importance of non-wood forest products
Importance to sectors Importance of trade
Large-scalesector
****
Small-scale sector Local National
****
Inter-national
**
Subsistence
.0**
Trade
***ANIMAL(domestic):FOOD Milk ***
ANIMAL(wild):FOOD
Bush meat * * * *
Insects ** * * *
Fish ** * *
Honey * * * * **
ANIMAL(domestic):NON-FOOD
Hides, leather *** ** * * **
Traction ****
Fertilizer ***
ANIMAL(wild): NON-FOOD
Tourism **** ** * ****
Hunting *** ** ***
Live animals ** **
Tusks,hides etc ** * *
PLANT:FOOD
Fruits *** ** * *
Fungi * ** ** * * *
Leaves * ?
Nuts * * *
Roots, tubers * ?
Flowers *
Bark, sap *
PLANT:FIBRE ANDMATERIALS
Bark *** * *
Thatch * *** * *
Reeds, wood ** ** ** * *
Fertilizer **
Live plants * *
COSMETIC &MEDICINAL
Medicines *** ** * *
Toxins *
PLANTS:EXTRACTIVE
Dyes *
Gums * *
Table 1. Classification of non-wood forest products, their importance for vanous sectors and for trade at various scales. Key: blank cells = no value; •••• = very valuable .
ANIMAL (domestic ): FOOD
ANIMAL (wild): FOOD
ANIMAL (domestic ): NON-FOOD
ANIMAL (wild): NONFOOD
PLANT: FOOD
PLANT: FIBRE AND MATERIALS
COSMETIC & MEDICINAL
Meat
Milk
Bush meat
Insects
Fish
Honey
Hides, leather
Traction
Fertilizer
Tourism
Hunting
Live animals
Tusks,hides etc
Fruits
Fungi
Leaves
Nuts
Roots, tubers
Flowers
Bark, sap
Bark
Thatch
Reeds, wood
Fertilizer
Live plants
Medicines
Toxins
••••
•
• •••
•••• ••• •• ••
•
•
•
••• • •• • • ••• •• ••• • • • •• • • • •• • • • • • •• •• • • ••
•••• •••
•• • •••• •• •••
•• • •
••• •• • • •• •• • • • • ?
• • • • ?
• •
••• • • ••• • • •• •• •• • • .*
• • ** •• * * • • PLANTS: Dyes
EXTRACTIVE ~~--------~~----~----------~--~~--~------~~----~I • • Gums
3.2.2 Livestock
4
In the large-scale sector, livestock production is carried out by individual farmers, large companiesand the state Agricultural Development Authority on commercial farmland, with the chief productbeing meat, mostly for the domestic market (Table 2). The export value of meat has fluctuated widelyin the last decade (Fig. 1), with severe curtailment of exports related to outbreaks of foot and mouthdisease (Jansen et al., 1992). Hides and leather in the piece are also relatively important exportproducts (Table 2, Fig. 1). Milk is not regarded as a non-wood forest product in the large-scalesector, as most milk is produced under intensive management rather than from free-range cattle.
Export value (Z$ million)
Year
Commodity
Meat
--F Hides
Leather
Curios
-x- Lumber
4- Sleepers
Figure 1 Value of exports from Zimbabwe: livestock products, curios and lumber (datafrom CSO, 1989, and CSO, 1991). 1989 data missing because of change in reporting year.
In the large-scale sector, livestock production is carried out by individual farmers, large companies and the state Agricultural Development Authority on commercial farmland, with the chief product being meat, mostly for the domestic market (Table 2). The export value of meat has fluctuated widely in the last decade (Fig. I), with severe curtailment of exports related to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (Jansen.Jtl..Jl!., 1992). Hides and leather in the piece are also relatively important export products (Table 2, Fig. 1). Milk is not regarded as a non-wood forest product in the large-scale sector, as most milk is produced under intensive management rather than from free-range cattle.
Export value (Z$ million) 80r-------------------------------~
60 ....................................................... .
40 ...................................................... .
20 ...................................................... .
O~==~~==~=====±==========~ 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Year
Commodity
--Meat
+ Hides
* Leather
--- Curios
* Lumber
+ Sleepers
Figure 1 Value of exports from Zimbabwe: livestock products, curios and lumber (data from esc, 1989, and esc, 1991). 1989 data missing because of change in reporting year.
5
This value is based on the valuation of cattle functions by Barrett (1991); if the valuation byScoones (1992) was used, the value would be roughly three times as high.
2 Zimbabwe dollar has performed against the US dollar as follows: US$ per Zim$: 1978: 1.47;1979: 1.47; 1980: 1.56; 1981: 1.45; 1982: 1.31; 1983: 0.99; 1984: 0.79; 1985: 0.62; 1986: 0.60;1987: 0.60; 1988: 0.55; 1989: 0.47; 1990: 0.40; 1991: 0.29; 1992: 0.20.
3 Reduces to about Z$220 million if milk production excluded (CSO, 1991).
6
Product
Cattle (large-scale sector)
#=numbers
Total
1.7 m#
Quantity(t=tonnes,
million)m =
Export
Valuemillion2
Total i
(Zim$yr-1)
Export
Year
1990
Source
Herd size: Jansen et al.(1992)
353 1990 Off take sales (milk &meat): CSO (1991)2
Cattle (small-scale sector)
4.0 m# 1990 Herd size: Jansen et al.(1992)
8001 1990 Sales + subsistence:Cumming and Bond(1991)
81 1990 Offtake sales (milk &meat): CSO (1991)
Beef (allsectors)
63300 t 3100 t 226 19 1990 Sales (net realized):Jansen et al. (1992)
Hides (allsectors)
2186 t 16 1990 Export value: CSO (1991)
Leather (allsectors)
2848 t 15 1990 Export value: CSO (1991)
Wildlife (all gross revenue, both sectors, data regarded as rough estimates)
Hunting 45 45 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Tourism 500 300 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Live animals 6.2 small 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Meat, hides 1 ? 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Ostrich 20 20 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Timber (bothsectors)
43400ms
3.3 1990 timber output (data fromBradley and Dewees,1993)
Table 2. The quantity and value of wildlife and livestock products and timber.Table 2. The quantity and value of wildlife and livestock products and timber.
1
2
S
<.;: •••••• ·····/i·L .• ; ............................. .....
. Quantity< ... )Ya1ue (Zim$· . ;(:.' .. ';'
:.::".
~·~~~::ei~~rit···b.·;.· ••••• (niilliori2 yr:l) •• •. Year . Source :) .... ;. :f:012L·} .• · .•• ·•·
•••••••••
:~i~\t;\:>?:>·-i:~::{:;:::;:: /::: ~<::::: .. : . .:' .. -,>,_. .:.
Iii· •• ••• ..• ) .• · I •. ·· ..... . ..... ;}/.i<) ; ...•. ; ... ··million}·>
I:i,ili';il'i:!i( .i'i/ ..
.; ••••.. > .'> .•.• ;.; ;.;' '/ r Ilt!II!!lj'll
.
/ YZ·i / .........
• Eip6rt: (rdtit< \ Export :;;; ........ :.; ............. ;; ... \ Totat··· \ . .....
Cattle (large- 1.7 m# 1990 Herd size: Jansen~. scale sector) (1992)
353 1990 Offtake sales (milk & meat): CSO (1991)8
Cattle (small- 4.0 m# 1990 Herd size: Jansen et at. scale sector) (1992)
8001 1990 Sales + subsistence: Cumming and Bond (1991 )
81 1990 Offtake sales (milk & meat): CSO (1991)
Beef (all 63300 t 3100 t 226 19 1990 Sales (net realized): sectors) Jansen et at. (1992)
Hides (all 2186 t 16 1990 Export value: CSO (1991) sectors)
Leather (all 2848 t 15 1990 Export value: CSO (1991) sectors)
Wildlife (all gross revenue, both sectors, data regarded as rough estimates)
Hunting 45 45 1991 Jansen et at. (1992)
Tourism 500 300 1991 Jansen ~. (1992)
Live animals 6.2 small 1991 Jansen et at. (1992)
Meat, hides 1 ? 1991 Jansen et at. (1992)
Ostrich 20 20 1991 Jansen et al. (1992)
Timber (both
I 43400
I I 3.3
I I 1990
I timber output (data from
sectors) mS Bradley and Dewees, 1993)
This value is based on the valuation of cattle functions by Barrett (1991); if the valuation by Scoones (1992) was used, the value would be roughly three times as high. Zimbabwe dollar has performed against the US dollar as follows: US$ per Zim$: 1978: 1.47; 1979: 1.47; 1980: 1.56; 1981: 1.45; 1982: 1.31; 1983: 0.99; 1984: 0.79; 1985: 0.62; 1986: 0.60; 1987: 0.60; 1988: 0.55; 1989: 0.47; 1990: 0.40; 1991: 0.29; 1992: 0.20. Reduces to about Z$220 million if milk production excluded (CSO, 1991).
6
3.2.3 Wildlife
Wildlife producers in the large scale sector include individual farmers, large companies, ForestryCommission and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, with 22% of the countrynow devoted to wildlife production (Fig. 2). 2.7 million hectares of commercial farmland, roughly20 % of the total is being managed for wildlife production (sometimes in conjunction with livestock)(Cumming, 1990). More than half of the state forest land is managed for wildlife, and ForestryCommission has its own safari company.
Considerable revenue, mostlyas foreign currency, is derivedfrom tourism and safarihunting, with some also fromthe sale of live animals andwildlife trophies and by-products (Table 2). The touristindustry is generally consideredto be the third highestgenerator of foreign currencybehind mining and agriculture(dominated by tobacco andcotton) (Jansen et al., 1992;CSO, 1987). The industry isestimated to be 95% 'nature-based' (Jansen et al., 1992),with wildlife and scenicattractions forming the basis.Thus tourism can be regardedas one of the most importantnon-wood forest products.
Gross income from sport hunting has risen steadily from just over US$2 million in 1984 to US$ 9.3million in 1990 (Jansen et al., 1992). Elephant, especially before the international embargo on tradein ivory, constitute a large proportion of this value, estimated to be US$4.7 million in 1989, a returnof US$75 km2 yr-1 in prime elephant habitat (Department of National Parks and WildlifeManagement, 1989). The demand for live animals, from the expanding safari industry on commercialfarmland, cannot be met, mostly because of strict veterinary controls in the face of recent foot andmouth disease and the lack of game capture units (Cumming, 1990). In the six years 1982 to 1987,ivory sales realised Z$500 000/annum (CSO, 1989). At current prices it is estimated that Zimbabwecould earn US$4 million per annum, but the international ban on trade in ivory has precluded trade(Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr, 1992). Ostrich are farmed intensively, mostly for hides,and earn substantial foreign currency (Table 2). Crocodiles are also farmed intensively, but are notincluded here as most of their feed is not from the wild.
3.2.4 Other products
Other non-wood forest products that are utilised by the large-scale sector are of minor importanceto the sector. From the indigenous woodlands, they include thatching grass (sold to households in thesmall-scale sector by Forestry Commission and large-scale farmers), honey and live indigenous plantsor seeds. From the plantations, the chief non-wood forest products are honey and mushrooms, withan export market for the latter having been recently initiated. Forestry Commission has a sectioninvolved in seed sales, with a proportion of this being based on indigenous resources (Table 3). Seedfor the commercial forestry sector, based on eucalyptus and pine, dominate the sales figures. TheCommission and a number of private companies are also involved in the marketing of indigenousplants for the ornamental market, but no data are available.
Figure 2 Land areas (km2) used for wildlife conservation inZimbabwe in 1990 (Cumming, 1990).
7
3.2.3 Wildlife
Wildlife producers in the large scale sector include individual farmers, large companies, Forestry Commission and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, with 22% of the country now devoted to wildlife production (Fig. 2). 2.7 million hectares of commercial farmland, roughly 20 % of the total is being managed for wildlife production (sometimes in conjunction with livestock) (Cumming, 1990). More than half of the state forest land is managed for wildlife, and Forestry Commission has its own safari company.
Considerable revenue, mostly as foreign currency, is derived from tourism and safari hunting, with some also from the sale of live animals and wildlife trophies and byproducts (Table 2). The tourist industry is generally considered to be the third highest generator of foreign currency behind mining and agriculture (dominated by tobacco and cotton) (Jansen et al., 1992; CSO, 1987). The industry is estimated to be 95% 'naturebased' (Jansen et al., 1992), with wildlife and scenic attractions forming the basis. Thus tourism can be regarded as one of the most important non-wood forest products.
~----------------------------------------------~
LARGE-5CALE SECTOR
Safari Areas 18578
Forest Areas 4983
Commercial farms 27000
National Parks 22799
Figure 2 Land areas (km ) used for wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe in 1990 (Cumming, 1990).
Gross income from sport hunting has risen steadily from just over US$2 million in 1984 to US$ 9.3 million in 1990 (Jansen et al., 1992). Elephant, especially before the international embargo on trade in ivory, constitute a large proportion of this value, estimated to be US$4.7 million in 1989, a return of US$75 km2 yr-1 in prime elephant habitat (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, 1989). The demand for live animals, from the expanding safari industry on commercial farmland, cannot be met, mostly because of strict veterinary controls in the face of recent foot and mouth disease and the lack of game capture units (Cumming, 1990). In the six years 1982 to 1987, ivory sales realised Z$500 OOO/annum (CSO, 1989). At current prices it is estimated that Zimbabwe could earn US$4 million per annum, but the international ban on trade in ivory has precluded trade (Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr, 1992). Ostrich are farmed intensively, mostly for hides, and earn substantial foreign currency (Table 2). Crocodiles are also farmed intensively, but are not included here as most of their feed is not from the wild.
3.2.4 Other products
Other non-wood forest products that are utilised by the large-scale sector are of minor importance to the sector. From the indigenous woodlands, they include thatching grass (sold to households in the small-scale sector by Forestry Commission and large-scale farmers), honey and live indigenous plants or seeds. From the plantations, the chief non-wood forest products are honey and mushrooms, with an export market for the latter having been recently initiated. Forestry Commission has a section involved in seed sales, with a proportion of this being based on indigenous resources (Table 3). Seed for the commercial forestry sector, based on eucalyptus and pine, dominate the sales figures. The Commission and a number of private companies are also involved in the marketing of indigenous plants for the ornamental market, but no data are available.
7
3.3 IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTS IN THE SMALL-SCALE SECTOR
3.3.1 Introduction
In this section the importance of non-wood forest products is assessed for the small-scale sector(covering some 20 million hectares). Importance is assessed both for subsistence needs and cashincome. Cash income may be based on sales either by individuals (e.g. local trade) or by thecommunity (e.g. sales of hunting rights to safari companies).
3.3.2 Livestock
As in the large-scale sector, some of the most important non-wood forest products in the small-scalesector are derived from livestock and wildlife (Table 1). In the case of livestock, the value of cattleproduction is immense (Table 2), even though of ftake and sales are small and do not contribute muchto the national economy or international trade, which is dominated by the large-scale sector (Table2). Data from valuation exercises for cattle in the small-scale sector, indicate that only 12% of totalvalue are derived from sales (Fig. 3), a figure which is comparable to the 10% derived from estimatesof the herd size in small-scale areas and national sales from the sector (Table 2). A further smallproportion of sales occur locally, and do not enter national statistics.
The dominant end product of subsistence cattle production is draught power (for ploughing) followedby, with roughly equal WW1, transport, cattle sales, milk (largely (ør home consumption) and manure(for fertilization of the cultivated land) (Fig. 3). Of much smaller significance are meat for homeconsumption and investment (cattle are kept as an investment against risks and as sources of funds foroccasional large expenses, such as school fees - Scoones, 1992).
The data presented in Table 2 relate to cattle, but goats are another important component of small-scale farming systems, with goat numbers being roughly 40% of cattle (Cumming and Bond, 1991).Using the valuation of subsistence and commercial goat products by Scoones (1992) and the numbersof goats in communal areas, the total value of goat production is roughly Z$55 million yr-1, some 20%of cattle value in this sector. Goats are particularly important for meat and milk (Scoones, 1992).
Another way of illustrating value of woodlands for livestock is shown in Fig. 5, where rangeproduction accounts for roughly 25 to 30% of the total value of non-wood forest goods (excludingwood and service functions of forest lands).
3.3.3 Wildlife
The large-scale sector also dominates wildlife production, with only 14% of the total wildlifeproduction area being based in communal lands (Fig. 2). None the less, witdtife production incommunal areas is significant, with 1.2 million ha (roughly 5%) of communal land being managed for
8
To other sections withinForestry Commission
(Z$)
To other institutionswithin Zimbabwe (Z$)
Exported (US$)
Year Euc. Pine Other Euc. Pine Other Euc. Pine Other
1990 10057 5931 1308 6412 9487 1142 1111 90527 107
1991 4419 6308 1781 10471 10233 2321 5707 109727 8637
Table 3. Value of seed sales by Forestry Commission in 1990 and 1991, broken down by Pine,Eucalyptus and Other. The latter category mostly includes indigenous species exceptfor exported seed in 1991 which is mostly Acacia melanoxvlon.
Table 3. Value of seed sales by Forestry Commission in 1990 and 1991, broken down by Pine, Eucalyptus and Other. The latter category mostly includes indigenous species except for exported seed in 1991 which is mostly Acacia melanoxylon.
1990 10057 5931 1308 6412 9487 1142 1111 90527 107
1991 4419 6308 1781 10471 10233 2321 5707 109727 8637
3.3 IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTS IN THE SMALL-SCALE SECTOR
3.3.1 Introduction
In this section the importance of non-wood forest products is assessed for the small-scale sector (covering some 20 million hectares). Importance is assessed both for subsistence needs and cash income. Cash income may be based on sales either by individuals (e.g. local trade) or by the community (e.g. sales of hunting rights to safari companies).
3.3.2 Livestock
As in the large-scale sector, some of the most important non-wood forest products in the small-scale sector are derived from livestock and wildlife (Table 1). In the case of livestock, the value of cattle production is immense (Table 2), even though offtake and sales are small and do not contribute much to the national economy or international trade, which is dominated by the large-scale sector (Table 2). Data from valuation exercises for cattle in the small-scale sector, indicate that only 12% of total value are derived from sales (Fig. 3), a figure which is comparable to the 10% derived from estimates of the herd size in small-scale areas and national sales from the sector (Table 2). A further small proportion of sales occur locally, and do not enter national statistics.
The dominant end product of subsistence cattle production is .... Jht power (for ploughing) followed by, with roughly equal vlilu', tranaport, cattle sales, mille (lar,,,'" fQr home ~onsu",ptlon) and manure (for fertilization of the cultivated land) (fig. 3). Of much smaller significance are meat for home consumption and investment (cattle are kept as an investment against risks and as sources of funds for occasional large expenses, such as school fees - Scoones, 1992).
The data presented in Table 2 relate to cattle, but goats are another important component of smallscale farming systems, with goat numbers being roughly 40% of cattle (Cumming and Bond, 1991). Using the valuation of subsistence and commercial goat products by Scoones (1992) and the numbers of goats in communal areas, the total value of goat production is roughly Z$SS million yr-1, some 20% of cattle value in this sector. Goats are particularly important for meat and mille (Scoones, 1992).
Another way of illustrating value of woodlands for livestocle is shown in fig. S, where range production accounts fcr roughly 25 to 30% of the totlll value of non-wood forest goods (excluding wood and service funotions of forest lands).
3.3.3 Wildlife
The large-scale sector also dominates wildlife production, with only 14% of the total wildlife production area being based in communal lands (Fig. 1). None the less, w1tdtlfe production In communal areas is significant, with 1.2 million ha (roughly 5%) of communal land being managed for
8
wildlife production (Murphreeand Cumming, 1991). Nodetailed data are available at anational level for the small-scale sector, so the relativeimportance of wildlife productsfor Table 1 is assumed to beroughly 10% of that in thelarge-scale sector (i.e. inproportion to land devoted towildlife production).Communal land safariconcessions had a potential toearn about US$3.8 million in1990 (Jansen, pers. comm., inCumming, 1990). A proportionof these wildlife revenues arereturned to the community,either to communityinstitutions or as dividends forindividual households(Cumming, 1990). In addition,households receive meat fromculling operations.
Figure 3 Percentage value of different functions of cattle(from data presented by Cumming and Bond, 1991, ARDA,1987, Barrett, 1991, Danckwerts, 1974, GFA, 1987, and Scoones,1992).
Apart from the aboveformalized arrangements forwildlife utilization, there are also poaching activities, which in Zimbabwe are either for internationaltrade (ivory and rhino horn) or for domestic meat consumption. Murindagomo (1988) estimated thatsubsistence hunting in one area of Zimbabwe, Dande, gave five times greater returns per hectare thandid dividends paid by commercial safari hunting. Apart from the illegal hunting of large mammalsin those communal areas where wildlife populations are still abundant, there is extensive use ofrodents and birds throughout the small-scale farming areas (see Wilson, 1990, and McGregor, 1991,for much detail). These authors present data which show the importance of bushmeat for householdfood security. Vibrant markets for bushmeat, as found in West Africa (Scoones et al., 1992), are notfound in Zimbabwe, partly because trade in most species is illegal.
3.3.4 Other animal-based food products
Other animal-based products include honey, insects and fish, all of which are mostly used fordomestic consumption, with a minor amount of local trade. Honey and insects are collected and eatenby almost all households, but seasonally and in low amounts (Campbell et al., 1991; McGregor, 1991;Wilson, 1990). Important edible insects include termites, caterpillars and some orthoptera, whilehoney is obtained from honey bees, mostly from the wild, or stingless bees (McGregor, 1991; Wilson,1990). Trade in these products is conducted by less than 10% of households and is mostly local(Campbell et al., 1991), but in recent years caterpillars begun to be marketed in very small quantitiesin supermarkets. Fish consumption is probably higher than that of the above products, with Wilson(1990), recording fish as part of the relish in 12% of meals. However, it is unclear what proportionof the fish is obtained from woodland streams and rivers in the area and what proportion is obtainedby trade from outside the community. McGregor's (1991) data indicate that only 1% of meals arefrom local fish.
3.3.5 Plant-based food products
9
wildlife production (Murphree and Cumming, 1991). No detailed data are available at a national level for the smallscale sector, so the relative importance of wildlife products for Table 1 is assumed to be roughly 10% of that in the large-scale sector (i.e. in proportion to land devoted to wildlife production). Communal land safari concessions had a potential to earn about US$3.8 million in 1990 (Jansen, pers. comm., in Cumming, 1990). A proportion of these wildlife revenues are returned to the community, either to community institutions or as dividends for individual households (Cumming, 1990). In addition, households receive meat from culling operations.
Apart from the above formalized arrangements for
Manure 10%
Sales 13%
Draught 40%
Meat 3%
Investment 4%
Transport 15%
Figure 3 Percentage value of different functions of cattle (from data presented by Cumming and Bond, 1991, ARDA, 1987, Barrett, 1991, Danckwerts, 1974, GFA, 1987, and Scoones, 1992).
wildlife utilization, there are also poaching activities, which in Zimbabwe are either for international trade (ivory and rhino horn) or for domestic meat consumption. Murindagomo (1988) estimated that subsistence hunting in one area of Zimbabwe, Dande, gave five times greater returns per hectare than did dividends paid by commercial safari hunting. Apart from the illegal hunting of large mammals in those communal areas where wildlife populations are still abundant, there is extensive use of rodents and birds throughout the small-scale farming areas (see Wilson, 1990, and McGregor, 1991, for much detail). These authors present data which show the importance of bushmeat for household food security. Vibrant markets for bushmeat, as found in West Africa (Scoones et aI., 1992), are not found in Zimbabwe, partly because trade in most species is illegal.
3.3.4 Other animal-based food products
Other animal-based products include honey, insects and fish, all of which are mostly used for domestic consumption, with a minor amount of local trade. Honey and insects are collected and eaten by almost all households, but seasonally and in low amounts (Campbell et aI., 1991; McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990). Important edible insects include termites, caterpillars and some orthoptera, while honey is obtained from honey bees, mostly from the wild, or stingless bees (McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990). Trade in these products is conducted by less than 10% of households and is mostly local (Campbell et aI., 1991), but in recent years caterpillars begun to be marketed in very small quantities in supermarkets. Fish consumption is probably higher than that of the above products, with Wilson (1990). recording fish as part of the relish in 12% of meals. However, it is unclear what proportion of the fish is obtained from woodland streams and rivers in the area and what proportion is obtained by trade from outside the community. McGregor's (1991) data indicate that only 1% of meals are from local fish.
3.3.5 Plant-based food products
9
Of the range of food products derived from woodlands, by the far the most important are wild fruits(Campbell, 1987; McGregor, 1991; Campbell et al., 1991; Wilson, 1990). All households use wild fruit,mostly as snacks, but in some areas up to 25% of meals of poor households in the dry season mayinclude a fruit component (Wilson, 1990). This percentage may be much lower in other areas (e.g. lessthan 3% of meals at any of three sampling periods - McGregor, 1991). Much use of wild fruits is byprimary school children (Campbell, 1987). Of all tree-based forest products, wild fruits are probablythe most frequently marketed (by around 10% of households)(Campbell et al., 1991). Most of this saleis localised, but many types of fruit also reach the main towns of Zimbabwe (Brigham, in prep.).Although market size is uncertain, stallholders in the main Harare market reported significant profitsfrom the sale of masowe (Ziziohus mauritiana) fruits both direct to the public and to sidewalkvendors. The major wild fruit species are listed in Appendix 1.
As with domestic fruits, most sales of wild fruit do not involve processing. One exception is the smallmarket for Parinari curatellifolia fruits which had been processed into sweet cakes for local sale,mainly to school children (Brigham, in prep.). Another exception, is the juice or wine made fromSclerocarva birrea, which is largely used for home consumption and for agricultural work parties(Gumbo et al., 1990).
Other food products include fungi, leafy vegetables (from woodland herbs and a few woody plants),roots and tubers, flowers from a few woody plants, bark and sap (for chewing and drinking) and nuts(Tredgold, 1986; McGregor, 1991; Sharp, 1988; Wilson, 1990). Most household will consume theseproducts, but as with other forest foods such as honey and insects, the quantities are small andseasonal and 5% or fewer household are involved in trading in these products (Campbell et al., 1991).McGregor (1991) recorded mushrooms in 1.5% to 4% of meals at three different times of the year,indicating that they may be as important as wild fruits in main meals (with wild fruits having overallmore importance because of widespread use as a snack). Informal sector trade at a national level isevident for mushrooms, many of which are obtainable at roadside markets during the wet season, forprices around Z$0.70/kg (Sharpe, 1988). McGregor (1991) recorded collection by the sackful.Limited trade (50 kg/yr) in nuts from the marula, Sclerocarva birrea, has been taking place for manyyears, with small-scale producers in one area supplying a health shop in Harare. The retailer indicatedthat sales were limited by the small volumes sent by the suppliers.
Gathered wild foods are used mainly as relishes, but can also be a basic energy source, especiallyduring times of seasonal hunger or drought (Wilson, 1990). The importance of non-wood forestproducts in the diet may not be in the quantity consumed but rather in: (i) contributing minerals andvitamins, and thus to balancing the diet (Campbell, 1987; Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Poulsen, 1982;McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990); (ii) contributing to the diet in times of stress (Campbell, 1987; Wilson,1990), and (iii) contributing to the diets of poorer households (Wilson, 1990). Using very preliminaryproduction data, it is estimated that wild fruits have about five times greater value, as measured byreplacement cost, to households than the total value of honey, mushrooms, insects and wild vegetables(Campbell et al., 1991), and that wild foods as a group provide a considerable proportion of the totalvalue of woodland goods (Fig. 5).
3.3.6 Fibre, materials, fertilizer
Households use forest products for a range of essential household and agricultural equipment,including cooking sticks, mortars, plates, baskets, mats, implement handles and yokes (Campbell eial., 1991; see Ellert, 1984, for detailed documentation on the material culture of Zimbabwe).Although many households will themselves make some of the above goods, there are members ofcommunities who specialise in the production of these items, and thus there is a small local trade inthese goods. Table 4 illustrates that the number of households involved in production and trade islimited: only 16 households out of 443 surveyed (around 4%) (Brigham, in prep.). The small numberof households participating in craft production seems to suggest a limited role for this sector; however,the extensive market for these products indicates their importance within the local economy. A totalof 349, or nearly 79% of the households surveyed, reported they had purchased at least one of theproducts listed (Table 4). One- third of purchasing households stated they had purchased five out ofthe six products.
10
Of the range of food products derived from woodlands, by the far the most important are wild fruits (Campbell, 1987; McGregor, 1991; Campbell et at., 1991; Wilson, 1990). All households use wild fruit, mostly as snacks, but in some areas up to 25% of meals of poor households in the dry season may include a fruit component (Wilson, 1990). This percentage may be much lower in other areas (e.g. less than 3% of meals at any of three sampling periods - McGregor, 1991). Much use of wild fruits is by primary school children (Campbell, 1987). Of all tree-based forest products, wild fruits are probably the most frequently marketed (by around 10% of households)(Campbell et at., 1991). Most of this sale is localised, but many types of fruit also reach the main towns of Zimbabwe (Brigham, in prep.). Although market size is uncertain, stallholders in the main Harare market reported significant profits from the sale of masowe (Ziziphus mauritiana) fruits both direct to the public and to sidewalk vendors. The major wild fruit species are listed in Appendix 1.
As with domestic fruits, most sales of wild fruit do not involve processing. One exception is the small market for Parinari curatellifolia fruits which had been processed into sweet cakes for local sale, mainly to school children (Brigham, in prep.). Another exception, is the juice or wine made from Sclerocarya birrea, which is largely used for home consumption and for agricultural work parties (Gumbo et at., 1990).
Other food products include fungi, leafy vegetables (from woodland herbs and a few woody plants), roots and tubers, flowers from a few woody plants, bark and sap (for chewing and drinking) and nuts (Tredgold, 1986; McGregor, 1991; Sharp, 1988; Wilson, 1990). Most household will consume these products, but as with other forest foods such as honey and insects, the quantities are small and seasonal and 5% or fewer household are involved in trading in these products (Campbell et at., 1991). McGregor (1991) recorded mushrooms in l.5% to 4% of meals at three different times of the year, indicating that they may be as important as wild fruits in main meals (with wild fruits having overall more importance because of widespread use as a snack). Informal sector trade at a national level is evident for mushrooms, many of which are obtainable at roadside markets during the wet season, for prices around Z$0.70/kg (Sharpe, 1988). McGregor (1991) recorded collection by the sackful. Limited trade (50 kg/yr) in nuts from the marula, Sclerocarya birrea, has been taking place for many years, with small-scale producers in one area supplying a health shop in Harare. The retailer indicated that sales were limited by the small volumes sent by the suppliers.
Gathered wild foods are used mainly as relishes, but can also be a basic energy source, especially during times of seasonal hunger or drought (Wilson, 1990). The importance of non-wood forest products in the diet may not be in the quantity consumed but rather in: (i) contributing minerals and vitamins, and thus to balancing the diet (Campbell, 1987; Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Poulsen, 1982; McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990); (ii) contributing to the diet in times of stress (Campbell, 1987; Wilson, 1990), and (iii) contributing to the diets of poorer households (Wilson, 1990). Using very preliminary production data, it is estimated that wild fruits have about five times greater value, as measured by replacement cost, to households than the total value of honey, mushrooms, insects and wild vegetables (Campbell et aI., 1991), and that wild foods as a group provide a considerable proportion of the total value of woodland goods (Fig. 5).
3.3.6 Fibre, materials, fertilizer
Households use forest products for a range of essential household and agricultural equipment, including cooking sticks, mortars, plates, baskets, mats, implement handles and yokes (Campbell tl aI., 1991; see Ellert, 1984, for detailed documentation on the material culture of Zimbabwe). Although many households will themselves make some of the above goods, there are members of communities who specialise in the production of these items, and thus there is a small local trade in these goods. Table 4 illustrates that the number of households involved in production and trade is limited: only 16 households out of 443 surveyed (around 4%) (Brigham, in prep.). The small number of households participating in craft production seems to suggest a limited role for this sector; however, the extensive market for these products indicates their importance within the local economy. A total of 349, or nearly 79% of the households surveyed, reported they had purchased at least one of the products listed (Table 4). One-third of purchasing households stated they had purchased five out of the six products.
10
Given the number of local people purchasing craftwork, there is clearly a significant local trade inthese products. Data from craft-making households also indicate most production is intended for localconsumption. However, informal interviews with craftsmen regarding their marketing channelssuggest a somewhat different picture (Brigham, in prep.). A number of the craftsmen, whileacknowledging the importance of local sales, reported frequent sales to communities up to onehundred kilometres away; some also travelled several times per month to Harare to sell their wares.Market outlets depend to some degree on the nature of the product involved. For example, toolhandles and yokes tend to be sold locally whereas kitchen utensils such as wooden spoons, plates andbowls have a market in both rural and urban areas. One carver interviewed, working out of his homewith assistance from relatives, supplies a total of a thousand or more spoons per month to buyerswithin the commercial sector. An unexpected finding was the degree to which mortars are marketedoutside the rural areas. A craft maker stated he had no difficulty selling 25 mortars over a period oftwo days in Harare. Another craftsman, through a local middle-man, sold two orders totalling 46mortars to South Africa; a craft worker from the same area supplied mortars for sale within Botswana.
The marketing practices described by Brigham (in prep.) challenge the perception that craftwork isexclusively a localised, limited and somewhat passive activity. Instead, as indicated by the sales andincome data summarized in Table 4, the craft sector is made up of a range of enterprises that operateat widely varying levels of activity. A significant proportion of craft sellers in fact rely largely onthe income earned through these sales and, as Mhone (1991) suggests, display considerable enterpriseand ingenuity in their activities. Several craftsmen were acting on perceived market opportunities inthe hopes of expanding their business or addressing some of their business problems. These optionsincluded new products which provided higher cash returns to labour or focused on expanding intodifferent markets to reduce time and travel expenses.
Apart from the above craftwork for household products, there is production of crafts for the touristindustry. The crafts include baskets, mats, wooden and stone carvings and pots (some products arenot truly forest products). Overall, as much as 10-15% of households may be involved in craft makingfor cash income (Campbell et al., 1991), and this percentage may be much higher in areas close totourist centres. Craft workers in Mangwende earned an average of Z$53 yr-1, while in Binga Districtproducer households received roughly $130 yr-1 (Campbell et al., 1991). Helmsing (1987) in a surveyof over 17000 households in the communal areas recorded 15 % as being involved in non agriculturalenterprises, with a major proportion of these being based on non-wood forest products, with craftactivities dominating this proportion (Fig. 4). Crafts (and works of art) produce not unsubstantialforeign currency earnings through formal sector marketing (Fig. 1). However, it is unclear to whatextend these earnings are based on non-wood forest products, as they also include pottery and stonecarving.
Table 4. The marketing of tree-based craft products in Mangwende, Mutoko andUzumba Communal Areas (from Brigham, in prep.1). The sales and incomedata refer to amounts per selling household.
11
Product Buyers Sellers Yearly sales perhousehold
Yearly incomeper household
Averageprice
Mortars MI:. .
(70,4%)'4 mean: 15.75; . ', ,
med.: 4.5 : ,
s.d.: 24.9 . ' '
: Onenn: 196.5 ' '
med.: 67.5s.d.: 294.2
12.50
Kitchen' Utensils
284(64.1%)
_
5(1.1%)
mean: 159.0med.: 20.0s.d.: 226.3
mean: 102.2med.: 10.0s.d.: 130.3
0.65
Yokes
i.
230(51.9%)
3(0.7%)
mean: 21.0med.: 12.0s.d.: 21.0
mean: 390.0med.: 150.0s.d.: 441.9
18.55 i
I
Given the number of local people purchasing craftwork, there is clearly a significant local trade in these products. Data from craft-making households also indicate most production is intended for local consumption. However, informal interviews with craftsmen regarding their marketing channels suggest a somewhat different picture (Brigham, in prep.). A number of the craftsmen, while acknowledging the importance of local sales, reported frequent sales to communities up to one hundred kilometres away; some also travelled several times per month to Harare to sell their wares. Market outlets depend to some degree on the nature of the product involved. For example, tool handles and yokes tend to be sold locally whereas kitchen utensils such as wooden spoons, plates and bowls have a market in both rural and urban areas. One carver interviewed, working out of his home with assistance from relatives, supplies a total of a thousand or more spoons per month to buyers within the commercial sector. An unexpected finding was the degree to which mortars are marketed outside the rural areas. A craft maker stated he had no difficulty selling 25 mortars over a period of two days in Harare. Another craftsman, through a local middle-man, sold two orders totalling 46 mortars to South Africa; a craft worker from the same area supplied mortars for sale within Botswana.
The marketing practices described by Brigham (in prep.) challenge the perception that craftwork is exclusively a localised, limited and somewhat passive activity. Instead, as indicated by the sales and income data summarized in Table 4, the craft sector is made up of a range of enterprises that operate at widely varying levels of activity. A significant proportion of craft sellers in fact rely largely on the income earned through these sales and, as Mhone (1991) suggests, display considerable enterprise and ingenuity in their activities. Several craftsmen were acting on perceived market opportunities in the hopes of expanding their business or addressing some of their business problems. These options included new products which provided higher cash returns to labour or focused on expanding into different markets to reduce time and travel expenses.
Apart from the above craftwork for household products, there is production of crafts for the tourist industry. The crafts include baskets, mats, wooden and stone carvings and pots (some products are not truly forest products). Overall, as much as 10-15% of households may be involved in craft making for cash income (Campbell~., 1991), and this percentage may be much higher in areas close to tourist centres. Craft workers in Mangwende earned an average of Z$53 yr-1, while in Binga District producer households received roughly $130 yr-1 (Campbell et aI., 1991). Helmsing (1987) in a survey of over 17000 households in the communal areas recorded 15 % as being involved in non agricultural enterprises, with a major proportion of these being based on non-wood forest products, with craft activities dominating this proportion (Fig. 4). Crafts (and works of art) produce not unsubstantial foreign currency earnings through formal sector marketing (Fig. 1). However, it is unclear to what extend these earnings are based on non-wood forest products, as they also include pottery and stone carving.
Table 4.
Product
Mortars
Kitchen Utensils
Yokes
The marketing of tree-based craft products in Mangwende, Mutoko and Uzumba Communal Areas (from Brigham, in prep.!). The sales and income data refer to amounts per selling household.
Buyers Sellers yearly···· salesp···er.: .• ··Yeady·· iiic6Irte;A.'.:.'\j~f~g··g} househo .. ld····'· ':' ..... '. . .,.'p' ':e""'r"':ho" u··· 's' 'e' h' 0'''1' d·...-'.·.·.,:,.'.··,.·,·.·.··.·.·.:.··,· .• :.:.· .•. '.·.· ....•. , ...........•.. ·pfice .•. ·)::
3Ii:': .i'; . 4 mean: IS.7S :,;i ';: fitOftn: 196.S· r.· ..
(70.4~r, ,(0.9%) meLt.: •. S:r ,'. ,. meLt.: 67.S 12.50 4' 249 :,';" .:; s.d.: 294.2 s .. , , ." : . ",
.. 284 5 mean: 159.0 mean: 102.2
(64.1%) (1.1%) med.: 20.0 med.: 10.0 0.65 s.d.: 226.3 s.d.: 130.3
230 3 mean: 21.0 mean: 390.0 (51.9%) (0.7%) med.: 12.0 med.: 150.0 18.55
s.d.: 21.0 s.d.: 441.9
11
Sample size is 443 households from 20 randomly selected sites.2 Both these figures are derived from a range of products rather than a single product line.3 Products containing either bark alone (such as a bag) or having bark as part of its construction
(such as a reed mat with bark twine).4 Craft-selling and craft-buying households may sell and buy a number of products, therefore
figures may not add up to expected totals.5 Sales and prices are not comparable across a range of products.
12
Furniture 216(48.8%)
4(0.9%)
mean: 5.0med.: 5.0s.d.: 2.95
mean: 64.75med.: 22.5s.d.: 90.5
12.952
ToolHandles
214(48.3%)
6(1.4%)
mean: 16.5med.: 13.5s.d.: 7.5
mean: 36.0med.: 37.5s.d.: 26.3
2.20
BarkProducts3
61(13.7%)
4(0.9%)
mean: 3.75med.: 2.0s.d.: 4.2
mean: 39.0med.: 35.5s.d.: 36.8
10.402
TOTALS4 349(78.8%)
16(3.6%) 5
mean:193.65med.: 60.00s.d.:440.00
5
1
2
S
4
6
Furniture 216 4 mean: 5.0 mean: 64.75 (48.8%) (0.9%) med.: 5.0 med.: 22.5 12.952
s.d.: 2.95 s.d.: 90.5
Tool 214 6 mean: 16.5 mean: 36.0 Handles (48.3%) (1.4%) med.: 13.5 med.: 37.5 2.20
s.d.: 7.5 s.d.: 26.3
Bark 61 4 mean: 3.75 mean: 39.0 ProductsS (13.7%) (0.9%) med.: 2.0 med.: 35.5 10.402
s.d.: 4.2 s.d.: 36.8
TOTALS4 349 16 mean: 193.65 (78.8%) (3.6%) 6 med.: 60.00 6
-- --s.d.:440.00
Sample size is 443 households from 20 randomly selected sites. Both these figures are derived from a range of products rather than a single product line. Products containing either bark alone (such as a bag) or having bark as part of its construction (such as a reed mat with bark twine). Craft-selling and craft-buying households may sell and buy a number of products, therefore figures may not add up to expected totals. Sales and prices are not comparable across a range of products.
12
Fibres are required for many household tasks (Poulsen, 1982) and most households collect the barkof trees for their fibre needs, with a limited amount of trading also taking place (Campbell et al.,1991). Vendors selling green leafy vegetables at local markets use bark fibre to tie the bundles, andMcGregor (1991) recorded bark rope being sold to vegetable vendors in Shurugwi. Some householdsalso generate income through the sale of handbags or reed mats utilising bark twine in theirconstruction (Table 4) (Brigham, in prep.). Important species for bark collection are noted inAppendix 1.
Thatching grass is used by almost all households but because of shortage of grass, much grass isderived from areas outside the communal lands (Hawkes, 1992). Certain members of the communitymay specialise in thatching roofs (Fig. 4, Helmsing, 1987).
Large volumes of leaf litter arecollected from woodland bybetween 20 and 70% ofhouseholds, depending on area(Campbell et al., 1991;McGregor, 1991). Thequantities involved may bequite large, Nyathi andCampbell (1993) recordingaround 0.4 tonnes perhousehold per annum incommunal areas. The litter iseither applied directly to fieldsand gardens or added to thecattle pen (and then eventuallyreturned to the fields with themanure) (Nyathi and Campbell,1993). The litter may beparticularly important as afertilizer source for poorerhouseholds without access toother fertilizer sources(McGregor, 1991). Thecontingent valuation indicatedthat woodland inputs to crop production, i.e. litter, were regarded by householders as substantial, buta replacement cost calculated on the basis of nitrogen provided by litter suggested a much lower value(Fig. 5).
3.3.7 Medicines and pharmaceuticals
Approximately 500 species, 10% of Zimbabwe's flora, including many tree species, are usedmedicinally by traditional healers (Gelfand et al., 1985). Traditional healers have an important rolein both rural and urban communities, providing advice, divination and herbal prescriptions forphysical and psychological complaints. Traditional healers in relation to population figures inZimbabwe are estimated to be 1:234 in urban areas and 1:956 in rural areas (Gelfand et al., 1985;Cunningham, 1990), ratios much lower than those for medical doctors.
Unfortunately, there are no quantitative data on volumes or value of trade and consumption.Cunningham (1990) provides some data indicating the importance of medicinal plant products, e.g.some medicinal plants are moved to distances over 200 km. In local markets, the section for medicinalplants is usually larger than those for any other non-wood forest product (pers. obs.). Campbell_glal. (1991) record just under 10% of households as being involved in marketing of medicinal products.Another study (Brigham, in prep.) conducted in the Murewa, Mutoko and Uzumba Communal Areas,found less than 1% of households were involved in the marketing of medicines derived from thewoodland; approximately 11% reported purchasing these products. A traditional healer encountered
Figure 4 The non-agricultural enterprises in communalareas (Helmsing, 1987), showing which are based on non-woodforest products.
13
Fibres are required for many household tasks (Poulsen, 1982) and most households collect the bark of trees for their fibre needs, with a limited amount of trading also taking place (Campbell et al., 1991). Vendors selling green leafy vegetables at local markets use bark fibre to tie the bundles, and McGregor (1991) recorded bark rope being sold to vegetable vendors in Shurugwi. Some households also generate income through the sale of handbags or reed mats utilising bark twine in their construction (Table 4) (Brigham, in prep.). Important species for bark collection are noted in Appendix 1.
Thatching grass is used by almost all households but because of shortage of grass, much grass is derived from areas outside the communal lands (Hawkes, 1992). Certain members of the community may specialise in thatching roofs (Fig. 4, Helmsing, 1987).
Large volumes of leaf litter are collected from woodland by between 20 and 70% of households, depending on area (Campbell et aI., 1991; McGregor, 1991). The quantities involved may be quite large, Nyathi and Campbell (1993) recording around 0.4 tonnes per household per annum in communal areas. The litter is either applied directly to fields and gardens or added to the cattle pen (and then eventually returned to the fields with the manure) (Nyathi and Campbell, 1993). The litter may be particularly important as a fertilizer source for poorer households without access to other fertilizer sources (McGregor, 1991). The contingent valuation indicated
NON NWFP
Bulking '"'
C8rpentry • manuf.
NWFP
Figure 4 The non-agricultural enterprises in communal areas (Helmsing, 1987), showing which are based on non-wood forest products.
that woodland inputs to crop production, i.e. litter, were regarded by householders as substantial, but a replacement cost calculated on the basis of nitrogen provided by litter suggested a much lower value (Fig. 5).
3.3.7 Medicines and pharmaceuticals
Approximately 500 species, 10% of Zimbabwe's flora, including many tree species, are used medicinally by traditional healers (Gelfand et al., 1985). Traditional healers have an important role in both rural and urban communities, providing advice, divination and herbal prescriptions for physical and psychological complaints. Traditional healers in relation to population figures in Zimbabwe are estimated to be 1:234 in urban areas and 1:956 in rural areas (Gelfand ~., 1985; Cunningham, 1990), ratios much lower than those for medical doctors.
Unfortunately, there are no quantitative data on volumes or value of trade and consumption. Cunningham (1990) provides some data indicating the importance of medicinal plant products, e.g. some medicinal plants are moved to distances over 200 km. In local markets, the section for medicinal plants is usually larger than those for any other non-wood forest product (pers. obs.). Campbell,Jll al. (1991) record just under 10% of households as being involved in marketing of medicinal products. Another study (Brigham, in prep.) conducted in the Murewa, Mutoko and Uzumba Communal Areas,
found less than 1 % of households were involved in the marketing of medicines derived from the woodland; approximately 11 % reported purchasing these products. A traditional healer encountered
13
during the research suggested that the use of medicinal herbs had declined over the past two decadesin large part due to the preference of younger people for western medicine (Brigham, in prep.). Thecontingent valuation of woodlands suggested a relatively low value for tree-based products as a sourceof health as compared to other functions of trees and woodlands (Fig. 5).
Toxins used for bird lime and catching fish (Wilson, 1990) may be considered as potentialpharmaceuticals.
3.3.8 Plant extractive products
Plant extractive products are not very important in the household economies in Zimbabwe. Some dyesderived from woodland sources are used in various crafts, and small quantities of gum from Acaciaare collected and sold to a company in Buluwayo. Oil extracted from the seeds of Trichilia spp. wasonce used for soap production, and there appears to be some potential to develop a small industryaround the oil from this species (Grundy and Campbell, 1993).
3.4 IMPORTANCE OF SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF FOREST LANDS
One service function of forest land is the provision of range: graze, browse, shade and shelter fordomestic livestock and wildlife (FAO, 1991). This has been taken care of by considering livestockand wildlife products as non-wood forest products. Soil improvement and protection is a servicefunction of forest land. There are many studies showing the value of trees for soil improvement(reviewed by Campbell et al., 1991, and further reported on in Campbell et al., in prep.). Biodiversitymaintenance is another service function, but little attempt has been made to value this servicefunction for Zimbabwean woodlands (Campbell, 1993). In the formal market, it is reflected in thetourism potential of the country, which is sizeable (Table 2). One ecological service function concernsthe importance of trees and woodlands in influencing the hydrological cycle, but few studies areavailable to document the influences (du Toit, 1985, presents data on river flow patterns, and Wilson,1990, and McGregor, 1991, present data on people's perceptions about changes in the hydrologicalcycle). Other service functions include the maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. Some treesare sacred, some are linked to ancestral spirits and some are used as landmarks, play facilities andmeeting places (Wilson, 1990: Campbell et al. 1991).
One attempt at placing a value on service functions for Zimbabwean conditions is the contingentvaluation of Campbell et al. (1991) (Fig. 5). From the data it appears that roughly 25% of the totalvalue of woodlands is considered to be related to service functions, with ecological service functionsrated highly.
3.5 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN RELATION TO WOODPRODUCTS
The value of some of the above-mentioned non-wood forest products, some with figures running intothe hundred millions, should be contrasted with more conventional forestry activity, where totaloutput of industrial timber in 1991 was 961 000 m3 (Forestry Commission, 1991). Of this figure, only5% was derived from indigenous forests and woodlands, this being largely mukwa (about 70%) andteak. Much of the mukwa is exported as finished furniture, while much teak is exported as railwaysleepers (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Forestry Commission, 1991). The total production value ofindustrial timber is very small by comparison to that of livestock and wildlife (Table 2). Export datashow the same pattern, with railway sleepers being a minor export in comparison to livestock products(Fig. 1), and especially to wildlife products.
14
during the research suggested that the use of medicinal herbs had declined over the past two decades in large part due to the preference of younger people for western medicine (Brigham, in prep.). The contingent valuation of woodlands suggested a relatively low value for tree-based products as a source of health as compared to other functions of trees and woodlands (Fig. 5).
Toxins used for bird lime and catching fish (Wilson, 1990) may be considered as potential pharmaceuticals.
3.3.8 Plant extractive products
Plant extractive products are not very important in the household economies in Zimbabwe. Some dyes derived from woodland sources are used in various crafts, and small quantities of gum from Acacia are collected and sold to a company in Buluwayo. Oil extracted from the seeds of Trichilia spp. was once used for soap production, and there appears to be some potential to develop a small industry around the oil from this species (Grundy and Campbell, 1993).
3.4 IMPORTANCE OF SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF FOREST LANDS
One service function of forest land is the provision of range: graze, browse, shade and shelter for domestic livestock and wildlife (FAO, 1991). This has been taken care of by considering livestock and wildlife products as non-wood forest products. Soil improvement and protection is a service function of forest land. There are many studies showing the value of trees for soil improvement (reviewed by Campbell et al., 1991, and further reported on in Campbell et al., in prep.). Biodiversity maintenance is another service function, but little attempt has been made to value this service function for Zimbabwean woodlands (Campbell, 1993). In the formal market, it is reflected in the tourism potential of the country, which is sizeable (Table 2). One ecological service function concerns the importance of trees and woodlands in influencing the hydrological cycle, but few studies are available to document the influences (du Toit, 1985, presents data on river flow patterns, and Wilson, 1990, and McGregor, 1991, present data on people's perceptions about changes in the hydrological cycle). Other service functions include the maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. Some trees are sacred, some are linked to ancestral spirits and some are used as landmarks, play facilities and meeting places (Wilson, 1990: Campbell et al. 1991).
One attempt at placing a value on service functions for Zimbabwean conditions is the contingent valuation of Campbell et al. (I 991) (Fig. 5). From the data it appears that roughly 25% of the total value of woodlands is considered to be related to service functions, with ecological service functions rated highly.
3.S GENERAL DISCUSSION AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE IN RELATION TO WOOD PRODUCTS
The value of some of the above-mentioned non-wood forest products, some with figures running into the hundred millions, should be contrasted with more conventional forestry activity, where total output of industrial timber in 1991 was 961000 mS (Forestry Commission, 1991). Of this figure, only 5% was derived from indigenous forests and woodlands, this being largely mukwa (about 70%) and teak. Much of the mukwa is exported as finished furniture, while much teak is exported as railway sleepers (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Forestry Commission, 1991). The total production value of industrial timber is very small by comparison to that of livestock and wildlife (Table 2). Export data show the same pattern, with railway sleepers being a minor export in comparison to livestock products (Fig. 1), and especially to wildlife products.
14
Percentages oftotal $ value
100%
75%
50%
25%
.0. . ..0 a :411
neplacement valuation
MAJOR PRODUCTCATEGORIES
SERVICE 100911ADEFUNCTION HEALT4
25%
11\\\11311111
AO
0%Contingent valuation
KEY
ECOLOGICALSERVICES
A-SOCIAL SERVICES
-CONSTRUCTION
+-FUEL
Figure 5 Value of tree resources (contingent method: rankings expressed byhouseholders; replacement method: gross replacement cost of goods) (Campbell et al., 1991).
The valuation exercises (Fig. 5) show slightly different results because they focus on subsistence andlarge quantities of wood are used for construction and fuel (Fig. 5). The valuations indicate around40% of total value is due to wood.
The results support the general contention that non-wood forest products are an important source ofcash income for the rural poor (Scoones et al., 1992). This is evident by, for example, the local tradein household utensils. However, the importance of the non-wood forest products in the commercialsector, namely livestock and wildlife, for cash income far exceeds income from non-wood forestproducts in the small-scale sector. Of much greater significance in the small-scale sector is the valueof non-wood forest products as subsistence products.
4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This section provides a brief outline of the structure and key responsibilities of those institutions mostdirectly involved in the management, development and exploitation of non-wood forest products inZimbabwe. It covers government institutions, the Universities and non-governmental agencies.
4.2 MINISTRY OF LANDS, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL RESETTLEMENT
The ministry is responsible for the agricultural industry of Zimbabwe and for implementing thegovernment's agricultural policy. The ministry includes three executive departments that cover someaspects of non-wood forest products:
Agricultural and Technical Services (Agritex);Research and Specialist Services, andVeterinary Services.
In addition there is a training branch, which oversees the activities in the Agricultural Colleges atChibero, Esigodini, Gwebi and Mlezu. These colleges together produce about 700 graduates. Underthe ministry, there is a statutory body, the Agricultural Development Authority (ADA).
15
4_RAN ENOPbGO 111
-WOODESTDS
50%
4- FOODUMMENNIMM
_CROPevot:034o S (LITTER)
Percentages of total $ value
MAJOR PRODUCT CATEGORIES
1 FUNCTION
1 SERVICE 1715~~~jiiiii
~r--~§§~==T---
25%
KEY
~ ECOLOGICAL
~eplacement valuation 0%'--Contingentvmuation
Figure 5 Value of tree resources (contingent method: ran kings expressed by householders; replacement method: gross replacement cost of goods) (Campbell et aI., 1991).
The valuation exercises (Fig. 5) show slightly different results because they focus on subsistence and large quantities of wood are used for construction and fuel (Fig. 5). The valuations indicate around 40% of total value is due to wood.
The results support the general contention that non-wood forest products are an important source of cash income for the rural poor (Scoones et aI., 1992). This is evident by, for example, the local trade in household utensils. However, the importance of the non-wood forest products in the commercial sector, namely livestock and wildlife, for cash income far exceeds income from non-wood forest products in the small-scale sector. Of much greater significance in the small-scale sector is the value of non-wood forest products as subsistence products.
4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This section provides a brief outline of the structure and key responsibilities of those institutions most directly involved in the management, development and exploitation of non-wood forest products in Zimbabwe. It covers government institutions, the Universities and non-governmental agencies.
4.2 MINISTRY OF LANDS, AGRICULTURE AND RURAL RESETTLEMENT
The ministry is responsible for the agricultural industry of Zimbabwe and for implementing the government's agricultural policy. The ministry includes three executive departments that cover some aspects of non-wood forest products:
Agricultural and Technical Services (Agritex); Research and Specialist Services, and Veterinary Services.
In addition there is a training branch, which oversees the activities in the Agricultural Colleges at Chibero, Esigodini, Gwebi and Mlezu. These colleges together produce about 700 graduates. Under the ministry, there is a statutory body, the Agricultural Development Authority (ADA).
15
4.2.1 Department of Agricultural and Technical Services
The aim of Agritex is to stimulate the adoption of proven agricultural practices for sustained andprofitable production. The target population is all farmers in Zimbabwe, with particular emphasisplaced on the small-scale sector. The Field Services Division is responsible for providing advice onall aspects of agricultural production and conservation. In regards non-wood forest products, Agritexis important in providing information about livestock production, and the extension service hasexpanded its tree-based activities in the small-scale farming sectors, and now includes an agroforestrysection which collaborates closely with Forestry Commission (Agritex, 1982). There is a totalestablishment of approximately 4000 in the department, of which over 2000 have diplomas and 250have degrees in agriculture.
4.2.2 Department of Research and Specialist Services (R&SS)
The key functions of R&SS are to further the welfare and technical progress of agriculture inZimbabwe through agricultural research, and by providing specialist services. The department is alsoentrusted with the administration of certain regulatory services under various acts, including theimplementation of phytosanitary regulations.
As regards non-wood forest products, R&SS includes a small agroforestry section, undertakes researchand development programmes on livestock production, undertakes vegetation surveys of the communallands and has a small section involved with apiculture. The National Herbarium falls under R&SS;it is able to provide considerable information on the plant species of Zimbabwe.
4.2.3 Department of Veterinary Services
The Department of Veterinary Services is responsible for the prevention and control of animal diseasein Zimbabwe, thus they are important in sustaining livestock production. The department's activitiesinclude the following:
extension advice on health of livestock for the communal areas and responsibility fordipping services (involving over 2000 dip tanks) within such areas;foot-and-mouth disease control measures, to protect the beef export industry, andtsetse fly control and eradication programmes.
4.2.4 Agricultural Development Authority (ADA)
ADA came into existence in its present format in 1982. The major ob jectives of ADA are:to engage in the production of strategic agricultural commodities on state farms;to carry out research and planning on the agricultural and rural development potentialof the country and to lead, coordinate and monitor the planning and implementationof rural development throughout Zimbabwe, andto generate employment in the rural areas through its estates and by promoting agro-industries, either in its own right or in association with other bodies.
Planning of agricultural and rural development is being carried out by ADA planning teams incommunal areas of most provinces of the country. These teams identify small- and medium-sizedprojects in which the rural people can participate. As to non-wood forest products, ADA presentlyundertakes livestock production, but ADA could be the agency charged with the development of theseproducts.
4.3 MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND TOURISM
16
4.2.1 Department of Agricultural and Technical Services
The aim of Agritex is to stimulate the adoption of proven agricultural practices for sustained and profitable production. The target population is all farmers in Zimbabwe, with particular emphasis placed on the small-scale sector. The Field Services Division is responsible for providing advice on all aspects of agricultural production and conservation. In regards non-wood forest products, Agritex is important in providing information about livestock production, and the extension service has expanded its tree-based activities in the small-scale farming sectors, and now includes an agroforestry section which collaborates closely with Forestry Commission (Agritex, 1982). There is a total establishment of approximately 4000 in the department, of which over 2000 have diplomas and 250 have degrees in agriculture.
4.2.2 Department of Research and Specialist Services (R&SS)
The key functions of R&SS are to further the welfare and technical progress of agriculture in Zimbabwe through agricultural research, and by providing specialist services. The department is also entrusted with the administration of certain regulatory services under various acts, including the implementation of phytosanitary regulations.
As regards non-wood forest products, R&SS includes a small agroforestry section, undertakes research and development programmes on livestock production, undertakes vegetation surveys of the communal lands and has a small section involved with apiculture. The National Herbarium falls under R&SS; it is able to provide considerable information on the plant species of Zimbabwe.
4.2.3 Department of Veterinary Services
The Department of Veterinary Services is responsible for the prevention and control of animal disease in Zimbabwe, thus they are important in sustaining livestock production. The department's activities include the following:
extension advice on health of livestock for the communal areas and responsibility for dipping services (involving over 2000 dip tanks) within such areas; foot-and-mouth disease control measures, to protect the beef export industry, and tsetse fly control and eradication programmes.
4.2.4 Agricultural Development Authority (ADA)
ADA came into existence in its present format in 1982. The major objectives of ADA are: to engage in the production of strategic agricultural commodities on state farms; to carry out research and planning on the agricultural and rural development potential of the country and to lead, coordinate and monitor the planning and implementation of rural development throughout Zimbabwe, and to generate employment in the rural areas through its estates and by promoting agroindustries, either in its own right or in association with other bodies.
Planning of agricultural and rural development is being carried out by ADA planning teams in communal areas of most provinces of the country. These teams identify small- and medium-sized projects in which the rural people can participate. As to non-wood forest products, ADA presently undertakes livestock production, but ADA could be the agency charged with the development of these products.
4.3 MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND TOURISM
16
Professional expertise is located within the two departments and two parastatal commissions whichfall within the ministry. These are:
Zimbabwe Tourist Development CommissionForestry CommissionDepartment of National Parks and Wildlife ManagementDepartment of Natural Resources
4.3.1 Forestry Commission
The Forestry Commission is a parastatal body with responsibility for forest resources and the forestryindustry. The commission's duties include the following:
promote the development of the country's natural resources for the benefit of thepeople and to ensure that forestry is integrated into the fabric of social life;introduce additional forms of land-use, including recreation and non-consumptivegame safaris, to optimise the benefits from land under its control;carry out and promote research to improve the efficiency of forestry;promote the socio-economic benefits of natural resource management and ensureadequate funding for environmental programmes, anddevelop appropriate models that will integrate the indigenous woodlands into theentire production process of rural communities.
The Forestry Commission is involved with non-wood forest products through its participation in thewildlife industry and its social forestry programme. In the early 1980s the Forestry Commission begana social forestry programme, but initially this was concentrated on eucalyptus woodlots and nurseries.By the mid-1980s the focus had broadened to the provision of wider set of species, some of whichyielded non- wood forest products. In recent years, the emphasis has again shifted to include themanagement of indigenous woodland resources. Thus the full range of non-wood forest productscould be within the brief of the Commission. However, it should be emphasised that the socialforestry component of the research section only comprises two professional officers.
17
Professional expertise is located within the two departments and two parastatal commissions which fall within the ministry. These are:
Zimbabwe Tourist Development Commission Forestry Commission Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management Department of Natural Resources
4.3.1 Forestry Commission
The Forestry Commission is a parastatal body with responsibility for forest resources and the forestry industry. The commission's duties include the following:
promote the development of the country's natural resources for the benefit of the people and to ensure that forestry is integrated into the fabric of social life; introduce additional forms of land-use, including recreation and non-consumptive game safaris, to optimise the benefits from land under its control; carry out and promote research to improve the efficiency of forestry; promote the socio-economic benefits of natural resource management and ensure adequate funding for environmental programmes, and develop appropriate models that will integrate the indigenous woodlands into the entire production process of rural communities.
The Forestry Commission is involved with non-wood forest products through its participation in the wildlife industry and its social forestry programme. In the early 1980s the Forestry Commission began a social forestry programme, but initially this was concentrated on eucalyptus woodlots and nurseries. By the mid-1980s the focus had broadened to the provision of wider set of species, some of which yielded non-wood forest products. In recent years, the emphasis has again shifted to include the management of indigenous woodland resources. Thus the full range of non-wood forest products could be within the brief of the Commission. However, it should be emphasised that the social forestry component of the research section only comprises two professional officers.
17
4.3.2 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management
The main responsibilities of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management are to:protect and manage all national parks, botanical reserves, botanical gardens,sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks;undertake research and develop appropriate land management practices inside andoutside the parks and wildlife estate for the benefit of fauna and flora and to enhancerural productivity;promote appropriate use of the parks and wildlife estate and of wildlife-orientedoutdoor recreational activities generally;promote the sensible long-term use of the nation's indigenous fauna and flora in theinterests of the resource and of sustainable rural productivity, andpromote, support and regulate appropriate secondary industries based on indigenousflora and fauna of the parks and wildlife estate.
This department is central as regards wildlife production. Major current programmes include:provision of services to the game ranching industry;the development of a nationalised marketing structure for wildlife products inZimbabwe;the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources(CAMPFIRE), which has been initiated in a number of communal areas, andanti-poaching activities in the Zambezi valley and elsewhere, as well as translocationof rhino populations.
4.3.3 Department of Natural Resources
The principal responsibilities of the Department of Natural Resources are to:promote and secure the implementation of policies designed to conserve and improvethe natural resources and environment, andensure that the provisions of the Natural Resources Act and other relevant legislationare observed.
To meet these responsibilities, the department:
advises govprompnt on the formulatiOn 4114 iMptententation of conservation polieY;MaiMains an effective surveillance through its lands Inspectorate and other appropriateorganisations and bodies to ensure observance of the provisions of the NaturalResources mg;promotes, advises, and assists in the work of all conservation committees establishedunder the Act, andassists in promoting and coordinating the activities of government agencies involvedin conserving and Improving natural resources and the environment of Zimbabwe.
The major natural resources extension effort is conducted through a range a conservation committeeswhich are serviced by regional secretaries and a national secretariat.
4.4 MINISTRY OF FINANCE, ECONOMIC PLANNING ANO DEVVOPMENT
Broad economic planning, public sector investment programmes, recurrent expenditure and donor aidprogrammes are controlled, coordinated and planned by the Ministry of Finance, Economic Planningand Development. Within this Ministry a planning unit, headed by the chief economist, has beenclosely involved in environmental development and land reform programmes.
18
4.3.2 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management
The main responsibilities of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management are to: protect and manage all national parks, botanical reserves, botanical gardens, sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks; undertake research and develop appropriate land management practices inside and outside the parks and wildlife estate for the benefit of fauna and flora and to enhance rural productivity; promote appropriate use of the parks and wildlife estate and of wildlife-oriented outdoor recreational activities generally; promote the sensible long-term use of the nation's indigenous fauna and flora in the interests of the resource and of sustainable rural productivity, and promote, support and regulate appropriate secondary industries based on indigenous flora and fauna of the parks and wildlife estate.
This department is central as regards wildlife production. Major current programmes include: provision of services to the game ranching industry; the development of a nationalised marketing structure for wildlife products in Zimbabwe; the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), which has been initiated in a number of communal areas, and anti-poaching activities in the Zambezi valley and elsewhere, as well as translocation of rhino populations.
4.3.3 Department of Natural Resources
The principal responsibilities of the Department of Natural Resources are to: promote and secure the implementation of policies designed to conserve and improve the natural resources and environment, and ensure that the provisions of the Natural Resources Act and other relevant legislation are observed.
To meet these responsibilities, the department:
advises gov"rnmon* on 'Ile formulation IIn4 im~roontQ'ion of conservation policy; main'Qins Qn effective surveillance through its lantts 'nspecto",te and other appropriate organisations and bodies to ensure o~servance of the provisions of the Natural Reso.,rces J\,,'; prolllOtes. ""vises. ItQd assists in the work of all conservation co...-lttees establislaed under .a.e J\c'. lind assists '" prol1lOtillS and coor41na.ing the acdvhies of government agencies involved in copserviQ8 aOO lPlproving natural re60urces and the "nvironment of Zimbabwe.
The major natural reSGl1rces extension effort is conduc~ through a ranae ()f ~"servation committees which are serviced by regional secretaries and a natiollltl secretariat.
4.4 MINISTRY OF FINANCE, ECONOMIC PLANNING ANQ D£VJl-OrMENT
Broad economic planning. public sector investment programmes, recurrent expenditure and donor aid programmes are controlled, coordinated and planned by the Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development. Within this Ministry a planning unit, headed by the chief economist, has been closely involved in environmental development and land reform programmes.
18
The Central Statistical Office is located within the Ministry and produces the Zimbabwe quarterly andannual 'Digests of Statistics' on a wide range of economic, industrial, commercial and development-related matters.
4.5 UNIVERSITIES
The medium term objective of national development is to develop and strengthen indigenous scientificand technical capability in terms of human resources and training institutions. To mediate thisdevelopment, there are three universities in Zimbabwe, the long-established University of Zimbabwe,and two recently established universities, the Africa University and the National University of Scienceand Technology.
The University of Zimbabwe contains all the major faculties of concern to the education, researchand development of non-wood forest products, although there is no single department coveringforestry. Faculties and some relevant departments and activities include:
- Faculty of Agriculture
The Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension is currently involved in valuationof tree-based resources and wildlife and livestock production. The Departments of AnimalScience and Crop Science are involved with livestock production. The latter is alsoundertaking work in Agroforestry.
19
The Central Statistical Office is located within the Ministry and produces the Zimbabwe quarterly and annual 'Digests of Statistics' on a wide range of economic, industrial, commercial and developmentrelated matters.
4.5 UNIVERSITIES
The medium term objective of national development is to develop and strengthen indigenous scientific and technical capability in terms of human resources and training institutions. To mediate this development, there are three universities in Zimbabwe, the long-established University of Zimbabwe, and two recently established universities, the Africa University and the National University of Science and Technology.
The University of Zimbabwe contains all the major faculties of concern to the education, research and development of non-wood forest products, although there is no single department covering forestry. Faculties and some relevant departments and activities include:
- Faculty of Agriculture
The Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension is currently involved in valuation of tree-based resources and wildlife and livestock production. The Departments of Animal Science and Crop Science are involved with livestock production. The latter is also undertaking work in Agroforestry.
19
Faculty of Arts
The Department of Geography is undertaking work on human coping strategies inimpoverished rural areas and on tourism.
Faculty of Science
The Department of Biological Sciences conducts research on both animal and plant non-woodforest products. The department offers an MSc in Tropical Resource Ecology (MTRE),together with the Centre for Applied Social Studies. These two departments have beenselected by UNEP as one of eight centres of excellence for environmental education. TheDepartment of Chemistry is conducting work on medicinal plants.
Faculty of Social Studies
The Institute of Development Studies conducts research on policy issues relevant to thedevelopment of non-wood forest products. To date, research has included that carried out onrural and community development, the informal sector, land reform, wildlife management,agricultural finance and extension. The Centre for Applied Social Studies conducts a widerange of research on resource management.
Faculty of Veterinary Science
The Faculty teaches and conducts research on both livestock and wildlife management.
Faculty of Medicine
There are a number of researchers in the Faculty looking at traditional medicines.
The other two universities are too recent to allow for a detailed description, but both are relevant toresearch, training and development as regards non-wood forest products. The Africa University isgoing to be a university of agriculture and natural resources, while the National University will focuson science and technology.
4.6 NON-GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES (NG0s) AND VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS
There are many institutions involved in development of non-wood forest products. They include thefollowing:
ENDA (Environmental Development Action) - Zimbabwe
The objective of ENDA Zimbabwe is to promote the development of Zimbabwe's ruralcommunities in the environmental, social, educational and technological spheres. Theorganisation undertakes research, initiates development projects and conducts training courses.In the past it has undertaken work on several non-wood forest products.
UNDP Africa 2000 Network
The Africa 2000 Network is a new initiative intended to mobilise and support African-basedNGOs in a continent-wide effort to address the growing problems of environmentaldegradation.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
There are a number of WWF projects in Zimbabwe; the largest in terms of human resourcesis the WWF Multispecies Project. This project is examining the ecological and economic basis
20
Faculty of Arts
The Department of Geography is undertaking work on human coping strategies in impoverished rural areas and on tourism.
Faculty of Science
The Department of Biological Sciences conducts research on both animal and plant non-wood forest products. The department offers an MSc in Tropical Resource Ecology (MTRE), together with the Centre for Applied Social Studies. These two departments have been selected by UNEP as one of eight centres of excellence for environmental education. The Department of Chemistry is conducting work on medicinal plants.
Faculty of Social Studies
The Institute of Development Studies conducts research on policy issues relevant to the development of non-wood forest products. To date, research has included that carried out on rural and community development, the informal sector, land reform, wildlife management, agricultural finance and extension. The Centre for Applied Social Studies conducts a wide range of research on resource management.
Faculty of Veterinary Science
The Faculty teaches and conducts research on both livestock and wildlife management.
Faculty of Medicine
There are a number of researchers in the Faculty looking at traditional medicines.
The other two universities are too recent to allow for a detailed description, but both are relevant to research, training and development as regards non-wood forest products. The Africa University is going to be a university of agriculture and natural resources, while the National University will focus on science and technology.
4.6 NON-GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES (NGOs) AND VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS
There are many institutions involved in development of non-wood forest products. They include the following:
ENDA (Environmental Development Action) - Zimbabwe
The objective of ENDA Zimbabwe is to promote the development of Zimbabwe's rural communities in the environmental, social, educational and technological spheres. The organisation undertakes research, initiates development projects and conducts training courses. In the past it has undertaken work on several non-wood forest products.
UNDP Africa 2000 Network
The Africa 2000 Network is a new initiative intended to mobilise and support African-based NGOs in a continent-wide effort to address the growing problems of environmental degradation.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
There are a number of WWF projects in Zimbabwe; the largest in terms of human resources is the WWF Multispecies Project. This project is examining the ecological and economic basis
20
for single (usually cattle) and multispecies (usually wildlife and livestock) systems of animalproduction in southern central Africa.
Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust
The Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust is tasked with the promotion of projects relatingto the environment and to the utilisation and conservation of natural resources.
The Zimbabwe Trust
One of the major aims of the Zimbabwe Trust is to provide the supportive services requiredby communities in the Communal Areas to secure the 'Appropriate Authority' over theirwildlife and other resources.
ZERO (Zimbabwe Energy and Environmental Research Organization)
ZERO is a regional network of environmental experts that promotes and coordinatesindigenous research and expertise on environmental issues.
Producer associations
For the most important non-wood forest products, there are strong producer associations. Inthe large-scale sector, there is the Wildlife Producer's Association and the LivestockProducer's Association. Newly established in the small-scale sector is the CAMPFIREassociation, which aims to coordinate the activities of those districts where CAMPFIREprogrammes are in progress. In each district where wildlife management is being practised,there are local institutions which manage the programmes.
21
for single (usually cattle) and mUltispecies (usually wildlife and livestock) systems of animal production in southern central Africa.
Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust
The Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust is tasked with the promotion of projects relating to the environment and to the utilisation and conservation of natural resources.
The Zimbabwe Trust
One of the major aims of the Zimbabwe Trust is to provide the supportive services required by communities in the Communal Areas to secure the' Appropriate Authority' over their wildlife and other resources.
ZERO (Zimbabwe Energy and Environmental Research Organization)
ZERO is a regional network of environmental experts that promotes and coordinates indigenous research and expertise on environmental issues.
Producer associations
For the most important non-wood forest products, there are strong producer associations. In the large-scale sector, there is the Wildlife Producer's Association and the Livestock Producer's Association. Newly established in the small-scale sector is the CAMPFIRE association, which aims to coordinate the activities of those districts where CAMPFIRE programmes are in progress. In each district where wildlife management is being practised, there are local institutions which manage the programmes.
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4.7 INSTITUTIONAL GAPS
There is no single institution which covers non-wood forest products, but the diversity of productsis such that this could hardly be expected. Livestock receives much attention, especially in the large-scale sector; but even in the small-scale sector, livestock receive more attention than any other non-wood forest product. In recent years wildlife has received considerable focus with the CAMPFIREscheme. In government the central organization is the Department of National Parks and WildlifeManagement, but the real expansion has taken place outside government, with the establishment ofWWF Multispecies project and ZIMTRUST, and the initiation of research by the Centre for AppliedSocial Sciences (UZ) on natural resource issues. Funding for wildlife development is now secure incomparison to other non-wood forest products, as all the major donors are presently involved in thewildlife sector.
The remaining non-wood forest products, including all the forest foods, the barks and materials, themedicinal plants and the gums and dyes, receive almost no attention. The only research to look at thefull spectrum of products has taken place in the Department of Biological Sciences (UZ), whileproduct development has been limited and scattered in many different organizations. There is noorganization that coordinates activities. Extension activities regarding non-wood forest products arealso limited and the responsibility of no single organisation. Expanded extension activities wouldprobably have to be directed through Agritex, but this agency is dominated by extension on the majorcrop and domestic livestock.
For activities to be effective, there is need for strong coordination among the different agenciesinvolved. Communication and coordination are not at present very strong. Funding for research anddevelopment is increasingly dependent on external donor funds. For instance, within governmentinstitutions, budgets have been static in the last decade despite widespread inflation. Researchofficers have security of a job but no funds, in the absence of donor support, to undertake in-depthstudies (e.g. see Piearce, 1992, with respect to the Forestry Commission). Turnover rates for staff arealso unsatisfactory, because of poor conditions of service. The average length of service of less thanthree years for research professionals in Forestry Commission (Piearce, 1992) is typical of mostgovernment and parastatal institutions, and precludes any long-term continuity in research anddevelopment.
5 LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
In this section a brief overview of the relevant legislation is given.
CITES (Convention in Trade in Endangered Species)
The most important piece of legislation affecting wildlife trade is Appendix One ofCITES, which prohibits international trade in a listed species and its products betweenthe signatories of the convention, one of which is Zimbabwe. Elephant were recentlyshifted to Appendix one and this has made the wildlife industry much less profitable(Cumming and Bond, 1991; Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr, 1992).Industries based on ivory and elephant hide have had to close down, rural communitieshave foregone wildlife earnings of several million dollars and livestock production hasbecome more economically competitive with wiktlife.
Natural Resources ACI
This act provides for the conservation and improvement or natural resources at the nationallevel. The implementing agency is the Department of Natural Resources, and the act allowsfor the ordering of inhabitants to carry out or refrain from certain activities.
Forest Act
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4.7 INSTITUTIONAL GAPS
There is no single institution which covers non-wood forest products, but the diversity of products is such that this could hardly be expected. Livestock receives much attention, especially in the largescale sector; but even in the small-scale sector, livestock receive more attention than any other nonwood forest product. In recent years wildlife has received considerable focus with the CAMPFIRE scheme. In government the central organization is the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, but the real expansion has taken place outside government, with the establishment of WWF Multispecies project and ZIMTRUST, and the initiation of research by the Centre for Applied Social Sciences (UZ) on natural resource issues. Funding for wildlife development is now secure in comparison to other non-wood forest products, as all the major donors are presently involved in the wildlife sector.
The remaining non-wood forest products, including all the forest foods, the barks and materials, the medicinal plants and the gums and dyes, receive almost no attention. The only research to look at the full spectrum of products has taken place in the Department of Biological Sciences (UZ), while product development has been limited and scattered in many different organizations. There is no organization that coordinates activities. Extension activities regarding non-wood forest products are also limited and the responsibility of no single organisation. Expanded extension activities would probably have to be directed through Agritex, but this agency is dominated by extension on the major crop and domestic livestock.
For activities to be effective, there is need for strong coordination among the different agencies involved. Communication and coordination are not at present very strong. Funding for research and development is increasingly dependent on external donor funds. For instance, within government institutions, budgets have been static in the last decade despite widespread inflation. Research officers have security of a job but no funds, in the absence of donor support, to undertake in-depth studies (e.g. see Piearce, 1992, with respect to the Forestry Commission). Turnover rates for staff are also unsatisfactory, because of poor conditions of service. The average length of service of less than three years for research professionals in Forestry Commission (Piearce, 1992) is typical of most government and parastatal institutions, and precludes any long-term continuity in research and development.
5 LEGISLATION RELEVANT TO NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
In this section a brief overview of the relevant legislation is given.
CITES (Convention in Trade in Endangered Species)
The most important piece of legislation affecting wildlife trade is Appendix One of CITES, which prohibits international trade in a listed species and its products between the signatories of the convention, one of which is Zimbabwe. Elephant were recently shifted to Appendix one and this has made the wildlife industry much less profitable (Cumming and Bond, 1991; Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr, 1992). Industries based on ivory and elephant hide have had to close down, rural communities have foregone wildlife earnings of several million dollars and livestock production has become more economically competitive with wildtWo.
Natural Resources Act
This act provides for the conservation and improvement of natural resources at the national level. The implementing agency is the Department of Natural Resources, and the act allows for the ordering of inhabitants to carry out or refrain from certain activitios.
forest Act
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This act deals primarily with forests and woodlands on lands in the large-scale sector and instate land, with the implementing agency being Forestry Commission. Small-scalehouseholders using resources on adjacent State Forest would be governed by this act. The actallows for the creation of forest officers who have power of seizure and arrest.
Communal Land Forest Product Act
This act pertains to the communal lands, is implemented by Forestry Commission, and governsthe exploitation of forest products. The act provides for the exploitation of forest productsfor subsistence and lays down the mechanism whereby products can be exploited on acommercial basis through a system of permits, licences and agreements.
Parks and Wildlife Act
This act governs the exploitation and conservation of natural resources on state landadministered by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. In addition theact applies to the exploitation of protected animal and plant species on private land. The actis important as regards wildlife management is concerned, as it allows for the use of wildlifeon private property for the benefit of the landowner. Recently, wildlife on communal landshas also been incorporated into this aspect of the act, with 'appropriate authority' over wildlifenow being given to District Councils.
The legislation, especially in regards non-wood forest products on communal lands, has been overlyrestrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoted development of trade. Theprimary strategy embodied in the acts is criminilisation (Gore et al., 1992). In addition, the legislationhas not prevented commercial interests from exploiting the resources unsustainably. In recent years,some aspects have changed, with greater authority being given to more local structures (DistrictCouncils). For instance, the use of wildlife for the benefit of local residents is now possible, but thisneeds to be expanded to the full range of products. There is much more than can be done to liberaliseand promote sustainable exploitation. At present it is easier for outsiders rather than local residentsto exploit non-wood forest products through the permit system. Local residents should have easieraccess, and local residents should have greater say in the exploitation of the resources.
6 KEY NONWOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Of the many non-wood forest products used in Zimbabwe, it is necessary to select a few for furtherresearch and development. In this section, the most important non-wood forest products, and furtherresearch and development ob jectives are identified.
Livestock play a central role in household security in Zimbabwe, and must be a priority for researchand development. However, the livestock sector is covered by numerous research and developmentinstitutions, and receives a considerable subsidy from central government (Food Studies Group, 1990).Thus livestock is not regarded as being key for any new focus on non-wood forest products. Thesame can be said for wildlife, though here the network of institutions undertaking research anddevelopment is rather recent. Nevertheless, wildlife are also not regarded as being a key focus forany new programme.
6.2 WILD FRUITS
Although wood for construction and fuel make up a high percentage of the goods derived from trees,as important, are wild fruits from the woodland. Wild fruits need much more attention; there is aneed to document present levels of trade and to investigate means of developing the market potentialof selected wild fruits. Fruits which are currently marketed and probably have potential for
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This act deals primarily with forests and woodlands on lands in the large-scale sector and in state land, with the implementing agency being Forestry Commission. Small-scale householders using resources on adjacent State Forest would be governed by this act. The act allows for the creation of forest officers who have power of seizure and arrest.
Communal Land Forest Product Act
This act pertains to the communal lands, is implemented by Forestry Commission, and governs the exploitation of forest products. The act provides for the exploitation of forest products for subsistence and lays down the mechanism whereby products can be exploited on a commercial basis through a system of permits, licences and agreements.
Parks and Wildlife Act
This act governs the exploitation and conservation of natural resources on state land administered by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. In addition the act applies to the exploitation of protected animal and plant species on private land. The act is important as regards wildlife management is concerned, as it allows for the use of wildlife on private property for the benefit of the landowner. Recently, wildlife on communal lands has also been incorporated into this aspect of the act, with 'appropriate authority' over wildlife now being given to District Councils.
The legislation, especially in regards non-wood forest products on communal lands, has been overly restrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoted development of trade. The primary strategy embodied in the acts is criminilisation (Gore~., 1992). In addition, the legislation has not prevented commercial interests from exploiting the resources unsustainably. In recent years, some aspects have changed, with greater authority being given to more local structures (District Councils). For instance, the use of wildlife for the benefit of local residents is now possible, but this needs to be expanded to the full range of products. There is much more than can be done to liberalise and promote sustainable exploitation. At present it is easier for outsiders rather than local residents to exploit non-wood forest products through the permit system. Local residents should have easier access, and local residents should have greater say in the exploitation of the resources.
6 KEY NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Of the many non-wood forest products used in Zimbabwe, it is necessary to select a few for further research and development. In this section, the most important non-wood forest products, and further research and development objectives are identified.
Livestock playa central role in household security in Zimbabwe, and must be a priority for research and development. However, the livestock sector is covered by numerous research and development institutions, and receives a considerable subsidy from central government (Food Studies Group, 1990). Thus livestock is not regarded as being key for any new focus on non-wood forest products. The same can be said for wildlife, though here the network of institutions undertaking research and development is rather recent. Nevertheless, wildlife are also not regarded as being a key focus for any new programme.
6.2 WILD FRUITS
Although wood for construction and fuel make up a high percentage of the goods derived from trees, as important, are wild fruits from the woodland. Wild fruits need much more attention; there is a need to document present levels of trade and to investigate means of developing the market potential of selected wild fruits. Fruits which are currently marketed and probably have potential for
23
development include UaDaca kirkiana, ZiziDhus mauritania, Strvchnos spp. and Sclerocarva birrea.These mostly have at least two end-products, fresh fruit and fruit drinks (either alcoholic or non-
alcoholic). S. birrea also has the possibility of providing high-quality nuts for confectionary, and inSouth Africa it is already used to produce a high-quality liquor, for domestic and export consumption.Zimbabwe is very poor in nut production, so a Sclerocarva nut market would result in importsubstitution. This tree is a very heavy producer (see e.g. Peters, 1988), so there are unlikely to besupply constraints, although research is needed into improving nut extraction methods.
Technical data on fruit yield and storage are lacking. It would be important to utilise indigenoustechnical knowledge in order to rapidly gain insight into production potentials of specific species andspecific individuals, and of how stable the production is in relation to the rainfall variability that ischaracteristic of the region.
24
development include UaDaca kirkiana, Ziziphus mauritania, Strychnos spp. and Sclerocarya birrea. These mostly have at least two end-products, fresh fruit and fruit drinks (either alcoholic or non
alcoholic). S. birrea also has the possibility of providing high-quality nuts for confectionary, and in South Africa it is already used to produce a high-quality liquor, for domestic and export consumption. Zimbabwe is very poor in nut production, so a Sclerocarya nut market would result in import substitution. This tree is a very heavy producer (see e.g. Peters, 1988), so there are unlikely to be supply constraints, although research is needed into improving nut extraction methods.
Technical data on fruit yield and storage are lacking. It would be important to utilise indigenous technical knowledge in order to rapidly gain insight into production potentials of specific species and specific individuals, and of how stable the production is in relation to the rainfall variability that is characteristic of the region.
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6.3 MUSHROOMS AND INSECTS
Two other woodland foods need attention: mushrooms and insects. The former probably have exportpotential, while the latter have potential on domestic markets. Technical data on these potentialproducts are extremely limited, and the degree to which sustainable and economic harvesting practicescan be implemented is unknown. Mushrooms production is unknown, with estimates of productionranging from 2 kg/ha to 50 kg/ha (C. Sharpe, pers. comm.). Production is very seasonal anddependent on the rainfall regime. Basic production data need to be collected, but assuming productionis at the top end of the range, then at current prices the woodland can fetch Z$300/ha for mushrooms,which would represent the highest gross benefit per hectare of any land use, including cropproduction. Once again, it would be important to harness indigenous technical knowledge inobtaining rapid insights into the productive potential of these products.
6.4 CRAFTWORK
Within the range of non-food forest products, that with the most potential for development concernscraftwork. Experiences of the Binga Craft Centre run by the Danish Volunteer Service need to bedocumented with the view to replicating this marketing mechanism in other areas of Zimbabwe.Present levels of marketing are more or less unknown and the potential for exportation of crafts isunclear.
Although craft workers generally displayed optimism in the future of their enterprises, they didacknowledge a number of difficulties (Brigham, in prep.). The most frequent complaints centred onthe marketing infrastructure, or lack thereof, available to craftsmen. For those looking to sell goodsoutside of the immediate area, problems are encountered with the availability and cost of transport.Where buses are relied upon for getting to market, if a conductor discovers goods for sale are beingtransported, he will often sharply increase the fare. Another difficulty is finding an outlet whichprovides a fair return for the product; many complained of the 'makoronyera' (cheats) of Mbaremarket in Harare who coerce craft makers into surrendering their products for low prices. Some ofthe 'European' (tourist) shops in the city are also known for their high mark-ups, in one case up to750%.
Scarcity of raw materials is also of some concern to craft makers (Brigham, in prep.). Most now travellong distances - on average approximately 5 or 6 kilometres - to obtain the specific wood they require.Shortages of certain species are often quite localised and craftsmen respond by shifting their collectingsites. Chidari et al. (1992) point out that statements regarding tree shortages may refer more to therarity of a specific form of that tree rather than to an overall rarity of that species. Nevertheless,many craft makers expressed a concern that in the future, perhaps within a few years in some areas,certain species would no longer be available. Even under the current situation, conflicts were arisingwhere craftsmen attempted to access wood resources considered to belong to neighbouringcommunities (Brigham, in prep.).
Little research has been undertaken on the environmental consequences of craft enterprises (Mhone,1991). The craftsmen offering information on their tree-cutting practices indicated a rough fellingrate of 25 to 60 trees per year (Brigham, in prep.). Currently, craft workers prefer to collect furtherafield rather than substitute with species they consider inferior, one of which is eucalyptus, themainstay of Zimbabwe's afforestation programmes to date. Craftsmen demonstrate considerableknowledge of the characteristics of the trees they use, both in terms of utilisation suitability and theirecology. Such knowledge could be used to evaluate the practicality of any interventions in the craftsector, including those involving species substitution or enhancement.
Whether expanding current levels of craftwork should be encouraged or not will depend on localconditions; prior to beginning a programme, site specific research will be required to assess thesustainability of current exploitation rates of craft species. Questions regarding the benefits and costsfor various interest groups and the community at large will also have to be addressed. What is clearis that local communities, as those most affected by alterations to the forest resource, should be at the
25
6.3 MUSHROOMS AND INSECTS
Two other woodland foods need attention: mushrooms and insects. The former probably have export potential, while the latter have potential on domestic markets. Technical data on these potential products are extremely limited, and the degree to which sustainable and economic harvesting practices can be implemented is unknown. Mushrooms production is unknown, with estimates of production ranging from 2 kg/ha to 50 kg/ha (C. Sharpe, pers. comm.). Production is very seasonal and dependent on the rainfall regime. Basic production data need to be collected, but assuming production is at the top end of the range, then at current prices the woodland can fetch Z$300/ha for mushrooms, which would represent the highest gross benefit per hectare of any land use, including crop production. Once again, it would be important to harness indigenous technical knowledge in obtaining rapid insights into the productive potential of these products.
6.4 CRAFTWORK
Within the range of non-food forest products, that with the most potential for development concerns craftwork. Experiences of the Binga Craft Centre run by the Danish Volunteer Service need to be documented with the view to replicating this marketing mechanism in other areas of Zimbabwe. Present levels of marketing are more or less unknown and the potential for exportation of crafts is unclear.
Although craft workers generally displayed optimism in the future of their enterprises, they did acknowledge a number of difficulties (Brigham, in prep.). The most frequent complaints centred on the marketing infrastructure, or lack thereof, available to craftsmen. For those looking to sell goods outside of the immediate area, problems are encountered with the availability and cost of transport. Where buses are relied upon for getting to market, if a conductor discovers goods for sale are being transported, he will often sharply increase the fare. Another difficulty is finding an outlet which provides a fair return for the product; many complained of the 'makoronyera' (cheats) of Mbare market in Harare who coerce craft makers into surrendering their products for low prices. Some of the 'European' (tourist) shops in the city are also known for their high mark-ups, in one case up to 750%.
Scarcity of raw materials is also of some concern to craft makers (Brigham, in prep.). Most now travel long distances - on average approximately 5 or 6 kilometres - to obtain the specific wood they require. Shortages of certain species are often quite localised and craftsmen respond by shifting their collecting sites. Chidari et al. (1992) point out that statements regarding tree shortages may refer more to the rarity of a specific form of that tree rather than to an overall rarity of that species. Nevertheless, many craft makers expressed a concern that in the future, perhaps within a few years in some areas, certain species would no longer be available. Even under the current situation, conflicts were arising where craftsmen attempted to access wood resources considered to belong to neighbouring communities (Brigham, in prep.).
Little research has been undertaken on the environmental consequences of craft enterprises (Mhone, 1991). The craftsmen offering information on their tree-cutting practices indicated a rough felling rate of 25 to 60 trees per year (Brigham, in prep.). Currently, craft workers prefer to collect further afield rather than substitute with species they consider inferior, one of which is eucalyptus, the mainstay of Zimbabwe's afforestation programmes to date. Craftsmen demonstrate considerable knowledge of the characteristics of the trees they use, both in terms of utilisation suitability and their ecology. Such knowledge could be used to evaluate the practicality of any interventions in the craft sector, including those involving species substitution or enhancement.
Whether expanding current levels of craftwork should be encouraged or not will depend on local conditions; prior to beginning a programme, site specific research will be required to assess the sustainability of current exploitation rates of craft species. Questions regarding the benefits and costs for various interest groups and the community at large will also have to be addressed. What is clear is that local communities, as those most affected by alterations to the forest resource, should be at the
25
centre of any planning activities, and their concerns and priorities should be of paramountimportance.
6.5 MEDICINES
There is also probably plenty of potential for the development of medicinal products from thewoodlands of Zimbabwe. The development potential would only be realised if the ethnobotanicalsurvey expertise and the pharmaceutical research establishment were strengthened. Zimbabwe hasan excellent overview of medicinal plants (Gelfand et al., 1985); what is required is more detailedinformation about specific plants.
6.6 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE EXPLOITATION OF NEW FORESTPRODUCTS
The success of any programme is partly dependent on providing an enabling institutional framework.Because of the CAMPFIRE programme, which was largely established for the exploitation ofcommunally-held wildlife resources, Zimbabwe has the potential to establish institutional structureswhich could be used to exploit the full potential of indigenous woodlands. There are now establishedmechanisms for returning profits to the community, for establishing natural resource committees andfor ensuring communication between government and local institutions. The local institutions couldensure that there is a degree of participatory planning and that local indigenous knowledge ischannelled into the programme.
26
centre of any planning activities, and their concerns and priorities should be of paramount importance.
6.5 MEDICINES
There is also probably plenty of potential for the development of medicinal products from the woodlands of Zimbabwe. The development potential would only be realised if the ethnobotanical survey expertise and the pharmaceutical research establishment were strengthened. Zimbabwe has an excellent overview of medicinal plants (Gelfand~., 1985); what is required is more detailed information about specific plants.
6.6 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE EXPLOITATION OF NEW FOREST PRODUCTS
The success of any programme is partly dependent on providing an enabling institutional framework. Because of the CAMPFIRE programme, which was largely established for the exploitation of communally-held wildlife resources, Zimbabwe has the potential to establish institutional structures which could be used to exploit the full potential of indigenous woodlands. There are now established mechanisms for returning profits to the community, for establishing natural resource committees and for ensuring communication between government and local institutions. The local institutions could ensure that there is a degree of participatory planning and that local indigenous knowledge is channelled into the programme.
26
7 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
Prejudices against certain non-wood forest products are evident amongst rural dwellers (McGregor,1991, and Wilson, 1990). These prejudices may be entrenched at higher institutional levels (Sene,1985; FAO, 1991), but no data on this for Zimbabwe are available.
Legislation on non-wood forest products is too restrictive. The international ban on trade in ivoryis preventing further development of the wildlife industry in communal areas and is likely to resultin the collapse of some of the wildlife schemes that were initiated, as the considerable value of ivoryformed the basis of the economic justification for the schemes. In Zimbabwe, the CITES regulationwill have the opposite of its intended effect: in the absence of elephant economic value, elephantnumbers (and other wildlife) will be reduced and domestic livestock will become more common.Local legislation is also overly restrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoteddevelopment of trade.
There is often a lack of data on the importance or otherwise of non-wood forest products. To someextent, this is due to methodological obstacles to the valuation of nonmarket products (Scoones et al.,1992; Campbell et al., 1991; Campbell, 1993), but it is also due to the lack of collection of theappropriate statistics, often due to the absence of a single institute responsible for non-wood forestproducts and due to monetary and personnel constraints in the current institutions.
Perhaps more important than the above, is the lack of data on how the value of non-wood forestproducts varies in time and space (Campbell, 1993; de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Scoones et al.,1992). How does value vary with such factors as year, season, gender, age, wealth status andecological conditions?
The products are often collected from common property resource areas (Nhira and Fortmann, 1993;Scoones et al., 1992). How is access changing with time and how are access rules changing? Evidencesuggests that as pressures on the commons increase, there is increased privatisation of land and forestproducts (Campbell et al., 1993; Wilson, 1990). In view of the dependence of the poorer sections ofrural populations on non-wood forest products (e.g. Wilson, 1990), securing access to the products isimportant for maintaining livelihoods of the poor (Scoones et al., 1992).
Commercialisation of non-wood forest products cannot be seen as a panacea for development, asvarious studies have shown that commercialisation often results in the breakdown of indigenousmanagement techniques leading to unsustainable extraction levels (Campbell et al., 1993; Cunningham,1990). Furthermore, commercialization often benefits the wealthier sector of the rural population (deBeer and Mcdermott, 1989).
There is, as always, a lack of consultation with people in devising development plans. Any newprogrammes should be fully participatory, with programme development starting at the village level.Development of markets for non-wood forest products should benefit the rural poor, and the ruralpoor should be empowered to control access and management of the resource.
There is insufficient information exchange between countries. Exchange is important as much of thedata on non-wood forest products are in the 'grey' literature. For instance, researchers in SouthAfrica, Botswana and Zimbabwe have expressed interests in Sclerocarva, but there has been no or verylittle exchange of ideas. A related problem is that there is insufficient knowledge and awareness aboutnon-wood forest products in the main government institutions. There is a need to conduct shortcourses for personnel from such institutions.
8 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendation encompasses a broad vision, both for the short and long terms, for thedevelopment of the potential of non-wood forest products. However, should severe fundingrestrictions be encountered then individual components of the programme would have to be selected.
27
7 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS
Prejudices against certain non-wood forest products are evident amongst rural dwellers (McGregor, 1991, and Wilson, 1990). These prejudices may be entrenched at higher institutional levels (Sene, 1985; FAD, 1991), but no data on this for Zimbabwe are available.
Legislation on non-wood forest products is too restrictive. The international ban on trade in ivory is preventing further development of the wildlife industry in communal areas and is likely to result in the collapse of some of the wildlife schemes that were initiated, as the considerable value of ivory formed the basis of the economic justification for the schemes. In Zimbabwe, the CITES regulation will have the opposite of its intended effect: in the absence of elephant economic value, elephant numbers (and other wildlife) will be reduced and domestic livestock will become more common. Local legislation is also overly restrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoted development of trade.
There is often a lack of data on the importance or otherwise of non-wood forest products. To some extent, this is due to methodological obstacles to the valuation of nonmarket products (Scoones tl..ru., 1992; Campbell et aI., 1991; Campbell, 1993), but it is also due to the lack of collection of the appropriate statistics, often due to the absence of a single institute responsible for non-wood forest products and due to monetary and personnel constraints in the current institutions.
Perhaps more important than the above, is the lack of data on how the value of non-wood forest products varies in time and space (Campbell, 1993; de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Scoones et aI., 1992). How does value vary with such factors as year, season, gender, age, wealth status and ecological conditions?
The products are often collected from common property resource areas (Nhira and Fortmann, 1993; Scoones et aI., 1992). How is access changing with time and how are access rules changing? Evidence suggests that as pressures on the commons increase, there is increased privatisation of land and forest products (Campbell et aI., 1993; Wilson, 1990). In view of the dependence of the poorer sections of rural populations on non-wood forest products (e.g. Wilson, 1990), securing access to the products is important for maintaining livelihoods of the poor (Scoones tl..a.l., 1992).
Commercialisation of non-wood forest products cannot be seen as a panacea for development, as various studies have shown that commercialisation often results in the breakdown of indigenous management techniques leading to unsustainable extraction levels (Campbell et aI., 1993; Cunningham, 1990). Furthermore, commercialization often benefits the wealthier sector of the rural population (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989).
There is, as always, a lack of consultation with people in devising development plans. Any new programmes should be fully participatory, with programme development starting at the village level. Development of markets for non-wood forest products should benefit the rural poor, and the rural poor should be empowered to control access and management of the resource.
There is insufficient information exchange between countries. Exchange is important as much of the data on non-wood forest products are in the 'grey' literature. For instance, researchers in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe have expressed interests in Sclerocarya, but there has been no or very little exchange of ideas. A related problem is that there is insufficient knowledge and awareness about non-wood forest products in the main government institutions. There is a need to conduct short courses for personnel from such institutions.
8 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendation encompasses a broad vision, both for the short and long terms, for the development of the potential of non-wood forest products. However, should severe funding restrictions be encountered then individual components of the programme would have to be selected.
27
An institution either at the university or in the non-governmental sector should be identified toestablish a programme on non-wood forest products. It would be best if the personnel of theinstitution work out of a government institute, perhaps Forestry Commission or AgriculturalDevelopment Authority, so that once the programme has been established it can be continued by thegovernment institute. The selected institute would, in a 3-5 year programme, undertake the following:
run short courses on non-wood forest products to raise the policy profile of non-wood forestproducts;
devise and implement simple methods to improve and widen the collection of statistical dataon the production, consumption and trade in non-wood forest products;
make a study of the experiences of the Binga Craft Centre in marketing craftwork;
undertake a research project on the sustainability of the exploitation of products for craftwork(case study in the Binga area);
set up two development projects, as follows:
Set up a craftwork marketing development project, building on the experiences of theBinga Craft Centre;
Establish a non-wood forest products exploitation centre based on wild foods. Theestablishment would be carefully monitored so that the approach could be improvedon and replicated in other areas in the future. This activity would have the followingelements:
select a site where the exploitation of a number of products is possible andwhere there is already some experience in institutional arrangements for theexploitation of communal resources (e.g. Mvurodonna Wilderness Area, where,over a short distance, one could imagine the exploitation of mushrooms,insects and wild fruits, particularly Sclerocarva).employ participatory methods to harness indigenous knowledge and toestablish exact institutional arrangements for exploitation, anddevice and implement simple monitoring arrangements for investigating theproduction of the resource base.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Most of the data used in this report were collected as part of the pro ject on Value of Tree-basedResources funded by the International Development Research Centre (Canada). Facilities at theStockholm Environment, in particular the library, are gratefully acknowledged.
10 REFERENCES
Agritex (1982). Agritex agroforestry policy document. Department of Agriculture and TechnicalServices, Harare.
ARDA (1987). Resource management project for Kanyati and Gatsche communal areas. Agriculturalrural development authority, Harare.
Ashworth, V.A. (1990). Agricultural technology and the communal farm sector. Main report.Background paper prepared for Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Memorandum. Agriculture Division,Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
28
An institution either at the university or in the non-governmental sector should be identified to establish a programme on non-wood forest products. It would be best if the personnel of the institution work out of a government institute, perhaps Forestry Commission or Agricultural Development Authority, so that once the programme has been established it can be continued by the government institute. The selected institute would, in a 3-5 year programme, undertake the following:
a) run short courses on non-wood forest products to raise the policy profile of non-wood forest products;
b) devise and implement simple methods to improve and widen the collection of statistical data on the production, consumption and trade in non-wood forest products;
c) make a study of the experiences of the Binga Craft Centre in marketing craftwork;
d) undertake a research project on the sustainability of the exploitation of products for craftwork (case study in the Binga area);
e) set up two development projects, as follows:
i) Set up a craftwork marketing development project, building on the experiences of the Binga Craft Centre;
ii) Establish a non-wood forest products exploitation centre based on wild foods. The establishment would be carefully monitored so that the approach could be improved on and replicated in other areas in the future. This activity would have the following elements:
select a site where the exploitation of a number of products is possible and where there is already some experience in institutional arrangements for the exploitation of communal resources (e.g. Mvurodonna Wilderness Area, where, over a short distance, one could imagine the exploitation of mushrooms, insects and wild fruits, particularly Sclerocarya). employ participatory methods to harness indigenous knowledge and to establish exact institutional arrangements for exploitation, and device and implement simple monitoring arrangements for investigating the production of the resource base.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Most of the data used in this report were collected as part of the project on Value of Tree-based Resources funded by the International Development Research Centre (Canada). Facilities at the Stockholm Environment, in particular the library, are gratefully acknowledged.
10 REFERENCES
Agritex (1982). Agritex agroforestry policy document. Department of Agriculture and Technical Services, Harare.
ARDA (1987). Resource management project for Kanyati and Gatsche communal areas. Agricultural rural development authority, Harare.
Ashworth, V.A. (1990). Agricultural technology and the communal farm sector. Main report. Background paper prepared for Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Momorandum. Agriculture Division, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, WashingtoR.
28
Barrett, J. 1991 Valuing animal draught in agropastoral farming systems. In Tillage: Past and Future.Proceedings of a workshop, Institute of Agricultural Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe. FSR NetworkshopReport 22:21-30.
Bradley, P.N. and Dewees, P.A. (1993). Indigenous woodlands: agricultural production and householdeconomies in the communal areas. In: Bradley, P. and McNamara, K. (eds) Living with Trees: AFuture for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe. World Bank, Washington (in press).
Bradley, P.N. and McNamara, K. (1990). The role of trees and woodlands in Zimbabwe's CommunalAreas. Background paper prepared for Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Memorandum. AgricultureDivision, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
Bratton, M. (1987). Drought, food and the social organisation of small farmers in Zimbabwe. In: M.H.Glentz (ed.) Drought and Hunger in Africa*. Denying Famine a Future. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.
Campbell, B.M. (1987). The use of wild fruits in Zimbabwe. Economic Botany 41:375-385.
Campbell, B.M. (1993). The monetary valuation of tree-based resources in Zimbabwe: experience andoutlook. Paper prepared for the FAO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophoneAfrica).
Campbell, B.M., Frost, P., King, J., Mawanza, M. and Mhlanga, L. (in prep.) The influence of treeson soil fertility and microbial activity, Matobo, Zimbabwe.
Campbell, B.M., Grundy, I.M. and Matose, F. (1993). Tree and woodland resources - the technicalpractices of small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe. In: Bradley, P. and McNamara, K. (eds) Living withTrees: A Future for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe. World Bank, Washington, USA (in press).
Campbell, B.M., Vermeulen, S.J. and Lynam, T. (1991). Value of Trees in the Small-scale FarmingSector of Zimbabwe. IDRC-MR302e, Ottawa, Canada. 72 pp.
Chidari, G., Chirambaguwa, F., Matsvimbo, P., Mhiripiri, P.,Kamanya, W., Muza, T., Muyombo, H., Chanakira, J., Chanakira, X., Mutsvangwa, A., Mvumbe, P.,Nyamadzawo, L., Fortmann, L., Drummond, R.B. and Nabane, N. (1992). The use of indigenous treesin Mhondoro District. CASS Occasional Paper NRM 5, Centre for Applied Social Sciences, Universityof Zimbabwe.
CSO (1987). Annual economic review of Zimbabwe, 1986. Central Statistical Office, Ministry ofFinance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1989). Statistical yearbook, 1989. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance, EconomicPlanning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1991). Quarterly digest of statistics December, 1991. Central Statistical Office, Ministry ofFinance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1992). Census, 1992. Zimbabwe. Preliminary Report. Central Statistical Office, Ministry ofFinance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
Cumming, D.H.M. (1990). Wildlife products and the market place: a view from southern Africa.Project Paper No. 12. WWF Multispecies Animal Production Systems Project, Harare.
Cumming, D.H.M. and Bond, I. (1991). Animal production in Southern Africa: Present practice andopportunities for peasant farmers in arid lands. A report prepared for the IDRC. Project Paper No.22, Multispecies Project, WWF, Harare, Zimbabwe.
29
Barrett, J. 1991 Valuing animal draught inagropastoral farming systems. In Tillage: Past and Future. Proceedings of a workshop, Institute of Agricultural Extension, Harare, Zimbabwe. FSR Networkshop Report 22:21-30.
Bradley, P.N. and Dewees, P.A. (1993). Indigenous woodlands: agricultural production and household economies in the communal areas. In: Bradley, P. and McNamara, K. (eds) Living with Trees: A Future for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe. World Bank, Washington (in press).
Bradley, P.N. and McNamara, K. (1990). The role of trees and woodlands in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas. Background paper prepared for Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Memorandum. Agriculture Division, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
Bratton, M. (1987). Drought, food and the social organisation of small farmers in Zimbabwe. In: M.H. Glentz (ed.) Drought and Hunger in Africa: Denying Famine a Future. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Campbell, B.M. (1987). The use of wild fruits in Zimbabwe. Economic Botany 41:375-385.
Campbell, B.M. (1993). The monetary valuation of tree-based resources in Zimbabwe: experience and outlook. Paper prepared for the F AO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophone Africa).
Campbell, B.M., Frost, P., King, J., Mawanza, M. and Mhlanga, L. (in prep.) The influence of trees on soil fertility and microbial activity, Matobo, Zimbabwe.
Campbell, B.M., Grundy, I.M. and Matose, F. (1993). Tree and woodland resources - the technical practices of small-scale farmers in Zimbabwe. In: Bradley, P. and McNamara, K. (eds) Living with Trees: A Future for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe. World Bank, Washington, USA (in press).
Campbell, B.M., Vermeulen, S.J. and Lynam, T. (1991). Value of Trees in the Small-scale Farming Sector of Zimbabwe. IDRC-MR302e, Ottawa, Canada. 72 pp.
Chidari, G., Chirambaguwa, F., Matsvimbo, P., Mhiripiri, P., Kamanya, W., Muza, T., Muyombo, H., Chanakira, J., Chanakira, X., Mutsvangwa, A., Mvumbe, P., Nyamadzawo, L., Fortmann, L., Drummond, R.B. and Nabane, N. (1992). The use of indigenous trees in Mhondoro District. CASS Occasional Paper NRM 5, Centre for Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe.
CSO (1987). Annual economic review of Zimbabwe, 1986. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1989). Statistical yearbook, 1989. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1991). Quarterly digest of statistics December, 1991. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
CSO (1992). Census, 1992. Zimbabwe. Preliminary Report. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development, Harare.
Cumming, D.H.M. (1990). Wildlife products and the market place: a view from southern Africa. Project Paper No. 12. WWF Multispecies Animal Production Systems Project, Harare.
Cumming, D.H.M. and Bond, I. (1991). Animal production in Southern Africa: Present practice and opportunities for peasant farmers in arid lands. A report prepared for the IDRC. Project Paper No. 22, Multispecies Project, WWF, Harare, Zimbabwe.
29
Cunningham, A.B. (1990). African medicinal plants: setting priorities at the interface betweenconservation and primary health care. Report for WWF Project 3331, Institute of Natural Resources,Pietermaritzburg, RSA.
Danckwerts, J. (1974) A socio-economic study of veld management in the tribal areas of VictoriaProvince. The Tribal Areas of Rhodesia Research Foundation, Salisbury.
de Beer, J.H. and Mcdermott, M.J. (1989). The economic value of non-timber forest products inSoutheast Asia. Netherlands Committee for IUCN, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (1989). Elephant management in Zimbabwe.Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, Harare.
du Toit, R.F. (1985). Soil loss, hydrological changes, and conservation attitudes in the Sabi catchmentof Zimbabwe. Environmental Conservation: 12:157-66.
du Toit, R.F. and Campbell, B.M. (1988). Environmental degradation. In: B.M. Campbell, R.F. du Toitand C.A.M. Attwell (eds.) The Save Study: Relationships Between the Environment and Basic NeedsSatisfaction in the Save Catchment, Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the Universityof Zimbabwe, Harare, pp. 34-43.
Ellert, H. (1984). The Material Culture of Zimbabwe. Longman, Zimbabwe.
FAO (1983). Food and fruit-bearing forest species. 1: Examples from Eastern Africa. FAO ForestryPaper 44/2.
FAO (1991). Non-wood forest products. FAO Forestry Paper 97:1-37.
Food Studies Group (1990). Agricultural marketing and pricing in Zimbabwe. Queen ElizabethHouse, University of Oxford. Draft ms.
Forestry Commission (1991). A survey of plantations and roundwood processing in Zimbabwe, 1990 -1991. Forestry Commission, Harare.
Gelfand, M., Mavi, S., Drummond, R.B. and Ndemera, E.B. (1985). The Traditional MedicalPractitioner in Zimbabwe. Mambo Press, Zimbabwe.
GFA (1987) Study of the economics and social determinants of livestock production in the communalareas, Zimbabwe. Final report, GFA/Dept of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Lands, Agricultureand Rural Resettlement, Harare.
Gore, C., Katerere, Y. and Moyo, S. (1992). The case for sustainable development in Zimbabwe.ENDA-ZERO, Harare.
Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversitv: Status of the Earth's Living Resources. Chapmanand Hall, London.
Grundy, I.M. and Campbell, B.M. (1993). The use of oil from Trichilia spp. Economic Botany (inpress).
Grundy, I.M., Campbell, B.M., Balebereho, S., Cunliffe, R., Tafangenyasha, C., Fergusson, R. andParry, D. (1992). Availability and use of trees in Mutanda Resettlement Area, Zimbabwe. ForestEcology and Management (in press).
Gumbo, D.J., Mukamuri, B.B., Muzondo, M.I. and Scoones, I.C. (1990). Indigenous and exotic fruittrees: why do people want to grow them? In: Prinsley, R.T. (ed.) A groforestrv for SustainableProduction: Economic Implications, pp 185-214. Commonwealth Science Council, London, UK.
30
Cunningham, A.B. (1990). African medicinal plants: setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary health care. Report for WWF Project 3331, Institute of Natural Resources, Pietermaritzburg, RSA.
Danckwerts, J. (1974) A socio-economic study of veld management in the tribal areas of Victoria Province. The Tribal Areas of Rhodesia Research Foundation, Salisbury.
de Beer, J.R. and Mcdermott, M.J. (1989). The economic value of non-timber forest products in Southeast Asia. Netherlands Committee for IUCN, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management (1989). Elephant management in Zimbabwe. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, Harare.
du Toit, R.F. (1985). Soil loss, hydrological changes, and conservation attitudes in the Sabi catchment of Zimbabwe. Environmental Conservation: 12: 157 -66.
du Toit, R.F. and Campbell, B.M. (1988). Environmental degradation. In: B.M. Campbell, R.F. du Toit and C.A.M. Attwell (eds.) The Save Study: Relationships Between the Environment and Basic Needs Satisfaction in the Save Catchment. Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the University of Zimbabwe, Harare, pp. 34-43.
Ellert, H. (1984). The Material Culture of Zimbabwe. Longman, Zimbabwe.
FAO (1983). Food and fruit-bearing forest species. I: Examples from Eastern Africa. FAO Forestry Paper 44/2.
FAO (1991). Non-wood forest products. FAO Forestry Paper 97:1-37.
Food Studies Group (1990). Agricultural marketing and pricing in Zimbabwe. Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford. Draft ms.
Forestry Commission (1991). A survey of plantations and roundwood processing in Zimbabwe, 1990 -1991. Forestry Commission, Harare.
Gelfand, M., Mavi, S., Drummond, R.B. and Ndemera, E.B. (1985). The Traditional Medical Practitioner in Zimbabwe. Mambo Press, Zimbabwe.
GFA (1987) Study of the economics and social determinants of livestock production in the communal areas, Zimbabwe. Final report, GFA/Dept of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, Harare.
Gore, C., Katerere, Y. and Moyo, S. (1992). The case for sustainable development in Zimbabwe. ENDA-ZERO, Harare.
Groombridge, B. (ed.) (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's Living Resources. Chapman and Hall, London.
Grundy, I.M. and Campbell, B.M. (1993). The use of oil from Trichilia spp. Economic Botany (in press).
Grundy, I.M., Campbell, B.M., Balebereho, S., Cunliffe, R., Tafangenyasha, C., Fergusson, R. and Parry, D. (1992). Availability and use of trees in Mutanda Resettlement Area, Zimbabwe. ~ Ecology and Management (in press).
Gumbo, D.J., Mukamuri, B.B., Muzondo, M.I. and Scoones, I.C. (1990). Indigenous and exotic fruit trees: why do people want to grow them? In: Prinsley, R.T. (ed.) Agroforestry for Sustainable Production: Economic Implications, pp 185-214. Commonwealth Science Council, London, UK.
30
Hawkes, R.K. (1992). Thatching grass: sources, adequacy and potential for local management in theBulalimamangwe NRMP Area. CASS/MAT Working paper 1-92, Center for Applied Social Sciences,University of Zimbabwe.
Helmsing, A.H.J. (1987). Non-agricultural enterprises in the communal lands of Zimbabwe.Preliminary results of a survey. RUP Occasional Paper No. 10. Department of Rural and UrbanPlanning, University of Zimbabwe.
Jansen, D., Bond, I. and Child, B. (1992). Cattle, wildlife, both or neither results of a financial andeconomic survey of commercial ranches in Southern Zimbabwe. Project Paper No 27, MultispeciesProject, WWF, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Jenner, P. (1989). The Environmental Business Handbook. Euromonitor Publications, London.
Juma, C and Cable, V. (1992). Shaping our common future: sustainable development in a changingworld order. Report for Centre for Our Common Future, Geneva.
May, P.H. (1990). Savage capitalism: Market alliances for neotropical forest conservation. Paperpresented at International Conference on Ecological Economics. The World Bank, Washington.
McGregor, J. (1991). Woodland resources: Ecology, policy and ideology. Ph.D. thesis, Universityof Loughborough, Loughborough.
Mhone, G.C.Z. (1991). Forest based small scale activities engaged in marketing products: A reviewof valuation considerations. Background paper prepared for the World Bank and Forestry Commissionof Zimbabwe for the national policy review for forests and trees. Agriculture Division, SouthernAfrica Department, The World Bank, Washington.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (1987). The National Conservation Strategy: Zimbabwe'sRoad to Survival. Department of Information, Harare.
Murindagomo, F. (1988) Preliminary investigation into wildlife utilization and land use in Angwa,mid-Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. M.Phil thesis, Dept of Agricultural Economics, University ofZimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe. 232 pp.
Murphree, M.W. and Cumming, D.H.M. (1991) Savanna land use: policy and practice in Zimbabwe.CASS/WWF Paper No 1, Centre for Applied Social Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare.
Nhira, C. and Fortmann, L. (1993) Local woodland management: realities at the grassroots. In:Bradley P and McNamara K, eds, Living with Trees: A Future for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe.World Bank, Washington, USA (in press).
Nyathi, P. and Campbell, B.M. (1993). The acquisition and use of litter by small-scale farmers inMasvingo, Zimbabwe. Agroforestrv Systems 23:(in press).
Peter, C.R. (1988). Notes on the distribution and relative abundance of Sclerocarva birrea.Monographs in Systematic Botany of the Missouri Botanic Gardens 25:331-341.
Piearce, G. (1992). Introduction to the research and development division. In: Pierce, G.D. and Shaw,P. (eds) Forestry research in Zimbabwe. Proceedings of the Anniversary Seminar 'Forestry researchadvances in Zimbabwe', Zimbabwe College of Forestry, Mutare, 27-31 August 1990.
Poulsen, G. (1982). The non-wood forest products of African forests. Unasvlva 34:15-21.
Rao, Y.S. (1991). Non-wood forest products in the Asia-Pacific Region: an overview. Forest News18:5-16.
Reh, I., van Oosterhout, S.A.M., Campbell, B.M. and du Toit, R.F. (1988). Resource use andagricultural production. In: B.M. Campbell, R.F. du Toit and C.A.M. Attwell (eds.) The Save Study;
31
Hawkes, R.K. (1992). Thatching grass: sources, adequacy and potential for local management in the Bulalimamangwe NRMP Area. CASS/MAT Working paper 1-92, Center for Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe.
Helmsing, A.H.J. (1987). Non-agricultural enterprises in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Preliminary results of a survey. RUP Occasional Paper No. 10. Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe.
Jansen, D., Bond, I. and Child, B. (1992). Cattle, wildlife, both or neither: results of a financial and economic survey of commercial ranches in Southern Zimbabwe. Project Paper No 27, Multispecies Project, WWF, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Jenner, P. (1989). The Environmental Business Handbook. Euromonitor Publications, London.
Juma, C and Cable, V. (1992). Shaping our common future: sustainable development in a changing world order. Report for Centre for Our Common Future, Geneva.
May, P.H. (1990). Savage capitalism: Market alliances for neotropical forest conservation. Paper presented at International Conference on Ecological Economics. The World Bank, Washington.
McGregor, J. (1991). Woodland resources: Ecology, policy and ideology. Ph.D. thesis, University of Loughborough, Loughborough.
Mhone, G.C.Z. (1991). Forest based small scale activities engaged in marketing products: A review of valuation considerations. Background paper prepared for the World Bank and Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe for the national policy review for forests and trees. Agriculture Division, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (1987). The National Conservation Strategy: Zimbabwe's Road to Survival. Department of Information, Harare.
Murindagomo, F. (1988) Preliminary investigation into wildlife utilization and land use in Angwa, mid-Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. M.Phil thesis, Dept of Agricultural Economics, University of Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe. 232 pp.
Murphree, M.W. and Cumming, D.H.M. (1991) Savanna land use: policy and practice in Zimbabwe. CASS/WWF Paper No I, Centre for Applied Social Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare.
Nhira, C. and Fortmann, L. (1993) Local woodland management: realities at the grassroots. In: Bradley P and McNamara K, eds, Living with Trees: A Future for Social Forestry in Zimbabwe. World Bank, Washington, USA (in press).
Nyathi, P. and Campbell, B.M. (1993). The acquisition and use of litter by small-scale farmers in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems 23:(in press).
Peter, C.R. (1988). Notes on the distribution and relative abundance of Sclerocarya birrea. Monographs in Systematic Botany of the Missouri Botanic Gardens 25:331-341.
Piearce, G. (1992). Introduction to the research and development division. In: Pierce, G.D. and Shaw, P. (eds) Forestry research in Zimbabwe. Proceedings of the Anniversary Seminar 'Forestry research advances in Zimbabwe', Zimbabwe College of Forestry, Mutare, 27-31 August 1990.
Poulsen, G. (1982). The non-wood forest products of African forests. Unasylva 34:15-21.
Rao, Y.S. (1991). Non-wood forest products in the Asia-Pacific Region: an overview. Forest News 18:5-16.
Reh, I., van Oosterhout, S.A.M., Campbell, B.M. and du Toit, R.F. (1988). Resource use and agricultural production. In: B.M. Campbell, R.F. du Toit and C.A.M. Attwell (eds.) The Save Study;
31
Relationshios Between the Environment and Basic Needs Satisfaction in the Save Catchment,Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the University of Zimbabwe, Harare. pp. 15-33.
Scoones, I.C. (1992). The economic value of livestock in the communal areas of Southern Zimbabwe.Agricultural Systems 39:339-359.
Sene, E.H. (1985). Trees, food production and the struggle against desertification. UnasvIva 37:19-26.
Sharp, C. (1988). Report on the feasibility and technical aspects of harvesting indigenous fungi ona commercial scale within the Hrurungwe Communal Land of Zimbabwe. Manuscript.
Tredgold, M.H. (1986). Food Plants of Zimbabwe. Mambo Press, Harare.
Whitlow, J.R. (1980). Deforestation in Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the Universityof Zimbabwe, Harare.
Whitsun Foundation (1981). Rural afforestation study. Whitsun Foundation, Harare.
Wickens, G.E. (1990). What is economic botany? Economic Botany 44:12-28.
Wilson, K.B. (1990). Ecological dynamics and human welfare: a case study of population, health andnutrition in Southern Zimbabwe. Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
World Bank (1992). National policy review for forests and trees. Summary issues paper. AgricultureDivision, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
32
Relationships Between the Environment and Basic Needs Satisfaction in the Save Catchment. Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the University of Zimbabwe, Harare. pp. 15-33.
Scoones, I.C. (1992). The economic value of livestock in the communal areas of Southern Zimbabwe. Agricultural Systems 39:339-359.
Sene, E.H. (1985). Trees, food production and the struggle against desertification. Unasylva 37:19-26.
Sharp, C. (1988). Report on the feasibility and technical aspects of harvesting indigenous fungi on a commercial scale within the Hrurungwe Communal Land of Zimbabwe. Manuscript.
Tredgold, M.H. (1986). Food Plants of Zimbabwe. Mambo Press, Harare.
Whitlow, J.R. (1980). Deforestation in Zimbabwe. Supplement to Zambezia, Journal of the University of Zimbabwe, Harare.
Whitsun Foundation (1981). Rural afforestation study. Whitsun Foundation, Harare.
Wickens, G.E. (1990). What is economic botany? Economic Botany 44:12-28.
Wilson., K.B. (1990). Ecological dynamics and human welfare: a case study of population, health and nutrition in Southern Zimbabwe. Ph.D. thesis, University of London.
World Bank (1992). National policy review for forests and trees. Summary issues paper. Agriculture Division, Southern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington.
32
Appendix 1: Lists of key plant species of importance for differentfunctions
Wild fruits (data from Campbell, 1987, McGregor, 1991, and Wilson, 1990)
All species are important for the nutrition of children, those that are important for other purposes aswell are noted accordingly.
Azanza garkeanaBerchemia spp. (e.g. B. discolor and B. zevheri)DiosDvros mesDiliformisFicus spp. (e.g. F. soldanella)Grewia spp. (e.g. G. flavescens)Parinari curatellifoliaSclerocarva birrea (also used for nuts and making fruit drinks and wine)Strvchnos cocculoides (and other Strvchnos species)UaDaca kirkianaVangueria infaustaZiziDhus mauritiana (important for cash income)
Fibre (data from McGregor, 1991)
Brachvstegia sDiciformisB. boehmiiB. glaucescensColoDhosDermum moDaneJulbernardia filobiflora
33
Appendix 1: Lists of key plant species of importance for different functions
wild fruits (data from Campbell, 1987, McGregor, 1991, and Wilson, 1990)
All species are important for the nutrition of children, those that are important for other purposes as well are noted accordingly.
Azanza garkeana Berchemia spp. (e.g. B. discolor and B. zeyheri) Diospyros mespiliformis Ficus spp. (e.g. F. soldanella) Grewia spp. (e.g. G. flavescens) Parinari curatellifolia Sclerocarya birrea (also used for nuts and making fruit drinks and wine) Strychnos cocculoides (and other Strychnos species) Uapaca kirkiana Vangueria infausta Ziziphus mauritiana (important for cash income)
Fibre (data from McGregor, 1991)
Brachystegia spiciformis B. boehmii B. glaucescens Colophospermum mopane Julbernardia globiflora
33
5 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experienceand Outlook, by B Campbell, University of Zimbabwe.
5 Monetary Valuation of Tree-Based Resources in Zimbabwe: Experience and Outlook, by B Campbell, University of Zimbabwe.
The monetary valuation of tree-basedresources in Zimbabwe: experience and
outlook
B.M. Campbell
May,, 1993
Paper prepared for the FAO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophoneAfrica).
The monetary valuation of tree-based resources in Zimbabwe: experience and
outlook
B.M. Campbell
May, 1993
Paper prepared for the FAD expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophone Mrica) ,
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, debates on development and resource exploitation have increasinglycentred on sustainability issues (e.g. Barbier, 1987; Beets, 1990; Katerere et al., 1991; WorldCommission for Envirorunent and Development, 1987). Often the debates have lacked aneconomic component or, where the debates included economic argwaients, these wereoversimplistic and incorporated little more than marketed output, and the capital and labourinvested for this output. Generally, no economic value was assigned to changes in naturalresource stocks (Repetto, 1992). Furthermore, the economic analyses in developing countriespaid scant attention to subsistence production and to labour (the latter was 'surplus')(Repetto, 1992).
With such poor analytical tools, it is not surprising that policy decisions regardingdevelopment options have often had no positive impact on society and, in extreme cases, haveresulted in wholesale disruption of natural systems (e.g. Browder, 1988; Mahar, 1988; Sinclairand Fryxhall, 1985). One example in Zimbabwe from the early 1980s is the US$7.3 millioninvestment in the rural afforestation programme, which was made in the context of afuelwood crisis without almost any analysis of the value of natural woodlands and trees torural households (World Bank, 1990). The outputs from this programme have probably hadlittle positive impact (World Bank, 1990). In addition, one small component of theprogramme saw the replacement of indigenous woodland of arg-uably high value witheucalyptus plantations of arguably no value (pers. obs.; World Bank, 1990).
In the last few years, there has been a massive increase in awareness that analysesfor decision-makers about development and resource exploitation have to incorporateaccounting for envirorunental assets (Repetto, 1992; Scoones et al., 1992; Swanson andBarbier, 1991). In this paper, I look at the efforts to value tree-based resources in Zimbabwe.Other data from the region are reviewed, but these are mostly non-existent. Most of the workon tree-based economics in the region has focused on alley cropping systems (see Swinkelsand Scherr, 1991), which are not at present common in the region (Campbell et al., 1991a).Resource economics in the tropics has centred on moist tropical forest (e.g. Hecht et al., 1988;Rasoanaivo, 1990; Peters et al., 1989). In this paper, the focus is on dry tropical savanna-woodlands (miombo, mopane, teak and Acacia woodlands - White, 1983). In these woodlands,only wildlife values have received much attention and here the focus has been on direct usevalues (e.g. Barbier et al., 1990; Jansen et al., 1992; Swanson and Barbier, 1991).
The essential question that requires answering is how much is the woodland worth,and to whom? The results of the few studies are reviewed and a research agenda for futurework is outlined. To place the Zimbabwean work in context, the first sections deal brieflywith why valuation is necessary and methodological approaches to valuation.
2 WHY VALUE NATURAL RESOURCES?
Numerous fora have identified the need to value natural resources and to develop appropriatevaluation methodologies. For instance, one of the recognised priorities for forestry andagroforestry policy research is the development of mechanisms for: (i) a balanced valuationof environmental benefits in national accounts and (ii) valuing trees and forests from a localperspective to complement national valuations (Gregersen et al., 1992). One of the fourprogramme areas that make up Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 deals with 'capturing forest values'(Ayling, 1993). Within the body of literature devoted to non-wood forest products, it isrecognised that there is a need to improve the valuation of the social and economic benefitsderived from these products (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; FAO, 1991; Scoones et al., 1992).
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, debates on development and resource exploitation have increasingly centred on sustainability issues (e.g. Barbier, 1987; Beets, 1990; Katerere et al., 1991; World Commission for Environment and Development, 1987). Often the debates have lacked an economic component or, where the debates included economic arguments, these were oversimplistic and incorporated little more than marketed output, and the capital and labour invested for this output. Generally, no economic value was assigned to changes in natural resource stocks (Repetto, 1992). Furthermore, the economic analyses in developing countries paid scant attention to subsistence production and to labour (the latter was 'surplus') (Repetto, 1992).
With such poor analytical tools, it is not surprising that policy decisions regarding development options have often had no positive impact on society and, in extreme cases, have resulted in wholesale disruption of natural systems (e.g. Browder, 1988; Mahar, 1988; Sinclair and Fryxhall, 1985). One example in Zimbabwe from the early 1980s is the US$7.3 million investment in the rural afforestation programme, which was made in the context of a fuelwood crisis without almost any analysis of the value of natural woodlands and trees to rural households (World Bank, 1990). The outputs from this programme have probably had little positive impact (World Bank, 1990). In addition, one small component of the programme saw the replacement of indigenous woodland of arguably high value with eucalyptus plantations of arguably no value (pers. obs.; World Bank, 1990).
In the last few years, there has been a massive increase in awareness that analyses for decision-makers about development and resource exploitation have to incorporate accounting for environmental assets (Repetto, 1992; Scoones et al., 1992; Swanson and Barbier, 1991). In this paper, I look at the efforts to value tree-based resources in Zimbabwe. Other data from the region are reviewed, but these are mostly non-existent. Most ofthe work on tree-based economics in the region has focused on alley cropping systems (see Swinkels and Scherr, 1991), which are not at present common in the region (Campbell et al., 1991a). Resource economics in the tropics has centred on moist tropical forest (e.g. Hecht et al., 1988; Rasoanaivo, 1990; Peters et al., 1989). In this paper, the focus is on dry tropical savannawoodlands (miombo, mopane, teak and Acacia woodlands - White, 1983). In these woodlands, only wildlife values have received much attention and here the focus has been on direct use values (e.g. Barbier et al., 1990; Jansen et al., 1992; Swanson and Barbier, 1991).
The essential question that requires answering is how much is the woodland worth, and to whom? The results of the few studies are reviewed and a research agenda for future work is outlined. To place the Zimbabwean work in context, the first sections deal briefly with why valuation is necessary and methodological approaches to valuation.
2 WHY VALUE NATURAL RESOURCES?
Numerous fora have identified the need to value natural resources and to develop appropriate valuation methodologies. For instance, one of the recognised priorities for forestry and agroforestry policy research is the development of mechanisms for: (i) a balanced valuation of environmental benefits in national accounts and (ii) valuing trees and forests from a local perspective to complement national valuations (Gregersen et al., 1992). One of the four programme areas that make up Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 deals with 'capturing forest values' (Ayling, 1993). Within the body of literature devoted to non-wood forest products, it is recognised that there is a need to improve the valuation of the social and economic benefits derived from these products (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; FAO, 1991; Scoones et al., 1992).
In the Zimbabwean context, attention has been drawn to the fact that the valuation ofnatural resources has been inadequately dealt with (Bojo, 1993; Campbell et al., 1991b; Moyoet al., 1992).
There are a number of reasons why tree-based resource valuation is necessary inZimbabwe and most other developing and tropical countries. At the global scale, the followingquestion remains unanswered: VVhat is the value of woodlands in terms of recreationalvalues, biodiversity conservation and impact on climate? (Bojo, 1993). At the national level,valuation is required as a key input to decisions about land allocation and land use (Bojo,1993; Moyo et al., 1992; Scoones et al., 1992), for instance:
Given the proposed land reform programme to address the gross inequities inland distribution (Katerere et al., 1991), how can woodlands be appropriatelyvalued? What are the costs and benefits associated with the loss of woodlands(Grundy et al., 1992) that will occur in the resettlement areas? If land taxationis used as an instrument to increase the supply of commercial farmland for theland reform programme (Murphree and Cumming, 1991), on the basis of whatvalue should the large tracts of indigenous woodland on this farmland betaxed? (Bojo, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992).
Roughly 10% of Zimbabwe's woodlands are managed by the parastatal,Forestry Commission. Conservation of these State Forests is often justified onthe basis of protection of watersheds and conservation of biodiversity.However, what are the costs and benefits of conservation? (Bojo, 1993; Moyoet al., 1992).
In tree-based development programmes, where should the emphasis lie? Dorural households need investment in woodlots, fruit tree orchards or foddertrees? How valuable are non-wood forest products? Conventional resourceplanning is biased in the favour of commercial harvest and has undervaluedother goods and services (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Scoones et al., 1992).
Much has been written about resource degradation (e.g. Katerere et al., 1991;Campbell et al., 1988). VVhat are the costs associated with woodlanddegradation? In particular, what are the off-site downstream impacts ofdegradation? How can the costs of negative externalities be internalized toenhance efficient and sustainable use of resources (Moyo et al., 1992).
(N) Ultimately, one must ask whether it is possible to have an amended system ofnational accounts incorporating information about changes in naturalresources? (Bojo, 1993).
3 POTENTIAL VALUATION METHODOLOGIES
From the outset, it should be stressed that the present paper deals with monetary valuation,but that there are a wide range of non-monetary indicators of value that can be used (de Beerand Mcdermott, 1989), such as frequency of consumption of forest products, frequency ofcollection, and percent of household time-budgets devoted to forest-related activities. Manyof the indicators need to be collected for certain approaches to monetary valuation.
Values of tree-based resources can be classified into three classes: values associated with use(use value); values related to potential use (option value) and values associated with mereexistence, for instance the benefit associated with Imowing that some woodland type exists(existence value) (Bojo, 1993; Krutilla, 1967; Scoones et al., 1992; Weisbrod, 1964). What
In the Zimbabwean context, attention has been drawn to the fact that the valuation of natural resources has been inadequately dealt with (Bojo, 1993; Campbell et al., 1991b; Moyo et al., 1992).
There are a number of reasons why tree-based resource valuation is necessary in Zimbabwe and most other developing and tropical countries. At the global scale, the following question remains unanswered: What is the value of woodlands in terms of recreational values, biodiversity conservation and impact on climate? (Bojo, 1993). At the national level, valuation is required as a key input to decisions about land allocation and land use (Bojo, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992; Scoones et al., 1992), for instance:
(i) Given the proposed land reform-programme to address the gross inequities in land distribution (Katerere et al., 1991), how can woodlands be appropriately valued? What are the costs and benefits associated with the loss of woodlands (Grundy et al., 1992) that will occur in the resettlement areas? Ifland taxation is used as an instrument to increase the supply of commercial farmland for the land reform programme (Murphree and Cumming, 1991), on the basis of what value should the large tracts of indigenous woodland on this farmland be taxed? (Bojo, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992).
(ii) Roughly 10% of Zimbabwe's woodlands are managed by the parastatal, Forestry Commission. Conservation of these State Forests is often justified on the basis of protection of watersheds and conservation of biodiversity. However, what are the costs and benefits of conservation? (Bojo, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992).
(iii) In tree-based development programmes, where should the emphasis lie? Do rural households need investment in woodlots, fruit tree orchards or fodder trees? How valuable are non-wood forest products? Conventional resource planning is biased in the favour of commercial harvest and has undervalued other goods and services (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Scoones et al., 1992).
(iv) Much has been written about resource degradation (e.g. Katerere et al., 1991; Campbell et al., 1988). What are the costs associated with woodland degradation? In particular, what are the off-site downstream impacts of degradation? How can the costs of negative externalities be internalized to enhance efficient and sustainable use of resources (Moyo et al., 1992).
(v) Ultimately, one must ask whether it is possible to have an amended system of national accounts incorporating information about changes in natural resources? (Bojo, 1993).
3 POTENTIAL VALUATION METHODOLOGIES
From the outset, it should be stressed that the present paper deals with monetary valuation, but that there are a wide range of non-monetary indicators of value that can be used (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989), such as frequency of consumption of forest products, frequency of collection, and percent of household time-budgets devoted to forest-related activities. Many of the indicators need to be collected for certain approaches to monetary valuation.
Values oftree-based resources can be classified into three classes: values associated with use (use value); values related to potential use (option value) and values associated with mere existence, for instance the benefit associated with knowing that some woodland type exists (existence value) (Bojo, 1993; Krutilla, 1967; Scoones et al., 1992; Weisbrod, 1964). What
goods and services of trees and woodlands should be considered? Traditional economicanalyses of forestry activities have concentrated on the use values of wood. The full rangeof non-wood forest products have to be considered. Furthermore, analyses have focused onmarketed goods. Most woodland products are in fact used for subsistence (Campbell andBrigham, 1993), and hence there is a need to incorporat,e nomnarket use values. In addition,it is necessary to include option and existence values in valuation exercises. Finally, how canwoodland service functions (indirect use values), such as climate modification, soil fertilityimprovement and biodiversity maintenance, be valued?
In the absence of organized markets, an intuitively appealing approach to revealingthe preferences of individuals is the use of contingent valuation methods (CVM) (Davis, 1963;Mitchell and Carson, 1989). These techniques use a hypothetical market situation to obtainbids from individuals indicating their willingness to pay (WTP) for a commodity. Despite thewidespread use of these methods, the reliability of values obtained using CVM is vigorouslydebated (e.g. Bishop and Heberlein, 1979; Brookshire and Coursey, 1987; Knetsch and Sinden,1984).
Many tree-based good.s and services are closely linked with conventional markets, e.g.tree litter for fertility maintenance can be replaced (at least, partially) by inorganic fertilizers,off-site impacts of woodland clearing in terms of downstream siltation can affect crop outputthrough reduced irrigated production. Hence, it is possible to value tree-based resources bytracing their link with organized markets. Bojo et al. (1990) identify a number of majorclasses of techniques in this group, two of which are relevant here: that based on productionvalues, in which the losses or gains to production are estimated and valued, and that basedon replacement costs, i.e. the cost of replacing tree-based goods and services with those fromorganized markets.
4 RESULTS FROM RESOURCE VALUATIONEXERCISES IN ZIMBABWE
Contingent valuation of tree-based resources
The most comprehensive attempt to date to value woodland resources in Zimbabwe is thatof Campbell et al. (1991b), in which two approaches were used, one based on CVM (Lynamet al., in prep.) and one based on a mixture of production values and replacement costs, tovalue goods and services derived from miombo woodland by residents in communal areas.
In the CVM approach, ten cards representing commodity categories of trees and twocards representing commodities not related to trees were explained to respondents, andrespondents ranked and distributed 50 matches among the cards to reflect the relativeimportance of each category of commodities. The two extra cards showed a hand pump anda well-known design of latrine. The CVM was based on the willingness of respondents to payfor a fifth share in a borehole with a hand pump. Values were derived for all tree commoditycategories by standardizing the points allocated to the categories against the points allocatedto the borehole and then multiplying by the expressed willingness to pay (WTP). Directquestions of value about tree resources were considered inappropriate because of the'inexperience of most respondents in dealing with monetary valuations of tree resources'(Lynam et al., in prep.), and hence a borehole was selected for valuation.
To check the validity of the WTP estimate, (i) actual costs of building and installinga borehole with hand pump were compared with the WTP estimat,e; (fi) respondents wereasked what compensation they would be willing to accept if the hypothetical borehole were
goods and services of trees and woodlands should be considered? Traditional economic analyses of forestry activities have concentrated on the use values of wood. The full range of non-wood forest products have to be considered. Furthermore, analyses have focused on marketed goods. Most woodland products are in fact used for subsistence (Campbell and Brigham, 1993), and hence there is a need to incorporate nonmarket use values. In addition, it is necessary to include option and existence values in valuation exercises. Finally, how can woodland service functions (indirect use values), such as climate modification, soil fertility improvement and biodiversity maintenance, be valued?
In the absence of organized markets, an intuitively appealing approach to revealing the preferences of individuals is the use of contingent valuation methods (CVM) (Davis, 1963; Mitchell and Carson, 1989). These techniques use a hypothetical market situation to obtain bids from individuals indicating their willingness to pay (WTP) for a commodity. Despite the widespread use of these methods, the reliability of values obtained using CVM is vigorously debated (e.g. Bishop and Heberlein, 1979; Brookshire and Coursey, 1987; Knetsch and Sinden, 1984).
Many tree-based goods and services are closely linked with conventional markets, e.g. tree litter for fertility maintenance can be replaced (at least, partially) by inorganic fertilizers, off-site impacts of woodland clearing in terms of downstream siltation can affect crop output through reduced irrigated production. Hence, it is possible to value tree-based resources by tracing their link with organized markets. Bojo et al. (1990) identify a number of major classes of techniques in this group, two of which are relevant here: that based on production values, in which the losses or gains to production are estimated and valued, and that based on replacement costs, i.e. the cost of replacing tree-based goods and services with those from organized markets.
4 RESULTS FROM RESOURCE EXERCISES IN ZIMBABWE
Contingent valuation of tree-based resources
VALUATION
The most comprehensive attempt to date to value woodland resources in Zimbabwe is that of Campbell et al. (1991b), in which two approaches were used, one based on CVM (Lynam et al., in prep.) and one based on a mixture of production values and replacement costs, to value goods and services derived from miombo woodland by residents in communal areas.
In the CVM approach, ten cards representing commodity categories of trees and two cards representing commodities not related to trees were explained to respondents, and respondents ranked and distributed 50 matches among the cards to reflect the relative importance of each category of commodities. The two extra cards showed a hand pump and a well-known design oflatrine. The CVM was based on the willingness of respondents to pay for a fIfth share in a borehole with a hand pump. Values were derived for all tree commodity categories by standardizing the points allocated to the categories against the points allocated to the borehole and then multiplying by the expressed willingness to pay (WTP). Direct questions of value about tree resources were considered inappropriate because of the 'inexperience of most respondents in dealing with monetary valuations of tree resources' (Lynam et al., in prep.), and hence a borehole was selected for valuation.
To check the validity of the WTP estimate, (i) actual costs of building and installing a borehole with hand pump were compared with the WTP estimate; (ii) respondents were asked what compensation they would be willing to accept if the hypothetical borehole were
to be destroyed, and this was compared to the WTP estimate; (iii) respondents were asked,in a set of dichotomous questions, to choose between a shared borehole and five commoncommodities decreasing in value from about Z$35000 (a tractor) to Z$90 (in mid 1991, at thetime of the analysis, Z$1.00 = US$0.32); (iv) the calculated value of the latrine derived fromthe points allocation was compared to actual costs of building and installation, and (iv)hypothesised trends in WTP with mean annual rainfall and with present kind of access towater were compared with stated WTP. In general, the validity checks supported the use ofthe WTP estimate, but sharing of a borehole was based on five sharing households and alinear demand curve was assum.ed. It would have been preferable to have investigated thenature of the demand function.
The mean values elicited by the CVM for different tree commodities are shown inTable 1. Direct material inputs to major productive practices are the most valuable categoriesof commodities that households obtain from tree resources (Lynam et al., in prep.). Theseinclude wood for fuel and wood for construction, inputs to crop production (woodland litter,scattered trees in cropping areas) and animal feed (dry season browse). It is somewhatsurprising that fuelwood is regarded as so important, and that food products from trees (e.g.fruits) are not placed in this top grouping, considering that many other studies have indicatedthat tree planting by households is based on fruit trees, with planting of trees for fuel beinga very low priority (Grundy et al., 1992; Campbell et al., 1993; Bradley and Dewees, 1993).One must ask the question as to whether it is present utility that householders are basingtheir valuation, and whether it would be more desirable to value the potential utility of trees?(Bradley and Dewees, 1993).
CVM is an important technique because it can be used to obtain values for variousservice functions of forests. Respondents valued 'ecological services' of trees relatively highly(Table 1), these being regarded as soil fertility maintenance, soil erosion control, climatecontrol and maintenance of stream. flow. Other such intangibles are much less importantcommodities (Table 1). These include shade, health (medicinal plants) and social services(embracing cultural and spiritual values). Cash income from tree products is also relativelyunimportant.
The values derived from the CVM are regarded as capital values, and can be convertedto annual benefits using an appropriate discount rate. Using rates between 5 and 20 %,annual benefits derived from tree resources amount to between Z$84 and Z$336 perhousehold per year. Lynam et al. (in prep.) suggest that the benefits derived from treeresources could be equivalent to between 12 and 160 % of off-farm and agricultural productionincomes in the different study areas.
to be destroyed, and this was compared to the WTP estimate; (iii) respondents were asked, in a set of dichotomous questions, to choose between a shared borehole and five common commodities decreasing in value from about Z$35000 (a tractor) to Z$90 (in mid 1991, at the time of the analysis, Z$I.00 = US$0.32); (iv) the calculated value of the latrine derived from the points allocation was compared to actual costs of building and installation, and (iv) hypothesised trends in WTP with mean annual rainfall and with present kind of access to water were compared with stated WTP. In general, the validity checks supported the use of the WTP estimate, but sharing of a borehole was based on five sharing households and a linear demand curve was assumed. It would have been preferable to have investigated the nature of the demand function.
The mean values elicited by the CVM for different tree commodities are shown in Table 1. Direct material inputs to major productive practices are the most valuable categories of commodities that households obtain from tree resources (Lynam et aI., in prep.). These include wood for fuel and wood for construction, inputs to crop production (woodland litter, scattered trees in cropping areas) and animal feed (dry season browse). It is somewhat surprising that fuelwood is regarded as so important, and that food products from trees (e.g. fruits) are not placed in this top grouping, considering that many other studies have indicated that tree planting by households is based on fruit trees, with planting of trees for fuel being a very low priority (Grundy et aI., 1992; Campbell et aI., 1993; Bradley and Dewees, 1993). One must ask the question as to whether it is present utility that householders are basing their valuation, and whether it would be more desirable to value the potential utility of trees? (Bradley and Dewees, 1993).
CVM is an important technique because it can be used to obtain values for various service functions offorests. Respondents valued 'ecological services' of trees relatively highly (Table 1), these being regarded as soil fertility maintenance, soil erosion control, climate control and maintenance of stream flow. Other such intangibles are much less important commodities (Table 1). These include shade, health (medicinal plants) and social services (embracing cultural and spiritual values). Cash income from tree products is also relatively unimportant.
The values derived from the CVM are regarded as capital values, and can be converted to annual benefits using an appropriate discount rate. Using rates between 5 and 20 %, annual benefits derived from tree resources amount to between Z$84 and Z$336 per household per year. Lynam et al. (in prep.) suggest that the benefits derived from tree resources could be equivalent to between 12 and 160 % of off-farm and agricultural production incomes in the different study areas.
Table 1. Values derived for various categories of tree-based goods and services using acontingent valuation method (Lynarn et al., in prep.). The categories are arranged in orderof importance. Mean values which differ significantly at p = 0.05 are shown by differentalphabetic superscripts. The ranking of the categories by the replacement-production method(Table 3) are also shown (see text, data from Campbell et al., 1991b).
Contingent valuation Rankingof
mean median categoriesvalue value byZ$ 111-1-1 Z$ replacement-
productionvaluation
Z$1.00 = US$0.32 in mid 1991, at the time of the survey.
Lynam et al. (in prep.) argue that the values can be used to gain insight intobehaviour as regards resource use and technology adoption. Using the example of fuelwood,they show that with annual benefits of only Z$37 per household (assuming a 10 % discountrate) and with eucalyptus wood for a year costing roughly five times this value, it is notsurprising that farmers seem reluctant to invest in eucalyptus woodlots. However, the sameconclusion may be reached for fruit trees, which is not the case, as householders areinterested in planting fruit trees. Such calculations need to he carefully interpreted as theyclearly depend on the discount rate chosen and the meaning attached to value by therespondents (Bradley and Dewees, 1993).
Fuel 373' 500 2Farm/house
materials 290' 400 3Cropproduction 222' 333 5Animalfeed 181C 144 4Ecologicalservices 175' 257 not assessed
Food 136' 200 1
Shade 102d 150 not assessedCashincome 82d 125 6
Health 71d 100 not assessedSocialservices 46e 47 not assessed
Total 1678 2256
Table 1. Values derived for various categories of tree-based goods and services using a contingent valuation method (Lynam et al., in prep.). The categories are arranged in order of importance. Mean values which differ significantly at p = 0.05 are shown by different alphabetic superscripts. The ranking of the categories by the replacement-production method (Table 3) are also shown (see text, data from Campbell et al., 1991b).
Contingent valuation Ranking of
mean median categories value value by Z$ RH-1 Z$ RH-1 replacement-
production valuation
Fuel 3738 500 2 Farmlhouse
materials 290b 400 3 Crop production 222C 333 5
Animal feed 18r 144 4
Ecological services 175c 257 not assessed
Food 136e 200 1
Shade 102d 150 not assessed Cash income 82d 125 6
Health 71d 100 not assessed Social services 46e 47 not assessed
Total 1678 2256
Z$1.00 = US$0.32 in mid 1991, at the time of the survey.
Lynam et al. (in prep.) argue that the values can be used to gain insight into behaviour as regards resource use and technology adoption. Using the example of fuelwood, they show that with annual benefits of only Z$37 per household (assuming a 10 % discount
. rate) and with eucalyptus wood for a year costing roughly five times this value, it is not surprising that farmers seem reluctant to invest in eucalyptus woodlots. However, the same conclusion may be reached for fruit trees, which is not the case, as householders are interested in planting fruit trees. Such calculations need to be carefully interpreted as they clearly depend on the discount rate chosen and the meaning attached to value by the respondents (Bradley and Dewees, 1993).
Replacement-production valuation of tree-based resources
In the other approach of Campbell et al. (1991b) to value tree-based products, a mixture ofreplacement cost and production value methods was used (Table 2). The economic valuationis crude by necessity: the available data do not allow for accurate economic accounting(Campbell et al., 1991b). In most cases the estimated value is calculated simply from aknowledge of the quantity of goods derived from trees multiplied by the 'farm gate prices' ofthese goods or the 'replacement cost'.
Table 2. Methods used to estimate value for different tree-based goods and services inthe replacement-production valuation (Campbell et al., 1991b).
Crop production Litter from woodlands - consumption data for households,market value of inorganic nitrogen
Fertility improvement from scattered trees - nitrogenimprovement using simulation model, market value ofinorganic nitrogen, per hectare basis
By using farm gate price of a subsistence product, they assigned value on the basis ofexchange value. Replacement cost is the cost a producer would have to pay to replace thesubsistence product. Because of the use of farm gate price or replacement cost for goodswhich, in fact, are mostly not bought and sold, there is an overestimate of local use value(Campbell et al., 1991b; Bojo, 1993), as: (i) in most cases, the financial constraints facingsmall-scale farmers do not permit them to switch to a marketed product; (ii) small-scalefarmers would probably not choose to buy the marketed replacements if the necessaryfinancing were made available to them unconditionally; and (iii) the prices used do not takeinto account 'diminishing marginal utility' (if all the fruits were taken to the market place,the price per fruit would drop dramatically).
That the data base is limited is evident by a recalculation that has been done for thepresent paper for the value of leaf litter to crop production. On the basis of new litterconsumption data (Nyatlii and Campbell, 1993), the new estimate of value is 20 % of theestimate in Campbell et al. (1991b) (Table 3). On the other hand, recalculation of incomefrom craft work from data from Brigham (in prep.) support the previous estimates. The
Fruit Production data for fruit trees, market values of replacements,indigenous fruits on a per hectare basis, exotics on householdplantings
Other wild foods Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Fuelwood Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Construction wood Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Craft wood Household output of marketed products
Livestock production Value of livestock, extra benefit provided by trees compared toabsence of trees, on a per hectare basis
Replacement-production valuation of tree-based resources
In the other approach of Campbell et al. (1991b) to value tree-based products, a mixture of replacement cost and production value methods was used (Table 2). The economic valuation is crude by necessity: the available data do not allow for accurate economic accounting (Campbell et al., 1991b). In most cases the estimated value is calculated simply from a knowledge of the quantity of goods derived from trees multiplied by the 'farm gate prices' of these goods or the 'replacement cost'.
Table 2. Methods used to estimate value for different tree-based goods and services in the replacement-production valuation (Campbell et al., 1991b).
Fruit
Other wild foods
Fuelwood
Construction wood
Craft wood
Livestock production
Crop production
Production data for fruit trees, market values of replacements, indigenous fruits on a per hectare basis, exotics on household plantings
Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Consumption data for households, market values of replacements
Household output of marketed products
Value of livestock, extra benefit provided by trees compared to absence of trees, on a per hectare basis
Litter from woodlands - consumption data for households, market value of inorganic nitrogen
Fertility improvement from scattered trees - nitrogen improvement using simulation model, market value of inorganic nitrogen, per hectare basis
By using farm gate price of a subsistence product, they assigned value on the basis of exchange value. Replacement cost is the cost a producer would have to pay to replace the subsistence product. Because of the use of farm gate price or replacement cost for goods which, in fact, are mostly not bought and sold, there is an overestimate of local use value (Campbell et al., 1991b; Bojo, 1993), as: (i) in most cases, the fmancial constraints facing small-scale farmers do not permit them to switch to a marketed product; (ii) small-scale farmers would probably not choose to buy the marketed replacements if the necessary fmancing were made available to them unconditionally; and (iii) the prices used do not take into account 'diminishing marginal utility' (if all the fruits were taken to the market place, the price per fruit would drop dramatically).
That the data base is limited is evident by a recalculation that has been done for the present paper for the value of leaf litter to crop production. On the basis of new litter consumption data (Nyathi and Campbell, 1993), the new estimate of value is 20 % of the estimate in Campbell et al. (1991b) (Table 3). On the other hand, recalculation of income from craft work from data from Brigham (in prep.) support the previous estimates. The
model SCUAF (Young and Muraya, 1990) was used to simulate fertility improvements byscattered trees. Since then, testing of that version of SCUAF demonstrated setious flaws(Vermeulen et al., 1993), but this is unlikely to make large differences because of the smallmunber of trees in fields.
Another problem related to data limitations, is that some categories of value wereestimated on a per hectare basis while others were estimated on a household basis (Table 2).For instance, value of wood was based on household consuraption, whereas value of fruit fromindigenous trees was estiraated on the basis of per hectare production from woodland andfrom scattered trees in cropping land. In order to express value on common scales, it wasassumed that the average area of woodland available to each household (HE) ranged fromabout 3.5 ha H114 to 5.6 ha HIV in the three study areas covered by the work (calculated onthe basis of areas of communal woodland and 1991 projected population figures) and that thearea of cropping land averaged 3 ha HIP. Using these conversion factors, value can beexpressed either on a per hectare basis or a per household basis, but an additional source oferror is introduced.
The point to be made is that the figures produced have to be used with caution becauseof the poor data base. Some sceptics would probably discount the method entirely for thereason of poor data. One partial solution is to ensure reporting of statistical variability, butthis itself is not simple, as the estimates for different categories are based on different kindsof data. In the present paper, ranges are reported where possible (Table 3).
Woodland produces goods to the value of about Z$200 ha-1 yr-1, while scattered treesin fields value at about Z$10 ha-1 yr-1. In total, trees produce goods to a value of nearlyZ$1000 yr-1. Our valuation is mostly based on household consumption data. If currentconsumption is in excess of sustainable levels of production, the values we obtain, especiallyfor fuelwood and construction wood, do not account for environmental degradation as a resultof non-sustainable use. Generally, if progressive decline of the woodlands is occurring, thekey issue is likely to be the future effects rather than current value as determined here.
There is a major difference in the ranking of categories derived from the two valuationtechniques in regards the placing of food from trees (Table 1). Firstly, the differences in therankings could be due to the poor data used in the replacement-production valuation tocalculate the value derived from indigenous fruits. The valuation was based on very poorproduction data. It would be simpler to obtain household consumption data and base thevaluation on this. Secondly, it should be noted that some differences are expected, as the twotechniques estimate different components of value. The CVM estimates capital values, whichthen have to be converted to annualized benefits using a selected discount rate, which couldvary among different categories. The replacement-production valuation estimates annualgross benefits. Net benefits could be calculated if the costs of using the different resourcescould be quantified. This mostly relates to labour and transport costs.
model SCUAF (Young and Muraya, 1990) was used to simulate fertility improvements by scattered trees. Since then, testing of that version of SCUAF demonstrated serious flaws (Vermeulen et al., 1993), but this is unlikely to make large differences because of the small number of trees in fields.
Another problem related to data limitations, is that some categories of value were estimated on a per hectare basis while others were estimated on a household basis (Table 2). For instance, value of wood was based on household consumption, whereas value of fruit from indigenous trees was estimated on the basis of per hectare production from woodland and from scattered trees in cropping land. In order to express value on common scales, it was assumed that the average area of woodland available to each household (RH) ranged from about 3.5 ha HHl to 5.6 ha HHl in the three study areas covered by the work (calculated on the basis of areas of communal woodland and 1991 projected population figures) and that the area of cropping land averaged 3 ha RH-1
• Using these conversion factors, value can be expressed either on a per hectare basis or a per household basis, but an additional source of error is introduced.
The point to be made is that the figures produced have to be used with caution because of the poor data base. Some sceptics would probably discount the method entirely for the reason of poor data. One partial solution is to ensure reporting of statistical variability, but this itself is not simple, as the estimates for different categories are based on different kinds of data. In the present paper, ranges are reported where possible (Table 3).
Woodland produces goods to the value of about Z$200 ha-1 yr-!, while scattered trees in fields value at about Z$10 ha-1 yr-l. In total, trees produce goods to a value of nearly Z$1000 RH-1 yr-l. Our valuation is mostly based on household consumption data. If current consumption is in excess of sustainable levels of production, the values we obtain, especially for fuelwood and construction wood, do not account for environmental degradation as a result of non-sustainable use. Generally, if progressive decline of the woodlands is occurring, the key issue is likely to be the future effects rather than current value as determined here.
There is a major difference in the ranking of categories derived from the two valuation techniques in regards the placing of food from trees (Table 1). Firstly, the differences in the rankings could be due to the poor data used in the replacement-production valuation to calculate the value derived from indigenous fruits. The valuation was based on very poor production data. It would be simpler to obtain household consumption data and base the valuation on this. Secondly, it should be noted that some differences are expected, as the two techniques estimate different components of value. The CVM estimates capital values, which then have to be converted to annualized benefits using a selected discount rate, which could vary among different categories. The replacement-production valuation estimates annual gross benefits. Net benefits could be calculated if the costs of using the different resources could be quantified. This mostly relates to labour and transport costs.
Table 3. Gross values of tree-based goods and services, expressed as value to a household(HH) and woodland value. Data derived from Carn.pbell et al. (1991b). Cash income forhouseholds and value of woodland for cash income are shown separately, as this componentof value is included where appropriate in the product categories.
Value to a Value ofhousehold woodlands'(Z$ ITH-1 yr-i) (Z$ ha-1 yr-1)
Fruit indigenous fruits in woodland 230-360 65indigenous trees in cropland 10-44planted exotics 12
Other wild foods 63 11-18Fuelwood 183 33-52Construction wood buildings 114 20-33
implements, utensils for own use 16 3-5craft wood income 7-18 1-5
303-5
TOTAL 767-1010 166-213
Cash income exotic fruits 17wild fruits 2 <1craft wood3 7-18 1-5
Only those products obtained from woodland are included in this column, thusexcluding products from planted exotics and indigenous trees scattered in cropping land andhomesites.
2 Recalculated on the basis of 0.38 tonnes per user household per annum of litter used(Nyathi and Campbell, 1993, for Masvingo communal areas).
3 Data from Campbell et al. (1991b). Using recent estimates of craft trade and incomefrom Brigham (in prep.) would result in similar overall figure.
The same methodology to the above was conducted to value Acacia savanna in SouthAfiica (Milton and Bond, 1986). These authors arrived at a similar total value, but therelative value of various commodities was different. Gumbo et al. (1989) looked at the valueof Sclerocarva birrea trees in Southena Zimbabwe. They used a replacement cost method toderive a value for the trees. The direct value of the products (fruit, wine, wood products,nutrient inputs) over time far exceeds the value realised by chopping the tree down, hencethey provided an economic rationale for maintaining the trees.
There are very few other studies of relevance, and most of these have concentrated onmarketed products. Brigham (in prep.) investigated the marketed output of all woodlandproducts in one communal area in Zimbabwe, while Cunningham (1990a, 1990b) measuredincomes derived from palm wine production in South Africa and described the trade inmedicinal plants in southern Africa. The study of Campbell et al. (1991b) also recordedincome levels from tree-based resources. As can be seen, these are relatively insignificant bycomparison to the total value of tree-based resources (Table 3).
Livestock production 100-168Crop production litter from woodlands2 17
fertility from scattered trees 15
Table 3. Gross values of tree-based goods and services, expressed as value to a household (HH) and woodland value. Data derived from Campbell et al. (1991b). Cash income for households and value of woodland for cash income are shown separately, as this component of value is included where appropriate in the product categories.
Fruit
Other wild foods Fuelwood
indigenous fruits in woodland indigenous trees in cropland planted exotics
Construction wood buildings
Livestock production
implements, utensils for own use craft wood income
Crop production litter from woodlands2
fertility from scattered trees
TOTAL
Cash income exotic fruits wild fruits craft wood3
Value to a Value of household woodlands l
(Z$ HH-l yr-l) (Z$ ha-l yr-l)
230-360 10-44
12 63
183 114 16
7-18 100-168
17 15
767-1010
17 2
7-18
65
11-18 33-52 20-33 3-5 1-5 30
3-5
166-213
<1 1-5
1 Only those products obtained from woodland are included in this column, thus excluding products from planted exotics and indigenous trees scattered in cropping land and homesites.
2 Recalculated on the basis of 0.38 tonnes per user household per annum of litter used (Nyathi and Campbell, 1993, for Masvingo communal areas).
3 Data from Campbell et al. (1991b). Using recent estimates of craft trade and income from Brigham (in prep.) would result in similar overall figure.
The same methodology to the above was conducted to value Acacia savanna in South Mrica (Milton and Bond, 1986). These authors arrived at a similar total value, but the relative value of various commodities was different. Gumbo et al. (1989) looked at the value of Sclerocarya birrea trees in Southern Zimbabwe. They used a replacement cost method to derive a value for the trees. The direct value of the products (fruit, wine, wood products, nutrient inputs) over time far exceeds the value realised by chopping the tree down, hence they provided an economic rationale for maintaining the trees.
There are very few other studies of relevance, and most of these have concentrated on marketed products. Brigham (in prep.) investigated the marketed output of all woodland products in one communal area in Zimbabwe, while Cunningham (1990a, 1990b) measured incomes derived from palm wine production in South Africa and described the trade in medicinal plants in southern Mrica. The study of Campbell et al. (1991b) also recorded income levels from tree-based resources. As can be seen, these are relatively insignificant by comparison to the total value of tree-based resources (Table 3).
Valuation of livestock and wildlife
Although livestock and wildlife are not strictly tree-based resources, they rely heavily on treesfor the provision of browse, and the value of cattle calculated by Scoones (1992a) was usedas an input to the calculation of the overall value of woodlands by Campbell et al. (1991b).
There are a number of examples of the economic valuation of cattle in communalareas, all based on calculating value using replacement costs, because most commoditiesderived from cattle are not marketed. These valuations have been reviewed by Jackson(1989) who highlights the assumptions that have been used and states that it is unclear asto whether the different valuation results are due to different farniing systems or differentassumptions. He concludes that valuing the economic benefits of livestock within conimunalareas is at a very rudimentary stage. The different results have different policy iniplications,and therefore there is a need to resolve the differences. For instance, in one of the valuationsmanure production is seen as five times more valuable than milk production whereas inanother valuation, the opposite is recorded.
Perhaps the most detailed valuation is that of Scoones (1992a). Data on biologicalproductivity, milk production, sales and slaughters, manure production and work rates arepresented for cattle and goats. The economic valuation is more complete than that for tree-based resources described above, as it includes the costs of production (veterinary support andstock herding), and thus gross and net benefits can be calculated. Furthermore, the data onwhich the entire analysis is based are more reliable than those available for valuation of tree-based resources. Lacking from the valuation is the social value of cattle, in particular forbridewealth. It would be of interest to pursue contingent valuation for such intangibles, asfarmers rank the bridewealth function third after transport and draught (Scoones, 1992a).
The gross value for cattle is around Z$800 yr-1 adult-1 (Z$1.00 = US$0.66 in 1987), andthe net economic value of communal area cattle and goat systems is Z$104.50 ha-1 yr-1(Scoones, 1992a). Patterns of investment in livestock are discussed in relation to thevaluations made. In communal lands the rate of return on investment is high for cattle andgoats and returns to grazing land are considerably higher than in conventional beef ranching,as long as the full range of livestock products and services are accounted for. Perhaps oneflaw in the analysis relates to the use of actual stocldng rates rather than officiallyrecommended stocking rates (which are two to three times lower), in the absence of anycalculation of the environmental costs of maintaining such high stocking rates, a subject ofhot debate (e.g. Sandford, 1982; Scoones, 1992b; du Toit and Campbell, 1989; Child 1988,1990; Taylor and Child, 1991). Using more conservative stocking rates, reduces the neteconomic value to about Z$30-Z$40 ha-1 yr-1 (see for example Barrett, 1991). Jansen et al.(1992) provide an estimation of the cost of overstocking (see next section), but there estimateis for commercial livestock systems.
Jansen et al. (1992) provide the most detailed account of the value of commercialproduction of wildlife and livestock. In a survey of 89 commercial farms in the drier regionsof Zimbabwe, they compare the financial and economic profitability of cattle ranches, wildliferanches and mixed system ranches. They include in their analysis all sources of income andall costs (including labour, capital, cost of degradation). It appears that wildlife only ranchesare the most financially viable and have an average return on investment of 10.5 % comparedto only 3.6 % for mixed enterprise systems and only 1.8% for cattle only ranches. Similarconclusions are arrived at for economic profitability.
In comparison to this very detailed valuation of wildlife on commercial farmland, therehas almost been no work on wildlife values on communal land. Murindagomo (1988) showedthat for a remote community, the value of subsistence hunting was Z$8.2 ha-1 yr-1, while
Valuation of livestock and wildlife
Although livestock and wildlife are not strictly tree-based resources, they rely heavily on trees for the provision of browse, and the value of cattle calculated by Scoones (1992a) was used as an input to the calculation of the overall value of woodlands by Campbell et al. (1991b).
There are a number of examples of the economic valuation of cattle in communal areas, all based on calculating value using replacement costs, because most commodities derived from cattle are not marketed. These valuations have been reviewed by Jackson (1989) who highlights the assumptions that have been used and states that it is unclear as to whether the different valuation results are due to different farming systems or different assumptions. He concludes that valuing the economic benefits oflivestock within communal areas is at a very rudimentary stage. The different results have different policy implications, and therefore there is a need to resolve the differences. For instance, in one of the valuations manure production is seen as five times more valuable than milk production whereas in another valuation, the opposite is recorded.
Perhaps the most detailed valuation is that of Scoones (1992a). Data on biological productivity, milk production, sales and slaughters, manure production and work rates are presented for cattle and goats. The economic valuation is more complete than that for treebased resources described above, as it includes the costs of production (veterinary support and stock herding), and thus gross and net benefits can be calculated. Furthermore, the data on which the entire analysis is based are more reliable than those available for valuation of treebased resources. Lacking from the valuation is the social value of cattle, in particular for bridewealth. It would be of interest to pursue contingent valuation for such intangibles, as farmers rank the bridewealth function third after transport and draught (Scoones, 1992a).
The gross value for cattle is around Z$800 yr-l adult-l (Z$l.OO = US$0.66 in 1987), and the net economic value of communal area cattle and goat systems is Z$104.50 ha-l
yr-l
(Scoones, 1992a). Patterns of investment in livestock are discussed in relation to the valuations made. In communal lands the rate of return on investment is high for cattle and goats and returns to grazing land are considerably higher than in conventional beef ranching, as long as the full range of livestock products and services are accounted for. Perhaps one flaw in the analysis relates to the use of actual stocking rates rather than officially recommended stocking rates (which are two to three times lower), in the absence of any calculation of the environmental costs of maintaining such high stocking rates, a subject of hot debate (e.g. Sandford, 1982; Scoones, 1992b; du Toit and Campbell, 1989; Child 1988, 1990; Taylor and Child, 1991). Using more conservative stocking rates, reduces the net economic value to about Z$30-Z$40 ha-l yr-l (see for example Barrett, 1991). Jansen et a1. (1992) provide an estimation of the cost of overstocking (see next section), but there estimate is for commercial livestock systems.
Jansen et a1. (1992) provide the most detailed account of the value of commercial production of wildlife and livestock. In a survey of 89 commercial farms in the drier regions of Zimbabwe, they compare the financial and economic profitability of cattle ranches, wildlife ranches and mixed system ranches. They include in their analysis all sources of income and all costs (including labour, capital, cost of degradation). It appears that wildlife only ranches are the most financially viable and have an average return on investment of 10.5 % compared to only 3.6 % for mixed enterprise systems and only 1.8% for cattle only ranches. Similar conclusions are arrived at for economic profitability.
In comparison to this very detailed valuation of wildlife on commercial farmland, there has almost been no work on wildlife values on communal land. Murindagomo (1988) showed that for a remote community, the value of subsistence hunting was Z$8.2 ha-l yr-l, while
cornraercial safari hunting yielded Z$1.54 ha-1 yr-1. There is also scattered data available onthe amounts of income realised by wildlife schemes in communal areas (e.g. Cuniming andBond, 1991), but very little detailed valuation work has been undertaken.
Costs of environmental degradation
There are only two studies in Zimbabwe which have explored the costs of environmentaldegradation, that of Elwell and Stocking (1988) which investigated the regional effects of soilerosion in relation to the cost of replacement of the lost nutrients, and that of Jansen et al.(1992) which estimated the cost of overstocking by livestock and wildlife. In both studies, theinfluence of trees on the degradation dynamics was not investigated.
The valuation by Elwell and Stocking (1988) is limited to the extend that it is basedon erosion simulation models, which are most applicable to cropped land and not grazing landand woodlands. They calculated that the annual cost of soil erosion to Zimbabwe was Z$2.5billion (1985 prices).
Our understanding of the degradation process by livestock and wildlife is incompleteand hence any attempt at valuation is problematic. Jansen et al. (1992) base their estimateon the work of Child and Taylor on a commercial range (Child, 1988; Taylor and Child, 1991),thus the estimate is of little value for communal systems. Using long-term data, they havecalculated the loss in productivity due to overstocking as an average annual productivity lossof 0.32 kg livemass ha-1 yr4. Using carrying capacity estimates and actual stocking rates,they were able to calculate the productivity loss per overstocked livemass. With estimatesfor livemass prices, they then converted productivity losses to costs, which amounted toZ$0.113 per kg of overstocked livemass per hectare per annum. This cost and an estimateof the degree of overstocking (calculated from know-n stocking rates and carrying capacityestimated from relationships between rainfall and biomass), were used to estimate the costof overstocking on the 89 ranches they studied. The estimates are crude but the methodologyis innovative and would be worth further investigation.
Avoidance cost valuation of carbon sequestration
Bojo (1993) made a preliminary valuation of the carbon sequestration function of woodlandsin Zimbabwe. Valuation is regarded as hypothetical as there are at present no bindinginternational agreements to limit CO2, and actual monetary transfers will have to take placefrom developed countries to underdeveloped countries, as it is unlikely that decision makersin Zimbabwe will be much impressed by the fact that somewhere in the industrialized worldcosts are being saved by the decision to preserve indigenous Zimbabwean woodland.
Bojo (1993) bases his calculation on the data in Nordhaus (1991) which gives costs ofreducing emissions per quantity of carbon. Given an average of 42 t ha-1 of wood in theremaining woodland (from Bradley and McNamara, 1990), the value of woodland from acarbon sequestration point of view would be about US$200 ha-1, which would could be paidas a lump sum or as an annual, infinite payment of US$20 ha-1 (assuming an interest rateof 10%) (about Z$140 ha-1 in mid-1993).
Value of tourism
commercial safari hunting yielded Z$1.54 hao1 yrol. There is also scattered data available on
the amounts of income realised by wildlife schemes in communal areas (e.g. Cumming and Bond, 1991), but very little detailed valuation work has been undertaken.
Costs of environmental degradation
There are only two studies in Zimbabwe which have explored the costs of environmental degradation, that of Elwell and Stocking (1988) which investigated the regional effects of soil erosion in relation to the cost of replacement of the lost nutrients, and that of Jansen et al. (1992) which estimated the cost of overstocking by livestock and wildlife. In both studies, the influence of trees on the degradation dynamics was not investigated.
The valuation by Elwell and Stocking (1988) is limited to the extend that it is based on erosion simulation models, which are most applicable to cropped land and not grazing land and woodlands. They calculated that the annual cost of soil erosion to Zimbabwe was Z$2.5 billion (1985 prices).
Our understanding of the degradation process by livestock and wildlife is incomplete and hence any attempt at valuation is problematic. Jansen et al. (1992) base their estimate on the work of Child and Taylor on a commercial range (Child, 1988; Taylor and Child, 1991), thus the estimate is of little value for communal systems. Using long-term data, they have calculated the loss in productivity due to overstocking as an average annual productivity loss of 0.32 kg livemass hao1
yrol. Using carrying capacity estimates and actual stocking rates, they were able to calculate the productivity loss per overstocked livemass. With estimates for livemass prices, they then converted productivity losses to costs, which amounted to Z$0.113 per kg of overstocked livemass per hectare per annum. This cost and an estimate of the degree of overstocking (calculated from known stocking rates and carrying capacity estimated from relationships between rainfall and biomass), were used to estimate the cost of overstocking on the 89 ranches they studied. The estimates are crude but the methodology is innovative and would be worth further investigation.
Avoidance cost valuation of carbon sequestration
Bojo (1993) made a preliminary valuation of the carbon sequestration function of woodlands in Zimbabwe. Valuation is regarded as hypothetical as there are at present no binding international agreements to limit CO2, and actual monetary transfers will have to take place from developed countries to underdeveloped countries, as it is unlikely that decision makers in Zimbabwe will be much impressed by the fact that somewhere in the industrialized world costs are being saved by the decision to preserve indigenous Zimbabwean woodland.
Bojo (1993) bases his calculation on the data in Nordhaus (1991) which gives costs of reducing emissions per quantity of carbon. Given an average of 42 t hao1 of wood in the remaining woodland (from Bradley and McNamara, 1990), the value of woodland from a carbon sequestration point of view would be about US$200 hao1
, which would could be paid as a lump sum or as an annual, infinite payment of US$20 hao1 (assuming an interest rate of 10%) (about Z$140 hao1 in mid-1993).
Value of tourism
Tourism in the region is said to be based on the wildlife resource (Buetzler, 1990), which inturn is centred on the woodlands of the region. However, in Zimbabwe the outstandingtourist attraction, Victoria Falls, also accounts for considerable tourism revenue. There havebeen no detailed analyses of the value of tourism, and the data available are scattered (e.g.Cumming and Bond, 1991; Jansen et al., 1992). The tourism industry is considered the thirdmost important source of foreign currency behind mining and agriculture (Jansen et al.,1992), and thus detailed analyses of it are particularly needed.
Comparative valuation of different land-uses
There is now a growing literature on the comparative economics of different land uses.Previous analyses have compared communal livestock systems with commercial livestocksystems (e.g. Scoones, 1992a) and compared livestock and wildlife systems (e.g. Jansen et al.,1992), but the only attempt to place trees in the centre of such an analysis is that of Bojo(1993), who has used much of the data presented above. Because of the data limitations, itis perhaps premature to make many strong conclusions, but it does appear that indigenouswoodlands, particularly in the drier regions, compete well with other land uses (Bojo, 1993).One of the chief limitations restricting comparison is that the estimates for tree-basedresources represent gross incomes, not gross margins, because no costs of production have asyet been included in the valuation.
5 OUTLOOK
The review indicates that a modest start on resource valuation has begun, but that researchon many topics is required before resource valuation is going to contribute meaningfully todecision making. The questions posed in the earlier sections remain unanswered: How muchis the woodland worth, and to whom? What is the value of woodlands in terms of recreationalvalues, biodiversity conservation and impact on climate? What are the costs and benefits ofcatchment conservation? How can resource valuation be incorporated in an amended systemof national accounts?
Some of the major lines of research that are required are outlined below:
(1) Contingent valuation methods
CVM needs further methodological development and use. How can option and existencevalues, social services (e.g. bridewealth, conservation of sacred groves) and woodland servicefunctions be incorporated in such analyses? Is it possible to obtain WTP bids directly abouttree commodities, rather than using proxy commodities such as boreholes (as used by Lynamet al., in prep.). The actual meaning of the values solicited need investigation (Adamowicz,1988; Adamowicz and Phillips, 1983; Bradley and Dewees, 1992) -- What are the appropriateforms of questioning? What does the value reflect: present utility or potential interventions?
Moyo et al. (1992) argue that willingness to pay may be better based on such questionsas what monetary wage a communal area individual would be willing to accept in formalemployment, or what income the individual would accept from his agricultural enterprisesin order to forego reliance on tree cutting in preference for purchased formal sectorsubstitutes. In this way, Moyo et al. (1992) argue, CVM will allow for consideration ofentitlement and consumption patterns, not in situ, but in a dynamic long-term context.
Tourism in the region is said to be based on the wildlife resource (Buetzler, 1990), which in turn is centred on the woodlands of the region. However, in Zimbabwe the outstanding tourist attraction, Victoria Falls, also accounts for considerable tourism revenue. There have been no detailed analyses of the value of tourism, and the data available are scattered (e.g. Cumming and Bond, 1991; Jansen et al., 1992). The tourism industry is considered the third most important source of foreign currency behind mining and agriculture (Jansen et aI., 1992), and thus detailed analyses of it are particularly needed.
Comparative valuation of different land-uses
There is now a growing literature on the comparative economics of different land uses. Previous analyses have compared communal livestock systems with commercial livestock systems (e.g. Scoones, 1992a) and compared livestock and wildlife systems (e.g. Jansen et aI., 1992), but the only attempt to place trees in the centre of such an analysis is that of Bojo (1993), who has used much of the data presented above. Because of the data limitations, it is perhaps premature to make many strong conclusions, but it does appear that indigenous woodlands, particularly in the drier regions, compete well with other land uses (Bojo, 1993). One of the chief limitations restricting comparison is that the estimates for tree-based resources represent gross incomes, not gross margins, because no costs of production have as yet been included in the valuation.
5 OUTLOOK
The review indicates that a modest start on resource valuation has begun, but that research on many topics is required before resource valuation is going to contribute meaningfully to decision making. The questions posed in the earlier sections remain unanswered: Howmuch is the woodland worth, and to whom? What is the value of woodlands in terms of recreational values, biodiversity conservation and impact on climate? What are the costs and benefits of catchment conservation? How can resource valuation be incorporated in an amended system of national accounts?
Some of the major lines of research that are required are outlined below:
(1) Contingent valuation methods
CVM needs further methodological development and use. How can option and existence values, social services (e.g. bridewealth, conservation of sacred groves) and woodland service functions be incorporated in such analyses? Is it possible to obtain WTP bids directly about tree commodities, rather than using proxy commodities such as boreholes (as used by Lynam et al., in prep.). The actual meaning of the values solicited need investigation (Adamowicz, 1988; Adamowicz and Phillips, 1983; Bradley and Dewees, 1992) -- What are the appropriate forms of questioning? What does the value reflect: present utility or potential interventions?
Moyo et al. (1992) argue that willingness to pay may be better based on such questions as what monetary wage a communal area individual would be willing to accept in formal employment, or what income the individual would accept from his agricultural enterprises in order to forego reliance on tree cutting in preference for purchased formal sector substitutes. In this way, Moyo et al. (1992) argue, CVM will allow for consideration of entitlement and consumption patterns, not in situ, but in a dynamic long-term context.
Willingness to pay
Valuation is based on willingness to pay (VVTP), either as expressed in consumer's ownpreferences in conventional markets, or in hypothetical markets (as in CVM) (Bojo, 1993).Using the WTP concept raises four major problems: imperfect lmowledge, externalities,skewed income distnbution and market imperfections (Bojo, 1993; de Beer and Mcdennott,1989).
While householders in the small-scale sector undoubtably have a wealth of 'indigenoustechnical imowledge' about trees and tree utilization, and act rationally in maldng resourceuse choices (Shepherd, 1992; Campbell et al., 1993), they are likely to be poorly informedabout certain natural resource processes and are likely to undervalue off-site downstreamimpacts (externalities). To take an extreme example, they are unlikely to value woodlanddestruction in terms of its impact on global climate change.
It has been argued that WTP data are not only an expression of preference, but alsoreflect wealth and income distribution (Bojo, 1993). This is especially a problem in suchcountries as Zimbabwe, where income distribution is highly skewed. Even within the small-scale sector, there are wide differentials and skewed income distribution (Jackson 1989;Jackson and Collier, 1988; Moyo et al., 1992). There is a need to investigate the relationshipbetween WTP and wealth, and a need to develop a system of weighting to ensure that theWTP of the wealthier sectors do not dominate any analysis (Bojo, 1993).
Markets do not necessarily reflect the true preferences or values of society where theproperty rights governing access to the resource are non-exclusive (Lynam et al., in prep.;Randall, 1983). In the smallholder sector in Zimbabwe, access to tree-based resources is amixture of private and communal (Wilson, 1989; Nhira and Fortmann, 1993). Behnke (1985)has explored the shortcomings of valuation exercises in that they fail adequately to reflect thereal value of some goods. Bradley and Dewees (1993) note that farm-gate prices andwillingness to pay exercises may tend to over-value some commodities and undervalue others.Whether one is using actual or hypothetical markets there is a need to investigate the natureof willingness to pay estimates. What is the nature of demand functions? To what extent domarket prices overestimate the value of products not commonly marketed or replacementproducts not frequently purchased? The relationship between WTP data and access rules alsoneed investigation.
Replacement-production methodologies
Firstly, it is obvious that the major need is for better, more site-specific data to allow fordetailed differentiated analyses (Scoones et al., 1992). The previous valuation was based onscattered bits of information from many systems throughout the country (Campbell et al.,1991b).
Production costs need to be incorporated in such analyses, particularly the labourcosts. There is almost no data on labour required to exploit tree-based resources. Thevaluation of labour is problematic. For some activities, for instance craftwork, the netbenefits would be negative if labour was given much value. On the other hand, labour inputsin the small-scale sector have often been underplayed or even ignored (de Beer andMcdermott, 1989; Moyo et al., 1992; Southgate, 1988). Labour availability varies throughoutthe year, with severe bottlenecks in certain periods (Gumbo et al., 1989; Zinyama, 1988).Labour requirements for resource management need to be quantified, valued and incorporatedinto resource valuation.
(2) Willingness to pay
Valuation is based on willingness to pay (WTP), either as expressed in consumer's own preferences in conventional markets, or in hypothetical markets (as in CVM) (Bojo, 1993). Using the WTP concept raises four major problems: imperfect knowledge, externalities, skewed income distribution and market imperfections (Bojo, 1993; de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989).
While householders in the small-scale sector undoubtably have a wealth of'indigenous technical knowledge' about trees and tree utilization, and act rationally in making resource use choices (Shepherd, 1992; Campbell et aI., 1993), they are likely to be poorly informed about certain natural resource processes and are likely to undervalue off-site downstream impacts (externalities). To take an extreme example, they are unlikely to value woodland destruction in terms of its impact on global climate change.
It has been argued that WTP data are not only an expression of preference, but also reflect wealth and income distribution (Bojo, 1993). This is especially a problem in such countries as Zimbabwe, where income distribution is highly skewed. Even within the smallscale sector, there are wide differentials and skewed income distribution (Jackson 1989; Jackson and Collier, 1988; Moyo et aI., 1992). There is a need to investigate the relationship between WTP and wealth, and a need to develop a system of weighting to ensure that the WTP of the wealthier sectors do not dominate any analysis (Bojo, 1993).
Markets do not necessarily reflect the true preferences or values of society where the property rights governing access to the resource are non-exclusive (Lynam et al., in prep.; Randall, 1983). In the smallholder sector in Zimbabwe, access to tree-based resources is a mixture of private and communal (Wilson, 1989; Nhira and Fortmann, 1993). Behnke (1985) has explored the shortcomings of valuation exercises in that they fail adequately to reflect the real value of some goods. Bradley and Dewees (1993) note that farm-gate prices and willingness to pay exercises may tend to over-value some commodities and undervalue others. Whether one is using actual or hypothetical markets there is a need to investigate the nature of willingness to pay estimates. What is the nature of demand functions? To what extent do market prices overestimate the value of products not commonly marketed or replacement products not frequently purchased? The relationship between WTP data and access rules also need investigation.
(3) Replacement-production methodologies
Firstly, it is obvious that the major need is for better, more site-specific data to allow for detailed differentiated analyses (Scoones et aI., 1992). The previous valuation was based on scattered bits of information from many systems throughout the country (Campbell et aI., 1991b).
Production costs need to be incorporated in such analyses, particularly the labour costs. There is almost no data on labour required to exploit tree-based resources. The valuation of labour is problematic. For some activities, for instance craftwork, the net benefits would be negative if labour was given much value. On the other hand, labour inputs in the small-scale sector have often been underplayed or even ignored (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Moyo et al., 1992; Southgate, 1988). Labour availability varies throughout the year, with severe bottlenecks in certain periods (Gumbo et al., 1989; Zinyama, 1988). Labour requirements for resource management need to be quantified, valued and incorporated into resource valuation.
The current examples of replacement-production methodologies have largely based thevaluation on household consumption; the long term costs of changes in resource stocks havenot been incorporated into the analyses (Moyo et al., 1992).
From individuals to society
How can values assigned by individuals be weighed together to obtain an aggregate valuewhich can guide social choice? (Blackorby, 1990; Bojo, 1993). In the first instance, researchshould compare how individuals assign value to commodity categories in comparison to theassignments of community groups and outside 'experts'. In this direction, the CVM describedearlier included a comparison between the rankings of householders and experts (Campbellet al., 1991b). In general, there is a problem of scale, the wider the group of beneficiaries, themore difficult it is to obtain a valuation (Bojo, 1993).
In moving from the valuations of individuals to policy maldng, Moyo et al. (1992) arguefor two approaches to be taken, termed the 'positivist' and 'normative' valuation approaches.They argue that the current valuation exercises have concentrated on the positivist approach,with valuation being based on current use patterns and the assumption that patterns ofownership, access and use of land and labour resources remain substantially unchanged.They argue that what is missing are any examples of valuation using a normative approach,in which policy makers are informed of the relative merits of different options of resource useentailing fundamental structural changes in the historical legacy of the present ownershipand use. The two approaches involve different shadow pricing assumptions and a normativeapproach may preclude some methodologies such as CVM, which Moyo et al. (1992) argue relyon revealed preferences based on existing resource use, precluding valuation underalternative economic arrangements.
Values in time and space
Generalised estimates of value and aggregate analyses are now available, but what is sorelyneeded is information that clarifies how value changes in time and space, in relation to suchvariables as season, year, environment, tenure, gender, wealth and age (Scoones et al., 1992;de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989). Valuation should tell us about changing uses of woodlandsover time and about differential values amongst users. Most studies treat the ruralpopulation as an undifferentiated homogenous population: there are few studies of a micro-economic nature (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992).
The cost of environmental change
Despite widespread concern about environmental degradation, it is clear that there is almostno valuation of environmental change in the region (see Southgate, 1988). The valuation ofcommunal livestock systems by Scoones (1992a) did not take into account any potentialdegradation in the resource base and the replacement-production valuation of tree-basedresources by Campbell et al. (1991b) did not incorporate any cost of the change in theresource base, as the estimates were mostly based on household consumption data: consumemore and hence higher value! Hosier (1988) has provided a review of studies on theeconomics of deforestation in eastern Africa, but finds that only two studies have sufficientdata to investigate the subject. He concludes that more information is needed about theresiliency of ecosystems to tree removal and more work is necessary to clarify the propertechniques to evaluate the economic implications of environmental change in developingcountries. In the context of Zimbabwe, the cost of degradation is particularly important as
The current examples of replacement-production methodologies have largely based the valuation on household consumption; the long term costs of changes in resource stocks have not been incorporated into the analyses (Moyo et al., 1992).
(4) From individuals to society
How can values assigned by individuals be weighed together to obtain an aggregate value which can guide social choice? (Blackorby, 1990; Bojo, 1993). In the first instance, research should compare how individuals assign value to commodity categories in comparison to the assignments of community groups and outside 'experts'. In this direction, the CVM described earlier included a comparison between the rankings of householders and experts (Campbell et al., 1991b). In general, there is a problem of scale, the wider the group of beneficiaries, the more difficult it is to obtain a valuation (Bojo, 1993).
In moving from the valuations of individuals to policy making, Moyo et al. (1992) argue for two approaches to be taken, termed the 'positivist' and 'normative' valuation approaches. They argue that the current valuation exercises have concentrated on the positivist approach, with valuation being based on current use patterns and the assumption that patterns of ownership, access and use of land and labour resources remain substantially unchanged. They argue that what is missing are any examples of valuation using a normative approach, in which policy makers are informed of the relative merits of different options of resource use entailing fundamental structural changes in the historical legacy of the present ownership and use. The two approaches involve different shadow pricing assumptions and a normative approach may preclude some methodologies such as CVM, which Moyo et al. (1992) argue rely on· revealed preferences based on existing resource use, precluding valuation under alternative economic arrangements.
(5) Values in time and space
Generalised estimates of value and aggregate analyses are now available, but what is sorely needed is information that clarifies how value changes in time and space, in relation to such variables as season, year, environment, tenure, gender, wealth and age (Scoones et al., 1992; de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989). Valuation should tell us about changing uses of woodlands over time and about differential values amongst users. Most studies treat the rural population as an undifferentiated homogenous population: there are few studies of a microeconomic nature (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Moyo et al., 1992).
(6) The cost of environmental change
Despite widespread concern about environmental degradation, it is clear that there is almost no valuation of environmental change in the region (see Southgate, 1988). The valuation of communal livestock systems by Scoones (1992a) did not take into account any potential degradation in the resource base and the replacement-production valuation of tree-based resources by Campbell et al. (1991b) did not incorporate any cost of the change in the resource base, as the estimates were mostly based on household consumption data: consume more and hence higher value! Hosier (1988) has provided a review of studies on the economics of deforestation in eastern Africa, but fmds that only two studies have sufficient data to investigate the subject. He concludes that more information is needed about the resiliency of ecosystems to tree removal and more work is necessary to clarify the proper techniques to evaluate the economic implications of environmental change in developing countries. In the context of Zimbabwe, the cost of degradation is particularly important as
the cost relates to the cost of not undertaking land reform and of not investing in thedevelopment of communal lands (Sam Moyo, pers. comm.; Katerere et al., 1991).
Regional value of woodlands for service functions
There are almost no data on the ecological value of woodlands, apart from the CVM describedabove, which is based on a localized survey. What are the regional consequences of changesin tree cover? What is the value of the state forest,s in catchment conservation? Bojo (1993)argues that the changes in water flow patterns and/or changes in soil erosion and siltationshould form the basis of such a valuation. For instance, as regards water the followingtechniques would be appropriate: (i) production valuation associated vvith changed wateryields; (ii) contingent valuation on the consumers of water from rivers and dams, and (iii)valuation based on flood damage estimates. There is a vast source of largely unanalyzedhydrological data in Zimbabwe, on which to base valuation, but simulation models wouldprobably also have to be used. As regards soil erosion and siltation, the following techniquesneed investigation: (i) loss of dam services due to siltation could be valued; (ii) soil loss andthe resulting change in production could be investigated using simulation models such asSCUAF, though more empirical data are needed on the influence of trees on soil erosion.
Global value of woodlands for biodiversity
There has been no attempts to value biodiversity in Zimbabwe or the region (Bojo, 1993).There is at least a need to make a preliminary valuation, but I concur with Bojo (1993) thatbiodiversity values are likely to be minor in comparison with other values. Some preliminarypapers have discussed the methodological obstacles associated with the valuation ofbiodiversity (e.g. Bojo, 1993; Evenson, 1990; Haneman, 1988).
Tourism
There is a need to make a more detailed analysis of the tourism industry, especially inregards the contribution of woodland systems to the benefits accrued.
National accounting
It is clear from the above review of valuation that there has been no attempt to includechanges in natural resource stocks in national accounts. There is recognition that thedeficiencies in the national accounting system needs rectifying (Bojo 1993; ForestryCommission, 1990, p. 11; Katerere et al., 1991), but little attempt has been made to overhaulthe present system. A fairly sophisticated example in which natural resources have beenincluded in the national accounting system is that for Costa Rica (Tropical Science Center,1991).
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the cost relates to the cost of not undertaking land reform and of not investing in the development of communal lands (Sam Moyo, pers. comm.; Katerere et al., 1991).
(7) Regional value of woodlands for service functions
There are almost no data on the ecological value of woodlands, apart from the CVM described above, which is based on a localized survey. What are the regional consequences of changes in tree cover? What is the value of the state forests in catchment conservation? Bojo (1993) argues that the changes in water flow patterns and/or changes in soil erosion and siltation should form the basis of such a valuation. For instance, as regards water the following techniques would be appropriate: (i) production valuation associated with changed water yields; (ii) contingent valuation on the consumers of water from rivers and dams, and (iii) valuation based on flood damage estimates. There is a vast source of largely unanalyzed hydrological data in Zimbabwe, on which to base valuation, but simulation models would probably also have to be used. As regards soil erosion and siltation, the following techniques need investigation: (i) loss of dam services due to siltation could be valued; (ii) soil loss and the resulting change in production could be investigated using simulation models such as SCUAF, though more empirical data are needed on the influence of trees on soil erosion.
(8) Global value of woodlands for biodiversity
There has been no attempts to value biodiversity in Zimbabwe or the region (Bojo, 1993). There is at least a need to make a preliminary valuation, but I concur with Bojo (1993) that biodiversity values are likely to be minor in comparison with other values. Some preliminary papers have discussed the methodological obstacles associated with the valuation of biodiversity (e.g. Bojo, 1993; Evenson, 1990; Haneman, 1988).
(9) Tourism
There is a need to make a more detailed analysis of the tourism industry, especially in regards the contribution of woodland systems to the benefits accrued.
(10) National accounting
It is clear from the above review of valuation that there has been no attempt to include changes in natural resource stocks in national accounts. There is recognition that the deficiencies in the national accounting system needs rectifying (Bojo 1993; Forestry Commission, 1990, p. 11; Katerere et al., 1991), but little attempt has been made to overhaul the present system. A fairly sophisticated example in which natural resources have been included in the national accounting system is that for Costa Rica (Tropical Science Center, 1991).
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The International Development Research Centre (Canada) supports the current work on thevaluation of tree-based resources at the University of Zimbabwe. I acknowledge the supportof the Stockholin Environment Institute during the production of this paper.
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Murindagomo F (1988) Preliminary investigation into wildlife utilization and land use in Angwa, mid-Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe. M.Phil thesis, Dept of Agricultural Economics, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe. 232 pp.
Murphree MW and Cumming DHM (1991) Savanna land use: policy and practice in Zimbabwe. CASSIWWF Paper No 1, Centre for Applied Social Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Harare.
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Nyathi P and Campbell BM (1993) The acquisition and use of miombo litter by small-scale farmers in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems 21: (in press).
Peters CM, Gentry AH and Mendelsohn RO (1989) Valuation of an Amazonian rainforest. Nature 339:655-656.
Randall A (1983) The problem of market failure. Natural Resources Journal 23:131-148.
Rasoanaivo P (1990) Rain forests of Madagascar: sources of industrial and medicinal plants. Ambio 19:421-423.
Repetto R (1992) Accounting for environmental assets. Scientific American 105:95-100.
Sandford S (1982) Livestock in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. Report prepared for the Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rural Development. Overseas Development Institute, London, UK.
Scoones IC (1992a) The economic value of livestock in the communal areas of Southern Zimbabwe. Agricultural Systems 39:339-359.
Scoones IC (1992b) Land degradation and livestock production in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation 3:99-113.
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Shepherd G (1992) Managing Africa's Tropical Dry Forests: A Review of Indigenous Methods. Overseas Development Institute, London, UK.
Sinclair ARE and Fryxhall JM (1985) The Sahel of Africa: Ecology of a disaster. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63:987-994.
Southgate D (1988) The economics ofland degradation in the third world. Working Paper No. 2, Environmental Department, The World Bank, Washington, USA.
Swanson T and Barbier E (1991) Economics for the Wilds. Wildlife, Wildlands, Diversity and Development. Earthscan Publications, London, UK.
Swinkels RA and Scherr SJ (1991) Economic Analysis of Agroforestry Technologies: An Annotated Bibliography. International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya.
Taylor R and Child B (1991) Does wildlife offer comparative advantage over cattle? The Buffalo Range core study: ecological considerations. Paper presented at the conference: 'Meeting rangeland challenges in Southern Africa in the 1990s', May 1991, Pretoria, South Mrica.
Tropical Science Center (1991) Accounts Overdue: Natural Resource Depreciation in Costa Rica. World Resources Institute, Washington.
Vermeulen SJ, Woomer P, Campbell BM, Kamukondiwa W, Swift. MJ, Frost PGH, Chivaura C, Murwira HK, Mutambanengwe F and Nyathi P (1993) Use of the SCUAF model to simulate natural miombo woodland and maize monoculture ecosystems in Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems (in press).
Weisbrod BA (1964) Collective-consumption services of individual-consumption goods. Quarterly Review of Economics 78:
White F (1983) The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Paris, France, 356 pp.
Wilson KB (1989) Trees in fields in southern Zimbabwe. Journal of Southern Mrican Studies 15:369-383.
World Bank (1990) Project Completion Report - Zimbabwe - Rural Afforestation Project. Cr 1368-ZIM. Agricultural Operations Division, Southern African Department, Washington, USA
World Commission for Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Young A and Muraya P (1990) SCUAF: Soil Changes Under Agroforestry: A Predictive Model (Version 2): Computer Program with User's Handbook. International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya, 124 pp.
Zinyama LM (1988) Farmers' perceptions ofthe constraints against increased crop production in the subsistence communal farming sector of Zimbabwe. Agricultural Administration and Extension 29:97-109.
6 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa,by J J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute of the OverseasDevelopment Administration, UK.
M
6 Pines and Eucalyptus - Sources of Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa, by J J W Coppen, Natural Resources Institute of the Overseas Development Administration, UK.
FAO/Commonwealth Science Council Regional Expert
Consultation Meeting on Non-Wood Forest Products, Arusha,
Tanzania, 17-22 October, 1993
PINES AND EUCALYPTS - SOURCES OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN
AFRICA
John J W Coppen
Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB,
United Kingdom
Abstract
The production of pine resin (as a source of turpentine and
rosin) and eucalyptus oil in different parts of the world is
described with the aid of overheads and slides. The social
and economic benefits that derive from such activities are
noted. Focus is given to their present production in Africa:
in Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa and Swaziland. In
conclusion, the need for research in certain areas - if
production is to be improved and extended successfully to
other African countries - is discussed.
FAO/Commonwealth Science Council Regional Expert
Consultation Meeting on Non-Wood Forest Products, Arusha,
Tanzania, 17-22 October, 1993
PINES AND EUCALYPTS - SOURCES OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN
AFRICA
John J W Coppen
Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB,
United Kingdom
Abstract
The production of pine resin (as a source of turpentine and
rosin) and eucalyptus oil in different parts of the world is
described with the aid of overheads and slides. The social
and economic benefits that derive from such activities are
noted. Focus is given to their present production in Africa:
in Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa and Swaziland. In
conclusion, the need for research in certain areas - if
production is to be improved and extended successfully to
other African countries - is discussed.
FAO/Commonwealth Science Council Regional Expert
Consultation Meeting on Non-Wood Forest Products, Arusha,
Tanzania, 17-22 October, 1993
PINES AND EUCALYPTS - SOURCES OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN
AFRICA
John J W Coppen
Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB,
United Kingdom
Introduction
The term 'Non-Wood Forest Products' embraces a wide range of
plant and animal products that may be obtained in one way or
another from the flora and fauna growing or living in the
forest. It distinguishes non-wood products, or minor forest
products as they used to be called, from those such as
timber and pulp in which the log of the felled tree is the
primary product. The term is often used in connection with
traditionally collected products from the natural forest but
may be applied equally to those derived from forest
plantations or smaller, community or family based plantings.
Two groups of trees that are very widely planted throughout
the world, pines.and eucalypts, yield products that most
certainly fall in the category of 'non-wood forest
products': resin obtained by tapping pine trees, which on
distillation yields turpentine and rosin, and oil obtained
by distilling the leaves of certain Eucalyptus species. The
manner in which these products are obtained from the trees,
particularly in Africa, the social and economic benefits to
be gained from undertaking such activities, problems or gaps
in knowledge that exist in meeting the demands of the market
or in raising productivity, and the ways in which research
needs to be directed in order to provide some answers, are
discussed below [and with the use of slides].
FAO/Commonwealth Science Council Regional Expert
Consultation Meeting on Non-Wood Forest Products, Arusha,
Tanzania, 17-22 October, 1993
PINES AND EUCALYPTS - SOURCES OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN
AFRICA
John J W Coppen
Natural Resources Institute, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, United Kingdom
Introduction
The term 'Non-Wood Forest Products' embraces a wide range of plant and animal products that may be obtained in one way or another from the flora and fauna growing or living in the
forest. It distinguishes non-wood products, or minor forest
products as they used to be called, from those such as
timber and pulp in which the log of the felled tree is the
primary product. The term is often used in connection with traditionally collected products from the natural forest but
may be applied equally to those derived from forest plantations or smaller, community or family based plantings.
Two groups of trees that are very widely planted throughout
the world, pines-and eucalypts, yield products that most
certainly fall in the category of 'non-wood forest
products': resin obtained by tapping pine trees, which on
distillation yields turpentine and rosin, and oil obtained by distilling the leaves of certain Eucalyptus species. The manner in which these products are obtained from the trees,
particularly in Africa, the social and economic benefits to
be gained from undertaking such activities, problems or gaps in knowledge that exist in meeting the demands of the market
or in raising productivity, and the ways in which research
needs to be directed in order to provide some answers, are
discussed below [and with the use of slides].
Gum naval stores - the production of turpentine and rosin
from pine resin
Any country with a standing resource of pine trees - whether
natural or plantation - has the potential to tap them and
obtain a resin which yields, after a process of
distillation, turpentine and rosin. These two products enter
international trade for eventual use in a wide range of
applications, but may also meet important needs of the
producing country.
Around 850,000 tonnes of turpentine and rosin are produced
annually from tapping pine trees and of this, China accounts
for over half. As increasing labour costs have led to a
decline in production in countries such as the USA,
Portugal, Spain and France, others, such as Brazil and
Indonesia, have increased production markedly in recent
years to take advantage of the demand for these products.
There are now three producers of turpentine and rosin in
Africa, all of relatively recent origin: Zimbabwe (which
began tapping about 1976), Kenya (1986) and South Africa
(1986). Between them they produce about 4,000 tonnes of
crude resin a year. The tapping operation itself is a
labour-intensive activity and the employment opportunities
thus offered are a major incentive to exploring the
potential for naval stores production in a country where
none exists. Women can undertake several of the tasks
involved. At the national level, gains or savings in foreign
exchange can be made through import substitution or exports.
In most countries, older methods of tapping which involve
cutting deeply into the wood have been replaced by those
which entail simply removing small, horizontal strips of
bark at regular intervals and applying a liquid or paste
formulation. In this way, the tree is not damaged and the
stem, if it is to be felled eventually for timber or pulp,
does not suffer any significant reduction in volume or
quality. Royalties payable to the Forestry Department or
Gum naval stores - the production of turpentine and rosin
from pine resin
Any country with a standing resource of pine trees - whether
natural or plantation - has the potential to tap them and
obtain a resin which yields, after a process of
distillation, turpentine and rosin. These two products enter
international trade for eventual use in a wide range of
applications, but may also meet important needs of the
producing country.
Around 850,000 tonnes of turpentine and rosin are produced
annually from tapping pine trees and of this, China accounts
for over half. As increasing labour costs have led to a
decline in production in countries such as the USA,
Portugal, Spain and France, others, such as Brazil and
Indonesia, have increased production markedly in recent
years to take advantage of the demand for these products.
There are now three producers of turpentine and rosin in Africa, all of relatively recent origin: Zimbabwe (which
began tapping about 1976), Kenya (1986) and South Africa
(1986). Between them they produce about 4,000 tonnes of
crude resin a year. The tapping operation itself is a
labour-intensive activity and the employment opportunities
thus offered are a major incentive to exploring the potential for naval stores production in a country where
none exists. Women can undertake several of the tasks
involved. At the national level, gains or savings in foreign
exchange can be made through import substitution or exports.
In most countries, older methods of tapping which involve
cutting deeply into the wood have been replaced by those
which entail simply removing small, horizontal strips of bark at regular intervals and applying a liquid or paste
formulation. In this way, the tree is not damaged and the
stem, if it is to be felled eventually for timber or pulp, does not suffer any significant reduction in volume or
quality. Royalties payable to the Forestry Department or
owner of the trees - usually based on the amount of resin
collected - provides a valuable source of extra income.
While most pines yield resin of some sort upon tapping, the
question of whether it is economic to do so depends on its
quality and the quantities that may be obtained. Some
generalisations can be made in terms of those species of
pine which are most suitable in this regard, although other
factors such as provenance origin of the trees and local
climatic conditions can have an important influence. Pinus
elliottii, P.caribaea and P.radiata are the three species of
pine tapped in Zimbabwe, Kenya and South Africa. Countries
such as Tanzania, Zambia and Malawi have large areas of
P.kesiya, P.00carpa and P.patula planted. NRI experience is
that the first two species are not high yielding in resin,
but the good quality of P.kesiya resin and the fact that
P.00carpa is utilised in Honduras and Mexico make them
species that are worth investigating in more detail.
P.patula, however, is not a species that is ever likely to
be exploited for naval stores purposes.
NRI maintains good contacts with the trade and there is no
doubt that international demand for turpentine and rosin
will remain high for the foreseeable future. Importers and
end-users are keen to find new sources, providing price and
quality are good. In the first instance, however, new
producers will want to meet local demand: turpentine for use
by the paint industry as a solvent for paints and varnishes,
and rosin for use by the paper industry or for making soap.
The major constraint to increasing production to meet this
demand is the shortage of resin. This may be due to the fact
that existing production utilises trees that are
intrinsically of limited yielding capacity (ie they are not
the optimum species, variety or provenance), or
environmental conditions are not well suited to high resin
flow, or the tapping methods used are not optimal. Or there
may simply be a shortage of trees, perhaps because
owner of the trees - usually based on the amount of resin
collected - provides a valuable source of extra income.
While most pines yield resin of some sort upon tapping, the
question of whether it is economic to do so depends on its quality and the quantities that may be obtained. Some
generalisations can be made in terms of those species of
pine which are most suitable in this regard, although other factors such as provenance origin of the trees and local
climatic conditions can have an important influence. Pinus
elliottii, P.caribaea and P.radiata are the three species of
pine tapped in Zimbabwe, Kenya and South Africa. Countries such as Tanzania, Zambia and Malawi have large areas of
P.kesiya, P.oocarpa and P.patula planted. NRI experience is that the first two species are not high yielding in resin,
but the good quality of P.kesiya resin and the fact that
P.oocarpa is utilised in Honduras and Mexico make them
species that are worth investigating in more detail. P.patula, however, is not a species that is ever likely to
be exploited for naval stores purposes.
NRI maintains good contacts with the trade and there is no
doubt that international demand for turpentine and rosin will remain high for the foreseeable future. Importers and
end-users are keen to find new sources, providing price and
quality are good. In the first instance, however, new
producers will want to meet local demand: turpentine for use
by the paint industry as a solvent for paints and varnishes,
and rosin for use by the paper industry or for making soap.
The major constraint to increasing production to meet this
demand is the shortage of resin. This may be due to the fact that existing production utilises trees that are
intrinsically of limited yielding capacity (ie they are not
the optimum species, variety or provenance), or
environmental conditions are not well suited to high resin flow, or the tapping methods used are not optimal. Or there
may simply be a shortage of trees, perhaps because
replanting is not taking place as fast as trees are felled.
Solutions exist for most of these problems, though some are
longer term and require investment in research, both by
forestry organisations and institutions, and by agencies
that have expertise in these areas. Current work in South
Africa on Pinus hybrids holds particular promise for the
region.
Better education can also play an important role: heightened
awareness amongst foresters and decision makers of the
benefits that accrue from gum naval stores production may
enable untapped resources to be utilised, whilst the pooling
of knowledge among existing and potential producers is to
the advantage of both and is to be encouraged. The case for
doing this in Africa is no less strong than elsewhere and,
indeed, has already been voiced by producers in the region.
It would not necessary for a new African producer of pine
resin to be committed to the installation of a processing
plant. Although this may be desirable eventually, crude
resin could, in the first instance, be an item of cross-
border trade, going some way towards making up the shortfall
experienced by existing producers. Kenya, for example, has a
requirement of about 1,000 tonnes of rosin for use by the
paper industry, but only produces about half of this from
its own resources. Countries such as Tanzania, Zambia and
Malawi could step in to provide the remainder if the pines
were shown to be capable of supporting a tapping operation.
Eucalyptus oil - its production from Eucalyptus leaf
The fast-growing nature of eucalypts makes them ideally
suited to the production of wood for pulp, timber (including
poles) and fuelwood. They are also, however, an important
source of essential oil.
World production of eucalyptus oil is around 3,500 tonnes
per year, of which about 2,500 tonnes is the medicinal type
replanting is not taking place as fast as trees are felled.
Solutions exist for most of these problems, though some are
longer term and require investment in research, both by
forestry organisations and institutions, and by agencies
that have expertise in these areas. Current work in South
Africa on Pinus hybrids holds particular promise for the
region.
Better education can also play an important role: heightened
awareness amongst foresters and decision makers of the benefits that accrue from gum naval stores production may
enable untapped resources to be utilised, whilst the pooling
of knowledge among existing and potential producers is to
the advantage of both and is to be encouraged. The case for
doing this in Africa is no less strong than elsewhere and,
indeed, has already been voiced by producers in the region'.
It would not necessary for a new African producer of pine
resin to be committed to the installation of a processing plant. Although this may be desirable eventually, crude
resin could, in the first instance, be an item of cross
border trade, going some way towards making up the shortfall
experienced by existing producers. Kenya, for example, has a
requirement of about 1,000 tonnes of rosin for use by the
paper industry, but only produces about half of this from
its own resources. Countries such as Tanzania, Zambia and
Malawi could step in to provide the remainder if the pines
were shown to be capable of supporting a tapping operation.
Eucalyptus oil - its production from Eucalyptus leaf
The fast-growing nature of eucalypts makes them ideally
suited to the production of wood for pulp, timber (including
poles) and fuelwood. They are also, however, an important
source of essential oil.
World production of eucalyptus oil is around 3,500 tonnes
per year, of which about 2,500 tonnes is the medicinal type
of oil. Most of the balance of production is of perfumery-
type of oils. China accounts for about 70% of world
production of medicinal oil (and the bulk of the perfumery
type).
African production of medicinal oil amounts to approximately
250 tonnes and is split between South Africa, Swaziland and
Zimbabwe, although the latter provides less than 10 tonnes
of this. It is possible that Tanzania will commence
production in the near future.
Eucalyptus may be utilised for oil production in one of two
ways: it may be grown specifically for oil on a short-
rotation coppice system, harvesting the regrowth at
intervals of between 6 and 16 months after the first cut; or
the 'waste' leaf available after trimming the felled tree
destined for the pulp or sawmill may be collected and
distilled.
Most of the social and economic benefits that derive from
the production of pine resin apply equally to the production
of eucalyptus oil. In the case of estate-led production
specifically for oil, harvesting of the leaf and loading it
on to trailers for dispatch to the distillery is, like pine
tapping, labour-intensive. The distillery probably requires
rather more people to maintain production (to load and
unload the stills) than does a resin distillation plant. In
contrast to pine resin, the distillation of eucalyptus oil
is something that can be undertaken on a relatively small
scale. Stills of 50kg capacity and less are easily
fabricated for village-scale use.
The leaves of most species of eucalypt yield an oil when
distilled, but only a few species produce it in sufficient
amounts and of a quality to make its distillation
practicable and economic. Utilisation of 'waste' leaf,
therefore, depends on the species being grown for its wood
also being suitable for oil. E.globulus (grown for pulp in
of oil. Most of the balance of production is of perfumery
type of oils. China accounts for about 70% of world
production of medicinal oil (and the bulk of the perfumery
type).
African production of medicinal oil amounts to approximately
250 tonnes and is split between South Africa, Swaziland and
Zimbabwe, although the latter provides less than 10 tonnes
of this. It is possible that Tanzania will commence
production in the near future.
Eucalyptus may be utilised for oil production in one of two
ways: it may be grown specifically for oil on a short
rotation coppice system, harvesting the regrowth at
intervals of between 6 and 16 months after the first cut; or
the 'waste' leaf available after trimming the felled tree
destined for the pulp or sawmill may be collected and
distilled.
Most of the social and economic benefits that derive from
the production of pine resin apply equally to the production
of eucalyptus oil. In the case of estate-led production
specifically for oil, harvesting of the leaf and loading it
on to trailers for dispatch to the distillery is, like pine
tapping, labour-intensive. The distillery probably requires
rather more people to maintain production (to load and
unload the stills) than does a resin distillation plant. In
contrast to pine resin, the distillation of eucalyptus oil
is something that can be undertaken on a relatively small
scale. Stills of 50kg capacity and less are easily
fabricated for village-scale use.
The leaves of most species of eucalypt yield an oil when
distilled, but only a few species produce it in sufficient
amounts and of a quality to make its distillation
practicable and economic. Utilisation of 'waste' leaf,
therefore, depends on the species being grown for its wood
also being suitable for oil. E.globulus (grown for pulp in
Spain and Portugal) and E.citriodora (grown for charcoal
production in Brazil) are two such species. In Africa,
E.smithii is a particularly fast producer of leaf biomass
and is by far the major source of medicinal eucalyptus oil.
E.radiata, however, holds much promise as a significant
supplementary source of oil in the region.
To date, most African production of oil has been from trees
planted specifically for that purpose. E.camaldulensis
(Petford provenance), however, which is suited to more drier
areas than E.smithii and E.radiata, has high potential for
use as a source of both oil and wood for pole or fuel
purposes.
Utilisation of Eucalyptus as a multipurpose tree, as well as
meeting a number of different needs, means that the risks
associated with low prices or demand for one or other of the
products are spread and the effects minimised. Research is
needed, however, to define the best harvesting schedule for
the species grown so that the returns are maximised. As with
pines, other long-term research remains to be done. As well
as seeking to increase oil quality and productivity through
selection of elite germplasm, improved field management will
unboubtedly pay dividends.
Spain and portugal) and E.citriodora (grown for charcoal
production in Brazil) are two such species. In Africa,
E.smithii is a particularly fast producer of leaf biomass
and is by far the major source of medicinal eucalyptus oil. E.radiata, however, holds much promise as a significant
supplementary source of oil in the region.
To date, most African production of oil has been from trees
planted specifically for that purpose. E.camaldulensis
(Petford provenance), however, which is suited to more drier areas than E.smithii and E.radiata, has high potential for
use as a source of both oil and wood for pole or fuel
purposes.
utilisation of Eucalyptus as a multipurpose tree, as well as
meeting a number of different needs, means that the risks
associated with low prices or demand for one or other of the products are spread and the effects minimised. Research is
needed, however, to define the best harvesting schedule for the species grown so that the returns are maximised. As with pines, other long-term research remains to be done. As well
as seeking to increase oil quality and productivity through
selection of elite germplasm, improved field management will
unboubtedly pay dividends.
7 Gum Arabic Report from Sudan, by 0 El Wasila.7 Gum Arabic Report from Sudan, by 0 EI Wasila.
Gum Arabic - An essential non-wood
based products in Sudan
By
* Omer A/E1 Karim El Wasila
Paper presented in Regional expert
Consultation on non-wood Forest
Products (NWFP) for English-Speaking
African Countries
Arusha, Tanzania
17-22 October 1993
Introduction
Sudan account for nearly 80% of the world productionof gum arabic. It is the third largest export item from Sudan,after Cotton and Sorghum. The total production and itsdistribution between different producing areas have undergonechanges (There is a notice declination in Kordofan, Darfur andEastern State while the Central State is promising). The GumArabic company purchased all the quantities produced in thecountry. However, this is not the actual production. Some ofthe production is smuggled outside the country especially throughChad and Ethiopia due to the high international; prices incomparison to what is paid to the merchants,hence smuggling isextremely profitable.
Another type of gum produced from Acacia seyal isclosely linked to the production of hashab gum (Acacia senegal)when production of hashab gum is high neither the producer northe gum arabic company are interested in the collection of Talhgum when there is a short fall in production, farmers are startedto collect Talh to substitute the loss in hashab although itsprices are cheap.
The species which are commercially tapped are Acaciasenegal (Hashab), Acacia seyal (Talh) and Boswellia papyrif era(gafal) or Tarag Tarag. 90% of the gum exported from Sudan ishashab. Also there is potential for Sterculia seticrera (Tartaror Karaya) in world markets.
Gum Arabic is also a significant source of cash incomefor the peasant communities occupying the gum belt. Populationestimates are highly uncertain, but table 1.1 shows that theareas of Kordofan, Dafur, Eastern and Central States accounts forsome 10 million people, with perhaps 2.8 million people livingin the gum belt.
Gum Arabic - An essential non-wood
based products in Sudan
By
* Omer AIEl Karim El Wasila
Paper presented in Regional expert
Consultation on non-wood Forest
Products (NWFP) for English-Speaking
African Countries
Arusha, Tanzania
17-22 October 1993
Introduction
Sudan account for nearly 80% of the world production of gum arabic. It is the third largest export item from Sudan, after Cotton and Sorghum. The total production and its distribution between different producing areas have undergone changes (There is a notice declination in Kordofan, Darfur and Eastern State while the Central State is promising). The Gum Arabic company purchased all the quantities produced in the country. However, this is not the actual production. Some of the production is smuggled outside the country especially through Chad and Ethiopia due to the high international i prices in comparison to what is paid to the merchants,hence smuggling is extremely profitable.
Another type of gum produced from Acacia seval is closely linked to the production of hashab gum (Acacia senegal) when production of hashab gum is high neither the producer nor the gum arabic company are interested in the collection of Talh gum when there is a short fall in production, farmers are started to collect Talh to substitute the loss in hashab although its prices are cheap.
The species which are commercially tapped are Acacia senegal (Hashab), Acacia seyal (Talh) and Boswel1ia papyrifera (gafal) or Tarag Tarag. 90% of the gum exported from Sudan is hashab. Also there is potential for Sterculia setigera (Tartar or Karaya) in world markets.
Gum Arabic is also a significant source of cash income for the peasant communities occupying the gum belt. Population estimates are highly uncertain, but table 1.1 shows that the areas of Kordofan, Dafur, Eastern and Central States accounts for some 10 million people, with perhaps 2.8 million people living in L!1e gum belt.
Table 1.1
Sudan population estimates 1983 (millions)
Source: Sudan Department of Statistics (1983) thirdpopulation census.
Gum Arabic is an essential commercial crop to thepeople of these states beside the tree has a multi-functionalpurposes, providing a number of products of direct use andbenefits to the farming communities and, most significantlyacting as an environmental stabilizer, within the gum belt whichlie between 10 and 14 degree latitude.
(a) Production
In the last 5 years (1988/89 - 1992/93) the productionshowed a significant reduce as depicts in table 1.2 below:
Source: Gum Arabic Company - Khartoum
The Production declination is due to the followingreasons:
1. Drought and desertification problems in 1983/84especially in Northern and Eastern Kordofan andNorthern Darfur which followed by interregionalmigration to the gum producers.
2
State Urban Rural Nomads Total
Eastern 0.64 1.01 0.56 2.21Central 0.83 2.96 0.24 4.01Kordofan 0.39 1.92 0.78 3.09Darfur 0.32 2.31 0.47 3.09Others 1.97 6.04 0.14 8.15Total 4.15 14.22 2.19 20.56
Season Quantity in Tonnes
1988/89 38948
1989/90 25733
1990/91 12061
1991/92 7330
1992/93 10870
I
2
Table 1.1
Sudan population estimates 1983 (millions)
State
Eastern
Central
Kordofan
Darfur
Others
Total I Source:
Urban Rural Nomads Total
0.64 1. 01 0.56 2.21
0.83 2.96 0.24 4.01
0.39 1. 92 0.78 3.09
0.32 2.31 0.47 3.09
1. 97 6.04 0.14 8.15
4.15 I 14.22 I 2.19 I 20.56 I Sudan Department of Statistics (1983) third population census.
Gum Arabic is an essential commercial crop to the people of these states beside the tree has a multi-functional purposes, providing a number of products of direct use and benefits to the farming communities and, most significantly acting as an environmental stabilizer, within the gum belt which lie between 10 and 14 degree latitude.
(a) Production
In the last 5 years (1988/89 - 1992/93) the production showed a significant reduce as depicts in table 1.2 below:
Season Quantity in Tonnes
1988/89 38948
1989/90 25733
1990/91 12061
1991/92 7330
1992/93 10870
* Source: Gum Arabic Company - Khartoum
The Production declination is due to the following reasons:
1. Drought and desertification problems in 1983/84 especially in Northern and Eastern Kordofan and Northern Darfur which followed by interregional migration to the gum producers.
3
Locust infestation, which covered all the gum beltareas extending from the Eastern to the Western borderfor many seasons.
Rainfall fluctuation in some areas, in addition to theextend of rainy season till October in others.
Rising cost of living in rural areas and the lack ofcash in the hands of the farmers/gum producers after1983/84 drought.
(b) Gum Arabic Export Value
Table 1.3 gives the value of exports since 1989. Thereis a clear fluctuation from year to another which reflect thefluctuation in production as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.3
Value of Gum Arabic exports(in U.S.$ 000)
Source: Gum Arabic Company - Khartoum
Role of Gum Arabic Company: (Solving problems)
1. Producers
(a) Participation in policies concerning productionmarketing and the future of Gum Arabic trade (4 seatswere reserved in the administrative council).
(b) Contribution in the capital of Gum Arabic Company.
(e) The company purchase the excess in production.
Execution of the minimum price policy announced by thegovernment.
Non exploitation insurance.
Year Value
1989 46788.99
1990 54594.74
1991 50818.66
1992 23496.65
3
2. Locust infestation, which covered all the gum belt areas extending from the Eastern to the Western border for many seasons.
3. Rainfall fluctuation in some areas, in addition to the extend of rainy season till October in others.
4. Rising cost of living in rural areas and the lack of cash in the hands of the farmers/gum producers after 1983/84 drought.
(b) Gum Arabic Export Value
Table 1.3 gives the value of exports since 1989. There is a clear fluctuation from year to another which reflect the fluctuation in production as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1. 3
Year
1989
1990
1991
1992
* Source:
Value of Gum Arabic exports (in u. S . $ 0 0 0 )
Value
46788.99
54594.74
50818.66
23496.65
Gum Arabic Company - Khartoum
(c) Role of Gum Arabic Company: (Solving problems)
1. Producers
(a) Participation in policies concerning production marketing and the future of Gum Arabic trade (4 seats were reserved in the administrative council) .
(b) Contribution in the capital of Gum Arabic Company.
(c) The company purchase the excess in production.
(d) Execution of the minimum price policy announced by the government.
(e) Non exploitation insurance.
4
(f) Execution of emergency programmes to combat locust,best and diseases, water availability at productionsites, execution of development programmes,development of production, and protection of HashabTrees.
2. Merchant
Existing of definite price in addition to excellentrevenue.
Availability of inputs and requirements.
(e) Solving Transportation problems.
Combat smuggling.
Organizing internal markets and open new one.
organizing cleaning operations in addition toselection and quality.
3. Production
(a) Protection of hashab Trees from locust by subsidizingprotection department.
(b) Protection of Hashab Trees from fires by coordinationbetween the agricultural departments (Forestry, rangesand pasture).
(c) Promotion of production and development of other gumse.g. Talh and Tartar.
(d) Role of FNC Corporation
Participation in development, planting, protection andconservation.
Future planning for production continuity andproduction of new types of gums.
Conservation of natural resources (trees) plus theenvironment.
Control funds provided for Gum Arabic afforestation bythe Gum Arabic Company and GOS development budget.Also provides advisory services (Table 1.4).
Provide extension activities arising from research inestablishment and tapping also product promotion forfruits, medicine and fodder.
4
(f) Execution of emergency programmes to combat locust, best and diseases, water availability at production sites, execution of development programmes, development of production, and protection of Hashab Trees.
2. Merchant
(a) Existing of definite price in addition to excellent revenue.
(b) Availability of inputs and requirements.
(c) Solving Transportation problems.
(d) Combat smuggling.
(e) Organizing internal markets and open new one.
(f) organizing cleaning operations selection and quality.
3. Production
in addition to
(a) Protection of hashab Trees from locust by subsidizing protection department.
(b) Protection of Hashab Trees from fires by coordination between the agricultural departments (Forestry, ranges and pasture) .
(c) Promotion of production and development of other gums e.g. Talh and Tartar.
(d) Role of FNC Corporation
1. Participation in development, planting, protection and conservation.
2. Future planning for production production of new types of gums.
continuity and
3. Conservation of natural resources (trees) plus the environment.
4. Control funds provided for Gum Arabic afforestation by the Gum Arabic Company and GOS development budget. Also provides advisory services (Table 1.4) .
5. Provide extension activities arising from research in establishment and tapping also product promotion for fruits, medicine and fodder.
Table 1.4
Talh and Hashab Afforestation programme in Feddans
for 93/94 in the country
5
State Hashab Talh Total
Central 25275 8540 33815
Eastern 14000 5100 19100
Kordofan 18200 - 18200
Darfur 3000 - 3000
Khartoum 100 100
Total 60475 13740 74215
Source: FNC Corporation Khartoum
Omer A/E1 Karim El WasilaB.Sc. (Forest.) Hons. U. of K.P.G. Diploma (Regional Development and Planning). U.
of K.M.Sc. (Forest Economics) U. of K.Currently Fill the post of Gums and non-wood basedproducts manager FNC - Khartoum, P.O.Box 658, Sudan.
Table 1.4
Talh and Hashab Afforestation programme in Feddans
for 93/94 in the country
State Hashab Talh
Central 25275 8540
Eastern 14000 5100
Kordofan 18200 -
Darfur 3000 -
Khartoum 100
Total 60475 13740
* Source: FNC Corporation Khartoum
* Orner AIEl Karim EI Wasila B.Sc. (Forest.) Hons. U. of K.
Total
33815
19100
18200
3000
100
74215
5
P.G. Diploma (Regional Development and Planning). U. of K. M.Sc. (Forest Economics) U. of K. Currently Fill the post of Gums and non-wood based products manager FNC - Khartoum, P.O. Box 658, Sudan.
1
8 Information Notes on Statistical Information, by F Padovani, ForestryOfficer, Planning and Statistics Branch, Forestry Policy and PlanningDivision, Forestry Department of FAO.
I
1
8 Information Notes on Statistical Information, by F Padovani, Forestry Officer, Planning and Statistics Branch, Forestry Policy and Planning Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
1
Statistical Informationon
Non-Wood Forest Producs
Notesby: F. Padovani
Statistics are about quantities and magnitudes. They areused in communicating information, keeping records and makingcomparisons. Forestry Sector Statistics cover all aspects of theactivities of the sector. The information they carry may beneeded for many different purposes, both by people within thesector and by people looking at the sector from outside.
When people use statistics, they very often use them to makecomparisons the following examples are depicted from the sectionNON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS in the FAO Publication "Statistics Todayfor Tomorrow 1961-1991,2010". The comparisons may be betweendifferent things:
Natural Rubber Production Value of Brazil compared withPalm Hearts Production Value of Brazil.
The comparison may be between the same thing in differentplaces:
Rattan Export Value of Indonesia compared withRattan Export Value of Philippines.
Or the comparison may be between the same thing in the sameplace at different times:
Cork Export Values of Portugal Compared forEach 5 Year since 1948
If a comparison is to be usefull, we must know WHAT thethings are that are being compared, WHERE they come from, HOWthey are measured and WHEN.
You will notice that the graph on Gum Arabic says:
The product and the activity have been named:What? Gum Arabic Exports
The place has been named:- Where? Sudan
The units are stated:How Measured? metric Tons, US Dollars
The time for which the export statistic is recorded:When? 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983 1990
by: F. Padovani
1
statistical Information on
Non-Wood Forest Producs
Not e s
statistics are about quantities and magnitudes. They are used in communicating information, keeping records and making comparisons. Forestry Sector statistics cover all aspects of the acti vi ties of the sector. The information they carry may be needed for many different purposes, both by people within the sector and by people looking at the sector from outside.
When people use statistics, they very often use them to make comparisons the following examples are depicted from the section NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS in the FAO Publication "statistics Today for Tomorrow 1961-1991,2010". The comparisons may be between different things:
Natural Rubber Production Value of Brazil compared with Palm Hearts Production Value of Brazil.
The comparison may be between the same thing in different places:
Rattan Export Value of Indonesia compared with Rattan Export Value of Philippines.
Or the comparison may be between the same thing in the same place at different times:
Cork Export Values of portugal Compared for Each 5 Year since 1948
If a comparison is to be usefull, we must know WHAT the things are that are being compared, WHERE they come from, HOW they are measured and WHEN.
You will notice that the graph on Gum Arabic says:
The product and the activity have been named: - What? Gum Arabic Exports
The place has been named: - Where? Sudan
The units are stated: - How Measured? metric Tons, US Dollars
The time for which the export statistic is recorded: - When? 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983 •.•.. 1990
2
In the first part of this presentation, these fourcharacteristics of the definition will be discussed in a littlemore detail.
What - The definition of the product
What is a product?When we speak of a product we are talking about an "object" a"thing" which has been produced, has been harvested, has beenprocessed, has been manufactured, has been delivered to ahausehold enterprice or market.In the example above we considered very few NWFP Naval Stores,Natural Rubber, Palm Hearts, Cork, Rattan, Gum Arabic. Each ofthese are large collections of products. For example NaturalRubber exports may include Natural rubber latex, whether or notprevulcanized and Natural rubber (other than latex). Naval Storesmay include CTO/DTO, Rosins, Salts/Esters, Other Rosin Derived,Turps, Pine Oil, Other Terpenes, Terpene Resins, etc..
When we are involved in the sale of "a product, much moredetailed specifications have to be considered giving the speciesand quality of the material. The total volume of Gum Arabicexports includes the volume of all species and all qualities.
Different systems of statistics show different degrees ofdetail. The important thing to recognize is that any statisticmust be accompanied by a definition if it is to be useful forcomparison with other statistics.
Hopefully, we shall look at the major classifications andtheir definitions in more detail during this Expert Consultationin order to start to sistematize Non-Wood Forest Products(Forest Products Other Than Wood) statistics and to define aframework, structure and definition.
WHERE - The Spacial Coverage of a Statistic
Statistics may be collected at paricular location in acountry for example for provinces or regions, the total for thecountry is the sum of data for provinces producing the productin the country.
The FAO international statistics gathered attempts to obtainestimates of the total of each class in any country. In theexamples, the statistics were stated as the exports of a country:Sudan, Brazil, Philippines, Indonesia, etc.. The assumption isthat they include all exports of the product from the country.The question may be asked do they include all the exports of thatproduct? Are exports of all companies - large, small, governmentand private - included? are the exports from all ports included?is the cross border trade with neighbouring countries included?There is very little recorded trade in forest products betweenneighbouring African countries.
This question of coverage may be very significant in thecase of domestic production, for example honey production.
Last question - are there accurate records or estimates forall of these?
2
In the first part of this presentation, these four characteristics of the definition will be discussed in a little more detail.
What - The definition of the product
What is a product? When we speak of a product we are talking about an "object" a "thing" which has been produced, has been harvested, has been processed, has been manufactured, has been delivered to a hausehold enterprice or market. In the example above we considered very few NWFP Naval stores, Natural Rubber, Palm Hearts, Cork, Rattan, Gum Arabic. Each of these are large collections of products. For example Natural Rubber exports may include Natural rubber latex, whether or not prevulcanized and Natural rubber (other than latex). Naval stores may include CTO/DTO, Rosins, Salts/Esters, Other Rosin Derived, Turps, Pine Oil, Other Terpenes, Terpene Resins, etc .•
When we are involved in the sale of "a product, much more detailed specifications have to be considered giving the species and quality of the material. The total volume of Gum -Arabic exports includes the volume of all species and all qualities.
Different systems of statistics show different degrees of detail. The important thing to recognize is that any statistic must be accompanied by a definition if it is to be useful for comparison with other statistics.
Hopefully, we shall look at the major classifications and their definitions in more detail during this Expert Consultation in order to start to sistematize Non-Wood Forest Products (Forest Products Other Than Wood) statistics and to define a framework, structure and definition.
WHERE - The Spacial Coverage of a statistic
statistics may be collected at paricular location in a country for example for provinces or regions, the total for the country is the sum of data for provinces producing the product in the country.
The FAO international statistics gathered attempts to obtain estimates of the total of each class in any country. In the examples, the statistics were stated as the exports of a country: Sudan, Brazil, Philippines, Indonesia, etc .. The assumption is that they include all exports of the product from the country. The question may be asked do they include all the exports of that product? Are exports of all companies - large, small, government and private - included? are the exports from all ports included? is the cross border trade with neighbouring countries included? There is very little recorded trade in forest products between neighbouring African countries.
This question of coverage may be very significant in the case of domestic production, for example honey production.
Last question - are there accurate records or estimates for all of these?
3
How Measured - Units of Measurement of the products
The FAO international statistics use the metric system.National statistics may have their own measurement units andmeasurement conventions. As long as these are accurately known,they may be converted to FAO standard units. Trade statistics arerecorded in many countries in weight units: kilogrammes ortonnes. These may be converted approximately to cubic metresusing standard conversion factors. The FAO standard for value isthe United States dollar. National currency units are convertedto US dollars, using current exchange rates published by theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF).
WHEN - The Time Period to Which Statistics Relate
For example the FAO Yearbook of Forest Producs presentsstatistics for the calendar year January-December. Some countriesor companies maintain their statistics on fiscal, or financialyears or according to different calendars. Where monthly datais available, the calendar year data can be calculated. Wherecountries supply data for a different time span, it may benecessary to accept this as a best estimate of calendar yeardata. For such purposes as marketing and trade, monthly data areimportant.
A sample of NWFP classifications
UN Standard International Trade Classification Rev. 2 and 3.This classification has been the basis for many nationaltrade classification. With the introduction of by theCustoms Cooperation Council of the Harmonised System in1988, the UN introduced SITC rev.3 with a precizecorrespondence between the items of the harmonised systemand these of SITC rev.3.
NWFP consultation held in Bangkok 5-8 November, 1991.The Consultation reviewed the range of NWFP produced indifferent countries and establisched a classification asapplicable to the Asia-Pacific region.
The NWFP reporting in Brazil.
The major significance of "minor" forest product.
3
How Measured - Units of Measurement of the products
The FAO international statistics use the metric system. National statistics may have their own measurement units and measurement conventions. As long as these are accurately known, they may be converted to FAO standard units. Trade statistics are recorded in many countries in weight units: kilogrammes or tonnes. These may be converted approximately to cubic metres using standard conversion factors. The FAO standard for value is the united states dollar. National currency units are converted to us dollars, using current exchange rates published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
WHEN - The Time Period to Which statistics Relate
For example the FAO Yearbook of Forest Producs presents statistics for the calendar year January-December. Some countries or companies maintain their statistics on fiscal, or financial years or according to different calendars. Where monthly data is available, the calendar year data can be calculated. Where countries supply data for a different time span, it may be necessary to accept this as a best estimate of calendar year data. For such purposes as marketing and trade, monthly data are important.
A sample of NWFP classifications
UN Standard International Trade Classification Rev. 2 and 3. This classification has been the basis for many national trade classification. with the introduction of by the customs Cooperation council of the Harmonised System in 1988, the UN introduced SITC rev.3 with a precize correspondence between the items of the harmonised system and these of SITC rev.3.
NWFP consultation held in Bangkok 5-8 November, 1991. The Consultation reviewed the range of NWFP produced in different countries and establisched a classification as applicable to the Asia-Pacific region.
The NWFP reporting in Brazil.
The major significance of "minor" forest product.
4
Until now we have spoken aboutWhat, Where, When, How;
but what aboutWHO? and WHY?
The replay is that before is important to discuss the firstseries of queries, and after, in the second presentation, ifthere is time, we can describe the functions of a ForestryStatistical Office, the Organization of Statistical Information,how to built support for the statistical work, the importance ofstatistics in the decision-making process, and the role ofForestry Statistitian in promoting NWFP. The experience of FAOForestry Department in collecting and disseminating InternationalForestry Statistics will be presented.
4
until now we have spoken about What, Where, When, How;
but what about WHO? and WHY?
The replay is that before is important to discuss the first series of queries, and after, in the second presentation, if there is time, we can describe the functions of a Forestry statistical Office, the organization of statistical Information, how to built support for the statistical work, the importance of statistics in the decision-making process, and the role of Forestry statistitian in promoting NWFP. The experience of FAO Forestry Department in collecting and disseminating International Forestry statistics will be presented.
1
9 Dependency on Forest and Trees for Food Security, by the TanzaniaFood and Nutrition Centre, Tanzania.
9 Dependency on Forest and Trees for Food Security, by the Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre, Tanzania.
DEPENDENCY ON FORESTSAND TREES
FOR FOOD SECURITY
A PILOT STUDY: NANGURUWE AND MBAMBAKOFIVILLAGES MTWARA - REGION, TANZANIA
Compiled By Missano, HIVjebele, C.WKayombo, LOgle, B
TANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTRETANZANIA FOOD AND NUTRITION CENTRE
DEPENDENCY ON FORESTS AND TREES
FOR FOOD SECURITY
A PILOT STUDY: NANGURUWE AND MBAMBAKOFI VILLAGES MTW ARA - REGION, TANZANIA
Compiled By Missano, H Njebele, C. W Kayombo, L Ogle, B
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Justification
1.1.1 Description of the region
1.2.1 Background of the pilot study
1.2 Justification
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General Objectives
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
1.4 Methodology
1.4.1 Selection of the study area
1.4.2 Teamwork and field implementation
1.4.2.1 Analysis and reporting
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY VILAGES
2.1 Social services
3.0 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, FOOD PROCUREMENT
AND INCOME SOURCES
3.1 Main staples
3.2 Labour demand
3.3 Livestock
3.4 Domesticated fruit trees
4.0 FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS
4.1 Use of forest foods
4.1.1 Fruits
4.1.2 Root products
4.1.3 Vegetables
4.1.4 Animal products
4.2 medicinal use
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1 • 0 INTRODUCTION ••••••••••.••••.••.••••••••
1.1 Background and Justification •••••••••••
1.1.1 Description of the region ••••••••.••.
1.2.1 Background of the pilot study •••.•••
1.2 Justification ......................... .
1.3 Objectives ............................ .
1.3.1 General Objectives ••••••••••••.••••.•
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ••••••••••••••••.•
1.4 Methodology .......................... .
1.4.1 Selection of the study area ••••••••••
1.4.2 Teamwork and field implementation ••••
1.4.2.1 Analysis and reporting •••••••.•••••
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY VILAGES •.•.•.•
2.1 Social . serv1ces ....................... .
3.0 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION, FOOD PROCUREMENT
AND INCOME SOURCES ..••••••.••.•..•.••.
3 • 1 Main staples .......................... .
3 • 2 Labour demand..... .................... .
3 • 3 Livestock· ............................. .
3.4 Domesticated fruit trees ••••••••.•..•••
4.0 FORESTRY AND FOREST PRODUCTS ••.•••.•..•
4.1 Use of forest foods •..•••.•..•..•.••••
4.1.1 Fruits .............................. .
4.1.2 Root products ....................... .
4.1.3 Vegetables .......................... .
4.1.4 .Animal products .................... .
4.2 medicinal use ........................ .
4.3 Preferences and trends of forest foods.
4.4 Food shortages/crisis
5.0 CURRENT AND EMMERGING ISSUES
6.0 COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE THE TWO VILLAGES
Based on availability of resources
Based on Use of resources
7.0 COMMENTS FROM THE STUDY TEAM ON RAP METHODS
8.0 PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
LIST OF FIGURES.
A conceptual framework of forest
and tree products dependence on
Household food security
Timeline : Mbambakofi/Mnivata
Timeline : Nanguruwe/Namahyakata
Home grown food crops supply
Timeline for cassava uses in
Nanguruwe
Agricultural crop production cycles
(Activity seasonality)
Women labour supply seasonality
Seasonality availability of
forest foods
Availability of home produced food
4.3 Preferences and trends of forest foods.
4.4 Food shortages/crisis ••.•••••••••••••••
5.0 CURRENT AND EMMERGING ISSUES ••.••••••••
6.0 COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE THE TWO VILLAGES
(i) Based on availability of resources
(ii) Based on Use of resources ••.•..••
7.0 COMMENTS FROM THE STUDY TEAM ON RAP METHODS
8.0 PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS •.•.••.•••••...•
LIST OF FIGURES.
Figure 1. A conceptual framework of forest
and tree products dependence on
Household food security ••.•.•••.•
Figure 2. Timeline Mbambakofi/Mnivata .•••
Figure 3. Timeline Nanguruwe/Namahyakata.
Figure 4. Horne grown food crops supply
Figure 5. Timeline for cassava uses in
Nanguruwe ....................... .
Figure 6. Agricultural crop production cycles
(Activity seasonality) •••••.••••.
Figure 7. Women labour supply seasonality ••
Figure 8. Seasonality availability of \
forest foods ••••.•••.•.••.•••...•
Figure 9. Availability of horne produced food
LIST OF TABLES.
Table 1. Common cassava varieties
Table 2. Average crop yield for main staples
APPENDIX.
Appendix (i). List of trees used for medical
purposes
Appendix (ii) List of forest roots used as
food
Appendix (iii) List of forest vegetables
Appendix (iv) List of forest fruits
Appendix (v) List of wild animals
Appendix (vi) List of wild birds
LIST OF TABLES.
Table 1. Common cassava varieties ••••••••••
Table 2. Average crop yield for main staples
APPENDIX.
Appendix (i). List of trees used for medical
purposes ....................... .
Appendix (ii) List of forest roots used as
food ............................ .
Appendix (iii) List of forest vegetables •••
Appendix (iv) List of forest fruits •.•..•••
Appendix (v) List of wild animals ••••••.•.•
Appendix (vi) List of wild birds ••••.•.••••
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Forests and woodlands are assumed to occupy about 50
percent of Tanzania's land area (TFAP 1989). In these
regions/areas forests and forest products continue to be
central to the household economy, as well as to household
food security and health through numerous traditional
practices. Forests and tree products form a significant
part of household food security in most communities in the
rural areas.
The entire rural population as well as the majority of the
urban households rely on forest resources for their energy
needs. In the rural areas mostly firewood is used while in
the urban areas about half of the population use charcoal
as their main source of energy. Subsistence farmers also
need the forest lands for their agricultural production.
In Mtwara, the region selected for this study, farmers
practice a forest-fallow system of shifting agriculture and
continue to expand into remaining forest areas in their
search for more fertile land.
In addition forest resources are being used to supply
building materials as well as various forest foods and
medicines. It is a major concern of the forestry department
that forest resources in many parts of the region are now
being rapidly depleted.
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Forests and woodlands are assumed to occupy about 50
percent of Tanzania's land area (TFAP 1989). In these
regions/areas forests and forest products continue to be
central to the household economy, as well as to household
food security and health through numerous traditional
practices. Forests and tree products form a significant
part of household food security in most communities in the
rural areas.
The entire rural population as well as the majority of the
urban households rely on forest resources for their energy
needs. In the rural areas mostly firewood is used while in
the urban areas about half of the population use charcoal
as their main source of energy. Subsistence farmers also
need the forest lands for their agricultural production.
In Mtwara, the reglon selected for this study, farmers
practice a forest-fallow system of shifting agriculture and
continue to expand into remaining forest areas in their
search for more fertile land.
In addi tion forest resources are being used to supply
building materials as well as various forest foods and
medicines. It is a major concern of the forestry department
that forest resources in many parts of the region are now
being rapidly depleted.
1
1.1 Justification
Historical background indicate that frequent food crisis
caused by natural calamities like drought floods, outbreak
of crop diseases and pests is normally, associated with
increased us of forest and tree products for food. Usually
the intensity of utilization is higher in those areas where
forest and tree products are easily accessible.
However, not only direct consumable food is obtained from
forests and tree products but they sometimes provide
indirect support to household food security (see fig.1).
Such supports comes in different forms like provision of
materials for business such as firewood, charcoal, timber,
crafts etc, which in turn provide cash for use in
purchasing food items. Firewood is in most rural
communities the only source of cooking fuel.
Forest and tree products have also been and are still being
used for prevention and cure of diseases. This is
indirectly related to household food security in the sense
that it provides good health to both people and livestock
as well as crops. It is also associated with normalizing or
increasing the productivity and food availability.
Maintenance and improvement of ecology, is also achieved by
the presence of forest and tree products. Good soil
conservation and fertility with improved conditions of
rainfall availability is partly a function of forests and
tree products.
2
1.1 Justification
Historical background indicate that frequent food crisis
caused by natural calamities like drought floods, outbreak
of crop diseases and pests is normally associated with
increased us of forest and tree products for food. Usually
the intensity of utilization is higher in those areas where
forest and tree products are easily accessible.
However, not only direct consumable food is obtained from
forests and tree products but they sometimes provide
indirect support to household food security (see fig.l).
Such supports comes in different forms like provision of
materials for business such as firewood, charcoal, timber,
crafts etc, which in turn provide cash for use in
purchasing food items. Firewood is in most rural
communities the only source of cooking fuel.
Forest and tree products have also been and are still being
used for prevention and cure of diseases. This is
indirectly related to household food security in the sense
that it provides good health to both people and livestock
as well as crops. It i~'~lso associated with normalizing or
increasing the productivity and food availability.
Maintenance and improvement of ecology, is also achieved by
the presence of forest and tree products. Good soil
conservation and fertility with improved conditions of
rainfall availability is partly a function of forests and
tree products.
2
In areas which face shortage of domesticated animals
(livestock), forests and tree products play a major role as
good sources of animal protein. People go for animal
hunting to supplement the little available source of animal
protein.
1.2 Description of the region
Mtwara region is located in the extreme South East of
Tanzania covering an area of 16 726 sq.km. It is bordered
by the Indian Ocean in the East, the Ruvuma river and
Mocambique in the South, the Ruvuma region in the West and
Lindi region in the North.
Administratively, Mtwara region is divided into four
districts; Mtwara Urban (163 sq.km.), Mtwara Rural
(3 597 sq.km.), Masasi 8,940 sq.km.) and Newala
(4,020 sq.km.). According to the 1988 population census
there were 894,000 people in the region and the population
has been growing at an average rate of 1.4%, well below
that of the national average of 2.8% for the last ten
years.
Mtwara region has 132,192 hectares of planted forest and
about 542,000 hectares of natural forests. Hence about 30%
of the region is covered by forest but the requirements of
wood for different uses is also high and increasing with
population pressure.
3
In areas which face shortage of domesticated animals
(livestock), forests and tree products playa major role as
good sources of animal protein. People go for animal
hunting to supplement the little available source of animal
protein.
1.2 Description of the region
Mtwara region is located in the extreme South East of
Tanzania covering an area of 16 726 sq.km. It is bordered
by the Indian Ocean In the East, the Ruvuma ri ver and
Mocambique in the South, the Ruvuma region in the West and
Lindi region in the North.
Administratively, Mtwara region is divided into four
districts; Mtwara Urban (163 sq.km.), Mtwara Rural
(3 597 sq.km.), Masasi 8,940 sq.km.) and Newala
(4,020 sq.km.). According to the 1988 population census
there were 894,000 people in the region and the population
has been growing at an average rate of 1.4%, well below
that of the national average of 2.8% for the last ten
years.
Mtwara region has 132,192 hectares of planted forest and
about 542,000 hectares of natural forests. Hence about 30%
of the region is covered by forest but the requirements of
wood for different uses is also high and increasing with
population pressure.
3
Mtwara rural district has about 284,857 ha of natural
forests including several forest reserves. It also has
1,073 ha of planted forest and 14,237 ha of mangrove forest
reserves. Hence, about 76% of the total land area of the
district is covered by forests. The district lies within
the eastern zone of the Makonde plateau and has an altitude
ranging from sea level to approximately 350 metres.
The district has a population of 169,436 people, mostly
Makonde. Other major ethnic groups of people living in the
area include, Makonde from Mozambique, Yao, Makua and
Swahili.
Major health problems in the area include malaria, upper
respiratory tract diseases, and diarrhoea. The district has
a relatively high rate of malnutrition as compared to the
other two districts in the CSD programme. According to the
Tanzania Nutrition Trends report (TNT, 1992) about 9.5% of
the total children underfive years of age during the year
1990 were severely malnourished.
The major source of income is subsistance agriculture with
cassava and cashewnuts as predominant cash crops. Other
cash crops include coconut, oil seeds and legumes. Major
food crops include sorghum, cassava, rice, maize and
legumes. Livestock plays a minor role but there are some
cattle, goats and poultry.
4
Mtwara rural district has about 284,857 ha of natural
forests including several forest reserves. It also has
1,073 ha of planted forest and 14,237 ha of mangrove forest
reserves. Hence, about 76% of the total land area of the
district is covered by forests. The district lies within
the eastern zone of the Makonde plateau and has an altitude
ranging from sea level to approximately 350 metres.
The district has a population of 169,436 people, mostly
Makonde. Other major ethnic groups of people living in the
area include, Makonde from Mozambique, Yao , Makua and
Swahili.
Major health problems in the area include malaria, upper
respiratory tract diseases, and diarrhoea. The district has
a relatively high rate of malnutrition as compared to the
other two districts in the CSD programme. According to the
Tanzania Nutrition Trends report (TNT, 1992) about 9.5% of
the total children underfive years of age during the year
1990 were severely malnourished.
The maJor source of income is subsistance agriculture with
cassava and cashewnuts as predominant cash crops. Other
cash crops include coconut, oil seeds and legumes. Major
food crops include sorghum, cassava, rice, maize and
legumes. Livestock plays a minor role but there are some
cattle, goats and poultry.
4
1.1.2 Background to the pilot study
During the early phase of the Forest, Trees and People
programme, TFNC carried out a nutrition study in the Forest
and Tree Programme (TFP) project area of Babati. This study
was the first activity TFNC undertook in collaboration with
the community forestry department. Although the study was
small it was important in making both nutritionists and
foresters aware of the many and complex ways in which the
two fields interrelate. It also raised the interest in
participating in further FTP activities aiming at finding
more practical methods of collecting information on
forestry and nutrition.
Thus,TFNC participated in the planning seminar in Uppsala
in 1991. This was when the plans for conducting pilot
surveys on dependency on forests and farm trees for food
security were drawn up. Further preparatory discussions
were held between the department of Community Forestry of
the Ministry of Tourism National Resource and Environment
and TFNC, and a one day workshop involving TFNC, ministries
of Tourism Natural Resources and Enviroment, Agriculture
and Community Development Children and Women affairs and
Institute of Resource Assessment was held in Dar es Salaam.
The meeting introduced and discussed several issues
relating to forestry, food security and nutrition and
served as a sensitization seminar for professionals from
all the participating institutions. The plans for the pilot
5
1.1. 2 Background to the pilot study
During the early phase of the Forest, Trees and People
programme, TFNC carried out a nutrition study in the Forest
and Tree Programme (TFP) project area of Babati. This study
was the first activity TFNC undertook in collaboration with
the community forestry department. Although the study was
small it was important in making both nutritionists and
foresters aware of the many and complex ways in which the
two fields interrelate. It also raised the interest in
participating in further FTP activities aiming at finding
more practical methods of collecting information on
forestry and nutrition.
Thus,TFNC participated in the planning seminar In Uppsala
in 1991. This was when the plans for conducting pilot
surveys on dependency on forests and farm trees for food
securi ty were drawn up. Further preparatory discussions
were held between the department of Community Forestry of
the Ministry of Tourism National Resource and Environment
and TFNC, and a one day workshop involving TFNC, ministries
of Tourism Natural Resources and Enviroment, Agriculture
and Community Development Children and Women affairs and
Institute of Resource Assessment was held in Dar es Salaam.
The meeting introduced and discussed several issues
relating to forestry, food security and nutrition and
served as a sensitization seminar for professionals from
all the participating institutions. The plans for the pilot
5
study in Mtwara were discussed and agreed on. The meeting
formed a multisectorial taskf orce to review existing
documentation, identify ongoing efforts and prepare a 5-
year programme (Ref.).
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1. General objectives
This, study in Mbambakofi and Nanguruwe villages in
Mtwara rural district, aims at exploring the degree of
dependency by the community, and identifying way through
which the forest staff can use this opportunity to
integrate nutrition aspects on their programme so that
Household food security can be assured.
To provide preliminary information on the role of
forests and trees in food security, people's
dependence on forest and trees, changes and trends in
the nature of this dependency.
To develop and test informal methods of collecting
information on dependency on forests and trees which
could be useful for planning of support activities by
institutions involved in community forestry and
nutrition.
6
study in Mtwara were discussed and agreed on. The meeting
formed a multisectorial taskforce to review existing
documentation, identify ongoing efforts and prepare a 5-
year programme (Ref.).
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1. General objectives
1. This, study in Mbambakofi and Nanguruwe villages In
Mtwara rural district, aims at exploring the degree of
dependency by the community, and identifying way through
which the forest staff can use this opportunity to
integrate nutrition aspects on their programme so that
Household food security can be assured.
2. To provide preliminary information on the role of
forests and trees in food security, people's
dependence on forest and trees, changes and trends in
the nature of this dependency.
3. To develop and test informal methods of collecting
information on dependency on forests and trees which
could be useful for planning of support activities by
institutions involved In community forestry and
nutrition.
6
1.3.2 Specific objectives
Describe and analyse the current role of forestsand tree products in household food security,especially in the food insecure households.
Document the perceived changes in access to and
dependency on forests and tree products for foodsecurity and describe.strategies people use tocope with these.
Identify priority issues expressed by the
communities and relate to dependency on forests
and trees for food security for community
forestry to consider in their planning.
1.4 Methodology:
1.4.1 Selection of Study area.During a preliminary visit to Mtwara in August 1992,
staff from TFNC and Ministry of Tourism Natural
Resources and Enviroment (Department of Community
Forestry) selected two villages for the pilot study.The criteria used for the selection was that onevillage should be close to the proposed forest reserveof Nhivata/Mtiniko and the other further away from aforest but still using forest produces. The villagesselected were Mnivata/Mbambakofi and
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata.
7
1. 3.2 Specific objectives
1. Describe and analyse the current role of forests
and tree products in household food security,
especially in the food insecure households.
2. Document the perceived changes in access to and
dependency on forests and tree products for food
security and describe· strategies people use to
cope with these.
3. Identify priority issues expressed by the
communities and relate to dependency on forests
and trees for food security for community
forestry to consider in their planning.
1.4 Methodology:
1.4.1 Selection of Study area.
During a preliminary visit to Mtwara in August 1992,
staff from TFNC and Ministry of Tourism Natural
Resources and Enviroment (Department of Community
Forestry) selected two villages for the pilot study.
The criteria used for the selection was that one
village should be close to the proposed forest reserve
of Mnivata/Mtiniko and the other further away from a
forest but still using forest produces. The villages
selected were Mnivata/Mbambakofi and
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata.
7
1.4.2 Teamwork and Field Implementation.
A multi disciplinary team carried out the pilot study.
TFNC and the Ministry of Tourism Natural Resources and
Enviroment (Department of Community Forestry) jointly
selected a team with the following composition:
TFNC staff (including 2 nutritionists and 1
agricultural economist)
3 forest officers (from regional, district and
community level)
2 community development officers (from district and
community level)
1 Nutritionist/Ministry of Agriculture (district
level)
The team members are listed in appendix.
Preliminary information was collected through use of
rapid assessment methods. The research team was given
a three day training in this techniques in connection
with the joint planning of the study. The team
collected and reviewed secondary data from regional
and community levels, Discussed and agreed on issues
of importance for investigations of dependency on
forests and farm trees for food security and together
prepared checklists to be used in collection of
primary data.
8
1. 4.2 Teamwork and Field Implementation.
A multi disciplinary team carried out the pilot study.
TFNC and the Ministry of Tourism Natural Resources and
Enviroment (Department of Community Forestry) jointly
selected a team with the following composition:
TFNC staff (including 2 nutritionists and 1
agricultural economist)
3 forest officers (from regional, district and
community level)
2 community development officers (from district and
communi ty level)
1 Nutritionist/Ministry of Agriculture
level)
The team members are listed in appendix.
(district
Preliminary information was collected through use of
rapid assessment methods. The research team was given
a three day training in this techniques in connection
with the joint planning of the study. The team
collected and reviewed secondary data from regional
and community levels, Discussed and agreed on issues
of importance for investigations of dependency on
forests and farm trees for food security and together
prepared checklists to be used ln collection of
primary data.
8
Following that the team made a one day initial visit
to the communities for consultation with village
leaders on topics of importance and practical
arrangements. In accomplishing this work the team
divided into two groups of about five people. Each
group went to different sublocation of the selected
villages.
Then the team spent two days in each village
collecting information. The information was gathered
through village meetings, village walks, semi-
structured interviews and conversations with key
informants and knowledgeable people individually and
in groups. Interviews were made with different
categories of community members eg leaders, elders,
women, youth, and children. The information from
interviews and conversations was complemented with
observations. During field work, the team split into
smaller sub groups of 2-3 people using different
combinations of professions depending on the topic to
be investigated.
The data collected included general village set up,
history, economic development, current issues,
production systems, sources of income, food
procurement, food security, use of forest and tree
products in meeting food security needs, trends and
changes in utilisation, extent and nature of food
Following that the team made a one day initial visit
to the communities for consultation with village
leaders on topics of importance and practical
arrangements. In accomplishing this work the team
divided into two groups of about five people. Each
group went to different sublocation of the selected
villages.
Then the team spent two days in each village
collecting information. The information was gathered
through village meetings, village walks, semi
structured interviews and conversations with key
informants and knowledgeable people individually and
in groups. Interviews were made with different
categories of community members eg leaders, elders,
women, youth, and children. The information from
interviews and conversations was complemented wi th
observations. During field work, the team split into
smaller sub groups of 2-3 people using different
combinations of professions depending on the topic to
be investigated.
The data collected included general village set up,
history, economic development, current issues,
production systems, sources of income, food
procurement, food security, use of forest and tree
products in meeting food security needs, trends and
changes in utilisation, extent and nature of food
9
problems, coping strategies, current and emerging
problems.
Insert -> PRA training & data collected in connection
with 3rd visit
1.4.2.1 Analysis and reporting
Each evening day the team met and reviewed the
information gathered during the day. In those
meetings, summaries from the interviews were prepared
for the report, and illustrations and diagrams of the
findings were made. The team discussed and compared
notes and took notice of conflicting and missing
information for further investigation the following
day. Each day the team also agreed on topics to
investigate the next day, revised the checklists and
decided on key respondents or groups to interview the
following day. Differences and similarities between
the two study villages were also discussed before
leaving the study area and preliminary conclusions
drawn
Need to add from 2nd & 3rd visit
10
problems, coping strategies, current and emerging
problems .
.......... Insert -> PRA training & data collected in connection
1.4.2.1
with 3rd visit ..•.......
Analysis and reporting
Each evening day the team met and reviewed the
information gathered during the day. In those
meetings, summaries from the interviews were prepared
for the report, and illustrations and diagrams of the
findings were made. The team discussed and compared
notes and took notice of conflicting and missing
information for further investigation the following
day. Each day the team also agreed on topics to
investigate the next day, revised the checklists and
decided on key respondents or groups to interview the
following day. Differences and similarities between
the two study villages were also discussed before
leaving the study area and preliminary conclusions
drawn .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Need to add from 2nd &: 3rd visit ................ .
10
2.0. CHARACTERISTICS AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
VILLAGES.
Mhivata/Mbambakofi
Mnivata/Mbambakofi village is located 56 km south west of
Mtwara on the road to Newala district. The village is
divided into two sub-locations, Mnivata and Mbambakofi,
each with houses on both sides of the road and separated by
a stretch of forest (see map 2). The Mhivata forest reserve
lies partly within the village boundaries. Including the
crop fields and natural forest the area belonging to the
village stretch approximately 4 km towards the north and 5
km to the south.
Mhivata sublocation is a traditional village said to have
originated under Chief Mzee Chamtula during the 19th
century when Sultan Bin Said ruled Zanzibar. The original
settlers came from Newala district and settled near the
river valley and at the edge of the forest. The village
remained small until in the 1950's when the new road was
constructed. People then moved towards the roadside and in
the early 1960's the first families settled in the area
which was to become Mbambakofi (Figure 2).
Figure 2: TIMELINE- MNIVATA/MBAMBAKOFI VILLAGE.
1880s First settlers1952 Proposed forest reserve1953 Construction of Mtwara-Newala road
people started moving from valley1959 Food shortage1961 Few families settled in Mbambakofi1967 Mbambakofi registered as village1968-9 Food shortage1974 Villagization act-people moved from
valley and other areas toMnivata/Mbambakofi
1980 Primary School opened in Mbambakofi1989 Food shortage1989-90 Kuchakumi farm introduced1990 Floods in valley area1991 Food shortage
The Bbambakofi sublocation was registered as a village in
1968. It received it's name from the Bbambakofi tree
(Afzelia quanzensis) which was planted on the road side and
became a popular resting place.
11
2 . O. CHARACTERISTICS AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
VILLAGES.
Mnivata/Mbambakofi
Mnivata/Mbambakofi village is located 56 km south west of
Mtwara on the road to Newala district. The village is
divided into two sub-locations, Mnivata and Mbambakofi,
each with houses on both sides of the road and separated by
a stretch of forest (see map 2). The Mnivata forest reserve
lies partly within the village boundaries. Including the
crop fields and natural forest the area belonging to the
village stretch approximately 4 krn towards the north and 5
krn to the south.
Mnivata sublocation is a traditional village said to have
originated under Chief Mzee Chamtula during the 19th
century when Sultan Bin Said ruled Zanzibar. The original
settlers carne from Newala district and settled near the
river valley and at the edge of the forest. The village
remained small until in the 1950's when the new road was
constructed. People then moved towards the roadside and in
the early 1960's the first families settled in the area
which was to become Mbambakofi (Figure 2) .
Figure 2: TIMELINE- MNIVATA/MBAMBAKOFI VILLAGE.
1880s-------------1952--------------1953--------------
1959--------------1961--------------1967--------------1968-9------------1974--------------
First settlers Proposed forest reserve Construction of Mtwara-Newala road
people started moving from valley Food shortage Few families settled in Mbambakofi Mbarnbakofi registered as village Food shortage Villagization act-people moved from
valley and other areas to Mnivata/Mbarnbakofi
1980-------------- Primary School opened in Mbambakofi 1989-------------- Food shortage 1989-90----------- Kuchakumi farm introduced 1990-------------- Floods in valley area 1991-------------- Food shortage
The Mbambakofi sublocation was registered as a village in
1968. It received it's name from the Mbambakofi tree
(Afzelia guanzensis) which was planted on the road side and
became a popular resting place.
11
With villagization in 1974 more people moved in from areas
nearby. According to the village register, the total
population of the two clusters today is 1726 persons
consisting of 341 households.The majority of the people are
of upcountry Makonde origin and most of them are moslems.
Behind the houses and further away from the road is a
mixture of old and new fields in the natural, regenerated
forest areas. Access to land in terms of acreage is not
yet a problem in the Mhivata/Mbambakofi area but people
complain that the fertility of the land is decreasing and
that there is no more thick forest available for opening up
new fields. Some therefore question the proposed forest
reserve.
The Mtiniko/Mnivata forest Shamba la Bibi (Grandmothers
forest) was proposed a reserve in 1952. It is a catchment
rather than a productive forest and it was considered of
special interest beneficial because potential springs were
developing. The forest border was cleared regularly until
the 1970's but has since been left unattended for financial
reasons. In general both villagers and government have
respected the boundaries and regulations of the reserve
despite it not yet being a gazetted forest. The forest is
now said to harbour wild animals such as lions, leopards,
bushpigs and monkeys and the villagers complain that these
wild animals are destroying their field crops.
2.1 Social Services
Mhivata/Mbambakofi has got limited basic social facilities.
A primary school was established in 1980. It was
constructed by the villagers themselves and the government
gave a support of corrugated iron sheets. The school is
surrounded by trees from the seedlings distributed by the
forestry department in the early 1980's.
12
With villagization in 1974 more people moved in from areas
nearby. According to the village register, the total
population of the two clusters today is 1726 persons
consisting of 341 households.The majority of the people are
of upcountry Makonde origin and most of them are moslems.
Behind the houses and further away from the road is a
mixture of old and new fields in the natural, regenerated
forest areas. Access to land in terms of 'acreage is not
yet a problem in the MnivatalMbambakofi area but people
complain that the fertility of the land is decreasing and
that there is no more thlck forest available for opening up
new fields. Some therefore question the proposed forest
reserve.
The Mtiniko/Mnivata forest Shamba la Bibi (Grandmothers
forest) was proposed a reserve in 1952. It is a catchment
rather than a productive forest and it was considered of
special interest beneficial because potential springs were
developing. The forest border was cleared regularly until
the 1970's but has since been left unattended for financial
reasons. In general both villagers and government have
respected the boundaries and regulations of the reserve
despite it not yet being a gazetted forest. The forest is
now said to harbour wild animals such as lions, leopards,
bushpigs and monkeys and the villagers complain that these
wild animals are destroying their field crops.
2.1 Social Services
MnivatalMbambakofi has got limited basic social facilities.
A primary school was established in 1980. It was
constructed by the villagers themselves and the government
gave a support of corrugated iron sheets. The school is
surrounded by trees from the seedlings distributed by the
forestry department in the early 1980's.
12
The village has a serious problem of water shortage. There
is no permanent river near Mbambakofi and the sub-merged
surface water storage troughs have been constructed all
over the village area. People have also dug several deep
water holes in the dry river valley to utilize the little
amount of water available. The river valley is located on
the north side of the village and collects water from
Newala in the Makonde plateau to the Indian Ocean. In the
dry season, people walk about 4 km searching for water, and
spend long hours (6-12) queing to collect water from the
river valleys.
There is no clinic and the basic health service is provided
by a first aid assistant who has a first aid kit. There are
also three traditional birth attendants in the village. For
other services villagers utilize health centres in
Mtimbwilimbi, Ntiniko and Namasangi which are about 5-7 km
away. There is also a catholic missionary hospital which is
located in Nanyamba, about 20 km away.
There is no centralized market place in the village but
small informal markets are found in several places near the
road. Mostly youths are involved in the selling of foods,
cigarettes, both forest and domesticated fruits and other
forest products, e.g Ming'oko.
Last year a group of elders also decided to start a small
shop in one of the houses and this group now sells items
mostly needed in emergencies such as funerals.
There is one mosque in each cluster/street, (i.e Mbambakofi
and Mnivata) and the village also owns one godown
which is mainly used for storing crops collected by the
primary cooperative union. Major crops collected by the
union are cassava (dried) and cashewnuts.
13
The village has a serious problem of water shortage. There
is no permanent river near Mbambakofi and the sub-merged
surface water storage troughs have been constructed all
over the village area. People have also dug several deep
water holes in the dry river valley to utilize the little
amount of water available. The river valley is located on
the north side of the village and collects water from
Newala in the Makonde plateau to the Indian Ocean. In the
dry season, people walk about 4 krn searching for water, and
spend long hours (6-12) queing to collect water from the
river valleys.
There is no clinic and the basic health service is provided
by a first aid assistant who has a first aid kit. There are
also three traditional birth attendants in the village. For
other services villagers utilize health centres ln
Mtimbwilimbi, Ntiniko and Namasangi which are about 5-7 krn
away. There is also a catholic missionary hospital which is
located in Nanyamba, about 20 krn away.
There is no centralized market place in the village but
small informal markets are found in several places near the
road. Mostly youths are involved in the selling of foods,
cigarettes, both forest and domesticated fruits and other
forest products, e.g Ming'oko.
Last year a group of elders also decided to start a small
shop in one of the houses and this group now sells items
mostly needed in emergencies such as funerals.
There is one mosque in each cluster/street, (i.e Mbambakofi
and Mnivata) and the village also owns one godown
which is mainly used for storing crops collected by the
primary cooperative union. Maj or crops collected by the
union are cassava (dried) and cashewnuts.
13
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata villages are located about 45 km
south west of Mtwara on the way to Newala District. People
started to settle at Nanguruwe/Namahyakata in 1950s when
the road was constructed as they wanted to live along the
road.
In 1974 as villagezation took place more people came from
nearby villages, and to date, people are still imigrating
in especially from Newala. It is said that they are
attracted by availability of social services, mainly water,
health centre, school & transport.
Previously, these two villages had one common name
(Nanguruwe). In 1975 the Nanguruwe split into two (see
fig.3).
Figure 3: TIMELINE - NANGURUWE/NAMAHYAKATA.
180s1945
1952-54
1967197019711972-731973-74
1975
First settlers.Cassava started to gain economicimportance.Mtwara-Newala road constructedOpened by Governer 1954.Godown constructed.Health Centre constructed.Food crisis.More people moved in.Food shortage-drought
Some died from eating improperlyprocessed wild roots.
Split to two villages - Nanguruwe and
Namahyakata.1976-77 More people came from Newala.1985-86 Drought.1987-88 More people came from Newala.1988-89 Started to use cassava as cash crop.1989-91 Food shortage for most families (March-
April).
One side retained the name while the other was named
Namahyakata and these two are separated by the road. The
split of the village was due to increased number of
households.
14
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata villages are located about 45 kIn
south west of Mtwara on the way to Newala District. People
started to settle at Nanguruwe/Namabyakata in 1950s when
the road was constructed as they wanted to live along the
road.
In 1974 as villagezation took place more people came from
nearby villages, and to date, people are still imigrating
in especially from Newala. It 1S said that they are
attracted by availability of social services, mainly water,
health centre, school & transport.
Previously, these two villages had one common name
(Nanguruwe). In 1975 the Nanguruwe split into two (see
fig.3) .
Figure 3: TIMELINE - NANGURUWE/NAMAHYAKATA.
1$80s------- First settlers. 1945-------- Cassava started to gain economic
importance. 1952-54----- Mtwara-Newala road constructed
1967--------1970--------1971--------1972-73-----1973-74-----
Opened by Governer 1954. Godown constructed. Health Centre constructed. Food crisis. More people moved in. Food shortage-drought
Some died from eating improperly processed wild roots.
~1975-------- Split to two villages - Nanguruwe and
1976-77-----1985-86-----1987-88-----1988-89-----1989-91-----
Namahyakata. More people came from Newala. Drought. More people came from Newala. Started to use cassava as cash crop. Food shortage for most families (MarchApril)
One side retained the name while the other was named
Namahyakata and these two are separated by the road. The
split of the village was due to increased number of
households.
14
As more people moved in from various areas including
Kitondo village, Kitondo primary school which was about 5
km distance had to shift to Nanguruwe/Namahyakata from
where it was previously located (i.e 1975). The school was
built by villagers themselves and Government supplied
corrugated iron sheets and cement.
According to village register, the population of
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata is 2,977 (data December, 1991) with
733 households and the household size is between 6-10.
This include:
Women 722Men 633Children (under 13 years) 1404Elders 140Handicapped 78
The dominant ethnic group in Nanguruwe/Namahyakata are also
Makonde, most of them are moslems. Only few are christians
and most of these are from Mozambique.
Nanguruwe/Námahyakata has a health centre established in
1970 and currently serving more than 10 villages. Only one
traditional birth attendant was identified.
Unlike Mhivata/Mbambakofi, water is not a problem in this
village. There is a water dam which supplies water
throughout the year.
15
As more people moved in from various areas including
Kitondo village, Kitondo primary school which was about 5
km distance had to shift to Nanguruwe/Namahyakata from
where it was previously located (i.e 1975). The school was
built by villagers themselves and Government supplied
corrugated iron sheets and cement.
According to village register, the population of
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata is 2,977 (data December, 1991) with
733 households and the household size is between 6-10.
This include:
Women Men Children (under 13 years) Elders Handicapped
722 633
1404 140
78
The dominant ethnic group in Nanguruwe/Namahyakata are also
Makonde, most of them are moslems. Only few are christians
and most of these are from Mozambique.
Nanguruwe/Namahyakata has a health centre established in
1970 and currently serving more than 10 villages. Only one
traditional birth attendant was identified.
Unlike Mnivata/Mbambakofi, water is not a problem in this
village. There 1S a water dam which supplies water
throughout the year.
15
3.0. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND SOURCES OF INCOME
3.1 Main Staples.
The main economic activity in both study areas is
agriculture. Nearly all households are subsistence farmers
who practice shifting cultivation or forest-fallow system.
Cassava is a basic dependable staple crop through out the
year (Fig. 4)
CROPS:Figure 4: HOME GROWN MAJOR STAPLES.
CassavaMaizeSorghumRice
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCTMONTHS
Cassava is also treated as a major cash crop. It is
intercropped with a number of other food crops such as
sorghum, bulrush millet, maize, and rice. Thus, the
definition of food shortage in these villages implies low
cassava harvests. Other crops grown are cowpeas, sweet
potatoes and several varieties of yams. The second major
cash crop is cashewnuts, but smaller amounts of rice,
sorghum and maize are also sold on the local market.
The number of crops intercropped in a single field depends
on the size of the field. Normally people prefer to grow
more than four crops (je cassava, maize, sorghum and rice)
in one field when the size of the field is as larger as two
acres or more. This system of intercropping is preferred to
monocropping because it is believed to take care of risks
of crop output failure due to droughts, crop disease and
pests outbreaks!
The local cultivation system is rather complex with a large
variety of crops intercropped without tilling the land in
the same field. Planting time for the individual crop
varies and rarely or no kind of fertilizer is applied. In
both areas planting seasons and sequence of crops is lamost
16
3.0. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND SOURCES OF INCOME
3.1 Main Staples.
The main economic activity in both study areas is
agriculture. Nearly all households are subsistence farmers
who practice shifting cultivation or forest-fallow system.
Cassava is a basic dependable staple crop through out the
year (Fig. 4)
QBQ~~l ------Cassava Maize Sorghum Rice
Figure 4: HOME GROWN MAJOR STAPLES.
-"NOV--D-E-C--JAN-PEB--MAR--APR--MAy--j0N--jur:;--A:UG--SEP--6err MONTHS
Cassava is also treated as a major cash crop. It is
intercropped with a number of other food crops such as
sorghum, bulrush millet, maize, and rice. Thus, the
definition of food shortage in these villages implies low
cassava harvests. Other crops grown are cowpeas, sweet
potatoes and several varieties of yams. The second major
cash crop is cashewnuts, but smaller amounts of rice,
sorghum and maize are also sold on the local market.
The number of crops intercropped in a single field depends
on the size of the field. Normally people prefer to grow
more than four crops (ie cassava, maize, sorghum and rice)
in one field when the size of the field is as larger as two
acres or more. This system of intercropping is preferred to
monocropping because it is believed to take care of risks
of crop output failure due to droughts, crop disease and
pests outbreaks!
The local cultivation system is rather complex with a large
variety of crops intercropped without tilling the land in
the same field. Planting time for the individual crop
varies and rarely or no kind of fertilizer is applied. In
both areas planting seasons and sequence of crops is lamost
16
the same. During the first year after the forest has been
cleared and burnt, cassava is planted first followed by
rice, maize, and then cashewnut. The cassava is planted in
rows but more widely spaced than the government
recommendations, with grain crops interspaced in the rows.
Cowpeas, sweet potatoes, pumpkins and a number of local yam
varieties can also be intercropped in the same field during
the first year.
In the second and sometimes up to the fourth year, the plot
will only be .planted with cassava and cashewnut. New areas
are used for the cereals and legumes. Cassava may be
planted in the same field for a third and even fourth year
but people complained that yields decrease with the years.
A number of different varieties of cassava are used. They
vary in maturing periods (table: 1) but also in other
characteristics, eg texture, taste and storage.
Table 1: Common Cassava varieties.
Variety Maturing time(Months)
Albert 8
Nanchinyanya (New farm) 8
(Old farm) 18
Ntukane 8
Limbaga 12Kigoma 8
Super 8
After the third (or fourth-fifth) year, the land is left
fallow for 10-13 years with only cashew remaining. The
cashew tree indicates that the land is occupied. This will
ensure that the plot is left to regenerate until the farmer
decides to start another cycle of production.
The average farm size is said to be 6-10 acres in
Mbambakofi and 4-5 acres in Nanguruwe/Namahyakata. The
biggest farm in Nanguruwv is about 15 acres.
17
the same. During the first year after the forest has been
cleared and burnt, cassava is planted first followed by
rice, maize, and then cashewnut. The cassava is planted in
rows but more widely spaced than the government
recommendations, with grain crops interspaced in the rows.
Cowpeas, sweet potatoes, pumpkins and a number of local yam
varieties can also be intercropped in the same field during
the first year.
In the second and sometimes up to the fourth year, the plot
will only be .planted with cassava and cashewnut. New areas
are used for the cereals and legumes. Cassava may be
planted in the same field for a third and even fourth year
but people complained that yields decrease with the years.
A number of different varieties of cassava are used. They
vary in maturing periods (table: 1) but also in other
characteristics, eg texture, taste and storage.
Table 1: Common Cassava varieties.
Variety
Albert Nanchinyanya (New farm)
(Old farm)
Ntukane Limbaga Kigoma Super
Maturing time(Months)
8 8
18
8 12
8 8
After the third (or fourth-fifth) year, the land is left
fallow for 10-13 years with only cashew remaining. The
cashew tree indicates that the land is occupied. This will
ensure that the plot is left to regenerate until the farmer
decides to start another cycle of production.
The average farm size is said to be 6-10 acres in
Mbambakofi and 4-5 acres in Nanguruwe/Namahyakata. The
biggest farm in Nanguruwe is about 15 acres.
17
Depending on the labour available access to cash or food to
hire labour, households can continue to expand their farms.
Some people feel that currently there is a trend of farm
expansion. Some are complaining that much of the better
farmland near the road is already occupied by the elders
(but not used) and new farms have to be opened far away.
Several people commented that land fertility was declining,
there was no longer good farming land available closer to
the villages. Thus, they wanted to get permission to clear
part of the forest reserve.
The yields of cassava are better during the first year of
cultivation but declining thereafter (See table:2). All
agreed however, that the yields were better in their system
of intercropping than what would be possible with a
monocropping system. People said that they would get 6 bags
of rice if monocropped but could get 2 bags of rice plus 2
bags of maize, 1 bag of sorghum and 4 of cassava if they
applied their intercropping system.
Table:2 Average Crop Yield for Main Staples.
Crop Yield/acreMbambakofi Nanguruwe
Cassava 5 - 7 bags up to 10 bagsMaize 1 bag 2 - 3 bagsSorghum 1 1/2 bags 1/2 - 1 bagRice 2 - 4 bags 1/4-1/2
Many people commented that cassava production was
expanding. Cassava has just become the priority cash crop
with an assured market through agreements made with private
dealers. Farmers have seen that those who sold enough
cassava last year, all made enough profit to buy bicycles
and other useful consumer goods. Others were planning to
expand their fields this season. Up to the 1950's people
relied on their traditional staples millet and sorghum
sufficiently to neglect cassava as a food. In fact during
that time cassava played only a minor role as cash crop and
was used for local brewing beer that had to be mixed with
tobacco (Figure 5).
18
Depending on the labour available access to cash or food to
hire labour, households can continue to expand their farms.
Some people feel that currently there is a trend of farm
expansion. Some are complaining that much of the better
farmland near the road is already occupied by the elders
(but not used) and new farms have to be opened far away.
Several people commented that land fertility was declining,
there was no longer good farming land available closer to
the villages. Thus, they wanted to get permission to clear
part of the forest reserve.
The yields of cassava are better during the first year of
cul ti vation but declining thereafter (See table: 2). All
agreed however, that the yields were better in their system
of intercropping than what would be possible with a
monocropping system. People said that they would get 6 bags
of rice if monocropped but could get 2 bags of rice plus 2
bags of maize, 1 bag of sorghum and 4 of cassava if they
applied their intercropping system.
Table:2 Average Crop Yield for Main Staples.
Crop
Cassava Maize Sorghum Rice
Many people commented
yield/acre Mbambakofi Nanguruwe 5 - 7 bags up to 10 bags 1 bag 2 - 3 bags 1 1/2 bags 1/2 - 1 bag 2 - 4 bags 1/4-1/2
that cassava production was
expanding. Cassava has just become the priority cash crop
with an assured market through agreements made with private
dealers. Farmers have seen that those who sold enough
cassava last year, all made enough profit to buy bicycles
and other useful consumer goods. Others were planning to
expand their fields this season. Up to the 1950's people
relied on their tradi tional staples millet and sorghum
sufficiently to neglect cassava as a food. In fact during
that time cassava played only a minor role as cash crop and
was used for local brewing beer that had to be mixed with
tobacco (Figure 5).
18
Figure 5: TIMELINE FOR CASSAVA USES IN NANGURUWE.
1800s
1945
1950s
1970s1990s
Cassava introduced in the village minor cropused for brewing only
Started to gain importance as cash crop startedto be used as foodGained importance as food against traditionalgrainsCassava major foodCassava main cash crop as well as major food.
Gradually cassava has gained popularity against the
traditional grains as a staple. Cassava became the main
staple in 1970s and was until 1989 mainly grown for food.
With the current lucrative market pric'es for cassava,
people in Nanguruure have even stopped using it for the
local brew and changed to coconut sap (mnazi). Cassava beer
is only brewed for festivals. Harvesting of the new crops
normally starts as early as April starting with maize,
followed by other annuals during the months of May and June
(fig.6 ).
19
Figure 5: TIMELINE FOR CASSAVA USES IN NANGURUWE.
18oos1 Cassava introduced in the village minor crop used for brewing only
1945 Started to gain importance as cash crop started
~ to be used as food
1950s Gai~ed importance as food against traditional gralns
1970s Cassava major food 1990s Cassava main cash crop as well as major food.
Gradually cassava has gained popularity against the
traditional grains as a staple. Cassava became the main
staple in 1970s and was until 1989 mainly grown for food.
With the current lucrative market prices for cassava,
people in Nanguruwe have even stopped using it for the
local brew and changed to coconut sap (mnazi). Cassava beer
is only brewed for festivals. Harvesting of the new crops
normally starts as early as April starting with maize,
followed by other annuals during the months of May and June
(fig.6 ).
19
Figure 6: AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES (SEASONALITY):
Months:
ACTIVITY NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
LANDCLEANING& BURNING +++++ +++++++
***** *******%%%%% %%%%%%%
SOWING+++++++*******
SCARING++++++++********
WEEDING+++++++++++++*************
20
********
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
KEY :
Cassava+++++++++ Maize********* Sorghum%%%%%%%%% Rice
During the dry and sunny months of July to October, cassava
harvesting and sundrying takes place. Enough cassava has to
be processed to ensure sufficient supplies over the rainy
seasons. Drying is difficult during the rainy months and
some people do soak the thin cassava roots to speed up the
drying at such times.
The local varieties of cashew may start producing after the
third year. For better cashewnut harvests, the crop
requires a substantial pesticide input and good management.
HARVESTING ++++++++++
Figure 6: AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES (SEASONALITY):
Months:
ACTIVITY NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JON JUL AUG SEP OCT ----------------LAND CLEANING ----& BURNING +++++ +++++++
***** ******* %%%%% %%%%%%%
SOWING -------+++++++ ******* %%%%%%%
SCARING ++++++++ ******** %%%%%%%%
WEEDING +++++++++++++ ************* %%%%%%%%%%%%%
HARVESTING ++++++++++ -------********
%%%%%%
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
KEY:
+++++++++ *********
Cassava Maize Sorghum Rice %%%%%%%%%
During the dry and sunny months of July to October, cassava
harvesting and sundrying takes place. Enough cassava has to
be processed to ensure sufficient supplies over the rainy
seasons. Drying is difficult during the rainy months and
some people do soak the thin cassava roots to speed up the
drying at such times.
The local varieties of cashew may start producing after the
third year. For better cashewnut harvests, the crop
requires a substantial pesticide input and good management.
20
Farmers complained that it was no longer worthwhile.
Production has been declining since 1970s and producer
prices last season were 1271= per kg which is considerably
lower than anticipated.
3.2 Labour Demand
The seasonal pattern of labour and the gender division of
labour for agricultural work in the two areas follows a
similar pattern to other regions in Tanzania. The busiest
period, when women feel that they are overworked is during
the early part of the agricultural season. This is when
preparation of the fields, planting and weeding is done
(Fig. 7).
Figure 7: SEASONAL CALENDAR OF WOMEN LABOUR SUPPLY.
8
5
4
3
2
1
MONTHS
Normally men are concerned with clearing and preparing the
new fields while women often work on the old shamba. In
Nanguruwe both men and women were said to take part in
planting of cassava and the annual crops. But in Mbambakofi
this was said to be the responsibility of the women. In
both study areas, the weeding of crops were all done by
women.
The period of relaxation, rest and visiting friends and
relatives is during May-June. At that time most of the
annual crops would be harvested and people could afford to
take a break before July when the harvesting and drying of
cassava begins.
21
Farmers complained that it was no longer worthwhile.
Production has been declining since 1970s and producer
prices last season were 127/= per kg which is considerably
lower than anticipated.
3.2 Labour Demand
The seasonal pattern of labour and the gender division of
labour for agricultural work in the two areas follows a
similar pattern to other regions in Tanzania. The busiest
period, when women feel that they are overworked is during
the early part of the agricultural season. This lS when
preparation of the fields, planting and weeding is done
(Fig. 7).
Figure 7: SEASONAL CALENDAR OF WOMEN LABOUR SUPPLY.
8
61 5 4 3 2 1
MONTHS
Normally men are concerned with clearing and preparing the
new fields while women often work on the old shamba. In
Nanguruwe both men and women were said to take part in
planting of cassava and the annual crops. But in Mbambakofi
this was said to be the responsibility of the women. In
both study areas, the weeding of crops were all done by
women.
The period of relaxation, rest and visi ting friends and
relatives is during May-June. At that time most of the
annual crops would be harvested and people could afford to
take a break before July when the harvesting and drying of
cassava begins.
21
3.3 Livestock
Livestock play only a minor role in the economy of both
study areas. Apart from chickens which are common in most
households, only very few families are engaged in livestock
keeping. In Mnivata/Mbambakofa only 10 households had goats
and 2 households had sheep. It was said that there was a
declining trend of number of livestock keepers and that of
livestock kept.
In Mbambakofi, cattle was introduced by government in the
1970's but failed to prosper. The serious water shortages
and the lack of grazing land together with poor or absence
of veterinary services had all contributed to the failure.
To day people are not very much interested in keeping small
livestock either. Only few households kept their goats
tethered near their houses.
Some people expressed their willingness to use the open
range livestock keeping system. But, their fear was that,
if livestock were left roaming around the forest, they
would cause crop damage in the forest fields or get killed
by leopards or lions. This has happened sometimes within
the village itself where some livestock were killed by wild
animals.
In Banguruwe however, a relatively big number of people
keep livestock like goat, sheep, chicken and doves. Very
few people (about 2) have cattle. Like in Mbambakofi,
in Nanguruwe cattle were introduced by the Government but,
only few of them were surviving. Same reasons as those
applied to Bbambakofi, except water shortage accounted for
the failure of the programme in Nanguruwe as well.
In the nearby village of Namahyakata, cattle keeping is
both done privately and communally. There are two cows
communally owned under the village leadership management,
while some few individual also have their own cattle.
22
3.3 Livestock
Livestock play only a minor role in the economy of both
study areas. Apart from chickens which are common in most
households, only very few families are engaged in livestock
keeping. In Mnivata/Mbambakofi only 10 households had goats
and 2 households had sheep. It was said that there was a
declining trend of number of livestock keepers and that of
livestock kept.
In Mbambakofi, cattle was introduced by government in the
1970's but failed to prosper. The serious water shortages
and the lack of grazing land together with poor or absence
of veterinary services had all contributed to the failure.
To day people are not very much interested in keeping small
livestock either. Only few households kept their goats
tethered near their houses.
Some people expressed their willingness to use the open
range livestock keeping system. But, their fear was that,
if livestock were left roaming around the forest, they
would cause crop damage in the forest fields or get killed
by leopards or lions. This has happened sometimes within
the village itself where some livestock were killed by wild
animals.
In Nanguruwe however, a relatively big number of people
keep livestock like goat, sheep, chicken and doves. Very
few people (about 2) have cattle. Like In Mbambakofi,
in Nanguruwe cattle were introduced by the Government but,
only few of them were surviving. Same reasons as those
applied to Mbambakofi, except water shortage accounted for
the failure of the programme in Nanguruwe as well.
In the nearby village of Namahyakata, cattle keeping is
both done privately and communally. There are two cows
communally owned under the village leadership management,
while some few individual also have their own cattle.
22
The few domesticated animals are supplemented by wild
animals which are used in large amount. The presence of
Makonde from Mozambique who are good hunters has
contributed to consumption of more wild animal species in
the area.
3.4 Domesticated Fruits
Coconut, palms and one or two fruit trees are grown near
houses. Common tree fruits include oranges, mangoes, pawpaw
and bananas.
A wild plant locally known as "Mlangilangi" whose fruits
produce a dye used in food preparations, dying of materials
for making baskets and mats has also been domesticated. The
plant has become more popular around many homes especially
at Nanguruws, and it is also sold for cash.
23
The few domesticated animals are supplemented by wild
animals which are used in large amount. The presence of
Makonda from Mozambique who are good hunters has
contributed to consumption of more wild animal species in
the area.
3.4 Domesticated Fruits
Coconut, palms and one or two fruit trees are grown near
houses. Common tree fruits include oranges, mangoes, pawpaw
and bananas.
A wild plant locally known as II Mlangilangi" whose fruits
produce a dye used in food preparations, dying of materials
for making baskets and mats has also been domesticated. The
plant has become more popular around many homes especially
at Nanguruwa, and it is also sold for cash.
23
intensely in periods of food shortage. Many were of the
opinion that it was becoming more common. People would eat
ming'oko while waiting for the main meal to be prepared, or
mix ming'oko with cassava for diet variations. "It's the
first food we eat in a meal" (village elder's statement in
group interview).
Collecting ming'oko is the work of women. It could be done
throughout the year, but the peak season could be dry
seasons especially during the period of transit food
shortages. During the rainy season it is more difficult to
find the vines as the bush grew generally thick and lush.
Thus, the thin vines were more difficult to be seen.
Ming"oko is also the forest food which is most significant
from an economic point of view, and which seems to have an
assured growing market outside the village. In Nanguruwe
Ming'oko is used extensively to complement the traditional
staple, despite the fact that Ming'oko is not available
within the village.
Women travel long distances ranging from 8-16 km to the
nearby villages of Mkomo Chavi, Mtiniko and Malanje where
Ming'oko are available in a reasonably large quantities.
Normally women spend a night away and come back the next
day.
Though Ming'oko are regarded as not an important commodity
for sale (business) in the villagebut observationsindicated that Ming'oko are sold both when raw and boiled.
Most people involved in this business are youths who do it
on behalf of their mothers. One piece of boiled Mingioko
measuring about 10 cm long sells at 21=. While a bundle of
mingfoko with about 10-15 pieces (see picture) was sold at
10-20/=. Occasionally, cassava is sold in a fresh form.
Normally it is sold in a dried form, with one kg fetching
up to 25/=.
26
intensely in periods of food shortage. Many were of the
opinion that it was becoming more common. People would eat
ming'oko while waiting for the main meal to be prepared, or
mix ming'oko with cassava for diet variations. "It's the
first food we eat in a meal" (village elder's statement in
group interview).
Collecting ming'oko is the work of women. It could be done
throughout the year, but the peak season could be dry
seasons especially during the period of transit food
shortages. During the rainy season it is more difficult to
find the vines as the bush grew generally thick and lush.
Thus, the thin vines were more difficult to be seen.
Ming'oko is also the forest food which is most significant
from an economic point of view, and which seems to have an
assured growing market outside the village. In Nanguruwe
Ming'oko is used extensively to complement the traditional
staple, despite the fact that Ming'oko is not available
within the village.
Women travel long distances ranglng from 8-16 km to the
nearby villages of Mkomo Chavi, Mtiniko and Malanje where
Ming'oko are available in a reasonably large quantities.
Normally women spend a night away and come back the next
day.
Though Ming'oko are regarded as not an important commodity
for sale (business) in the village) but observations
indicated that Ming'oko are sold both when raw and boiled.
Most people involved in this business are youths who do it
on behalf of their mothers. One piece of boiled Ming'oko
measuring about 10 cm long sells at 2/=. While a bundle of
ming'oko with about 10-15 pieces (see picture) was sold at
10-20/=. Occasionally, cassava is sold in a fresh form.
Normally it is sold in a dried form, with one kg fetching
up to 25/=.
26
Despite this central role no significant interest has been
given so far to carryout research or investigation of this
wild yam variety. Only one priest in a nearby community was
said to have tried to domesticate and cultivate ming'oko.But, in general no one could see any advantage of doing
that as the production of ming'oko was more than
sufficient.
At the local Naliendele agricultural research station only
minor interest has been shown to the crop. Some scientific
studies on the crop has been attempted by the research
station. The studies involved collecting germ plasm from
the forest. First the growth was tested in a pot, but it
failed to germinate well and later died.
Thereafter, another test was carried out in the farm (in
normal soils) but also the crop failed to thrive. However,
these tests made researchers to come up with thoughts that
the crop requires soils with higher fertility for better
growth. So far, no botanical name has been named though it
was said that the crop belongs to the Dioscorea spicies.
Currently it is generally called a wild yam. It was also
claimed that, plans are underway to carryout studies on the
nutritional value of the crop. This is going to be done in
collaboration between the research centre and TFNC.
Several other wild roots and tubers were also mentioned but
each was of lesser significance. Several of the local yams
varieties which were domesticated were said to be found
also in the wild but this was not fully verified. There was
one tuber said to resemble Irish potatoes ("Mandale",Mailu).
Apart from Ming'oko, and other forest fruits, Mbunga isanother forest product highly preferred for its sweet taste
for consumption. It is a wild grain from bamboo trees
resembling rice.
27
Despite this central role no significant interest has been
given so far to carryout research or investigation of this
wild yam variety. Only one priest in a nearby community was
said to have tried to domesticate and cultivate ming'oko.
But, in general no one could see any advantage of doing
that as the production of ming'oko was more than
sufficient.
At the local Naliendele agricultural research station only
minor interest has been shown to the crop. Some scientific
studies on the crop has been attempted by the research
station. The studies involved collecting germ plasm from
the forest. First the growth was tested in a pot, but it
failed to germinate well and later died.
Thereafter, another test was carried out ln the farm (in
normal soils) but also the crop failed to thrive. However,
these tests made researchers to come up with thoughts that
the crop requires soils with higher fertility for better
growth. So far, no botanical name has been named though it
was said that the crop belongs to the Dioscorea spicies.
Currently it is generally called a wild yam. It was also
claimed that, plans are underway to carryout studies on the
nutritional value of the crop. This is going to be done in
collaboration between the research centre and TFNC.
Several other wild roots and tubers were also mentioned but
each was of lesser significance. Several of the local yams
varieties which were domesticated were said to be found
also in the wild but this was not fully verified. There was
one tuber said to resemble Irish potatoes ("Mandale",
Mailu).
Apart from Ming'oko, and other forest fruits, Mbunga is
another forest product highly preferred for its sweet taste
for consumption. It is a wild grain from bamboo trees
resembling rice.
27
Though the crop is highly appreciated but its supply occurs
in long cycles. The bamboo grain "Mbunga" is produced when
the bamboo tree reaches its maximum growth and after
producing the grains, the tree dies. It takes about 30
years to reach its maximum growth & produce grains.
Its occurrence is traditionally associated with poor crop
harvests leading to famine for that particular year. This
type of wild grain is used by the people especially during
food shortage.
4.1.3 Vegetables
A limited number of vegetables were also gathered from the
forest, mostly during the rainy season. In the initial
field visit no attempt was made to investigate the use of
such foods in depth and some of the villagers thought that
they were not very important.
The varieties which were commonly used included leaves from
the cassava plant, wild 'mchicha' and mucilagenous leaves
like 'mlenda' (See Appendix (iii). In Nánguruwe there were
leaves from at least three species mentioned as vegetables
and several water plants growing in the pond.
4.1.4 Animal Products
Wild animals are considered as a nuisance in Mbambakofi,
because they destroy crops. This is due partly to its being
part of the reserve forest which harbours a lot of vermins.
However, in Nánguruwe the wild animals are hunted for food.
Hunting is done mostly by the Mozambican Mákondes who are
traditionally hunters. The animals which are widely hunted
include wild pigs, hogs, birds, gazelle, rabbits, dikdick.
A list of animals and birds that are hunted could be seen
on appendix (v) . During hunting the Mozambican Mákonde
team up with the upland Mákondes who are moslems and who
28
4.1. 3
4.1. 4
Though the crop is highly appreciated but its supply occurs
in long cycles. The bamboo grain "Mbunga" is produced when
the bamboo tree reaches its maximum growth and after
producing the grains, the tree dies. It takes about 3 0
years to reach its maximum growth & produce grains.
Its occurrence is traditionally associated with poor crop
harvests leading to famine for that particular year. This
type of wild grain is used by the people especially during
food shortage.
Vegetables
A limited number of vegetables were also gathered from the
forest, mostly during the rainy season. In the initial
field visit no attempt was made to investigate the use of
such foods in depth and some of the villagers thought that
they were not very important.
The varieties which were commonly used included leaves from
the cassava plant, wild 'mchicha' and mucilagenous leaves
like 'mlenda' (See Appendix (iii). In Nanguruwe there were
leaves from at least three species mentioned as vegetables
and several water plants growing in the pond.
Animal Products
wild animals are considered as a nuisance in Mbambakofi,
because they destroy crops. This is due partly to its being
part of the reserve forest which harbours a lot of vermins.
However, in Nanguruwe the wild animals are hunted for food.
Hunting is done mostly by the Mozambican Makondes who are
traditionally hunters. The animals which are widely hunted
include wild pigs, hogs, birds, gazelle, rabbits, dikdick.
A list of animals and birds that are hunted could be seen
on appendix (v) During hunting the Mozambican Makonde
team up with the upland Makondes who are moslems and who
28
actually do the slaughtering of the animals, so that they
can be used by the rest of the community. The use of wild
animals for food could be of great importance to the
community, as there are very few domesticated ones.
4.1.5 Honey
Use of honey in this communities is very minimal. There is
only one beekeeper at Mbambakofi. This person was initially
a traditional beekeeper and has now been supplied with
modern beehives.
4.2 Medicinal use.
A number of forest plant products were also mentioned as
home-remedies both in prevention and treatment of common
health problems. An initial list from the first visit is
given in appendix (i).
Knowledge and use of plant medicines was not limited to
traditional healers only. On the contrary, most people
would mention or show the common plant medicines and
describe how they would be applied as a first "home cure"
for different ailments.
4.3 Praferences and trends.
Most of the food items mentioned could be used mostly for
diversity of the diet, however Ming'oko seems to be playing
a crucial role in food security. It has been shown to be
used for complimenting the usual diet and also as a
supplementary food in lean months. The degree of dependency
on forest products will be explored during the second
visit.
29
4.1. 5
actually do the sl~ughtering of the animals, so that they
can be used by the rest of the community. The use of wild
animals for food could be of great importance to the
community, as there are very few domesticated ones.
Honey
Use of honey in this communities is very minimal. There is
only one beekeeper at Mbambakofi. This person was initially
a tradi tional beekeeper and has now been supplied wi th
modern beehives.
4.2 Medicinal use.
A number of forest plant products were also mentioned as
home-remedies both in prevention and treatment of common
health problems. An initial list from the first visit is
given in appendix (i).
Knowledge and use of plant medicines was not limited to
tradi tional healers only. On the contrary, most people
would mention or show the common plant medicines and
describe how they would be applied as a first "home cure"
for different ailments.
4.3 Prsferences and trends.
Most of the food items mentioned could be used mostly for
diversity of the diet, however Ming'oko seems to be playing
a crucial role in food security. It has been shown to be
used for complimenting the usual diet and also as a
supplementary food in lean months. The degree of dependency
on forest products will be explored during the second
visit.
29
4.4 Food shortages and crisis.
For people in Mbambakofi, food security is basically
perceived as sufficient stores of cassava up to the time
when the new crops are harvested. Shortages and bad years
were described as situations where people have to resort to
harvesting thinner cassava roots. This has normally been
occurring during the December-March a period of transit
food shortage (hunger seasons - see fig. 8).
Figure 8: AVAILABILITY OF HOME PRODUrED FOOD:
11111WWWIIRR!.....T.MONTHSDuring this period people rely heavily on the Ming'okoroots as a coping strategy.
With the new role of cassava as a cash crop, women were
fearing worse food shortages in future as their husbands
would sell off too much of the food stock.
The views of men and women were clearly different on the
issue of whether food shortages were common or not. Men
generally did not consider food insecurity as a major
issue, at least not in Mbambakofi. On the contrary most
women rated food shortage was a problem and that this was
compounded by the fact that cassava functioned as both
major staple and cash crop.
Serious food crisis for the entire community did not seem
to be a major issue. But, most villagers would recall some
years when food shortages were more severe because of
drought, or would agree that some households had problems
in meeting the food needs. They all described various
strategies through which food insecure households coped
with during hunger periods.
30
4.4 Food shortages and crisis.
For people in Mbambakofi, food security is basically
perceived as sufficient stores of cassava up to the time
when the new crops are harvested. Shortages and bad years
were described as situations where people have to resort to
harvesting thinner cassava roots. This has normally been
occurring during the December-March a period of transi t
food shortage (hunger seasons - see fig. 8).
Figure 8: AVAILABILITY OF HOME PRODUCED FOOD: -;;.'. ~
MONTHS
During this period people rely heavily on the Ming'oko
roots as a coping strategy.
with the new role of cassava as a cash crop, women were
fearing worse food shortages in future as their husbands
would sell off too much of the food stock.
The views of men and women were clearly different on the
issue of whether food shortages were common or not. Men
generally did not consider food insecuri ty as a maj or
issue, at least not in Mbambakofi. On the contrary most
women rated food shortage was a problem and that this was
compounded by the fact that cassava functioned as both
major staple and cash crop.
Serious food crisis for the entire community did not seem
to be a major issue. But, most villagers would recall some
years when food shortages were more severe because of
drought, or would agree that some households had problems
in meeting the food needs. They all described various
strategies through which food insecure households coped
with during hunger periods.
30
Besides increased use of immature cassava and Ming'oko,
other coping strategies to overcome the hunger season
include food for work or rely on relatives for food
assistance or use cash to purchase.
In years of more severe crisis people would resort to
famine foods. Several types of toxic roots were mentioned
including Málondolo and gyangadi. The process of
detoxification was described to be labourious.
5.0. Current and emerging issues:
A number of concerns issues related to food security and
the future were brought up in conversations with both men
and women in the two study areas.
The overwhelming problem in the Mhivata/Mbambakofi area is
water. Water collected from the storage tanks or the hand
dug holes and wells in the dry river valley would only last
for 9-10 months.
After that women have to walk several kilometres to get
water from other distant sources. This goes on up to the
time when the tanks begun to fill again. Over forty of the
53 storage tanks were in need of repair and no cement was
available even in the Mtwara town. The problem was acute at
the time of the preliminary review. However, the local,
district and the region authorities were aware of this
touchy problem.
The declining productivity and deterioration of forests and
forest lands is a central concern in both study areas and
linked to several of the listed problems. The forest-fallow
system of shifting agriculture is under increasing stress
for reasons of population pressure (natural and
immigration) and desire to expand cassava cultivation. Over
time farmers have had to clear for new fields further away
from the village. Many now complain of time consuming and
31
Besides increased use of
other coping strategies
include food for work
immature cassava and Ming'oko,
to overcome the hunger season
or rely on relatives for food
assistance or use cash to purchase.
In years of more severe crisis people would resort to
famine foods. Several types of toxic roots were mentioned
including Malondolo and Hyangadi. The process of
detoxification was described to be labourious.
5.0. Current and emerging issues:
A number of concerns issues related to food security and
the future were brought up in conversations with both men
and women in the two study areas.
The overwhelming problem in the MnivatalMbambakofi area is
water. Water collected from the storage tanks or the hand
dug holes and wells in the dry river valley would only last
for 9-10 months.
After that women have to walk several kilometres to get
water from other distant sources. This goes on up to the
time when the tanks begun to fill again. Over forty of the
53 storage tanks were in need of repair and no cement was
available even in the Mtwara town. The problem was acute at
the time of the preliminary review. However, the local,
district and the region authorities were aware of this
touchy problem.
The declining productivity and deterioration of forests and
forest lands is a central concern in both study areas and
linked to several of the listed problems. The forest-fallow
system of shifting agriculture is under increasing stress
for reasons of population pressure (natural and
immigration) and desire to expand cassava cultivation. Over
time farmers have had to clear for new fields further away
from the village. Many now complain of time consuming and
31
tiresome long walk distances to the fields. Farmers in both
study areas try to increase farm production through
expansion of the cultivated area. In some cases they try to
meet their increased need through longer use of the same
fields or shortening the fallow periods. Still many
complain of continued declining yields. The dependency on
forests to sustain agricultural production and as a
supplementary source of non-agricultural income is
gradually becoming more difficult as most of these are also
forest based. The collection of forest products for cash
income is becoming more difficult and the availability of
forest foods is also declining.
People in both Mbambakofi and Nanguruwe complain for
declining fertility of land and "Land-shortage" (le no more
dense, virgin forest for their new fields). In Mbambakofi,
forest foods seem still available in abundance while in
Nánguruwe people already have to walk long distances to
find these products.
32
tiresome long walk distances to the fields. Farmers in both
study areas try to increase farm production through
expansion of the cultivated area. In some cases they try to
meet their increased need through longer use of the same
fields or shortening the fallow periods. Still many
complain of continued declining yields. The dependency on
forests to sustain agricultural production and as a
supplementary source of non-agricultural income ~s
gradually becoming more difficult as most of these are also
forest based. The collection of forest products for cash
income is becoming more difficult and the availability of
forest foods is also declining.
People ~n both Mbambakofi and Nanguruwe complain for
declining fertility of land and "Land-shortage" (ie no more
dense l virgin forest for their new fields). In Mbambakofi,
forest foods seem still available in abundance while in
Nanguruwe people already have to walk long distances to
find these products.
32
forest
Water shortage 6. Have adequate water supply
Low population 7. Density populated with high
influx of people from
other areas
particularly Newala.
*8. Have School
9. Have less Social
facilities
NB: * - Indicate Common to all villages.
(ii) BASED ON 2: USE OF RESOURCES
MBAMBAKOFI MANGURUWE
1. No forest based small business 1. More forest
based small
business.
*2.1ligh use of forest food products *2. High use of
forest food
products.
Less use of animal products 3. More use of
animal
products
Wa/k less distance to collect 4. Walk long
forest products. distance
33
Have School
More Social facilities
6.0 COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE TWO VILLAGES:
(i) BASED ON: (1) AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES.
MBAMBAKOFI NANGURUWE
*1. Kuchakuni *1. Kuchakuni
2. No Mfumaki 2. Mfumaki
3. Sufficient land with
relatively
relatively low fertility
3. Sufficient land with
high fertility
4. Farms near home 4. Distant farms from home
5. More area with thick 5. Less area with thick forest
6.0 COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE TWO VILLAGES:
(i) BASED ON: (1) AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES.
MBAMBAKOFI NANGURuwE
*1. Kuchakuni
2. No Mfumaki
*1. Kuchakuni
2. Mfumaki
3. Sufficient land with
relatively
3. Sufficient land with
relatively low fertility high fertility
4. Farms near home 4. Distant farms from home
5. More area with thick 5. Less area with thick forest
forest
6. Water shortage 6. Have adequate water supply
7. Low population 7. Density populated with high
influx of people from
other areas
particularly Newala.
*8. Have School 8. Have School
9. Have less Social
facilities
9. More Social facilities
NB: * - Indicate Common to all villages.
(ii) BASED ON 2: USE OF RESOURCES
MBAMBAKOFI
1. No forest based small business
*2.High use of forest food products
3. Less use of animal products
4. Walk less distance to collect
forest products.
33
MANGURUWE
1. More forest
based small
business.
*2. High use of
forest food
products.
3. More use of
animal
products
4. Walk long
distance
Lean months hunger seasons
common to both
Share the same rainfall patterns
and crisis periods are the same
Same coping strategies during
hunger/food shortage periods.
Long fallow periods
Gets most of the forest fruits
Mostly Makonde moslems from
Makonde Mainland
NB: Indicate common to all villages
34
13. Shorter fallow
periods
14. Only some of
the forest fruits
15. Mixed with
other tribes
fewChristians
and majority
muslims.
5. Less cassava production 5. More Cassava
products
6. Less variety of crops grown 6. Wide variety of
crops grown.
*7. Livestock keeping is minimal *7.Livestock
keeping is
minimal
8. More complains about wild life
destroying
8. Less Complains
9. Less urbanized 9. More urbanized
5. Less cassava production
6. Less variety of crops grown
*7. Livestock keeping is minimal
8. More complains about wild life
destroying
9. Less urbanized
*10. Lean months hunger seasons
common to both
*11. Share the same rainfall patterns
and crisis periods are the same
*12. Same coping strategies during
hunger/food shortage periods.
13. Long fallow periods
14. Gets most of the forest fruits
15. Mostly Makonde moslems from
Makonde Mainland
NE: Indicate common to all villages
34
5. More Cassava
products
6. Wide variety of
crops grown.
*7. Livestock
keeping is
minimal
8. Less Complains
9. More urbanized
13. Shorter fallow
periods
14. Only some of
the fores t frui ts
15. Mixed wi th
other tribes
few Christians
and majori ty
muslims.
7.0 COMMENEM7FROM THE PARTICIPANTS ON THE RAP METHOD
1. (a) It is an easy method, but, possibilities for repeating
the same respondents is high especially if you have a
large team in small village.
(b) Solution to the above (a) is:-
to have a better preliminary arrangements at
village level.
the size of the survey team should be
proportionate to the size of the village.
The method can be adjusted according to the community
needs. It is also seems to be approximately right or
precisely wrong.
It is faster and cheaper
The investigator need to be able to interview and need be
interested in the subject.
Can be useful for community forest activities in Mtwara for
TFAP and RFAP at both National and Regional respectively.
35
7 • 0 l:0MMENlll!17 FROM THE PARTICIPANTS ON THE RAP METHOD
1. (a) It is an easy method, but, possibilities for repeating
the same respondents is high especially if you have a
large team in small village.
(b) Solution to the above (a) is:-
to have a better preliminary arrangements at
village level.
the size of the survey team should be
proportionate to the size of the village.
2. The method can be adjusted according to the community
needs. It is also seems to be approximately right or
precisely wrong.
3. It is faster and cheaper
4. The investigator need to be able to interview and need be
interested in the subject.
5. Can be useful for community forest activities in Mtwara for
TFAP and RFAP at both National and Regional respectively.
35
8.0 PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS:
Community dependency on forest for farm land (Shifting
Cultivation) presently the community feel that there is a
decline in land fertility.
There has been an intensive use of forest products for food
particularly Mang'oko.
The use is more pronounced during food shortages. In some
cases forest food are used in the case of changing diet and
sometimes as a source of income.
Fuelwood is not a problem, but choice of suitable wood
could be a problem because most suitable woods has been
depleted and they are found deeper into the forests.
There is a seasonal food shortages and some houses could be
severely food insecure.
Cassava production could expand with time as it becomes a
cash crop. This as it becomes a cash crop. This can have a
considerable consequences on forest deterioration. Because
farm land expansion goes concomitantly with deforestation.
36
8.0 PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS:
1. Community dependency on forest for farm land (Shifting
Cultivation) presently the community feel that there is a
decline in land fertility.
2. There has been an intensive use of forest products for food
particularly Ming'oko.
The use is more pronounced during food shortages. In some
cases forest food are used in the case of changing diet and
sometimes as a source of income.
3. Fuelwood is not a problem, but choice of suitable wood
could be a problem because most suitable woods has been
depleted and they are found deeper into the forests.
4. There is a seasonal food shortages and some houses could be
severely food insecure.
5. Cassava production could expand with time as it becomes a
cash crop. This as it becomes a cash crop. This can have a
considerable consequences on forest deterioration. Because
farm land expansion goes concomitantly with deforestation.
36
Appendix (i)
List of trees used for medical purposes
37
Tree (Makonde)Name
Scientificname
Part ofa treeused
Diseasesit treats
Mpera (guava)
Papaya
Mnyangagambi
Mnyangagambi
Mtumbati
Mhuhwe
Msimbarure
Mkatoha
Mtoromanga
Msonobari
Mnungo
Ntalu
Msofu
Mkatika
Namalale
Mwarobaini
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Roots
Roots
Roots
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Leaves
Leaves(leaves)
Stomach pains
Constipation
Constipationbilharzia
ear pain
Coughing,chestpain
Hernia
Hernia
Hernia
Convulsion
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea
Bilharzia
Stomach pain
Malaria
Many diseases
Appendix {i}
List of trees used for medical purposes
Tree (Makonde) Name
Mpera (guava)
Papaya
Mnyangagarnbi
Mnyangagarnbi
Mturnbati
Mhuhwe
Msirnbarure
Mkatoha
Mtoromanga
Msonobari
Mnungo
Ntalu
Msofu
Mkatika
Namalale
Mwarobaini
Scientific name
Part of a tree used
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Roots
Roots
Roots
Leaves
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Leaves
Leaves (leaves)
37
Diseases it treats
Stomach pains
constipation
Constipation bilharzia
ear pain
Coughing/chest pain
Hernia
Hernia
Hernia
Convulsion
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea
Bilharzia
Stomach pain
Malaria
Many diseases
Appendix (ii):
List of forest roots used as food
*Most Pentful
38
Makonde Name Swahili English/Elab.
ScientificName
SeasonAvailable
Ming'oko*
Vinjamilwa
Vitundu
Matu
Luvale
Mandale, Mailu
Vihambo
Malondelo
Lyamna
Lyangadi
Cereals
Mbunga
Wild yam
Yams
Yams
Potatoes
Bamboograins
Dioscoreabulbif era
Whole year
Aug-Dec
Aug-Dec
Aug-Dec
Aug-Dec
Aug-Dec
Appendix (ii):
List of forest roots used as food
Makonde Name Swahili English! Scientific Season Elab. Name Available
Ming'oko* Wild yam Whole year
Vinjamilwa Yams Aug-Dec
Vitundu Yams Aug-Dec Dioscorea
Matu bulbifera Aug-Dec
Luvale Aug-Dec
Mandale, Mailu Potatoes Aug-Dec
Vihambo
Malondelo
Lyamna
Lyangadi
Cereals Bamboo
Mbunga grains
*Most Pentful
38
Appendix (iii):
Forest Vegetables
39
Makonde NameSwahili
English/Elab.
ScientificName
Season
Kisamfo
Mchicha
Lilende
Chinyanje
Litetedi
Lihakwe
Nandimu
Natolo
Mushrooms(fungi)
UtokoMbohuUjengaLivangaUtugaUbulnaHukundulekeleLitemboUbulvaUkundubekateKiungoloVehivehiMsindaUpambaiMwikamboMyenja
Kisamvu
Mchicha
Mlenda
CassavaleavesAmaranthuswild onion
Amaranthus
Manihotgravii
Nov - May
II
II
II
n
II
n
H
Highlandvalley
Dec - JanII
II
n
II
fl
II
u
It
II
II
II
II
Il
II
II
Appendix (iii):
Forest Vegetables
Makonde Name English! Scientific Season Swahili Elab. Name
Kisamfo Kisamvu Cassava Manihot Nov - May leaves gravii
Mchicha Mchicha Amaranthus wild onion "
Lilende Mlenda "
Chinyanje "
Litetedi "
Lihakwe Amaranthus "
Nandimu "
Natolo II
Mushrooms Highland ( fungi) valley
utoko Dec - Jan Mbohu II
Ujenga II
Livanga II
Utuga II
Ubulna II
Hukundulekele II
Litembo II
Ubulva " Ukundubekate " Kiungolo II
Vehivehi " Msinda II
Upambai " Mwikambo " Myenja "
39
Appendix (iv):
Forest Fruits
40
Makonde NameSwahili
English/Elab.
ScientificName
Season
Muembe
Matili, Maungo
Usofu
Mpwipwi
Mahama
Jiminji
Vitolo
Makuyu
Mongo
Ukwaju
Uheu, Usegevu
Uhuhwe
Mwambo, Kwambo
Jinjunju,Vingolongondo
Umbendu
Vidunguli
Ukudimwali
Utahu
Jihulu
Mambila,Mambilu
Matope
Mwembe
Mabungo
Zambarau
Ukwaju
Fulu
Mango
Climber
Climber
Mangif eraindica
LanneaStuhlmanni
Sterarliaappendi culata
Tamarindusindica
AnnonaSenegalensis
Nov-mar
Dec-Apr
Dec-Apr
Dec-Apr
Dec-Apr
Dec-Apr
Jan-Feb
Jan-Feb
Jan-Feb
Jan-Mar
Jan-Feb
Jan-Feb
Jan-Mar
Jan-Mar
Jan-Mar
Jan-Mar
Feb-Mar
Mar-Apr
May-Aug
May-Sept
May-Sept
Appendix ( i v) :
Forest Fruits
Makonde Name English Scientific Season Swahili I Name
Elab.
Muembe Mwembe Mango Mangifera Nov-mar indica
Matili, Maungo Mabungo Climber Dec-Apr
Usofu Dec-Apr
Mpwipwi Lannea Dec-Apr Stuhlmanni
Mahama Dec-Apr
Jiminji Zambara Dec-Apr u
Vitolo Climber Jan-Feb
Makuyu Sterarlia Jan-Feb appendiculata
Mongo Jan-Feb
Ukwaju Ukwaju. Tamarindus Jan-Mar indica
Uheu, Usegevu Jan-Feb
Uhuhwe Jan-Feb
Mwambo, Kwambo Jan-Mar
Jinjunju, Vingolongondo Jan-Mar
Umbendu Jan-Mar
Vidunguli Jan-Mar
Ukudimwali Feb-Mar
Utahu Mar-Apr
Jihulu Fulu May-Aug
Mambila, May-Sept Mambilu
Matope Annona May-Sept Senegalensis
40
41
Unjuchu
Likonda
May-Aug
July-Aug
Ubabede Pulp asspice
July-Oct
Mapera Pera Guava Psidiumguaj ara
a wholeyear
Mangongwan
Matengo Jan- Feb
Jangadi
Malondolo
Uhangu
Maolwa
Vi tele
Jihyokela
Mangare
Ndelelele
Unjuchu May-Aug
Likonda July-Aug
Ubabede Pulp as July-Oct spice
Mapera Pera Guava Psidium a whole guajara year
Mangongwa "
Matengo Jan- Feb
Jangadi
Malondolo
Uhangu
Maolwa
Vitele
Jihyokela
Mangare
Ndelelele
41
Appendix (v):
Wild animals
Makondename
Swahiliname
42
Mbutuka
Nungu Nungunungu Porcupine
Ng'onde Paa Gazelle
Mbavala Mbawala Rabit/hare
Sungula Sungura Wild pig
Nenje
Nguruwe Nguruwe
Fungo Fungo
Ntavala
Ntoda
Ng'ube
Nkuli
English Scientific Season ofname name availability
Appendix (v):
wild animals
Makonde name
Mbutuka
Nungu
Ng'onde
Mbavala
Sungula
Nenje
Nguruwe
Fungo
Ntavala
Ntoda
Ng'ube
Nkuli
Swahili name
Nungunungu
Paa
Mbawala
Sungura
Nguruwe
Fungo
English name
Porcupine
Gazelle
Rabit/hare
wild pig
42
Scientific Season of name availability
Appendix (vi):
Wild Birds
Makonde Swahili English Scientific Season ofName Name elaboration Name availability
43
Nantindi
Nantipitila Dudumizi
Ndinya
Makatavala
Likwili
Chilanga
Mdela
Machende
Ndandili Kanga
Vangolongolo
Chimbutu
Nanjalahu Mlasiafu
Chiviti
Namanje
Chididi
Nswisi
Kerengiende
Kororo
Appendix (vi):
wild Birds
Makonde Name
Nantindi
Nantipitila
Ndinya
Makatavala
Likwili
Chilanga
Mdela
Machende
Ndandili
Vangolongolo
Chirnbutu
Nanjalahu
Chiviti
Namanje
Chididi
Nswisi
Kereng'ende
Kororo
Swahili Name
Dudumizi
Kanga
Mlasiafu
English elaboration
43
Scientific Season of Name availability
Figure 9(a): SEASONAL CALENDER: AVAILABILITY OF FOREST FOODS.
1. FRUITSNOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
MuembeMatili, MaungoUsofuMpwipwiMahamaJiminjiVitoloMakuyuMongoUkwajuUheu,UsegemUhuhweMwambo,KwamboJinjunju,VingolongondoUmbenduVidunguliUkudimwaliUtahuJihulu
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
Mambila,NambiluMatopeUnjuchuLikondaUbabedeMaperaMangongwaMatengoJangadiMalondoloUhanguMaolwaVi teleJihyokelaMangareNdelelele
44
Figure 9(a): SEASONAL CALENDER: AVAILABILITY OF FOREST FOODS.
1. FRUITS NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
Muembe Matili, Maungo Usofu Mpwipwi Mahama Jiminji Vitolo Makuyu Mongo Ukwaju Uheu,Usegem Uhuhwe Mwambo, Kwambo Jinjunju,Vingolongondo Umbendu Vidunguli Ukudimwali Utahu Jihulu
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
Mambila, Nambilu Matope Unjuchu Likonda Ubabede Mapera Mangongwa Matengo Jangadi Malondolo Uhangu Maolwa -1itele Jihyokela Mangare Ndelelele
44
Figure 9(b): AVAILABILITY OF DOMESTIC FRUITS (MBAMBAKOFI)FRUITS:
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
MangoOrangesPawpawBananas
Figure 9(c): VEGETABLESNOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
KisamfuMchichaLilendeChinyanjeLitelediLihakweNandimu
Figure 9(d): MushroomsNOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
UwutukaMbohuVyengaLivangaUtugaUbulwaLukuduketeLitembo
45
Figure 9 (b): AVAILABILITY OF DOMESTIC FRUITS (MBAMBAKOFI) FRUITS:
Mango Oranges Pawpaw Bananas
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JON JUL AUG SEP OCT
Figure 9(c): VEGETABLES
Kisamfu Mchicha Lilende Chinyanje Liteledi Lihakwe Nandimu
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JON JUL AUG SEP OCT
Figure 9(d): Mushrooms
Uwutuka Mbohu Vyenga Livanga Utuga Ubulwa Lukudukete Litembo
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
45
PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR THE 2nd PHASE(MAY / JUNE 1993)
1. Compare food insecure households (Who, Why and how many).2. Role of different formal and nonformal institutions eg.
research center's)3. Case examples on:-
Progressive farmers4. Role of forest and tree products in infant and young child
feeding and health questionnaire.5. Firewood: Accessibility of preferred tree spices6. Present and planned community forest activities7. Check on the domesticated forest food crops8. Check on the degree of dependency of forest and tree
products on household food security.
46
PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR THE 2nd PHASE (MAY / JUNE 1993)
1. Compare food insecure households (Who, Why and how many) . 2. Role of different formal and nonformal institutions eg.
research center's) 3. Case examples on:
(a) (b) Progressive farmers
4. Role of forest and tree products in infant and young child feeding and health questionnaire.
S. Firewood: Accessibility of preferred tree spices 6. Present and planned community forest activities 7. Check on the domesticated forest food crops 8. Check on the degree of dependency of forest and tree
products on household food security.
46
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July 1994
COMMONWEALTH SCIENCE COUNCILCommonwealth SecretariatMarlborough House, Pall MallLondon SW1Y 5HX
July 1994
COMMONWEALTH SCIENCE COUNCIL Commonwealth Secretariat Marlborough House, Pall Mall London SW1Y 5HX